Kattinakere (ಕಟ್ಟಿನಕೆರೆ) also called B Sagadde is a hamlet in Soraba Tq, Karnataka state, India. The village is named after a tank near the village which is about 19 acres in area, probably built by Keladi or Vijayanagara kings. This village reservoir is fed by rainwater from nearby mountains. The water in the reservoir and its channels flow on and gather more water along the way to become the river Dandavathi. Kattinakere has a population of around 35 who are mainly agriculturists. The Hindu brahmins living here are descendants of Ahichatra Brahmins brought by Mayura Sharma to teach and perform Vedas. Not so far from this place live people who immigrated from coastal areas of Karnataka South of the Sahyadri Mountains. Their settlement is called Hullihakkalu or Muttipura.

The village legend
Legend has it that at one time, a wealthy landlord, a follower of the Lingayata sect, lived in this village. He had a wife who lost a lot of his wealth in a gambling contest. Dejected, the landlord left the place, which was later settled by a few Havyaka Brahmins. The word Kattinakere means `the reservoir of the bund`. The official maps are not up to date and according to records the village is called B Sagadde and the official village boundary lay west of the actual village beyond the reservoir catchment area. It is said that there was a settlement west of the reservoir and which was called Kattinakere. There are some remains of an old settlement there. It is uncertain when the settlement moved to the current location of the village. The name, however, has remained.

Temple ruins
Some ruins such as a tiger bust, Nandi (Bull God) and other remains of temples can be seen to the west of the village. About 2 km from this place there are ruins of a Shiva temple in the village of Sagadde. The villagers believe that these ruins are of a temple that has now become the Madhukeshwara temple, the only temple in the village. The villagers worship 8 other demigods (Huliyappa, Konanatale Bootappa etc.) during Deepavali and are believed to protect the village. These demigods are worshiped during the Deepavali festival every year.

The people tree
The village has a prominent people tree held sacred by the villagers. This tree is about  tall, has wide branches and is very old. There is a Serpent statue near it which along with the tree is worshiped once a year by every family in the village on Naga Panchami day.

Origin of river Dhandavathi
Dhandavathi is a tributary of the river Varada. Varada in turn joins the Tungabhadra River and later the Krishna River which finally joins the Bay of Bengal on the East coast of India. The village has a 19 acre water reservoir. The reservoir's overflow canal turns into a creek gathering strength on its way to become the river Dandavathi.

Notable animals
The villagers breed cattle. They usually are named are called by that name. Tigers wandering in nearby hills once attacked Kaali grazing along with other cattle. Kaali, a seemingly weak cow that had a twisted hanging horn escaped the attack. The exact circumstances are not known but she had part of her back torn off which healed, but she survived. A calm but very strong animal later escaped a cattle center jumping a wall about 6 feet high. The cow was given away as a gift to a nearby villager but would always visit Kattinakere frequently which forced farmers to send it to a cattle center.

Another animal fondly remembered by villagers is a dog. He always accompanied villagers walking to a bus terminal 2 km away. He would wait and return only after the bus had left. He would also go to the bus terminal by himself to pick up and accompany people who he knew would come at a regular time.

Reservoir
There is a large water reservoir that serves as storage for irrigation during summer. The catchment area is significant and with deforestation, there is more water flow to the reservoir. The reservoir has not been cleaned in a long time. During heavy monsoon rains, the canals and reservoir come close to overflowing. There is a stone carved reservoir deity on the bund which is rarely worshiped.

Rivers of Karnataka

Kattinakere


Edinburgh Corporation Tramways formerly served the City of Edinburgh, Scotland. The city used four-wheeled double-decked trams painted dark red (madder) and white – a livery still used by Lothian Buses and the modern light rail Edinburgh Trams.

Origins

The first trams in Edinburgh were horse-drawn and operated by the Edinburgh Street Tramways Company. This replaced an earlier horse-drawn coach system. The inaugural service (Haymarket to Bernard Street) ran on 6 November 1871. The tracks were laid by Sir James Gowans with John Macrae as engineer. These lines complemented and partly replaced the pre-existing horse-drawn carriage from Edinburgh to Leith, the only essential difference being the addition of guide rails. In January 1888 the Edinburgh Northern Tramways started the first cable-hauled trams. This had its depot and drive-mechanism on Henderson Row, a building partially preserved in the Royal London (formerly Scottish Life Assurance) offices there. Part of the winding gear is preserved on the pavement to the east side of the office. In 1894 the Edinburgh Street Tramway lines in Edinburgh (but not Leith or Portobello) were taken over by the Edinburgh and District Tramways Company. On 1 July 1919 Edinburgh Corporation took over the operation of the city's tramways. The system remained under the overall control of R. S. Pilcher, who had joined the company in 1918 having previously run Aberdeen Corporation Tramways.

Leith Corporation took over the still horse-drawn Leith tramlines in 1904 and introduced electric traction in 1905 (the first electric system in Scotland). Edinburgh Corporation took over the Leith system in 1920 (see below).

Electrification

Until 1920 Leith was a separate burgh, with its own municipal tram system. The Leith system was electrified, whereas the Edinburgh system used cable haulage (as still used by the San Francisco cable car system and the Great Orme Tramway in Wales). The cable was housed in a shallow trough between the tram rails; breakages could reduce the entire system to a standstill. The main depot was moved to Shrubhill on Leith Walk. An underground chamber at the main turn into the garages here was permanently staffed during operating hours to try to reduce cable-snagging.

Passengers going from Edinburgh to Leith had to change trams (from cable-drawn to electric) at Pilrig on Leith Walk at the boundary between Leith and Edinburgh. This confused exchange of passengers was known locally as "the Pilrig muddle", and lasted until the electrification of the Edinburgh system.

In 1922 Edinburgh Corporation decided to convert the entire system to electric traction. This took around three years to implement. The last cable tram operated in June 1923. A short section of original tram rail and cable track can still be seen in Waterloo Place.

Musselburgh also had its own electrified tram system from 1906. Passengers had to change to the cable-hauled Edinburgh trams at Joppa until 1923. The Musselburgh system was subsequently incorporated into the Edinburgh system, with the tramway to Port Seton closing east of Levenhall in 1928. Musselburgh continued to be served by Edinburgh trams until 1954.

Extensions
The system continued to expand during the 1930s. New routes included Gorgie to Stenhouse (1930), Braids to Fairmilehead (1936) and North Gyle to Maybury (1937). Further extensions were curtailed due to the outbreak of World War II.

Closure

Edinburgh Corporation introduced its first motor bus in 1914. In 1928, given the increasing importance of buses, the Edinburgh Corporation Tramways Department was renamed the Edinburgh Corporation Transport Department.

Following World War II, all municipal tramways in the United Kingdom (with the sole exception of the Blackpool tramway) were progressively closed and replaced by diesel buses.

Initially, Edinburgh Corporation took advantage of the closure of other systems by buying modern secondhand trams from Manchester Corporation. Nevertheless, a programme of replacement of trams by buses was introduced in the early 1950s. Edinburgh's last tram operated on 16 November 1956, terminating at the Shrubhill Depot on Leith Walk (archive film footage exists of the event).

One tramcar has been preserved – number 35, built in 1948 – which was put on display in a small museum at the Shrubhill Depot for a number of years. The museum eventually closed in the 1980s due to a leaking roof. Tram number 35 operated briefly at the Glasgow Garden Festival in 1988 and on the Blackpool tramway, before going into retirement at the National Tramway Museum in Derbyshire where it remains on display today.

Various reasons were given for replacing the trams including the problem of a fixed-rail system with largely street-running which meant that a single accident could bring much of the system to a halt. In reality, the policy was largely due to a change of local political power in the city in 1950 and to the appointment of William Morrison Little as General Manager in 1950. William Morrison Little thought that buses would serve the city better than trams. The increased popularity of the motor car in post-war Britain created an environment in which trams were seen generally as archaic and as an obstruction to other traffic.

When buses replaced trams they followed the same routes previously taken by the trams and used the same route numbers. This led to some anomalies which still , such as the absence of buses on the Pleasance—a major city artery—which was too steep at its northern end for trams. Lothian Buses only started to serve the Pleasance in 2014 (route 60).

Tram managers

The first Edinburgh Corporation Tram Manager was R Stuart Pilcher who was appointed at the early age of 24 in 1919 having previously worked in Aberdeen.
He left his post in 1929 to become Tram Manager in Manchester, England. He subsequently became Chairman of the Traffic Commissioners in the West Midlands of England. In 1921 he was responsible for establishing a trade organisation which eventually became part of the Scottish Council of the Confederation of Passenger Transport (CPT).

Pilcher managed the electrification of Edinburgh's trams in 1922/3. At the luncheon held on 15 January 1929 to mark his departure from Edinburgh and in response to Lord Provost Sir Alexander Stevenson's remarks, he said that "they deliberately planned the changeover so as not to affect public opinion. They were nervous of the effect of the hoardings and a half-finished job."

He was followed by FA Fitzpayne MIEE, who remained in post until 1934 when Robert McLeod M Inst T took over. He in turn was succeeded by William Morrison Little in 1949.

Tramcars

Inherited fleet
Edinburgh Corporation inherited 38 electric trams from the Leith system, and almost 200 Edinburgh cable car bodies were converted to electric propulsion in the period 1921-24.  There was initially some experimentation with bogie trucks (including attempts to electrify the original cable car chassis) but it was quickly decided to standardise on new 4-wheel trucks.  Most of these early cars had originally been open top, but most were modernised with top covers and the later survivors also received vestibule screens and enclosed balconies.  The last open top car was scrapped in 1934 and the final ex-Leith cars were withdrawn in 1936, but some of the converted cable cars remained in service until 1947. The body of car 226 (a former cable car dating from 1903 and withdrawn in 1938) was secured for preservation in 1987 after being used as a holiday chalet, and is undergoing restoration.

The Musselburgh company's trams were not included in the acquisition of that system.

Standard cars
Between 1922 and 1934, 240 Edinburgh Standard cars were built by the Corporation's Shrubhill Works and four private builders (McHardy & Elliot, Leeds Forge, English Electric and Pickering).  Like all subsequent Edinburgh trams these were 4-wheelers.  All featured timber 4-bay bodies, initially with open balconies on the upper decks, but cars built from 1930 had enclosed balconies and these were subsequently added to the earlier Standard cars as well. They were withdrawn between 1949 and 1956.

Experimental cars
Two cars were built at Shrubhill in 1932 and 1933 as a prelude to the development of a new generation of trams.  Car 180 featured composite construction (steel frames but wood and aluminium panelling, unlike the predominantly timber Standard cars) and had a 5-bay body with flat sides and curved corner glazing which gave it a much more modern appearance than the Standard cars.  It was delivered in a special red and grey livery which earned it the nickname "Red Biddy". Car 261 was a less radical development, being essentially a Standard car with flat lower deck sides. It was withdrawn in 1955, but car 180 survived until the final closure of the Edinburgh tram system on 16 November 1956.

All-steel cars

The next new trams were various all-steel cars purchased from private builders. There were three broad types:

 2 cars from Metro-Cammell in 1933 (nos. 260 and 265), resembling the Red Biddy but without the curved glazing
 9 cars from Metro-Cammell and Hurst Nelson in 1934, similar but with domed roofs (the first Edinburgh cars with this feature)
 23 cars from English Electric, Metro-Cammell and Hurst Nelson in 1934-35, with raked-back "streamlined" ends and domed roofs

Five of the 1934 Metro-Cammell batch were withdrawn relatively early in 1951-52, but all the others ran until 1955-56.

New Standard composite cars
The last new trams built for Edinburgh Corporation were 84 cars built at Shrubhill between 1935 and 1950.  These were of five-bay composite construction, being a development of the Red Biddy but with flat corner glass, domed roofs and various other refinements. The whole class survived until 1956, with 35 of them in service until the final closure of the system. Of these, car 35 (built in 1948) was selected by the City for preservation. It is now at the National Tramway Museum in Crich, Derbyshire.

Ex-Manchester "Pilcher" cars
11 former Manchester Corporation cars were purchased in 1947–49.  These were longer than the indigenous cars and were therefore confined to the relatively straight route from Waterloo Place to Levenhall.  Although relatively modern cars dating from 1930 to 1932, they were in very poor condition when they arrived in Edinburgh and required extensive refurbishment before entering service. All were withdrawn in 1954.

New line

A new light rail tramline from Edinburgh Airport to York Place (in the city centre) opened on Saturday 31 May 2014.

The line was later extended to Leith and Newhaven, opening to passengers on 7 June 2023.

Further extensions to the network are currently under consideration.

See also
National Tramway Museum
Scottish Tramway and Transport Society
Leith Corporation Tramways

External links
 Edinburgh trams (on the STTS website)
 Interactive tram route maps for Edinburgh and Leith in 1920 and 1950 (on the Granton History website)
 Edinburgh Corporation Tramways at the British Tramway Company Badges and Buttons website

References

Bibliography

Transport in Edinburgh
Edinburgh Trams
History of Edinburgh
1919 establishments in Scotland
1956 disestablishments in Scotland
Transport companies established in 1919
Transport companies disestablished in 1956

Edinburgh Corporation Tramways


The Lloyd Tilghman Memorial is a statue located in Paducah Kentucky, of Lloyd Tilghman, a brigadier general for the Confederate States of America who died at the Battle of Champion Hill in May 1863.

Lloyd Tilghman was a native of Maryland who lived in Paducah from 1852 to 1861. He joined the Confederate army on July 5, 1861, as a colonel, but was promoted to general the next October. He was placed in charge of the engineering of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, succeeding another general, but was unable to stop the building of the militarily deficient Fort Henry until too late. He was captured at the Battle of Fort Henry, and would not return to duty until the next Fall, which led to his death during the Vicksburg Campaign.

In 1909 it was decided to honor Tilghman.  Tilghman's sons Frederick and Sidell and the United Daughters of the Confederacy jointly paid for the building of the monument, with the brothers paying $10,000 and the UDC paying $5,000.

The statue was made by Henry Hudson Kitson, then a resident of Boston, Massachusetts who immigrated from England.  The statue depicting Tilghman is made of bronze, and is on top of a pink granite pedestal and base.  The total height is twelve feet.  The two bases are perfect squares of seventeen feet and 25 feet.  The historical marker at the site was placed there by the Augusta Tilghman High School class of 1929.

On July 17, 1997, it was one of sixty-one different monuments to the Civil War in Kentucky placed on the National Register of Historic Places, as part of the Civil War Monuments of Kentucky Multiple Property Submission.  One other monument on the list, the Confederate Monument in Paducah, is nearby.  Tilghman's home in Paducah is also on the National Register, and currently serves as a museum.

References

External links
 "Brigadier General Lloyd Tilghman, C.S.A. (Jan. 18,1816– May 16,1863)"

Civil War Monuments of Kentucky MPS
National Register of Historic Places in McCracken County, Kentucky
Buildings and structures in Paducah, Kentucky
United Daughters of the Confederacy monuments and memorials in Kentucky
Outdoor sculptures in Kentucky
1909 sculptures
Bronze sculptures in Kentucky
Statues in Kentucky
1909 establishments in Kentucky
Sculptures of men in Kentucky
Tilghman family

Lloyd Tilghman Memorial


Charles Baskerville (July 18, 1870 – January 28, 1922) was an American chemist. He announced the discovery of two new elements which claimed to have separated from thorium. Carolinium and  berzelium later were identified to be identical with thorium.

Life
Baskerville was born June 6, 1870, in Noxubee County, Mississippi. He studied chemistry at the University of Mississippi in 1886 and 1887 and graduated at from the University of Virginia. Later he studied at the Vanderbilt University, the University of Berlin and the University of North Carolina, where he received his B.S. degree in 1892 and Ph.D. in 1894. He became professor at the University of North Carolina and moved to the College of the City of New York in 1904, where he stayed until his death in 1922. He was survived by his wife, son and daughter. His son, Charles Baskerville, Jr., later became a successful artist.

Over his career, Baskerville published 190 papers, 8 books, and 16 patents. He was one of the most constant attendants on the meetings of the American Chemical Society, also a Fellow of the London Chemical Society, member of the Society of Chemical Industry, of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Electrochemical Society, the Washington and New York Academies of Science, the Franklin Institute, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

References

External links
 Prof. Baskerville Dies of Pneumonia; Director at City College Had Done Notable Research Work in Industrial Chemistry January 30, 1922, Monday

1870 births
1922 deaths
19th-century players of American football
American chemists
American football fullbacks
City College of New York faculty
North Carolina Tar Heels football players
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill faculty
University of Virginia alumni
Players of American football from Mississippi
Chemists from Mississippi

Charles Baskerville


Concetta Hospital is a general hospital based in Kinnigoli, Dakshina Kannada District Karnataka, India.

Concetta Hospital, which was started in 1958 with just 12 beds has now grown into a large Hospital having 65 beds with modern equipment and medical facilities available for the patients of the rural area.

Sanjivini, an outreach unit of the hospital, provides a variety of health services to the poor and needy people of Kinnigoli and surrounding villages.

Services available at Concetta Hospital include:
 Out-patient service
 In-patient services
 Maternity service
 24 hours emergency services
 X-Ray, ECG
 Clinical Laboratory
 Ultrasound Facility
 Treatment for snake bites
 Immunization
 Ambulance service

The following specialities and consultations are available:
 Gynacology
 Paediatrics
 Orthopaedics
 General Medicine
 Surgery
 Dermatology
 Dentistry
 Physiotherapy

References

Hospitals in Karnataka
Education in Dakshina Kannada district
Hospitals established in 1958
1958 establishments in Mysore State

Concetta Hospital, Kinnigoli


Alexandr Zaboev (, born 1 September 1989) is a Russian pair skater. From 2012 to 2014, he skated with Natalja Zabijako for Estonia, placing tenth at the 2014 European Championships. Although they qualified a spot for Estonia in the pairs' event at the 2014 Winter Olympics, they did not compete in Sochi because Zaboev's fast-track citizenship application was declined.

Personal life
Zaboev was born in Sverdlovsk, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union. In addition to skating, he competed in ballroom dancing until 2004.

Skating career
Zaboev began skating in 1994 and competed in singles until the end of 2008, before joining an ice ballet for two years.

In 2010, Zaboev began competing in pair skating with Alexandra Herbríková for the Czech Republic. They were coached by Stanislav Žídek and Otto Dlabola in Ostrava.

Zaboev teamed up with Natalja Zabijako to compete for Estonia. They began training together on 19 September 2012. By finishing ninth at the 2013 Nebelhorn Trophy, they earned a spot for Estonia in pair skating at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. Zaboev applied for Estonian citizenship, required to represent the country at the Olympics, but in November 2013, Estonia denied his fast-track application.

Zabijako/Zaboev placed tenth at the 2014 European Championships and 19th at the 2014 World Championships. On April 6, 2014, Sport Express reported that their partnership had ended.

On July 6, 2015, it was announced that Zaboev had teamed up with Japanese pair skater Narumi Takahashi to compete for Japan. Their partnership was short-lived.

Programs

With Zabijako

With Herbríková

Competitive highlights
JGP: Junior Grand Prix

With Zabijako for Estonia

With Herbríková for the Czech Republic

References

External links

1989 births
Estonian male pair skaters
Russian male pair skaters
Living people
Sportspeople from Yekaterinburg
Sportspeople from Ashburn, Virginia

Alexandr Zaboev


A Penthouse is typically an apartment on the highest floor of an apartment building. It usually takes up less than half of the entire (flat) roof of the building. Originally the word penthouse meant a small building with a sloped roof. The modern use of the word started in the 1920s in America. In the age of skyscrapers the "house" on the roof was called a penthouse. A penthouse can also be commercial space.

Types of penthouses
Office buildings have penthouse office suites. Another use for a penthouse is as a restaurant or Café. Their position on a top floor of a building allows for scenic views while dining. The Museum of Modern Art in New York City has a penthouse meeting area. A penthouse can also house a studio, such as a photographic studio.

Building codes
Under some Building codes a penthouse cannot be more than one-third the size of the floor below it. There is no limit to the number of penthouses a building can have. The only limit is the amount of space they can take up (one-third rule). Also, some building codes do not allow mechanical or electrical equipment to count as a penthouse unless they are enclosed by a roof.

Gallery

References

Other websites
 What does "penthouse" really mean?
 Office penthouses languish on market
 penthouse, Oxford Dictionaries

Habitats
Architectural elements

Penthouse


Shaoul Smira is an American artist.

Early life
Shaoul Smira moved to Israel from Iraq as a child in 1951, found his métier in art and received his training in Tel Aviv, Israel at the Avni Art Institute.  In 1965 he moved to Paris and continued his studies in the Academy Chomier.  These endeavors progressed in 1971 when Smira attended the Antwerp Academy to study etching and in 1976 when he attended workshops in Belgium to study the process of cast paper work. Smira also attended workshops in 1985 at the Atelier Mourlot for series of lithos. Smira has been living and working in New York since 1978.

References

External links
 Official website

American artists
Israeli artists
Living people
Royal Academy of Fine Arts (Antwerp) alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)

Shaoul Smira


When it comes to religion, the Ecuadorian society is relatively homogeneous, with Christianity being the primary religion. Catholicism is the main Christian denomination in the country. There are also minorities of other religions.

There are many old and new churches throughout the country and many more are being built by the Catholic Church. The Evangelical Missionary Union represents many Protestants in Ecuador; Anglican churches in Ecuador belong to Province 9 of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America. Other religions are present in small numbers: Eastern Orthodoxy, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Buddhism, Judaism, Hinduism and Islam.

Statistics
According to Latinobarómetro's 2018 public opinion survey, approximately 92 percent of respondents have a religious affiliation or belief. Of those, 74.8 percent are Catholic; 15.2 percent are evangelical Christian (including evangelical Baptists and Methodists); and 1.2 percent are Jehovah's Witnesses. Approximately 1.4 percent identify as members of other religious groups, including Seventh-day Adventists, the Church of Jesus Christ, Jews, and Protestants. Of those who do not identify with a religion, 0.8 percent identify as atheists while 6.1 percent have no religion.

According to the Ecuadorian National Institute of Statistics and Census in 2012 (the most recent year for which there are government statistics available), approximately 92 percent of the population professes a religious affiliation or belief. 80.4% are Catholic, 11.3% are Protestants, 1.29% are Jehovah's Witnesses, and 6.96 have other religions or none.
 80.4% Catholics
 11.3% Protestants
 1.29% Jehovah's Witnesses
 6.96% Other or none

Christianity

Catholicism

After the Spanish colonization, Ecuador became a Christian country. The Catholic Church had and still has an important place in the Ecuadorian government and society. After the Constitution of 1869, the official religion became Catholicism and only Catholics could obtain citizenship. In 1899, the liberal government of Eloy Alfaro made a new constitution which respected all religions and guaranteed freedom of religious choice. Public education became free of religious influence. Nevertheless, private catholic schools still existed. Monsignor Antonio José Cardinal González Zumárraga is the emeritus Archbishop of Quito. He is in charge of the Ecuadorian Catholic Church.

Protestantism
In Latin America, Protestants are most often called Evangelicals (Evangelicos). Ecuador has now about 11% of the population calling itself Protestant. Most are Pentecostals, but many denominations are active.

Latter-day Saints

The first Mormon missionaries in Ecuador arrived in 1965. On August 1, 1999, the Guayaquil Ecuador Temple was dedicated by church president Gordon B. Hinckley.

Latter-day Saint membership in Ecuador has increased significantly in recent years. In 2008, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints reported having 185,663 members in Ecuador.

Apostolics

The "Jesus Name Apostolic Church of Ecuador" (Iglesia Evangelica Apostolica del Nombre de Jesus) is the largest Apostolic/Pentecostal church in Ecuador with more than 100,000 members in Ecuador. Considered a Missionary Church they have churches and missions in Peru, Chile, Uruguay, Venezuela, San Salvador, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Sweden, the Netherlands and Israel.

Judaism

The "Jewish Community of Ecuador" (Comunidad Judía del Ecuador) has its seat in Quito and has approximately 290 members. Nevertheless, this number is declining because young people leave the country towards the United States of America or Israel. The Community has a Jewish Center with a synagogue, a country club and a cemetery. It supports the "Albert Einstein School", where Jewish history, religion and Hebrew classes are offered.

There is a very small community in Cuenca. The "Comunidad de Culto Israelita" reunites the Jews of Guayaquil. This community works independently from the "Jewish Community of Ecuador". Jewish visitors to Ecuador can also take advantage of Jewish resources as they travel and keep kosher there, even in the Amazon Rainforest.

Islam

The "Islam Community of Ecuador" (Comunidad Islámica del Ecuador) is of Sunni denomination and has approximately 60 members in Ecuador. It runs the Mosque Assalam in the city of Quito.

The "Asociación Islámica Cultural Khaled Ibn al Walidi" reunites the Arab Muslims in the country and has its seat in Quito.

The Islamic Center "Al Hijra" is located in Guayaquil, Ecuador's largest city and economic hub, with an estimated 85 members.

Bahá'í Faith
The Bahá'í Faith, while being registered with the government, has small numbers in the country. The Bahá'í radio station in Otavalo, which started on October 12, 1977, was the first Bahá'í radio station in the world. The National Bahá'í governing body of Ecuador is based in Quito and Guayaquil.

Buddhism
Buddhism was originally brought to Ecuador by immigrants from China and Japan. A large number of these immigrants and their descendants have retained their native religions with approximately 5,000 practicing Buddhists. In 1995 Taiwanese missionaries began building the Templo Mision Budista in Guayaquil. Finished in 2007, it opened its doors to the public in 2008 and is one of the largest Buddhist temples in South America.

History

In the colony
The Catholic Church assumed a pivotal role in Ecuador virtually at the onset of the Spanish conquest. Catholicism was a central part of Hispanic culture, defining the ethos and worldview of the time. Through the Office of the Inquisition, the church examined the "purity" of possible officeholders. The church was virtually the only colonial institution dealing with education or the care of the needy. It amassed great wealth through donations, dowries, and outright purchases. Virtually every segment of the organization—the hierarchy, individual clerics, and religious orders—owned some form of assets.

After the independence

The liberals' ascendancy in 1905 brought a series of drastic limitations to the Catholic Church's privileges. The state admitted representatives of other religions into the country, established a system of public education, and seized most of the church's rural properties. In addition, legislation formally abolished tithes (although many hacienda owners continued to collect them). The 1945 constitution (and the Constitution of 1979) firmly established freedom of religion and the separation of church and state.

Changes in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s
Beginning in the 1960s, the country's Catholic bishops became increasingly active in supporting social change. Church leaders organized literacy campaigns among the Indians, distributed the institution's remaining lands, assisted peasants in acquiring land titles, and helped communities form cooperatives. In the 1970s and 1980s, the bishops espoused a centrist position on social and political issues. The episcopate contended that the unjust organization of Ecuadorian society caused many to live in misery. The bishops also claimed that the economic development of the 1970s and early 1980s had merely widened the gap between rich and poor. At the same time, however, Catholics were warned against employing Marxian analyses of society or endorsing violence or class conflict.

Church support for social reform
Church support for social reform occasionally brought it into conflict with government authorities. In 1976, for example, police arrested Riobamba bishop Leonidas Proaño Villalba—the episcopate's most outspoken critic of Ecuadorian society and politics—and sixteen other Latin American bishops who were attending a church conference in Chimborazo Province. After accusing the prelates of interfering in Ecuador's internal politics and discussing subversive subjects, the minister of interior released Proaño and expelled the foreign bishops from the country. Some Catholics formed groups to support conservative causes. The Committee of Young Christians for Christian Civilization, for example, advocated scuttling the "confiscatory and anti-Christian" agrarian reform laws.

Internal organization of the Catholic Church in Ecuador
In 1986 the Catholic Church was organized into three archdioceses, ten dioceses, one territorial prelature, seven apostolic vicariates, and one apostolic prefecture. The church had only 1,505 priests to minister to a Catholic population of slightly more than 8 million, a ratio of 1 priest for every 5,320 Catholics.

Although approximately 94 percent of Ecuadorians were at least nominally Catholic at the time, most either did not practice their religion or pursued a syncretistic version. Most Sierra Indians, for example, followed a type of folk Catholicism in which doctrinal orthodoxy played only a small part. Indigenous beliefs combined with elements of Catholic worship. Much of community life focused on elaborate fiestas that marked both public and family events. Although the precise configuration of fiestas varied from community to community, in general public fiestas involved an individual in a series of increasingly demanding and expensive sponsorships (cargos) of specific religious celebrations. By the time individuals had completed all the expected cargos, they were recognized community leaders.

Religious freedom

The separation of state and religion is since 1986 guaranteed.

The Ecuadorian Constitution of 1998 includes two articles providing for freedom of worship:

 Art. 23: States, among others that "all people are legally born free and equal and that they will not be discriminated on the basis of religion". It guarantees also the freedom of religion. "Freedom of religion is guaranteed. Every individual has the right to freely profess his/her religion and to disseminate it individually or collectively. All religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law." The right to declare or not about ones religious affiliation is also guaranteed.
 Art. 81: Prohibits publicity that encourages violence, racism, sexism, religious or political intolerance.

In 2023, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.

Conversions
The Catholic Church's relatively weak presence in the countryside and in squatter settlements, coupled with the nominal, syncretistic practice of most Catholics, created a fertile ground for Protestant evangelical and Pentecostal missionary activity. Although multidenominational groups such as the Gospel Missionary Union (GMU) had been active in Ecuador since the beginning of the twentieth century, significant levels of conversion did not occur until the late 1960s. By the late 1970s, the GMU reported that it had converted 20,000 Sierra Indians in Chimborazo Province alone. The Christian and Missionary Alliance indicated that conversions among Indians in Otavalo climbed from 28 in 1969 to 900 in 1979. By the mid-1980s, an estimated 50,000 Ecuadorians had converted to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Other significant forces in the Protestant camp included World Vision, an evangelical development group based in California, and the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL). The Texas-based SIL dispatched linguists to remote areas of Ecuador to study and codify tribal languages. The eventual goal of such efforts was to translate the Bible.

The phenomenal pace of conversion — some observers estimated that evangelicals and Pentecostals totaled 40 percent of the population in Chimborazo Province in the late 1980s — affected social relations in rural areas. Change in religious affiliation was a major rupture with an individual's past traditions and social ties, effectively removing them from participation in fiestas—a major focus of much of community life. Families and extended families found the break with the rest of the community easier in the company of fellow converts. Protestantism replaced the patterns of mutual reciprocity characteristic of peasant social relations with a network of sharing and support among fellow believers. This support system extended to migrants; converts who left for the city or the coast sought out their coreligionists for assistance in finding lodging and employment even as Catholics looked to their compadres.

References

Further reading
Orta, Andrew, Cathechizing Culture: Missionaries, Aymara, and the 'New Evangelization'.  New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.

Society of Ecuador
Ecuadorian culture
Demographics of Ecuador

Religion in Ecuador


An eyebrow is an area of short hairs above each eye that follows the shape of the lower margin of the brow ridges of some mammals. In humans, eyebrows serve two main functions: first, communication through facial expression, and second, prevention of sweat, water, and other debris from falling down into the eye socket. It is common for people to modify their eyebrows by means of hair removal and makeup.

Functions
A number of theories have been proposed to explain the function of the eyebrow in humans. One approach suggests its main function is to prevent moisture (mostly sweat and rain) from flowing into the eye. Another theory holds that clearly visible eyebrows provided safety from predators when early hominid groups started sleeping on the ground.

Recent research, however, suggests eyebrows in humans developed as a means of communication and that this is their primary function. Humans developed a smooth forehead with visible, hairy eyebrows capable of a wide range of movement. Such eyebrows can express a wide range of subtle emotions – including recognition and sympathy.

Cosmetic modification

Fashion in eyebrow shape has changed throughout the ages and eyebrows have always featured heavily in female fashion, often as part of cultural demands made on women about body hair.

Cosmetic methods over the centuries have been developed to alter the appearance of eyebrows, by adding or removing hair, changing the color, or changing the position to meet the aesthetic ideal of the time, for example, by tinting the eyebrow with permanent dye, similar to hair colour, often in order to darken them.

Eyebrow brushes, shaders, and pencils are often used to define the eyebrow or make it appear fuller. These can create an outline for the brows or mimic hairs where there are sparse areas. Brow gels are also used in creating a thicker brow; they allow for the hairs to be more textured, which gives the appearance of thicker, fuller brows. Lastly, brow powders or even eyeshadows are used for those who want a fuller and more natural look, by placing the brow powder or eyeshadow (closest to the natural hair colour) in areas where there is less hair.

Several options exist for removing hair to achieve a thinner or smaller eyebrow, or to "correct" a unibrow, including manual and electronic tweezing, waxing, and threading. The most common method is to use tweezers to thin out and shape the eyebrow. Waxing is becoming more popular. Lastly, there is threading eyebrows, where a cotton thread is rolled over hair to pull it out. Small scissors are sometimes used to trim the eyebrows, either with another method of hair removal or alone. All of these methods can be painful for some seconds or minutes due to the sensitivity of the area around the eye but, often, this pain decreases over time as the individual becomes used to it. In time, hair that has been plucked will stop growing back. Some people wax or shave off their eyebrows and leave them bare, stencil or draw them in with eye liner, or tattoo them on. In Western societies, it has become more common for men to pluck part of their eyebrows.

To create a fuller look, eyebrows can be cloned in an eyebrow transplant. Individual strands of the eyebrow are created to mimic a natural-looking eyebrow of the desired shape. The process of eyebrow transplant is quite similar to the process of hair transplant. In this process as well, follicles from an active area are transferred to the area where there are no hairs. Follicles are mostly taken from the back of the head because it is the best harvesting site when it comes to hairs. The follicles are then injected into the skin.

The healing process after an eyebrow transplant is similar to the process of tattoo. In this process, patients may experience light bruising and crusting of the skin. People who have genetically thin eyebrows or who have over-tweezed are considered ideal for the transplant.

An eyebrow lift is a cosmetic surgery to raise the eyebrow, usually to create a more feminine or youthful appearance. It is not a new phenomenon, with the earliest description of brow lifting published in medical literature in 1919 by French surgeon Raymond Passot. Brows can be affected during a face lift or an eye lift. In the 1970s, doctors started injecting patients' eyebrows with botox or similar toxins to paralyse the muscles temporarily to raise the eyebrow.

Japanese women and men from the 8th century practiced hikimayu: that is, shaving or plucking the eyebrow hair and painting smudge-like ones higher on the forehead or pencilled in thin ones in a different place. This practice is comparable to that in the Elizabethan era when high-status women would remove eyebrows altogether. Thin eyebrows, achieved by rigorous plucking, were again fashionable in the 1920s and 1930s.

In the 21st century, tattooing became popular as a way to achieve and maintain an eyebrow shape, using a coil machine, rotary machine and linear machine. This process, also called cosmetic tattooing, microblading, or blade and shade brows, involves an eyebrow artist making small, precise cuts that mimic the look of hair. Shaving lines in eyebrows is another cosmetic alteration, popular among some younger people in the 1990s and 2000s.

Gallery

See also
Anti-eyebrow, a body piercing placed below the eyebrow
Eyebrow piercing, a body piercing done through the eyebrow
Eyebrow restoration, surgical procedure to change the look of one's eyebrows
Eyelashes, a set of hairs on the edges of the eyelids

References

External links

Facial features

Eyebrow


Rhythm game, or rhythm action, is a type of music-themed action video game. These games mostly focus either on dancing or simulating the playing of musical instruments. Players must press buttons in time with commands from the game, which are in time with the rhythm of a song. Doing so will cause the game's protagonist or avatar to dance or play their instrument correctly, thus achieving a greater score. The game can be played with a hand-held controller, though different control devices have been made to play rhythm games, such as guitar- and drum-shaped controllers for musical instrument games, and pressure-sensitive pads (called dance mats) that the player must step on for dancing games. The Kinect for the Xbox 360 allows the player to use their whole body to control the game by tracking their movements. Some games have a multi-player mode, where players can play as members of a band or dance crew, or compete against each other.

The 1996 title PaRappa the Rapper was the first influential rhythm game. The basic design of the game became a pattern that later rhythm games followed. In 1997, Konami's Beatmania started popularity for rhythm games in Japan. The company's music division, Bemani, released many music games over the next several years. The most successful of these was dance mat game Dance Dance Revolution, which was also the only one to achieve large-scale success outside of Japan. The game's style was imitated by many other games, until the release of Harmonix's Guitar Hero. The game was inspired by similar, earlier Japanese games, but Harmonix added rock music aimed at a Western audience. The success of the game revived the genre and two hugely successful franchises were born in Guitar Hero and the later Rock Band. The success of both expanded the console video game market and its demographics. By 2008, rhythm games were considered to be one of the most popular video game genres, behind other action games. However, because there were so many spin-offs from the core titles in 2009, there was a nearly 50% drop in sales for music games, causing them to scale-back plans for further expansion in 2010.

Definition and game design

Rhythm game, or rhythm action, is a subgenre of action game that challenges a player's sense of rhythm, and includes dance games such as Dance Dance Revolution and other music-based games such as Donkey Konga and Guitar Hero. These games challenge the player to press the right button at the right time: the screen shows which button the player should press next, and the game awards points for being on the beat. The genre also includes games that measure both rhythm and pitch, in order to test a player's singing ability. In addition to rhythm, some games may challenge the player to control their volume by measuring how hard they press each button. While songs can be sight read without having performed them before, players usually practice to master more difficult songs and settings. Other rhythm games offer a challenge similar to that of Simon says, where the player must watch, remember, and repeat complex sequences of button-presses.

In some rhythm games, the screen will display an avatar who performs in response to the player's button-presses. However, they are usually in the background, and the avatar is less important to the player than it is to spectators. In single-player mode, the player's avatar will compete against a computer-controlled opponent, while multiplayer mode will allow two player-controlled avatars to compete head-to-head. The popularity of rhythm games has created a market for different controllers. These include a variety of controllers which look like musical instruments, such as guitars, drums, or maracas. A dance mat, for use in dancing games, requires the player to step on pressure-sensitive pads. Traditional control pads may also be used.

History

Origins and popularity in Japan (1970's - 2000)

The genre has been traced back to the electronic game Simon, invented by Howard Morrison and Ralph Baer (the latter also invented the Magnavox Odyssey) in 1978. Players take turns repeating increasingly complicated sequences of button presses and the game implemented the "call and response" mechanic used by later music video games. Dance Aerobics was released in 1987, and allowed players to create music by stepping on Nintendo's Power Pad peripheral. It has been called the first rhythm-action game in retrospect. The later PaRappa the Rapper has also been credited as the first rhythm game, as well as one of the first music games in general. The game required players to press buttons corresponding to the order they appeared on-screen; this basic mechanic would form the core of future rhythm games. The success of PaRappa the Rapper sparked popularity of the music game genre. Unlike most other games in the genre, the game also featured a completely original soundtrack and a good plot. Konami's Beatmania, released in Japanese arcades in 1997, was a dj-themed rhythm game which featured buttons laid out like a keyboard along with a rubber pad that looked like a record. The game was a surprise hit, inspiring Konami's Games and Music Division to change its name to Bemani in honor of the game, and to then begin experimenting with other rhythm games over the next few years. One of those successes, GuitarFreaks, featured a guitar-shaped controller. While the franchise continues to receive new arcade versions in Japan, it was never strongly marketed outside of the country, allowing Harmonix to capitalize on the formula several years later with the Western-targeted Guitar Hero. Similarly, DrumMania from 1999 used a drum kit controller and could be linked with GuitarFreaks for simulated jam sessions, several years before the concept appeared in Rock Band. 1998's Pop'n Music, a game similar to Beatmania, featuring multiple colorful buttons was also successful.

Dance Dance Revolution, released in 1998, was a rhythm game in which players danced on pressure sensitive pads in time with on-screen commands. The game was highly successful not only in Japan but globally, unlike games such as GuitarFreaks, DrumMania and Beatmania (though Beatmania had some success in Europe). and pump it up in a similar rhythm game.

Released the same year, Enix's Bust a Groove revolved around similar dancing themes to Dance Dance Revolution but employed a more conventional input method. The game featured competitive one-on-one "battles" and also allowed the player more freedom than normally found in rhythm games.

Vib-Ribbon was released by NanaOn-Sha (the creator of PaRappa the Rapper) in 1999, and also did not use instrument-shaped controllers. In this game, players had to maneuver the protagonist through an obstacle course by pressing buttons at the correct time. These courses were generated in a way that depended on the background music and players could load their own music to play along. While it was praised for its unique style and timeless artistry, its simple vector graphics proved difficult to market and the game was never released in North America. Bemani's Samba de Amigo, released in 1999 and on Dreamcast in 2000, featured maraca-shaped, motion sensor controllers. The game made use of "social gaming", allowing two player gameplay and providing a spectacle for onlookers. In 2001, Taiko no Tatsujin combined traditional Japanese drums with contemporary pop music, and became highly successful in Japanese arcades. The game was later released on consoles in the West (as Taiko Drum Master) and the franchise continues to receive new installments in Japan. Gitaroo Man featured a guitar-playing protagonist, 4 years before the release of Guitar Hero, though the game employed a conventional rather than guitar-shaped controller. Gitaroo Man'''s creator, Keiichi Yano, further created Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan, a rhythm game for the Nintendo DS using its touchscreen features, which was a highly demanded import title and led to a sequel in Japan and a Western variation of the game in Elite Beat Agents.

Popularity in the West (2001–2008)
Harmonix, a company formed from a computer music group at MIT in 1995, released Frequency in 2001. The game allowed the player to control multiple instruments and gave a feeling of more creative control. The game was well-reviewed, but its abstract style did not allow the player to give a "performance" as in other games and thus proved difficult to market. Frequency was followed by a similar game, Amplitude in 2003. Harmonix later released more socially driven, karaoke-themed music games in Karaoke Revolution and SingStar (2003 and 2004 respectively). Donkey Konga, developed by Namco for Nintendo and released in 2003 (2004 in North America) achieved widespread success due to its use of Nintendo's Donkey Kong franchise.

 Guitar Hero, developed by Harmonix, was released in 2005 by then relatively unknown publisher RedOctane. The game was inspired by GuitarFreaks, but while that game had used Japanese pop music, Guitar Hero featured Western rock music. The game revived the rhythm genre which by this time had begun to get boring, flooded with Dance Dance Revolution sequels and imitators.2008. "Best Rhythm Game: Rock Band 2" . UGO. Retrieved 2009-04-29. The game had several sequels, with the franchise earning more than $1 billion in sales; the third game was the best-selling game in North America in 2007. Harmonix's later Rock Band franchise, which also earned in excess of $1 billion, used multiple instrument controllers and cooperative multiplayer, allowing players to play as a full band. The Guitar Hero franchise followed suit with Guitar Hero World Tour, developed by Neversoft rather than Harmonix. Guitar Hero installments based on specific bands, such as Metallica and Aerosmith, were later published. Additional songs could be purchased on the internet and added to Guitar Hero and Rock Band games. Artists whose works have been featured in the games have also benefited from royalties and increased publicity, in turn generating further sales of their work. The success of the Guitar Hero and Rock Band franchises widened the console video game market and its demographics, with the popularity of the music game driving increased sales of consoles. In 2008, it was reported that the music game had become the second most popular video game genre in the U.S. (behind action, having overtaken sports), with 53% of players being female.

Saturation and fallout of peripheral-based games (2009–2010)
Analysts for the video game market considered 2009 to be critical to further success of the genre. Both the Guitar Hero and Rock Band franchises expanded in this year with new games on other gaming platforms including handheld gaming devices and mobile phones and with titles targeted towards specific genres or demographics, such as Band Hero for pop music and Lego Rock Band for younger players.  Sales of music games were down in the first half of the year, though part was attributed to fewer purchases of the instrument controllers which players had already purchased and could reuse for other games. However, though analysis had expected that United States sales of Guitar Hero 5 and The Beatles: Rock Band to be high, close to or exceeding one million units each in the first month of their release, the resulting sales numbers were lower by nearly half of the projections. Though signs of the impact of the late-2000s recession on the video game markets were considered a factor in lower sales, it was also taken as a sign of the waning popularity of the titles, now considered to be saturating the market. As a result, analysts have lowered expectations for future music games; projections for sales of DJ Hero, a spinoff of Guitar Hero published by Activision, have been reduced from 1.6 million units in the first quarter of sales in the United Sates to only 600,000. Further contributing to the decline is the lack of innovation in the genre, as such games have not changed their basic play model over their last several games, leading to consumers becoming less likely to buy additional titles. Total sales of rhythm games, having reached $1.4 billion in 2008, reached only $700 million in 2009, with analysts predicting the market will settle at the same "healthy" $500–600 million level seen by the Call of Duty series.

The weakening market for rhythm video games has created fallout effects impacting both game developers and distributors. Publishers and distributors have recognized that in 2010, most consumers likely have one or more sets of instrument controller hardware at their homes, and that further sales would be primarily driven by software sales and additional content.
Activision scaled back its 2010 Guitar Hero release schedule to just two full games, reducing the number of SKUs from 25 in 2009 to 10 in 2010. Activision has also closed some of its in-house developers, including RedOctane, Neversoft's Guitar Hero division, and Underground Development, bringing the remaining employees and assets under their own control. Viacom, which had previously paid Harmonix $150 million for their performance behind Rock Band in 2007, are now seeking to get a "substantial" refund on that amount due to the weak sales in 2009. Viacom is also seeking to further reduce costs by negotiating new deals with music publishers to reduce the costs associated with music licensing for the Rock Band series. During the third quarter of 2010, Viacom began seeking a buyer for Harmonix, recognizing they did not have the efficiency and capacity to deal with the cost of maintaining a video game developer compared with dedicated video game publishers.

The kinds of people buying games was changing and they wanted something different. Rhythm game developers tried to add new features to their games. Rock Band 3 and Power Gig: Rise of the SixString added new stringed guitar controllers. They also added kinds of game play to help players learn how to hold their fingers as if playing a real guitar.  Despite these new modes, sales of music games were still low in 2010. Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock and DJ Hero 2 sold only 86,000 and 59,000 copies in North America during their first week of sales, respectively, a sharp contrast to Guitar Hero III which had seen nearly 1.4 million units in its first week in 2008.  Analysis of music game sales through October 2010 show net sales of around $200 million through October, one-fifth of the revenue for music games for the same period in 2008, and that the market will likely not break $400 million by the end of the year. End year sales were less than $300 million.

By the end of 2010, the rhythm market, initially propped by game bundles with instrument controllers, was considered "well past its prime" and has shifted towards downloadable content and potential integration with motion control systems. Citing the downturn in rhythm games, Activision shuttered their Guitar Hero division in February 2011. Viacom completed its sale of Harmonix in late 2010 to an investment-backed group to allow it to continue developing Rock Band and Dance Central on its own. Analysts suggest that the market for these types of peripheral rhythm games may be stagnant for three to five years after which they may resurge on new consoles or based on different distribution models such as a stronger focus on downloadable content.

Motion control and dance games (2011-present)
With the introduction of motion control to both the Xbox 360 (through Kinect) and the PlayStation 3 (through PlayStation Move) in 2010 and 2011, along with existing Wii motion control, some analysts believed the rhythm market would resurges through a new wave of dance-based video games and band-based ones that use platform-agnostic controllers to replicate real-life actions. Games such as Dance Central, Michael Jackson: The Game, and Child of Eden are all games based on the new motion sensing technology aimed to encourage more engaging dance routines. Industry pundits believe that as sales of music games requiring peripheral controllers lag, dance-based games, along with rising popularity of pop music, will continue to thrive for some time. Dancing games such as Just Dance and Dance Central boosted late-year sales; Dance Central was the top-selling game for the Kinect in North America in November 2010, and both games led to an 38% increase in sales compared to November 2009, according to NPD.

 References

 Ashcraft, Brian, Arcade Mania! The Turbo-Charged World of Japan's Games Centers (Kodansha International, 2008)
 Rollings, Andrew & Adams, Ernest, Fundamentals of Game Design'' (Prentice Hall, 2006)

Music video games
Video game genres

Rhythm game


Henning Kraggerud (born 23 June 1973) is a Norwegian musician and composer.

Career
Kraggerud was born in Oslo. He studied with Camilla Wicks, Emanuel Hurwitz, and Stephan Barratt-Due, before embarking on a career that has brought solo appearances thought Europe, Russia and United States. He made his American debut as a recitalist in 1998 at Carnegie Hall, and has collaborated in recitals and chamber-music performances. A leader-soloist of chamber orchestras and sinfoniettas, Kraggerud is skilled at improvisation, and is an experienced composer, having written music arrangements and his own cadenzas.

His recordings for Naxos include Grieg's Violin Sonatas and Norwegian Favorites for violin and orchestra. A recipient of Norway's prestigious Grieg Prize, Kraggerud was appointed the Bergen International Festival Artist-Residence in 2004. In 2011, Kraggerud took over from Leif Ove Andsnes as co-Artistic Director of the Risør Festival of Chamber Music. From 2012, Kraggerud became Artistic Director of the Tromsø Chamber Orchestra.

Kraggerud performs both on violin and viola at the major international festivals, recent collaborations have included a Szymanowski Focus at Wigmore Hall in London and Zankel Hall in New York City, curated by Piotr Anderszewski, and performances at the Verbier Festival with Joshua Bell, Leonidas Kavakos and Martha Argerich. In 2011 he appeared at the Hong Kong International Chamber Music Festival and the Seoul Spring Festival. He joined colleagues at the Rio International Chamber Music Week in Brazil and the Stavanger International Chamber Music Festival in 2012. Along with Imogen Cooper and Adrian Brendel he appears at LSO St Luke's in the BBC's chamber concert series.

Henning Kraggerud plays on a 1744 Guarneri del Gesù.

Honors
2007: «Ole Bull Award», for his work on the music of Ole Bull
2008: Spellemannprisen in the class Classical music, for the album Eugène Ysaÿe: Six Sonatas For Solo Violin
2011: Gammlengprisen in the class Art music

Discography (in selection)

Solo albums
2008: Eugène Ysaÿe: Six Sonatas For Solo Violin (Simax Classics)

As soloist
1997: Grieg: Fiolinsonater Nr. 1-3 (Naxos Music), with Helge Kjekshus (piano)
1999: Bull, Halvorsen, Grieg, Sinding, Svendsen: Norwegian Violin Favourites (Naxos Music), with «Razumovsky Symphony Orchestra», conductor: Bjarte Engeset
2003: Johan Svendsen: String Quartet • String Quintet (cpo), with Oslo String Quartet
2004: Sibelius, Sinding: Violin Concertos (Naxos Music), with Oslo String Quartet
2008: Sinding: Musikk For Fiolin Og Klavér (Naxos Music), with Christian Ihle Hadland
2009: Christian Sinding: Music For Violin And Piano • 1 (Suite Im Alten Stil, Op. 10 • Waltzes, Op. 59) (Naxos Music), with Christian Ihle Hadland
2009: Christian Sinding: Music For Violin And Piano • 2 (Naxos Music), with Christian Ihle Hadland
2011: Mozart: Divertimento In E Flat Major (Naxos Music), with Lars Anders Tomter (viola) & Christoph Richter (cello)
2012: Nordic Violin Favourites (Naxos Music), with «Dalasinfoniettan», conductor: Bjarte Engeset
2016: Mozart: Violin Concertos Nos. 3, 4 and 5 (Naxos Music), with Norwegian Chamber Orchestra

Collaborative works
2012: Last Spring (ATC), with Bugge Wesseltoft

References

1973 births
Living people
Male violinists
20th-century Norwegian violinists
21st-century Norwegian violinists
People educated at Oslo Waldorf School
Musicians from Oslo
Eurovision Young Musicians Finalists
Spellemannprisen winners
Barratt Due Institute of Music alumni
Academic staff of the Barratt Due Institute of Music
21st-century violinists
20th-century Norwegian male musicians
21st-century Norwegian male musicians

Henning Kraggerud


"Bey" ( "Beik", , ,  "Beyeh",  "Beyg" or بگ "Beg") is a traditionally Turkish title for Chieftain ruler of a Beylik, for the leaders or rulers of various sized areas in the Ottoman Empire. The equivalent title for women was Begum.

In modern times, the word is still used formally as a social title for men. It is cited after the name and is used generally with first names and not with last names.

The word entered English from Turkish bey, itself derived from Old Turkic beg, which - in the form bäg - has been mentioned as early as in the Orkhon inscriptions (8th century AD) and is usually translated as "tribal leader". The actual origin of the word is still disputed, though it is mostly agreed that it was a loan-word, in Old Turkic. This Turkic word is usually considered a borrowing from an Iranian language. However, German Turkologist Gerhard Doerfer assessed the derivation from Iranian as superficially attractive but quite uncertain, and pointed out the possibility that the word may be genuinely Turkic.

Related pages

 Beylik
 Turkey
 Indonesia
 Azerbaijan
 Istanbul

References

Sociology
Heads of state
Military ranks

Bey


In broadcast law (particularly within U.S. law), the pervasiveness doctrine is the doctrine stating that media content of broadcasts is subject to regulation because broadcast radio waves are available to anyone and therefore "uniquely pervasive". In general, profanity and sex, or other adult material deemed "indecent" by a broadcasting authority, may not be broadcast outside of overnight "watershed" or "safe harbor" hours when children are unlikely to be awake. Material deemed "obscene" may still be prohibited at all times.

This doctrine has generally been held to apply only to the AM broadcast band (medium wave), FM broadcast band (VHF band II), and TV broadcast bands (VHF band I and band III, and UHF). It does not apply to cable TV, cable radio, satellite TV, satellite radio, or other forms of electronic media, because although they also use publicly owned airwaves, these are subscription services which the listener or viewer must explicitly request, and are subject to conditional access, analog scrambling, or digital encryption.

The origin of the name comes from the Federal Communications Commission's 1978 legal case against Pacifica Radio, when the U.S. Supreme Court used the term to justify the verdict against the broadcaster. The Federal Communications Commission v. Pacifica Foundation case is considered a landmark for American broadcasters.

References

1978 in American law
Broadcast law

Pervasiveness doctrine


The Lulonga Company was a concession company of the Congo Free State.  It was, with the Société Anversoise and the Abir Congo Company, one of the main producers of rubber in the Free State.  The company's rubber production declined in the early 20th century as a result of over harvesting of the natural rubber vine (Landolphia owariensis gentili) and the entire concession produced just seven tons of rubber in 1905.  Like Abir and the Société Anversoise, the Lulonga Company handed back control of the concession to the Congo Free State in 1906.

References

Bibliography

Congo Free State

Lulonga Company


Buffalo Bayou is a slow-moving body of water which flows through Houston in Harris County, Texas. Formed 18,000 years ago, it has its source in the prairie surrounding Katy, Fort Bend County, and flows approximately  east through the Houston Ship Channel into Galveston Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. In addition to drainage water impounded and released by the Addicks and Barker reservoirs, the bayou is fed by natural springs, surface runoff, and several significant tributary bayous, including White Oak Bayou, Greens Bayou, and Brays Bayou. Additionally, Buffalo Bayou is considered a tidal river downstream of a point  west of the Shepherd Drive bridge in west-central Houston.

As the principal river of Greater Houston, the Buffalo Bayou watershed is heavily urbanized. Its  direct drainage area contains a population of over 440,000. Including tributaries, the bayou has a watershed area of approximately .

Route

The upper watershed of Buffalo Bayou is impounded by the Addicks and Barker reservoirs, which comprise a major flood control system for the region. The reservoir system plays a crucial role in delaying and attenuating the peak outflow of the river during large rainfall events. Moving eastward, the Buffalo flows under State Highway 6 and into Terry Hershey Park, a linear park which follows the bayou for approximately , culminating at Beltway 8.

The bayou meanders around the Memorial Villages between Beltway 8 and Loop 610. The banks along this reach are mostly private property, however there is a public access point and official Texas Parks and Wildlife paddling trail canoe launch at Briarbend Park, which is located in a quiet neighborhood south of San Felipe and west of Voss Road. There is another official canoe launch and access point just outside of 610 on Woodway. Additionally, it is legal to access the bayou at all public roadway bridges, but legal parking spots may not exist near these bridges.

On the east side of Loop 610, Buffalo Bayou passes along the south side of Memorial Park and the north side of River Oaks Country Club, and is accessible to the public along the entire Memorial Park frontage. Bayou Bend Collection and Gardens, the former estate of Houston philanthropist Ima Hogg, is located on the north bank of the bayou just east of Memorial Park. After passing under Shepherd Drive, the waterway enters Buffalo Bayou Park, which is bordered on the north by Memorial Drive and the south by Allen Parkway. The park continues for  to Interstate 45, where it enters Downtown Houston. The bayou flows past Allen's Landing and joins White Oak Bayou before exiting the central business district at Interstate 69. The bayou widens considerably as it travels through the East End, culminating at the Houston Ship Channel.

History

Early settlement
Along with Galveston Island and Galveston Bay itself, Buffalo Bayou was one of the focal points for early Anglo-American settlement in early Texas, first part of the Spanish Empire and then part of Mexico. Early communities began to appear at the beginning of the 19th century, including Lynchburg, Harrisburg, and Rightor's Point (modern Morgan's Point) in the 1820s. The bayou became important in Texas history when the final battle of the Texas Revolution was fought along its banks where it merges with the San Jacinto River.

In the 1830s, new communities such as Houston were established along the shoreline. A local entrepreneur named Samuel Allen (unrelated to the founders of Houston) established a large ranch, later known as the Allen Ranch, between Harrisburg and Galveston Bay. Docks at Harrisburg, Houston, and the Allen Ranch gradually became the foundations of what would become the modern Port of Houston. Harrisburg served as the region's major trade center until the 1870s, when a large fire destroyed its railroad facilities, which were subsequently rebuilt in Houston.

Houston's original docks, today known as Allen's Landing, were established at the foot of Main Street at the confluence of Buffalo Bayou and White Oak Bayou. The first wharves were opened in 1840, and the Port of Houston was established in 1841. This was the most westerly location a small trading schooner could turn around; without extensive dredging, only small vessels could access the city. This site is now a public park adjacent to the University of Houston–Downtown.

After the Civil War, which bolstered the local economy, dredging became a more viable option. The Bayou Ship Channel Company began major dredging operations in 1870, and the city began receiving federal aid to complete the project. This first dredging of the Buffalo Bayou was completed in 1876.

By the mid-20th century, the Port of Houston had established itself as the leading port in Texas, eclipsing the natural harbors at Galveston and Texas City. The Turning Basin terminal in Harrisburg (now part of Houston) became the port's largest shipping point. The Texas oil boom of the early 20th century spurred further industrial development.

Extreme floods in the first half of the 20th century, especially in 1929 and 1935, devastated Downtown Houston and resulted in a number of federally-funded flood control projects in the upper reaches of the watershed. The Texas Legislature created the Harris County Flood Control District (HCFCD) in 1937, and by the end of the 1930s, over $35 million ($ million in 2016 dollars) of federal, state, and county funds had been earmarked for an extensive drainage program. In then-rural western Harris County, the United States Army Corps of Engineers constructed Barker Reservoir, completed in 1945, and Addicks Reservoir, completed in 1948. Combined, these reservoirs provide  of runoff storage, which has largely prevented downstream flood events. Six miles of Buffalo Bayou between present-day Highway 6 and Beltway 8 was channelized during the construction of the reservoirs. Later, between 1953 and 1958, the stretch between Shepherd Drive and Sabine Street west of Downtown was also straightened. The length of bayou between these two channelized sections, which largely runs through the Memorial Villages, has remained in its natural, meandering state.

Modern history and revitalization
In the 1960s, local resident and conservationist Terry Hershey, working with local congressman (and eventual President) George H.W. Bush, prevented the federal government from lining the straightened sections of the bayou with concrete. In 1966, Hershey and a number of other homeowners in the Memorial area formed the Buffalo Bayou Preservation Association, which later expanded its mission and became the Bayou Preservation Association. In 1989, Terry Hershey Park, which runs parallel to the bayou between Beltway 8 and Highway 6, was dedicated to her efforts. The bayou is one of the only bayous in Houston to retain its natural riparian ecosystem.

Following the passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972, Houston sought to address the untreated sewage that was being discharged into the bayous. The city has invested over $3 billion into new sewers, pumping stations, and sewage treatment plants across the metropolitan area, which has significantly improved water quality in the region.

In 1977, Barbours Cut Terminal was opened at Morgan's Point, shifting shipping traffic away from the Turning Basin.

In 1986, the Buffalo Bayou Partnership, a nonprofit organization, was founded to leverage public and private financing towards renovating and expanding park space along the river. The Partnership's 2002 Buffalo Bayou Master Plan established a 20-year, $5.6 billion vision for the bayou centered on a series of linear parks through central Houston. The project goals include the rehabilitation of formerly industrial land, habitat restoration, canoeing and kayaking facilities, hike-and-bike trails, cultural programming, flood control management, and mixed-use urban development.

The Partnership has leveraged over $150 million to implement these projects. The Buffalo Bayou Promenade, opened in 2006, is a  recreation area with  of hiking and biking trails extending from Sabine Street west of Downtown to Bagby Street in the Theater District. In 2015, the Partnership completed Buffalo Bayou Park immediately to the west of the Promenade, adding another  of renovated parkland along a  stretch. Buffalo Bayou Park, labeled a "signature, verdant downtown gateway" by the Houston Chronicle, includes a dog park, broad lawns, gardens, restaurants, and an art space inside a historic disused cistern. In 2006 the Houston Cistern, managed by the Buffalo Bayou Partnership, started offering historical tours and immersive art exhibits.

In August 2017, extensive rainfall from Hurricane Harvey brought the bayou to record high levels, shattering previous flood crests by several feet. Addicks and Barker reservoirs were filled to capacity, forcing the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to initiate controlled releases of  to prevent catastrophic uncontrolled releases and protect the structural integrity of the dams. Despite these efforts, uncontrolled releases did occur around the spillway at the northern end of Addicks Reservoir for the first time in the structure's history.

The reservoir releases caused extensive flooding of neighborhoods and roadways along the western stretch of Buffalo Bayou between Barker Reservoir and Downtown; the Memorial area was heavily damaged. The bayou was projected to remain at a major flood stage for up to two weeks after the storm in order to drain the reservoirs as much as possible.

Role of the watershed

Flood control
The Buffalo Bayou watershed is central to the drainage of Houston and Harris County. Lying over relatively impervious soils and very flat topography, the bayou has extensive natural floodplains, as do most Gulf coastal rivers and streams. Urbanization of the watershed has placed thousands of people in vulnerable areas and has affected the frequency and intensity of flood events.

In response to the disastrous flood of 1935, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, in association with the Harris County Flood Control District, began an extensive program of reservoir construction, removal of stream-bank vegetation, and channelization to reduce Houston's flooding risk. The two most prominent flood control features in the Buffalo Bayou watershed are the Addicks and Barker reservoirs in western Harris County, which provide a combined  of open land for runoff storage. In recent years, extensive suburban development upstream of the reservoirs has stressed this flood control infrastructure.

Since 2015, Buffalo Bayou has experienced three major flooding events, including Hurricane Harvey in 2017, the Tax Day floods of 2016, and a flood on May 26, 2015.

Recreation and wildlife
Buffalo Bayou is home to numerous urban parks, including George Bush Park (located entirely within Barker Reservoir), Terry Hershey Park, Memorial Park, Buffalo Bayou Park, and Tony Marron Park in the East End. San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site, the site of the Battle of San Jacinto which ended the Texas Revolution, includes the USS Texas, a museum ship permanently moored near the mouth of the bayou.

The bayou supports a significant population of catfish, sunfish, gars, and bass for recreational fishing. It includes a population of birds and hosts the popular Waugh Bat Bridge. Snakes and alligators have also been spotted along the bayou.

Navigation

Buffalo Bayou is legally navigable by paddle craft from its source in Katy to the western end of the Ship Channel upstream of Wayside Drive. A majority of paddle trips generally take place between Highway 6 and Shepherd Drive section, with main focus on the section from Briarbend Park to Woodway and to Downtown Houston, generally because of ease of access and length of the trail.

The section from Highway 6 to Beltway 8 is known for downed trees, which require frequent portages. The section from Beltway 8 to Briarbend Park is generally kept clear of blockages by the Harris County Flood Control District; however, there are several gravel bar hazards to negotiate during normal water flows. The section from Briarbend Park to Woodway is similarly kept clear, although there may be trees across the waterway immediately after storms.

Water quality
As an urban waterway, Buffalo Bayou is especially vulnerable to low water quality. The condition of the bayou's waters has long been a topic of concern in Houston. During the 19th century, the river essentially functioned as both an open sanitary sewer and a source of drinking water. Industrial and agricultural discharge into the water was a common practice, and the bayou took on a reputation as a "cesspool" with an "unbearable stench." It was not until the early 20th century that the city had the resources to construct sewerage and sewage treatment plants. However, environmental progress was slow, and Buffalo Bayou was still heavily polluted through the late 1940s.

Today, the bayou still faces significant environmental challenges, including elevated levels of indicator bacteria, low oxygen saturation, and heavy nutrient pollution.

In February 2019, it was reported that 64,000 gallons of jet fuel leaked into the bayou via the nearby Hobby Airport.

Image gallery

See also

 Houston Ship Channel
 Port of Houston
 San Jacinto River
 List of rivers of Texas

References

External links

 Buffalo Bayou Watershed (Harris County Flood Control)
 US Army Corps of Engineers Public Notice on the Memorial Park Demonstration Project
 The University of Houston Digital Library has a collection of historical photographs about Houston, nearby communities, and more. View these collections at

Preservation websites
 Bayou Preservation Association - Buffalo Bayou page
 Preserving Buffalo Bayou
 Briar Forest Super Neighborhood (On the Bayou)
 Buffalo Bayou Partnership

Rivers of Houston
History of Houston
Rivers of Texas
University of Houston–Downtown

Buffalo Bayou


Asyndeton (, ; from the , "unconnected", sometimes called asyndetism) is a literary scheme in which one or several conjunctions are deliberately omitted from a series of related clauses. Examples include veni, vidi, vici and its English translation "I came, I saw, I conquered". Its use can have the effect of speeding up the rhythm of a passage and making a single idea more memorable. Asyndeton may be contrasted with syndeton (syndetic coordination) and polysyndeton, which describe the use of one or multiple coordinating conjunctions, respectively.

More generally, in grammar, an asyndetic coordination is a type of coordination in which no coordinating conjunction is present between the conjuncts.

Quickly, resolutely, he strode into the bank.

No coordinator is present here, but the conjoins are still coordinated.
Asyndetic coordination is the omission of conjunctions between words or phrases that would typically be connected by conjunctions such as "and" or "or." In this sentence, there are no coordinating conjunctions that are omitted. "Quickly" and "resolutely" are simply two adverbs modifying the verb "strode," but they are not being coordinated with each other. Therefore, there is no asyndetic coordination in this sentence.

Examples

Omission of conjunction "and"

Aristotle wrote in his Rhetoric that this device was more effective in spoken oratory than in written prose:

"Thus strings of unconnected words, and constant repetitions of words and phrases, are very properly condemned in written speeches: but not in spoken speeches — speakers use them freely, for they have a dramatic effect. In this repetition there must be variety of tone, paving the way, as it were, to dramatic effect; e.g., 'This is the villain among you who deceived you, who cheated you, who meant to betray you completely'". Aristotle, Rhetoric, Book III, Chapter 12 (trans. W. Rhys Roberts).

Aristotle also believed that asyndeton can be used effectively in endings of works, and he himself employs the device in the final passage of the Rhetoric:
"For the conclusion, the disconnected style of language is appropriate, and will mark the difference between the oration and the peroration. 'I have done. You have heard me. The facts are before you. I ask for your judgement'". Aristotle, Rhetoric, Book III, Chapter 19 (trans. W. Rhys Roberts).

Several notable examples can be found in American political speeches:
"...and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth". Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address
"...that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty." John F. Kennedy Inaugural Address, 20 January 1961.

Another frequently used example is Winston Churchill's address, "We shall fight on the beaches":

"We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender. . ."

Omission of conjunction "or"
An asyndeton of "or" before a polysyndeton of "and":

 "A parson or what looked like one was laboring over the crest of the hill and coming toward them with one hand raised in blessing, greeting, fending flies. He was dressed in a dusty frockcoat and carried a walking stick and he wore a pair of octagonal glasses on the one pane of which the late sun shone while a watery eye peered from the naked wire aperture of the other." (Cormac McCarthy, Outer Dark, 1968)

See also
Apo koinou construction
Parataxis (grammar)
Reduced relative clause, relative clause not marked by an overt complementizer
Zeugma

Footnotes

Sources
 Baldrick, Chris. 2008. Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford University Press. New York.
 Corbett, Edward P. J. and Connors, Robert J. 1999. Style and Statement. Oxford University Press. New York, Oxford.
 Forsyth, Mark. 2014. The Elements of Eloquence. Berkley Publishing Group/Penguin Publishing. New York.

External links
Asyndetic Coordination @ The Internet Grammar of English
Audio illustrations of asyndeton

Figures of speech
Grammar

Asyndeton