Territorial disputes in the South China Sea involve conflicting island and maritime claims in the region by several sovereign states, namely the People's Republic of China (PRC), Taiwan (Republic of China/ROC), Brunei, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam. The disputes involve the islands, reefs, banks, and other features of the South China Sea, including the Spratly Islands, Paracel Islands, Scarborough Shoal, and various boundaries in the Gulf of Tonkin. The waters near the Indonesian Natuna Islands, which some regard as geographically part of the South China Sea, are disputed as well. Maritime disputes also extend beyond the South China Sea, as in the case of the Senkaku Islands and the Socotra Rock, which lie in the East China Sea.

An estimated US$3.37 trillion worth of global trade passes through the South China Sea annually, which accounts for a third of the global maritime trade. 80 percent of China's energy imports and 39.5 percent of China's total trade passes through the South China Sea. Claimant states are interested in retaining or acquiring the rights to fishing stocks, the exploration and potential exploitation of crude oil and natural gas in the seabed of various parts of the South China Sea, and the strategic control of important shipping lanes. Maritime security is also an issue, as the ongoing disputes present challenges for shipping.

In 1932, France formally claimed both the Paracel and Spratly Islands. China and Japan both protested. On 6 April 1933, France occupied the Spratlys, announced their annexation, and formally included them in French Indochina.

In 1947, the Republic of China, the government of then China, announced the majority of the South China Sea was its territory. In 1949, the incoming government of China, which overthrew the Republic of China in the Chinese Civil War, announced that it had inherited this claim.

In 2013, the PRC began island building in the Spratly Islands and the Paracel Islands region. According to Reuters, island building in the South China Sea primarily by Vietnam and the Philippines has been going on for decades on a small scale; while China has come late to the island building game, its efforts have been on an unprecedented scale as it had from 2014 to 2016 constructed more new island surface than all other nations have constructed throughout history and as of 2016 placed military equipment on one of its artificial islands unlike the other claimants. A 2019 article in Voice of America which compared China and Vietnam's island building campaign in the South China Sea similarly reported the reason why Vietnam in contradistinction to China has been subject to little international criticism and even support was because of the slower speed and widely perceived defensive nature of its island-building project.

China's actions in the South China Sea have been described as part of its "salami slicing"/"cabbage wrapping" strategies, and since 2015 the United States and other states such as France and the United Kingdom have conducted freedom of navigation operations (FONOP) in the region. In July 2016, an arbitration tribunal constituted under Annex VII of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) ruled against the PRC's maritime claims in Philippines v. China. The tribunal did not rule on the ownership of the islands or delimit maritime boundaries. Both the People's Republic of China and Taiwan stated that they did not recognize the tribunal and insisted that the matter should be resolved through bilateral negotiations with other claimants. In January 2022, the United States Department of State called China's claims in the South China Sea "unlawful."

Disputes in the South China Sea region

The disputes involve both maritime boundaries and islands. There are several disputes, each of which involves a different collection of countries:
 The nine-dash line area claimed by the Republic of China (1912–1949), later the People's Republic of China (PRC), which covers most of the South China Sea and overlaps with the exclusive economic zone claims of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam.
 Maritime boundary along the Vietnamese coast between the PRC, Taiwan, and Vietnam.
 Maritime boundary north of Borneo between the PRC, Malaysia, Brunei, Philippines, and Taiwan.
 Islands, reefs, banks and shoals in the South China Sea, including the Paracel Islands, Pratas Island and the Vereker Banks, Macclesfield Bank, Scarborough Shoal and the Spratly Islands between the PRC, Taiwan, and Vietnam, and parts of the area also contested by Malaysia and the Philippines.
 Maritime boundary in the waters north of the Natuna Islands between the PRC, Indonesia, Taiwan and Vietnam.
 Maritime boundary off the coast of Palawan and Luzon between the PRC, the Philippines, and Taiwan.
 Maritime boundary, land territory, and the islands of Sabah, including Ambalat, between Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines.
 Maritime boundary and islands in the Luzon Strait between the PRC, the Philippines, and Taiwan.

History

A document kept in the French archive dated April 10, 1768 titled "Note sur l'Asedemandés pas M. de la bonde à M. d'Etaing" said that at that time the Vietnamese navy was patrolling.  regular patrol between the coast of Vietnam and the Hoang Sa archipelago. Admiral d'Estaing described the Vietnamese defenses as having many cannons, most of them bearing the Portuguese insignia, dated 1661, and smaller guns bearing the insignia of Cambodia and the inscription "British" India company" Authors Le Poivre (1740), J Chaigneau (1816-1819), Taberd (1833), and Gutzlagip (1840) also asserted that Hoang Sa belonged to Vietnam. Even Chinese authors have written books before saying that the Paracels and Spratlys belong to Vietnam. Monk Thich Dai San, in his 1696 book, Overseas, confirmed that the Nguyen lords annually let boats exploit products from shipwrecks in the Van Ly Truong Sa area (i.e. Hoang Sa of Vietnam). The Chinese document "The Fall of the South Sea and the islands of historical records" edited by Han Chan Hoa, page 115 of the first chapter, also records traces on Vinh Hung Island (Phu Lam) in the Paracels where there is a temple called the temple.

In 1932, France formally claimed both the Paracel and Spratly Islands. China and Japan both protested. On 6 April 1933, France occupied the Spratlys, announced their annexation, formally included them in French Indochina, and built a couple of weather stations on them.

By May 1939, the Japanese had laid claim and occupied the Paracel and Spratly Islands. During World War II, the Empire of Japan used the islands in the South China Sea for various military purposes and asserted that the islands were not claimed by anyone when the Imperial Japanese Navy took control of them. Historical accounts note that at least France had controlled some of the features in the region during the 1930s. In August 1951, Zhou Enlai, then the PRC's Foreign Minister, responding to the draft of the Treaty of San Francisco, outlined Beijing's position on the South China Sea as follows:

In fact, the Paracel Archipelago and Spratly Island, as well as the whole Spratly Archipelago ... have always been Chinese territory. Though occupied for some time during the war of aggression unleashed by Japanese imperialism, they were taken over by the then Chinese government following Japan's surrender. The Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China declares herewith: This inviolable sovereignty of the People's Republic of China over Spratly Island and the Paracel Archipelago will by no means be impaired, irrespective of whether the American-British draft for a peace treaty with Japan should make any stipulations and of the nature of any such stipulations.

Imperial Japan relinquished control of the islands in the South China Sea with the signing of the Treaty of San Francisco on 9 September, 1951. The treaty, however, did not specify the new status of the islands. The People's Republic of China made various claims to the islands during the 1951 treaty negotiations and the 1958 First Taiwan Strait Crisis.

Chinese claims in the South China sea are delineated in part by the nine-dash line. This was originally an "eleven-dashed-line," first indicated by the Kuomintang government of the Republic of China in 1947, for its claims to the South China Sea. When the Chinese Communist Party took over mainland China and formed the People's Republic of China in 1949, the line was adopted and revised to nine dashes/dots, as endorsed by Zhou Enlai. China's 1958 declaration described China's claims in the South China Sea islands based on the nine-dotted line map. The legacy of the nine-dash line is viewed by some PRC government officials, and by the PRC military.

The Geneva Accords of 1954, which ended the First Indochina War, gave South Vietnam control of the Vietnamese territories south of the 17th Parallel, which included the islands in the Paracels and Spratlys.

In 1974, when a North Vietnamese victory in the Vietnam War began to seem probable, the PRC used military force in the Paracel Islands and took Yagong Island and the Crescent group of reefs from South Vietnam. The government of the PRC wanted to prevent the Paracel islands from falling under the control of North Vietnam, which at the time was an ally of the Soviet Union. After not resisting during the initial Vietnamese attack, the PRC launched what they regarded as a "counterattack in self-defense". The United States, in the middle of détente with the PRC, gave a non-involvement promise to the PRC, which enabled the People's Liberation Army Navy to take control of the South Vietnamese islands.

In the later half of 1970s, the Philippines and Malaysia began referring to the Spratly Islands as included in their own territory. On 11 June 1978, President Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines issued Presidential Decree No. 1596, declaring the north-western part of the Spratly Islands (referred to therein as the Kalayaan Island Group) as Philippine territory.

In 1988, the PRC and Vietnam fought each other near the Johnson Reef. The PRC had obtained a permit from the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission to build five observation posts for the conduction of ocean surveys, and one of the permitted observation posts was allowed to be located in the Spratly islands region. The PRC chose to build its observation post on the Fiery Cross Reef, which was isolated from the other islands in the region and was not occupied by any state at the time. When it started to build the observation post in the terra nullius Fiery Cross Reef, Vietnam sent its navy to the area to monitor the situation. The two states clashed near the Johnson Reef, and after the clash, China occupied the Johnson Reef.

In 1994, the PRC occupied Mischief Reef, located some 250 miles from the Philippine coast. Occupation was made in the middle of an energy resources race in the Spratlys, where China lacked a presence while the other countries were starting their oil exploration businesses. Mischief Reef marked the first time when the PRC had a military confrontation with the Philippines, an ally of the United States.

The occupation and/or control of most parts of the Spratly and Paracel islands has not changed significantly from the 90s through to the 2000s. The PRC controls all of the features in the Paracels. In the Spratlys, Vietnam controls most features with 29 in total, while the Philippines has control of eight features, Malaysia with 5, the PRC with 5, and the ROC with 1.

Since 2011 however, tensions started to increase again in the territory. In February, Chinese frigate Donguan fired three shots at Philippine fishing boats near Jackson atoll. In May, the Vietnamese Binh Minh 02 oil and gas survey ship clashed with three Chinese maritime patrol vessels some 600 km south of China's Hainan island.

2012 marked the increased militarization of the islands. The ROC started the construction of an antenna tower and runway on the Taiping island in February, allowing the island to accommodate various military aircraft. On the Vietnam occupied Sand Cay and West Reef islands, upgrades and land reclamation projects were also started at this time. In April, the PRC took the Scarborough Shoal as a response to the Philippine navy's actions of stopping Chinese fishing boats in the area.

In September 2018, a South Korean navy destroyer traveled into what China saw as its territorial waters. A South Korean government official said the navy destroyer was taking refuge from a typhoon and not challenging maritime claims, but he declined to comment on whether Seoul believed the disputed waters belonged to China. A Chinese Defense Ministry spokesman said the ship broke Chinese law by entering its 12-nautical-mile-wide territorial sea around the Paracel Islands without seeking prior permission, but said Beijing accepted South Korea's explanation.

On 22 December 2020, the PRC claimed that the guided missile destroyer John S McCain had been "expelled" after it "trespassed" into Chinese territorial waters close to the Spratly Islands. However this claim has been disputed by the US Navy.

In March 2021, 220 Chinese fishing boats were seen moored around Whitsun Reef in the Spratly Islands, a reef claimed by the Philippines as part of its exclusive economic zone. Philippines Defense Minister Delfin Lorenzana accused China of "provocative action of militarizing the area".

2011 agreement
On 20 July 2011, the PRC, Brunei, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan and Vietnam agreed a set of preliminary guidelines on the implementation of the DOC (Declaration of Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea) which would help resolve disputes. This set of guidelines is based on an earlier agreement, also called DOC, from 2002, between China and the ASEAN Member States.

The agreement was described by the PRC's assistant foreign minister, Liu Zhenmin, as "an important milestone document for cooperation among China and ASEAN countries". Some of the early drafts acknowledged aspects such as "marine environmental protection, scientific research, safety of navigation and communication, search and rescue and combating transnational crime", although the issue of oil and natural gas drilling remains unresolved. "Following the spirit of the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (DOC), China and ASEAN countries actively advanced the consultations on the Code of Conduct (COC) in the South China Sea," with the forecast that the COC will be completed by 2021.

Chinese objection to Indian military presence and oil exploration

On 22 July 2011, the INS Airavat, an Indian amphibious assault vessel on a friendly visit to Vietnam, was reportedly contacted 45 nautical miles from the Vietnamese coast in the disputed South China Sea by a party identifying itself as the PLA Navy and stating that the ship was entering PRC waters. A spokesperson for the Indian Navy explained that as no ship or aircraft was visible, the INS Airavat proceeded on her onward journey as scheduled. The Indian Navy further clarified that "[t]here was no confrontation involving the INS Airavat. India supports freedom of navigation in international waters, including in the South China Sea, and the right of passage in accordance with accepted principles of international law. These principles should be respected by all."

In September 2011, shortly after the PRC and Vietnam signed an agreement seeking to contain a dispute over the South China Sea, India's state-run explorer, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) said that its overseas investment arm, ONGC Videsh Limited, had signed a three-year agreement with PetroVietnam for developing long-term co-operation in the oil sector, and that it had accepted Vietnam's offer of exploration in certain specified blocks in the South China Sea. However, this agreement between India and Vietnam has provoked attacks from the PRC In response, PRC Foreign Ministry spokesperson Jiang Yu, without referring to India by name, stated:"As for oil and gas exploration activities, our consistent position is that we are opposed to any country engaging in oil and gas exploration and development activities in waters under China's jurisdiction. We hope the foreign countries do not get involved in South China Sea dispute.""China warns India on South China Sea exploration projects" , The Hindu, 15 September 2011. An Indian foreign ministry spokesman responded, "The Chinese had concerns, but we are going by what the Vietnamese authorities have told us and we have conveyed this to the Chinese." The Indo-Vietnamese deal was also denounced by the Chinese state-run newspaper Global Times.

Chinese policy on the South China Sea
In Spring 2010, PRC officials reportedly communicated to US officials that the South China Sea was "an area of 'core interest' that is as non-negotiable" and on par with Taiwan and Tibet on the national agenda. However, Beijing appeared to have backed away from that assertion in 2011.

In October 2011, the PRC's Global Times tabloid editorialised on the South China Sea territorial disputes under the banner "Don't take peaceful approach for granted". The article referenced incidents earlier that year involving the Philippines and South Korea detaining PRC fishing boats in the region. "If these countries don't want to change their ways with China, they will need to prepare for the sounds of cannons. We need to be ready for that, as it may be the only way for the disputes in the sea to be resolved." Responding to questions about whether this reflected official policy, a Chinese Foreign Ministry spokeswoman stated the country's commitment "to resolving the maritime dispute through peaceful means."

In July 2014, Professor Alan Dupont of the University of New South Wales was reported as saying that the Chinese government appeared to be directing its fishing fleet into disputed waters as a matter of policy.

From 2013 to the beginning of 2018, China carried out land reclamation in the South China Sea. The construction of the islands has been completed. The three island airports of Meiji Reef, Zhubi Reef, and Yongshu Reef have been completed.

In August 2019, China's paramount leader Xi Jinping told Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte that China would not recognise or abide by the Arbitration decision. China rejects the arbitration proceedings as illegitimate because China excluded itself from compulsory arbitration in its ratification of the 2006 United Nations Convention on the Laws of the Seas (UNCLOS). Xi made his comments during a visit by Duterte to Beijing, with discussions between the two leaders. This stance by Beijing is in line with the July 2019 publishing of a Chinese White Paper, "China's National Defense in the New Era," which details China's armed strength and repeatedly mentions deployment in the South China Sea. On 22 September 2020, in a recorded speech at the opening of the 75th session of the UN General Assembly, the Philippine President, Rodrigo Duterte reaffirmed the Hague ruling rejecting most of China's claims to disputed waters, and said "The award is now part of international law, beyond compromise and beyond the reach of passing governments to dilute, diminish, or abandon."

Oil and gas development
The area is said to be rich in oil and natural gas deposits; however, the estimates are highly varied. The Chinese Ministry of Geological Resources and Mining estimated that the South China Sea may contain 17.7 billion barrels of crude oil, compared to the oil rich country of Kuwait which has 13 billion barrels. In the years following the announcement by the PRC ministry, the claims regarding the South China Sea islands intensified. However, other sources claim that the proven reserves of oil in the South China Sea may only be 7.5 billion barrels, or about 1.1 billion barrels. According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA)'s profile of the South China Sea region, a US Geological Survey estimate puts the region's discovered and undiscovered oil reserves at 11 billion barrels, as opposed to a PRC figure of 125 billion barrels. The same EIA report also points to the wide variety of natural gas resource estimations, ranging from 190 trillion cubic feet to 500 trillion cubic feet, likely located in the contested Reed Bank".

The state-owned China Offshore Exploration Corp. planned to spend 200 billion RMB (US$30 billion) in the next 20 years to exploit oil in the region, with the estimated production of 25 million metric tons of crude oil and natural gas per annum, at a depth of 2000 meters within the next five years.

Competing claims in the oil and gas-rich South China Sea have stifled the development and exploitation of these resources. To break from this, the Philippines and China agreed to a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on Cooperation on Oil and Gas Development in November 2018, where joint-use of, and not ownership over assets underlies the agreement. In the past, aggressive Chinese naval patrols deterred Manila from exploring gas deposits in disputed waters, like the Reed Bank, such that this type of agreement may allow for the claimant states to jointly develop the natural gas in the offshore area. The mechanism of joint agreements is not new, with Malaysia and Vietnam having forged a similar mechanism in 1992, while Malaysia and Thailand reached understandings in 1979 and 1990 over the development of gas-rich disputed waters.

Philippines
The Philippines began exploring the areas west of Palawan for oil in 1970. Exploration in the area began in Reed Bank/Tablemount. In 1976, gas was discovered following the drilling of a well. However, the PRC's complaints halted the exploration. On 27 March 1984, the first Philippine oil company discovered an oil field off Palawan, which is an island province bordering the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea. These oil fields supply 15% of annual oil consumption in the Philippines.

Vietnam
Vietnam and Japan reached an agreement early in 1978 on the development of oil in the South China Sea. By 2012 Vietnam had concluded some 60 oil and gas exploration and production contracts with various foreign companies. In 1986, the "White Tiger" oil field in the South China Sea came into operation, producing over 2,000 tons of crude oil per year, followed by "The Bear" and "Dragon" oil fields. Offshore exploration activities in 2011 increased Vietnam's proven oil reserves to be the third largest in the Asia-Pacific region. However, the country is a net importer of oil products. In 2009 petroleum accounted for 14 percent of Vietnamese government income, down from 24 percent in 2004.

In 2017, after Chinese pressure, the Vietnamese government ordered Spain's Repsol to stop drilling in the disputed area. A joint-venture of Japanese Inpex and Petrovietnam planned to start drilling in the disputed area in 2021.

China
China's first independently designed and constructed oil drilling platform in the South China Sea is the Ocean Oil 981 (). The major shareholders are J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. (19%), Commonwealth Bank of Australia (14%), T. Rowe Price Associates, Inc. and affiliates (6%), and BlackRock, Inc. (5%). It began operation on 9 May 2012 in the South China Sea,  southeast of Hong Kong, at a depth of 1,500 m and employing 160 people. On 2 May 2014 the platform was moved near to the Paracel Islands, a move Vietnam stated violated their territorial claims. Chinese officials said it was legal, stating the area lies in waters surrounding the Paracel Islands which China occupies and militarily controls.

Incidents involving fishermen
Prior to the territorial disputes, fishermen from involved countries tended to enter each other's controlled islands and Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) leading to conflicts with the authorities that controlled the areas as they were unaware of the exact borders. As well, due to depletion of the fishing resources in their maritime areas, they were forced to fish in the neighbouring countries' areas.

In 2006 the captain of a Taiwanese fishing boat was shot dead and a crewman wounded when their boat was reportedly attacked by pirates wearing military uniforms. Philippine authorities assured the Taiwan Ministry of Foreign Affairs that no Filipino naval or coast guard personnel were involved in the incident.

A Taiwanese fisherman was machine gunned to death by the coast guard of the Philippines in May 2013.

In the spring of 2014, China and Vietnam clashed again over China's Haiyang Shiyou oil rig in Vietnam's EEZ. The incident left seventeen Vietnamese injured and damaged ships of both countries.

Although Indonesia is not part of claims in the South China Sea dispute, after Joko Widodo became President of the country in 2014, he instituted a policy in 2015 that, if any foreign fishermen were caught illegally fishing in Indonesian waters, their vessels would be destroyed. The president wanted to make maritime resources, especially fisheries, a key component of his administration's economic policy. Since the policy's initiation, fishing vessels drawing from many neighbouring countries were destroyed by Indonesian authorities. On 21 May 2015, around 41 fishing vessels from China, Vietnam, Thailand and the Philippines were destroyed. On 19 March 2016, the China Coast Guard prevented the detention of Chinese fishermen by Indonesian authorities after Chinese fishermen were caught fishing near the waters around Natuna, leading to a protest by Indonesian authorities; the Chinese ambassador was subsequently summonsed as China had considered the areas to be "Chinese traditional fishing grounds". Further Indonesian campaigns against foreign fishermen resulted in the destruction of 23 fishing boats from Malaysia and Vietnam on 5 April 2016.

Out of the 556 ships Indonesia had destroyed from October 2014 to 2019 for violating rules, 312 of them were from Vietnam, 91 were from the Philippines, 87 were from Malaysia, 26 were local, and 3 were from China. The areas in the South China Sea had also become known for Indonesian pirates, with frequent attacks on Malaysian, Singaporean and Vietnamese vessels as well as leading to hijacking such as the MT Orkim Harmony and MT Zafirah hijacking incidents. The continuing war against foreign fishermen by Indonesia led to protests by Vietnam in late 2016, when a Vietnamese fisherman was killed after being shot by Indonesian authorities. Attacks have also come from Filipino and Moro pirates arriving from the Sulu Sea; a Vietnamese fisherman was killed by Filipino pirates in late 2015.

In 2017, two Vietnamese fishermen died from gunshot wounds from a pursuing Philippine Navy patrol boat about 40 miles off the city of Bolinao, Pangasinan. A police report said that the boats had collided after the navy had fired warning shots; the Philippine government Philippine government said on Monday that it had promised Vietnam a "fair and thorough" investigation.

Teodoro Locsin Jr., the Filipino Secretary of Foreign Affairs, said the Philippines was building a maritime fleet that could swarm areas in the South China Sea. He said the fleet build up was because of China which was also doing the same thing. He also said if one of the vessels got hit, the Filipino defense treaty with the United States would also be activated.

Security summits
The Shangri-La Dialogue serves as the "Track One" exchange forum on security issues surrounding the Asia-Pacific region. The South China Sea territorial disputes has dominated proceedings at the conference in recent years. The Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific is the "Track Two" forum for dialogue on security issues.

In February 2016, U.S. President Barack Obama initiated the US-ASEAN Summit at Sunnylands in Rancho Mirage, California for closer engagement with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Territorial disputes in the South China Sea were a major topic, but its joint statement, the "Sunnylands Declaration", did not name the South China Sea, instead calling for "respect of each nation's sovereignty and for international law". Analysts believe it indicates divisions within the group on how to respond to China's maritime strategy.

Non-claimant views

Third-party analysis
The vast majority of international legal experts have concluded that China's claims based on legal and historical evidence are invalid.

Japanese scholar Taoka Shunji said in a journal article that when it came to China's advance in the South China Sea and the Spratly Islands, the assumption amongst many Japanese people that the territory of the Philippines was being invaded was incorrect. He pointed out that the Spratly islands were not part of the Philippines, when the US acquired the Philippines from Spain in the Treaty of Paris in 1898. It has been argued that the U.S. acquired prior Spanish claim to the islands by the 1900 Treaty of Washington. However, when the Japanese-ruled Taiwan itself had annexed the Spratly islands in 1938, the US -ruled Philippines did not challenge the move and never asserted that it was their territory. He also pointed out that other countries did not need to do full land reclamation since they already control islands, and that the reason China engaged in extensive land reclamation is because they needed it to build airfields since China only has control over reefs.

According to China analyst Isaac B. Kardon in China's Law of the Sea: The New Rules of Maritime Order, the Chinese government sees itself as fundamentally above the law and beyond accountability to others, especially smaller states.

UNCLOS tribunal
In July 2016, the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), an internationally agreed arbitration tribunal sitting in the Hague and constituted under Annex VII of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), ruled comprehensively against the People's Republic of China's South China Sea maritime claims in Philippines v. China. This tribunal did not rule on the ownership of the islands or delimit maritime boundaries.

However, both mainland China and Taiwan stated that they did not recognize the tribunal and insisted that the matter should be resolved through bilateral negotiations with other claimants. On 17 September 2020, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom issued a joint note verbale recognizing the PCA ruling and challenging China's claims.

In response to the ruling, Graham Allison stated, "None of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council have ever accepted any international court's ruling when (in their view) it infringed their sovereignty or national security interests. Thus, when China rejects the Court's decision in this case, it will be doing just what the other great powers have repeatedly done for decades."

Australia

On 25 July 2020 Australia rejected China's claims to the South China Sea and filed a statement with the United Nations that said: "Australia rejects any claims to internal waters, territorial sea, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf based on such baselines," and there is "no legal basis" to draw the nine-dash line around the Four Sha archipelagos, Paracel and Spratly Islands or low-tide maritime zones. They encourage the claimants to resolve their disputes peacefully.

Cambodia
Cambodia has backed China over the dispute in ASEAN meetings, preventing consensus over unified ASEAN action. Anti-Vietnamese sentiment due to Vietnam's conquest of previously Cambodian lands, giving the Vietnamese a privileged status and encouragement of Vietnamese settlers in Cambodia during French colonial rule, and the occupation of Cambodia after the ousting of the Khmer Rouge has led to anti-Vietnamese feelings against ethnic Vietnamese in Cambodia and against Vietnam, and in turn has led to pro-China sentiment among the Cambodian government and the Cambodian opposition, including in the South China Sea.

India

India says that the South China Sea was "part of global commons and India has an abiding interest in peace and stability in the region... We firmly stand for the freedom of navigation and overflight and unimpeded lawful commerce in these international waterways, in accordance with international law, notably UNCLOS." This was seen as largely backing the US position.

Indonesia

Since early in the South China Sea dispute, Indonesia has repeatedly asserted its position as a non-claimant state in the South China Sea dispute, and often positioned itself as an "honest broker". However, parts of China's unilaterally claimed nine-dash line overlap Indonesia's exclusive economic zone near the Natuna islands. Although China has acknowledged Indonesia's sovereignty over the Natuna islands, the PRC has argued that the waters around the Natuna islands are Chinese "traditional fishing grounds". Indonesia quickly dismissed China's claim, asserting that China's nine-dash line claim over parts of the Natuna islands has no legal basis. In November 2015, Indonesia's security chief Luhut Pandjaitan said Indonesia could take China before an international court. Indonesia filed a comment with the Permanent Court of Arbitration regarding China's claim in the case of Philippines v. China.

Chinese fishing vessels – often escorted by Chinese coastguard ships – have repeatedly been reported to have breached Indonesian waters near the Natuna islands. On 19 March 2016, for example, Indonesian authorities tried to capture a Chinese trawler accused of illegal fishing in Indonesian waters, and arrested the Chinese crew. They were prevented from towing the boat to harbour by a Chinese coast guard vessel which reportedly "rammed" the trawler in Indonesian waters. "To prevent anything else occurring, the Indonesian authorities let go of the Chinese boat and then left toward Natuna, still with eight fishermen and the captain on board," said Arrmanatha Nasir, a spokesman for Indonesia's Foreign Ministry. Indonesia still has the Chinese crew in custody. On 21 March 2016, minister for fisheries and maritime affairs Susi Pudjiastuti summoned the Chinese ambassador, Xie Feng, and discussed this matter. Indonesia insists that they have the right to prosecute the Chinese trawler crew, despite Beijing's demand to release their eight fishermen. Arif Havas Oegroseno, the government official of maritime security, said that the Chinese claim of "traditional fishing grounds" was not recognised under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. This incident prompted security minister Luhut Pandjaitan to deploy more troops and patrol boats, and to strengthen the Ranai naval base in the area.

Following the clashes, on 23 June 2016, Indonesian President Joko Widodo visited the Natuna islands on a warship to demonstrate Indonesia's authority. He led a high-level delegation, which included the Commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) and state ministers. Security Minister Luhut Pandjaitan said it was meant to send a "clear message" that Indonesia was "very serious in its effort to protect its sovereignty".

Following the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruling on 12 July 2016, Indonesia called on all parties involved in the territorial dispute to exercise self-restraint and to respect applicable international laws.

Indonesia challenged the Chinese nine-dash historical claim by arguing that if the historical claims can be used on presenting the territorial naval claims, Indonesia might also use its historical claims on the South China Sea by referring to the ancient influence of the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires.

Indonesia's EEZ extends 200 nautical miles (370 km) from its shores, which around Natuna means it is slightly intersected by China's nine-dash line, defining its widely disputed claim to most of the South China Sea. In 2014–2015, the presence of the TNI on the islands was reinforced, which the Indonesian government hoped would reduce the chance of any conflict. Then in early 2020, a further 600 troops were deployed and eight navy warships from the Indonesian Navy including Ahmad Yani-class frigates, Bung Tomo-class corvettes, and Kapitan Pattimura-class ASW corvettes were sent to the area with support from the Indonesian Navy Naval Aviation CN-235 MPA, the Indonesian Air Force also sent 4 F-16 and a Boeing 737-2x9 Surveillance, and put BAE Hawk aircraft nearby on alert after Chinese fishing vessels increased illegal activity within the EEZ, escorted by a Chinese Coast Guard vessel. A recent visit to the area by President Joko Widodo displayed Indonesia's resolve to not overlook such incursions.

Japan
Japan has used "normative power" via strategic foreign aid to certain claimants in the dispute such as the Philippines and Vietnam in order to assert its presence in the region as promoting the "rule of law at sea."

Laos
Laos has supported China by refusing to accept the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruling on China's sovereignty claims in the South China Sea.

Singapore
Singapore has reiterated that it is not a claimant state in the South China Sea dispute and has offered to play a neutral role in being a constructive conduit for dialogue among the claimant states. Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong said during his official visit to the US that he hoped all countries will respect international law and the outcome of arbitration. The spokesperson of China Hua Chunying responded in a press conference said that the award by the Arbitral Tribunal was "illegal" and "invalid", and thus not binding at all. She urged Singapore to respect China's position, stay objective and impartial.

Sri Lanka
Kabir Hashim, General Secretary of the United National Party, has said that the South China Sea disputes should be resolved through bilateral talks between China and the countries concerned rather than being subject to external forces.

Thailand

Thailand as one of the member of ASEAN played a coordinating role in facilitating China and ASEAN members involved in the dispute in hope of reaching peaceful resolution. Despite its domestic political turmoil, the Thai government relied on its Ministry of Foreign Affairs' expertise on international dispute. It took the initiative to hold several meetings with parties concerned. Thailand's first attempt was hosting the ASEAN–China Senior Officials' Meeting Retreat in Pattaya, Thailand 2012. Via this meeting, Wang Yi, the Chinese Foreign Minister called for a joint development of resources in South China Sea. Bangkok was viewed as a South China Sea neutral player because it is not a claimant and did not have disputes in the South China Sea with China. After several meetings, the 6th ASEAN–China SOM on DOC was the first official consultation on the Code of Conduct (COC) was formed with all parties agreement to push forward the drafting of COC. Thai-China relationship was generally seen as positive. Thailand's neutral position enabled it to act as a mediator and influence discussions among parties involved.

United States

In 1974, the PRC received a non-involvement promise from the United States when it occupied the Yagong Island and the Crescent Group from South Vietnam. The United States officially addressed the South China Sea dispute for the first time in 1995, when its statement focused on the peaceful resolution of disputes, peace and stability, freedom of navigation, neutrality over the question of sovereignty, and respect of maritime norms. The 1995 statement did not name any states by their names.

The 1995 policy was changed in 2010, when the administration of the President Obama felt that even though the United States cannot take sides in the dispute, it still has to make a statement that it is not passively accepting the assertive actions taken in the region. At the July 2010 Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum meeting in Hanoi, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton gave a speech on resolving the disputes in the region without coercion and unequivocally stating that the South China Sea was a matter of U.S. national interest. Her comments were countered by China's Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi as "in effect an attack on China," and he warned the United States against making the South China Sea an international issue or multilateral issue.

In 2012, a United States State Department press statement identified the PRC as an assertive state in the region and communicated United States concerns about the developments in the area. Also in 2012, Secretary Clinton testified in support of congressional approval of the Law of the Sea Convention, which would strengthen U.S. ability to support countries that oppose Chinese claims to certain islands in the area. On 29 May 2012, a spokesman for the Chinese Foreign Ministry expressed concern over this development, stating that "non-claimant Association of South East Asian Nations countries and countries outside the region have adopted a position of not getting involved into territorial disputes." In July 2012, the United States Senate passed resolution 524, initially sponsored by Senator John Kerry, stating (among other things) the United States' strong support for the 2002 declaration of conduct of parties in the South China Sea, reaffirms the United States' commitment to assist the nations of Southeast Asia to remain strong and independent, and supports enhanced operations by the United States armed forces in the Western Pacific.

In 2014, the United States responded to China's claims over the fishing grounds of other nations by saying that "China has not offered any explanation or basis under international law for these extensive maritime claims." USN CNO Jonathan Greenert then pledged American support to the Philippines in its territorial conflicts with the PRC. The Chinese Foreign Ministry asked the United States to maintain a neutral position on the issue. In 2014 and 2015, the United States continued freedom of navigation operations, including in the South China Sea.  that the US administration is planning to deploy some more naval assets within 12 nautical miles of the Spratly Islands. In response to this announcement, Beijing issued a warning and said that she would not allow any country to violate China's territorial waters in the name of "Freedom of Navigation". In May 2015, U.S. Secretary of Defense Ash Carter warned China to halt its rapid island-building. On 27 October 2015, the US destroyer USS Lassen navigated within 12 nautical miles of reclaimed land in the Subi Reef as the first in a series of "Freedom of Navigation Operations". This was the first time since 2012 that the US has directly challenged China's claims of the island's territorial limit. On 8–9 November 2015, two US B-52 strategic bombers flew near artificial Chinese-built islands in the area of the Spratly Islands and were contacted by Chinese ground controllers but continued their mission undeterred.

President Trump's administration increased the frequency of freedom of navigation operations in the South China Sea. In June 2020, US Ambassador to the United Nations Kelly Craft sent a letter to the U.N. secretary general explaining the US position on China's "excessive maritime claims." On 14 July 2020, US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo declared China's claims and coercions of in parts of the South China Sea "completely unlawful". On 26 August 2020, the US sanctioned individuals and 24 Chinese companies linked to construction and militarization of the artificial islands.

Publications by US think tanks have made recommendations for courses of actions that the United States could take in response to PRC activities in the South China Sea.

The US Navy has conducted freedom of navigation drills in the South China Sea to counter Vietnamese claims in the region, particularly around the Côn Đảo islands.

Disputes vs. UNCLOS

One observer, a visiting assistant professor of international law at De La Salle University, Philippines, remarked:
While the PRC, ROC and Vietnam claim  the entire Spratly archipelago because of what they perceive to be their "historical right" to the area, Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines base their respective claims on the stipulations regarding continental shelves outlined in UNCLOS. [...] While some would argue that the historical claims of the PRC, ROC, and Vietnam should be discarded because they do not conform to the stipulations of UNCLOS, this is unrealistic. The notion of historical entitlement sits at the foundation of their claims to the Spratly archipelago and are unlikely to dissipate simply because analysts choose to ignore them. As a result, any proposed framework must address such concerns.

That observer concludes, "UNCLOS must be applied to the Spratly question in a way that accounts for the unique characteristics of the dispute."

See also
 Continental Shelf
 Nine-dash line
 East China Sea EEZ disputes
 First island chain
 Great wall of sand
 List of maritime features in the Spratly Islands
 North Borneo dispute
 Philippines v. China
 Scarborough Shoal standoff
 South China Sea
 South China Sea Islands
 Spratly Islands
 Spratly Islands dispute
 Senkaku Islands
 Senkaku Islands dispute
 Territorial claims in the Arctic
 Territorial claims in Antarctica
 Chinese expansionism
 21st Century Maritime Silk Road

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

 Zhang. Ketian. "Cautious Bully: Reputation, Resolve, and Beijing's Use of Coercion in the South China Sea," International Security 44:1 (Summer 2019): 117–159.

External links
 Website of the Chinese National Institute for South China Sea Studies
 Website of the Vietnamese Program for South China Sea Studies Chương trình nghiên cứu Biển Đông
  - the published presentation notes, including supportive illustrations and footnotes for a presentation at the Philippine Institute for Marine and Ocean Affairs of the López Museum and Library (event release)

Disputed territories in Southeast Asia
South China Sea

Chinese irredentism
Territorial disputes of China
Territorial disputes of Malaysia
Territorial disputes of Vietnam
Territorial disputes of the Philippines
Territorial disputes of Indonesia


The Église Notre Dame Saint-Vincent is a Roman Catholic church located in Lyon, on the banks of the Saône, quai Saint-Vincent, in the 1st arrondissement of Lyon. In 1984, it was classified as monument historique.

History
The church was built by Augustinian monks in 1759, when they were present in the area from the fourteenth century. The plans of the church were drawn by Léonard Roux. It was finally completed on 4 June 1789 by Joseph Janin, and was called Église Saint-Louis, as tribute to Louis Le Dauphin, who had contributed financially to its construction. A book called "Book of Accounts" was written to trace the entire history of the construction of the church. It took its current name in 1863.

In 1793, the church served as hospital, then warehouse and gendarmerie.

In 1933, Mortamet restored the church. In 1941, a number of Lyon Catholics, Protestants and agnostics met fortnightly in the crypt of the Église Notre Dame Saint-Vincent to discuss in depth Hitler's Mein Kampf. On 12 December 1987, the church was destroyed by fire, but was reopened on 29 November 1992 after a major renovation. The organ, installed on the platform, was inaugurated on 26 March 1995.

Architecture
Inside, there are 18 cylindrical columns in the nave and large rectangular windows in the dome.

The facade of the church, decorated with a statue of the Virgin Mary and a frieze, was made by Charles Dufraine and has a round arch and two Ionic columns.

References

External links
  Official site

Roman Catholic churches in Lyon
1st arrondissement of Lyon
Churches completed in 1789
1759 establishments in France
Monuments historiques of Lyon

Église Notre Dame Saint-Vincent


The Dialects in Tyrol belong to the Upper German dialect groups Bavarian and - only marginally - Alemannic. A large part of it is occupied by Southern Bavarian, which in Tyrol includes the western and central parts of North Tyrol as well as South and East Tyrol.

The Ötztal dialect, which represents the transitional area between the Bavarian and Alemannic continuum and also has borrowings from the Rhaeto-Romanic language formerly spoken in the region and still spoken in parts of neighboring Graubünden, was designated an intangible cultural heritage in Austria by the Austrian UNESCO Commission as of October 2010 because of its specificity, and because it represents a living linguistic landscape.

General characteristics
Common features of Southern Bavarian, as distinguished from Central Bavarian, are:

 Diphthongization of mhd. ê and ô to ea and oa, as in Schnea, German: 'Schnee' and roat, German: 'rot'.
 Distinction between voiced and voiceless final sounds, as in Dåch next to Tåg;
 Old k is sound-shifted to kch, as in kchlea (German: Klee);
 Missing r and l vocalization, as in Håls and i will (so not Håis and i wui);
 Preservation of the prefix ge-, as in getrunkchn;
 Preservation of the vowel sound in articles;
 st becomes scht (e.g., gestern → geschtern, lustig → luschtig).

However, these features do not occur in all speakers, or some are on the wane.

Lexic
Tyrolean shows partial lexical similarities with Alemannic; for example, the Alm/Alp isogloss runs through Tyrol (in the Inn Valley: between Ötztal and Imst).

Differences from the rest of Austria are also evident in vocabulary, as in:

ållm, ålli, olli - always

aniadr, aniedr / aniade - each / every

auchi, aufi, auchn, aucha - upwards

aweck - away, away (cf. English away)

Fleischkas - meat loaf

gegga - fie, bad (children's language)

gleim (also in Carinthia) - close (together)

Gluuf, Gluufe, Glufa - safety pin, pin (cf. Gufe in Swiss German and Glufa in Swabian)

lei (also in Carinthian) - only

losna, horchn - to hear (cf. Swiss German verb lose)

lipfa, lupfn - to lift up

marenda - snack (between meals)

Halbmittag - mid-morning snack (specific to South Tyrol)

marenda or untern - snack

Mosbeer - blueberries

oi, oui, euchi, öachn, ouchn, ocha - downhill

d - this

dear, dr - the

dia - the

semm, zem, detta, dert - there

The following terms are widely used; their meaning may vary somewhat from place to place. Not all pronunciation variants are included in the list.

bekirnan, pekiengin - to swallow

decht - nevertheless, yet

drlada, drloadn - to bore, to annoy

dunta - down

endern - beyond

felli, fellig, föllig - almost, nearly

floka lossa, flacken - to lie down

formas, foarmos - breakfast

gahl, lobelat - weakly salted

ghilb, gehilbe - cloudy, foggy

glangla losa, glenggang - to dangle, to hang (loosely)

gliandi, gleanig, gluenig - glowing

grantl, gront, grant, troug - trough

graschglan, graschplen - to crackle, crunch, rustle

Griffl - finger

huppm, happm - to take (a child) in the arm

Huudr, Hüdr, Hudo - rag, shred of cloth

iatz - now

inrua lossa, unkeit lossn - to leave unmolested, to leave alone

kallar, schöpfa - ladle

kraaln, gralln - to scratch

Kondla, Kondl - jug

Lulle, Lüllar, Luller - pacifier

night - yesterday

nikarli mocha, nåpsln, nuagerle - midday nap

Neunerlen - morning snack

Ora, Losar - ears

Patatti - potato (Tyrolean Oberland)

plindara, plintern - to move, to change apartment

Pundl, Pundal - jug, container

Purzigogla, Puchzigoglar, Purzigagel - somersault

riibl, riiblar - a kind of schmarren

roogl, rougl, rougla - loose, not solidified

schiifara, schiifer - splinter of wood (in the skin)

schittla, naggln - to wiggle, to shake

schmargala/stinka, schmargelen - to smell badly

schwenza - to flush

springea - to run

Strauch, Strauche - cold, sniffles

suur, gilla - manure, slurry

taasig - dizzy, weary, limp

Taatl, Tootn - drawer, container

Teggn - infirmity, damage

Tiisl - flu, disease

Troppl - trap

Tschippl, Schiipl - a (small) amount

Tschottn, Tschouttn, Schotta - curd, curdled milk

wiach, wiache - (very) fat

zfleiß, zefleiße - intentionally, in defiance of the law

Zeggr - hand basket, shopping bag

Zogglar - badly dressed person, tramp, good-for-nothing

Notsch - pig

Ő - newspaper

The vocabulary of Tyrolean dialects is recorded and described in the Dictionary of Bavarian Dialects in Austria.

Influence of other languages
The Tyrolean dialect was influenced by other languages of previously settled peoples who became sedentary in the course of the migration of peoples. This is especially true for Rhaeto-Romanic, which was displaced in most areas over the centuries. This is especially noticeable in romanized terms such as Balla for Ballen (Tyrolean Oberland). In the Pustertal and in East Tyrol, as well as in Carinthia, a Slavic influence is added, which is reflected above all in a much softer pronunciation. In South Tyrol, due to the affiliation with Italy, some Italian loan words have developed.

Regional expressions
In Tyrol, dialect boundaries run west to the Alemannic of Vorarlberg, which forms a sharp border, and roughly east of Schwaz (excluding the Zillertal) to the Central Bavarian transitional area.

North Tyrol

Oberland
While in the south and east as well as in the central area of North Tyrol it is ålm/åjm (German: Alpe, Bergweide) or wīsn (German: Wiese), in the west with ålwe and wīse a transitional area to Alemannic (about Vorarlberg) shows up, where further west the -e also fades (alp, wīs). Other features of Tyrolean Oberland there are gsejt instead of gsågt (German: gesagt) and it instead of nit (German: nicht). There is also a typical Alemannic idiom used. For example, in the rest of Tyrol it is I gea iatz schwimmen (German: Ich gehe jetzt schwimmen), but in parts of the Oberland it is I gea iatz ga schwimma. This is very similar to the Alemannic Etzt gang i ga schwimma.

In the Upper Inn Valley, diminutive forms are -le, -ele and -eli, while in the rest of the Inn Valley an -l is added. The sound groups of the short el become al in the Oberland (German: Welt - Walt or Geld - Gald).

Bibliography
 Karl Kurt Klein, L. E. Schmitt (Hrsg.): Tirolischer Sprachatlas, bearb. von Egon Kühebacher, Tyrolia Verlag, Innsbruck.
 Johann Baptist Schöpf, Anton J. Hofer: Tirolisches Idiotikon. Innsbruck: Wagner 1866.
 Heidemaria Abfalterer: Der Südtiroler Sonderwortschatz aus plurizentrischer Sicht. Innsbruck University Press, Innsbruck 2007, ISBN 3-901064-35-4 (= Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft, Germanistische Reihe, Band 72).
 Josef Schatz: Wörterbuch der Tiroler Mundarten, Schlern-Schriften Nr. 119–120, 1955/56.
 Josef G. Mitterer: Lienzer Grammatik. Eine dialektologische Einführung in die Mundarten des Lienzer Talbodens. CreateSpace 2018. ISBN 1-986792-40-4
 Hans Moser in Zusammenarb. mit Robert Sedlaczek: Das Wörterbuch der Südtiroler Mundarten. Innsbruck-Wien: Haymon 2015. ISBN 978-3-7099-7838-2
 Hans Moser: Das große Wörterbuch der Tiroler Dialekte. Innsbruck-Wien: Haymon 2020. ISBN 978-3-7099-3457-9

Other websites

 Dictionary of the Bavarian Dialects in Austria, Austrian Academy of Sciences
 South Tyrolean dialect dictionary, on oschpele.ritten.org
 Some articles in the Tyrolean dialect in the Bavarian Wikipedia

References

Austrian culture
Tyrol (state)
German dialects
Italian culture

Dialects in Tyrol


Anisoyl chloride (also called methoxybenzoyl chloride) is an acyl halide, specifically an aromatic acyl chloride, and may be formed from anisic acid by replacing a hydroxyl group of the carboxylic acid with a chloride group. There are three isomers: the ortho-, meta-, and para- forms. Their structures differ in the arene substitution pattern—the location of the methoxy group on the ring as compared to the acyl halide.

References
 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) reference data for anisoyl chloride

Benzene derivatives
Acyl chlorides
Phenol ethers

Anisoyl chloride


Donald Eugene Conley (November 10, 1930 – July 4, 2017) was an American professional baseball and basketball player. He pitched for four teams in Major League Baseball (MLB) from 1952 to 1963. Conley also played as a forward in the 1952–53 season and from 1958 to 1964 for two teams in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is one of only two people (the other being Otto Graham) to win championships in two of the four major American sports: one with the Milwaukee Braves in the 1957 World Series and three with the Boston Celtics from 1959 to 1961.

Early life
Conley was born in Muskogee, Oklahoma. While still young, his family moved to Richland, Washington. He attended Richland High School, where he played multiple sports. He reached the all-state team in baseball and basketball and was the state champion in the high jump.

Conley attended Washington State University, where (as he told The Boston Globe in 2004) students "kidnapped" him during a recruiting visit in an effort to convince him to matriculate.  In 1950 he played on the Cougar team that reached the College World Series. In basketball, Conley was twice selected honorable mention to the All-America team, leading the team in scoring with 20 points per game. He was a first-team All-PCC selection in 1950.

During the summer, Conley pitched semiprofessional baseball in Walla Walla, Washington, in which scouts from almost every Major League Baseball team came to recruit him. He also was getting contract offers to play professional basketball from the Minneapolis Lakers and the Tri-Cities Blackhawks. At first he declined the offers, saying that his family didn't want him to sign any professional contracts until he finished school. But the offers were getting bigger, and in August 1950 he signed a professional contract with the Boston Braves for a $3,000 bonus.

Minor league career
Conley attended spring training in 1951 and was assigned to Hartford of the Eastern League by the request of former Braves star Tommy Holmes, who was managing the club. After a month, Conley had a record of five wins and only one loss and was praised by observers in the league, saying that he had the best fastball since former pitcher Van Lingle Mungo played in the league in 1933. On June 10, he threw a one-hitter against Schenectady Blue Jays, giving up the lone hit in the seventh inning. Holmes was promoted to manager of the Braves on June 25, and was replaced by future Baseball Hall of Famer Travis Jackson.

By August 1, Conley had a record of 16 wins with only three losses, leading the league. He was unanimously selected to the Eastern League All-Star team on August 29. He received the Eastern League MVP award that season after he became the first player in Hartford history to win twenty games in a single season.

In the beginning of the 1952 season, Conley, along with fellow rookies George Crowe and Eddie Mathews, was invited to spring training with a chance of making the roster. Around that time, the United States Army was drafting for the Korean War. Many major and minor league players were selected to fight in the war, depleting team rosters. Conley was deferred because of his height (6'8'), which was above the Army maximum height for a soldier.

Major league career
Conley's debut with the Boston Braves was April 17, 1952, versus the Brooklyn Dodgers, the Braves' third game of the regular season. Conley started and faced a lineup that included four future members of the National Baseball Hall of Fame in Roy Campanella, Jackie Robinson, Pee Wee Reese and Duke Snider. In four innings, Conley gave up four runs on 11 hits and two walks, taking the loss as the Dodgers prevailed 8–2. Conley lost his next three starts through early May, ending the season with an 0–4 record and a 7.82 ERA.

Conley returned to the majors in 1954 with the Milwaukee Braves, going 14–9 in 28 games with a 2.82 ERA, making the National League All-Star team and finishing third in Rookie of the Year voting behind Wally Moon and Ernie Banks, with Conley's Braves teammate Hank Aaron finishing fourth.

The following season in 1955, Conley was named to the All-Star game again, completing the season with an 11–7 record with a 4.16 ERA. Conley pitched for the Braves through 1959, compiling a record of 42–43 including an 0–6 record in his final season in Milwaukee.

In his lone postseason appearance in the 1957 World Series on Oct. 5 against the New York Yankees, Conley pitched  innings in relief of starter Bob Buhl, surrendering a two-run home run to Mickey Mantle as the Yankees went on to win the game 12–3; but with the Braves winning the series in seven games.

In the spring of 1959 with the Celtics in a playoff push, Conley delayed reporting to spring training with the Milwaukee Braves, prompting the team to trade Conley on March 31 to the Phillies. Conley made his third and final All-Star game with the Phillies, going 12–7 with a 3.00 ERA, with his season ending on August 19 after he was hit by a pitch while batting, breaking his hand.

After new contract talks bogged down on December 15, 1960, the Phillies traded Conley to the Red Sox; when he debuted with the Red Sox on April 28 against the Washington Senators, Conley became the first athlete to play for three professional teams in the same city along with the Celtics and his short stint with the Boston Braves in 1952. In three seasons with the Red Sox through 1963, Conley had a 29–32 record, with the win total including the final start of his major league career on Sept. 21, 1963, going six innings against the Minnesota Twins in an 11–2 victory.

In 11 seasons pitching for the Braves, Phillies and Red Sox, Conley posted a  91–96 record with 888 strikeouts and a 3.82 ERA in 1588.2 innings.

Conley was an above average hitter for a pitcher, posting a .192 batting average (105-for-548) with 33 runs, 19 doubles, 5 home runs and 45 RBI in 276 games. Defensively, he was below average, recording a .944 fielding percentage, which was 14 points lower than the league average at his position.

Conley was the winning pitcher in the 1955 All-Star Game and was selected for the 1954 and 1959 games.

Conley was the last living player to have played for both the Boston Red Sox and Boston Braves.

Professional basketball career
In the middle of his first season of professional baseball, Conley agreed to sign with the Wilkes-Barre Barons of the struggling American Basketball League (1925–55).

On April 26, 1952, the Boston Celtics selected Conley with the 90th pick of the NBA draft. Playing 39 games as a rookie in the 1952–53 NBA season, Conley averaged about 12 minutes a game for a Celtics team that went 45–26 in the regular season under Red Auerbach. Conley did not play in the Celtics' two playoff series that season, with the team losing 3–1 in the Eastern Division finals to the New York Knicks.

After a five-year hiatus to focus on baseball with the Milwaukee Braves, Conley returned to the Celtics for the 1958–59 season, again seeing limited usage at about 13 minutes a game for a team that swept the Minneapolis Lakers 4–0 in the NBA finals. Conley averaged 4.2 points and 5.4 rebounds during the regular season and 4.9 points and 6.8 boards in the playoffs. Conley would have his best year as a Celtic the following season, averaging nearly 19 minutes a game during the regular season to score 6.7 points while hauling in 8.3 rebounds on average over 71 games in the regular season. The Celtics repeated as NBA champions with a 4–3 finals win over the St. Louis Hawks, with Conley roughly duplicating his regular-season averages during the playoffs.

Conley would play on one more championship Celtics team during the 1960–61 season, culminating in a 4–1 defeat of the Hawks. Conley skipped the following NBA season while pitching for the Red Sox, then joined the New York Knicks where he averaged 9.0 points and 6.7 rebounds in 70 games during the 1962–63 season, before his minutes dropped precipitously the following year which was his last in the NBA.

In six seasons in the NBA, Conley averaged 5.9 points and 6.3 rebounds per game in 16.5 minutes of playing time. Conley's No. 17 would subsequently be assigned to John Havlicek and then retired by the Celtics in recognition of Havlicek's career.

"When I look back, I don't know how I did it, I really don't", Conley was quoted saying in 2008 by the Los Angeles Times, on playing two professional sports in tandem. "I think I was having so much fun that it kept me going. I can't remember a teammate I didn't enjoy."

When Abe Saperstein's American Basketball League (1961–62) was born in 1961, Tuck Tape Company owner Paul Cohen purchased a franchise, gave it the Tapers name, and placed it in Washington, D.C.; the team played its games in the Washington Coliseum. Conley signed with the team. While with the Tapers, Conley often accompanied Cohen on sales calls for his company and gained industry experience.

Conley is one of 13 athletes to have played in both the National Basketball Association and Major League Baseball. The thirteen are: Danny Ainge, Frank Baumholtz, Hank Biasatti, Conley, Chuck Connors, Dave DeBusschere, Dick Groat, Steve Hamilton, Mark Hendrickson, Cotton Nash, Ron Reed, Dick Ricketts and Howie Schultz.

Retirement
After his retirement from professional sports, Conley started working for a duct tape company in Boston, Massachusetts. After a year working there, the owner of the duct tape company died. Conley later founded his own paper company, Foxboro Paper Company, which he owned for 36 years until he retired from the business.

The Washington Sports Hall of Fame included Conley in its 1979 class of inductees.

Until December 2009, Conley lived in Clermont, Florida, where he played golf and watched the Orlando Magic play in his free time. He moved to his vacation home in Waterville Valley, New Hampshire, in 2010.

Conley died of congestive heart failure at his home in Foxborough, Massachusetts on July 4, 2017.

Personal life
Conley's mother was of Cherokee heritage and stood  tall. Eugene was a citizen of the Cherokee Nation.

In the spring of 1951, Conley married Kathryn Dizney whom he met the previous fall. They had three children and seven grandchildren. In 2004, his wife released a biography of Conley called One of a Kind that chronicled his life in both baseball and basketball and related how his family dealt with his being gone for most of the year.

In the days following July 27, 1962, Conley made headlines after exiting a Red Sox team bus that was stuck in New York City traffic with teammate Pumpsie Green to find a restroom, with the bus driver subsequently driving away without the players on board. As Conley recollected the episode in a 2004 interview with the Boston Globe: "So we got off and went in this bar, and when we came back out, Pumpsie said, 'Hey, that bus is gone,' and I said, 'We are, too!'" Conley and Green checked into a hotel, with Green rejoining the team the next day in Washington, D.C., but Conley taking a hiatus during which he attracted media attention in attempting to fly to Jerusalem. As told by Conley, Red Sox owner Tom Yawkey fined him $1,500 with the promise he would refund the money at the end of the season if Conley rededicated himself to the team, with Yawkey fulfilling the promise in September.

Career statistics

NBA
Source

Regular season

Playoffs

Footnotes

External links
Baseball

Gene Conley at Baseball Almanac
Gene Conley at Baseball Biography

Basketball
, or College Basketball at Sports-Reference.com
Conley had twice as much fun at The Boston Globe

1930 births
2017 deaths
Baseball players from Oklahoma
Basketball players from Oklahoma
Boston Braves players
Boston Celtics draft picks
Boston Celtics players
Boston Red Sox players
Burlington Indians players (1958–1964)
Chicago Packers expansion draft picks
Hartford Capitols players
Hartford Chiefs players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Milwaukee Braves players
Milwaukee Brewers (minor league) players
National League All-Stars
New York Knicks players
Sportspeople from Muskogee, Oklahoma
People from Richland, Washington
Philadelphia Phillies players
Semi-professional baseball players
Toledo Sox players
Washington State Cougars men's basketball players
Washington State Cougars baseball players
American Association (1902–1997) MVP Award winners
Cherokee Nation sportspeople
American men's basketball players
Centers (basketball)
Forwards (basketball)
20th-century Native Americans
21st-century Native Americans

Gene Conley


Beresford Clive Dunfee (1904 – 24 September 1932) was a British racing driver, one of the "Bentley Boys" of the 1930s, who was killed in a dramatic accident at Brooklands.

Dunfee was the third of four sons of Colonel Vickers Dunfee and the younger brother of Jack Dunfee, also a motor racer. He took part in the 1930 24 Hours of Le Mans and in the same year married the actress Jane Baxter one of the leading ladies of the British cinema in the Thirties.

In 1932 the Dunfee brothers raced the BRDC 500 Miles Race at Brooklands, in the "Old Number One" Bentley Speed Six, with a brand new 8-litre engine installed. After the first driving stint Jack Dunfee was in fourth place when he entered the pits. Clive took over, and shortly after, in passing Earl Howe's Bugatti, he went too high up the banking, putting the wheel of his car over the lip. The car cartwheeled over the top, hit a large tree and plunged down through the trees to the road below. Dunfee was thrown out and killed instantly. His wife was watching the race when he crashed to his death.

References
 Tom Vallance Jane Baxter: Obituary The Independent, London,  17 September 1996

External links
Old No 1 Bentley
Bentley Boys at Le Mans
Newsreel footage of fatal crash
Clive Dunfee history with the Old Number One

Bentley Boys
Brooklands people
English racing drivers
Filmed deaths in motorsport
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
1932 deaths
1904 births

Clive Dunfee


The Country Schoolmaster () is a 1954 West German drama film directed by Hans Deppe and starring Barbara Rütting, Claus Holm and Herbert Hübner. It is a remake of the 1933 film of the same title. It is sometimes known by the alternative title Eternal Love.

It was shot at the Bendestorf Studios and on location in Hamburg and Lüneburg Heath. The film's art direction was by Willi Herrmann and Heinrich Weidemann.

Cast
 Barbara Rütting as Ursula Diewen
 Claus Holm as Uwe Karsten Alslev
 Herbert Hübner as Ernst Diewen, Ursulas Vater
 Carola Höhn as Sabine, seine Frau
 Hans Quest as Ludwig, Ursulas Bruder
 Wolfgang Lukschy as Heinrich Heinsius
 Katharina Mayberg as Martha Detleffsen
 Carsta Löck as Minna, Mädchen bei Diewen
 Franz Schafheitlin as Senator Vanlos
 Günther Lüders as Pastor Sunneby
 Käthe Itter as Beate, seine Frau
 Lotte Brackebusch as Uwes Mutter
 Josef Sieber as Jan
 Heidi Brühl as Sternchen
 Claus-Dieter Schmoller as Hänschen
 Käthe Haack as Tante Renate
 Richard Drosten

References

Bibliography
 Williams, Alan. Film and Nationalism. Rutgers University Press, 2002.

External links

1954 films
1954 drama films
German drama films
West German films
1950s German-language films
Films directed by Hans Deppe
Films based on German novels
Remakes of German films
1950s German films

The Country Schoolmaster (1954 film)


This is the complete discography of hip hop band Gym Class Heroes.

After the addition of guitarist Disashi Lumumba-Kasongo and bassist Eric Roberts in 2003, the group was signed to Fueled by Ramen and Decaydance Records, on which they released their debut album, The Papercut Chronicles.  The group gained a strong fan base while promoting the album, appearing at festivals such as The Bamboozle and Warped Tour. In 2006, the group released the gold-selling album As Cruel as School Children. Since that release, the band's single "Cupid's Chokehold" reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100, and "Clothes Off!!" peaked at number five in the United Kingdom. On September 9, 2008, Gym Class Heroes released their third album, The Quilt, which contained numerous collaborations with other artists.

The band went on hiatus in 2009, a time in which the members pursued various side projects. Travie McCoy released his solo debut album Lazarus in June 2010. Lumumba-Kasongo has been working on his side-project Soul, while McGinley now drums in the rock group Kill the Frontman. The group released The Papercut Chronicles II on November 15, 2011.

Albums

Studio albums

Demo albums

EPs

Singles

Promotional singles

Other contributions

Music videos

References

Discographies of American artists
Rock music group discographies

Gym Class Heroes discography


Geoffrey Wawro (born 1960) is an American Professor of Military History at the University of North Texas,  and Director of the UNT Military History Center. His primary area of emphasis is modern and contemporary military history, from the French Revolution to the present.

Education
Wawro grew up in West Hartford, Connecticut and as a boy delivered newspapers for the Hartford Courant. He received his diploma from the Loomis-Chaffee School in Windsor, Connecticut in 1978, and his A-levels in English Literature and German from Cheltenham College, in England, the following year. After receiving his bachelor's degree magna cum laude from Brown University (1983), he attended Yale University, where he received his Master of Arts in European history (1987), his M. Phil. in European History in 1989, and his Ph.D. in 1992. His dissertation, entitled "The Austro-Prussian War: Politics, Strategy and War in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1859-1866" (1992), supervised by Paul Kennedy, argued that the battle of Königgrätz (1866) was not so much won by the brilliance of the Prussian commander Helmuth von Moltke the Elder as it was lost by the incompetence of the Austrian commander Ludwig von Benedek.

Career
Wawro hosted the History Channel's book show Hardcover History, and was host and anchor of the History Channel programs History's Business and History vs. Hollywood, Hard Target, Global View, and History in Focus. His guests have included Jimmy Carter, Henry Kissinger, Jack Welch, Robert Rubin, Caspar Weinberger, Warren Christopher, Niall Ferguson, Richard Overy, Stephen Ambrose, Michael Howard, Robert Dallek, Paul Theroux and Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.

Wawro, an expert on military innovation and international security in Europe, the U.S., and Canada, was also (before his move to Texas) Professor of Strategic Studies at the U.S. Naval War College as well as the Naval War College Reviews "special correspondent," a designation that took him to "places or events of strategic or technological interest," including Iran, Brazil and the Paris Air Show.

Wawro won the Austrian Cultural Institute Prize and the Society for Military History Moncado Prize for Excellence in the Writing of Military History. From 1989 to 1991, he was Fulbright Scholar at University of Vienna, Austria, and from 1991 to 1992, an Andrew W. Mellon Doctoral Fellow at Yale University.

Criticism
In a review of Wawro's 1996 book on the Austro-Prussian War, Lawrence Sondhaus criticizes Wawro for falsely claiming that the Austrian Empire intended to destroy the Kingdom of Italy in the Third Italian War of Independence of 1866. Wawro gives no evidence for his thesis of Austrian aggression and then proceeds to lambaste the Austrians for not achieving "goals they never intended to pursue". Wawro also ignores Italy's "sweeping war aims"; her intentions of seizing Trieste, Istria, and Dalmatia, aims that were prevented by the Austrian victory at the Battle of Lissa, and claims the Italians only wanted to acquire Venetia.

Publications

Austro-Prussian War (Cambridge, 1996), based on his doctoral dissertation, was History Book Club and Military Book Club main selection.
Warfare and Society in Europe, 1792-1914 (Routledge, 2000) is a standard university text.
Franco-Prussian War (Cambridge, 2003) was the main selection of the History Book Club and Military Book Club and received a best non-fiction mention from Publishers Weekly, Nov. 2003.
Quicksand:  America's Pursuit of Power in the Middle East, Penguin Press, 2010.
 A Mad Catastrophe: The Outbreak of World War I and the Collapse of the Habsburg Empire, Basic Books, 2014.
 Sons of Freedom: The Forgotten American Soldiers Who Defeated Germany in World War I, fall 2018

He has also served on the editorial teams for over twenty volumes, including The Cambridge Military Histories, which he co-edits with Oxford's Hew Strachan.

Citations

References

External links
http://www.history.com/podcasts/hardcoverhistory/hardcoverhistory_xml.xml
https://web.archive.org/web/20111003154431/http://www.hist.unt.edu/faculty/wawro/wawro.htm
http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1821457/

Living people
University of North Texas faculty
Brown University alumni
Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
Oakland University faculty
Naval War College faculty
American military historians
American male non-fiction writers
American television personalities
1960 births
Loomis Chaffee School alumni

Geoffrey Wawro


The village o Findhorn is fund on the north-east shore o the Findhorn Bay an mouth o the River Findhorn, 30 mile east frae Innerness.

Etymology
Watson (1926) kens the name is frae Fionn Èire, meanin White Ireland an "nae dout it refers tae the white saunds o the firth". The dative Èireann gied rise tae the uiss o the Inglis erne in ither local names sic as Invererne, Cullerne an Earnhill.

It is mair likely that the name is frae the Pictish spoken in the airt. The Pict-Scot union o 843 broucht in Gaelic, Maxwell (1896) kens the Fin is frae the Pictish Pit, as in Pitlochery. The orn is semply 'river', frae the Scots Gaelic abhainn, an Auld Welsh afon. The Gaelic influence wis suin cowped bi the sons o Malcolm Canmore thit brocht in an ancestor o modren Scots tung frae the Northumbrian byleid. Ken the lack o places stairtin wi Fin- an Pit- in the Gaelic speakin regions o the wast coast.

In Timothy Pont's map o 1593 the name o the village wittin Findorn, an naurby The Barr o Findorne.

History

Bronze Age
Fowk hae bed aroond Findhorn frae mair nor three thoosan year. In 1986 biggin wark kythed a cley burial urn containin the remains o a quine o twinty five year an her bairn.

Lith beads an starn-shapit beads war fund in the urn an aw, these resemmle seemilar beads fund in soothren inle. Caurbon-datin reckons the beads, quine an bairn war frae aboot 1880 BC tae 1520 BC.

Three Villages
Athort the millennia the River Findhorn haes changed coorse monie time, the village o Findhorn haes haed tae muive wi it. Pont's cairt clear shaws the auld saund barr, whaur the river coorse went north an than wast juist north o Elvin pynt frae five mile tae whaur the Buckie Loch is nou.

Thare is an unnerwatter subterranean peat bed thit stends a distance intae the firth frae Burghhead Bay tae the east o Findhorn indicatin that thare wis yinst growthie forest vegetation. In the 19t yearhunner trunks o trees an ruits war dreggit up bi the anchors o ships lyin aff thare. E'en the day, muckle rafts o compactit peat come up on the North Shore o the Findhorn.

Aboot this forest steid an impressive man-makkit hill, 200 fit heich, cawed Douff hillock, this war airn-age in oreegin. It is in this region, a few mile north east o the praisent village, an nou unner the Moray Firth that some historians hiv placed the Findhorn o the Middle Ages.

Wi nae stane available fur biggin atween the rivers Findhorn an Nairn, an nae roads tae help thaim, the tenants an cottars o the airt biggit thair hooses o feal an turve. The renewal o roofs an walls teuk up a considerable amoont o time ilk year an the feal dykes roond the infields hae tae be mainteened. Traditionally the feal frae the roch scuffin or carse war uised frae this purpose, an in the case o the Culbin airt the turf cappin the auld dunes on the shinle ridges war tirrt nakit, an bent gress pullt frae thatch. This exposed the saund ablo tae the wind. Turf wis needit fur mixin intae the middens tae mak compost, an while auld roofs an waws war dumpit thare, muckle mair
war dug up. The amoont o turf uised up bi a ferm toun fur these purposes wis surprisinly large, an in the case o the Culbin led tae extensive sandblowin.

Invasion o this airt bi blown saund war recordit as early as the year 1100 an at some time the first Findhorn is said tae hiv been inundatit an lost furiver under the Culbin Sands.

The village hae bed on the sooth bank o the river three or fower mile upstream frae its mouth at the Auld Bar, aboot the pynt whaur the river turnt wastwart on its journey parallel tae the edge o the firth an separated frae it bi sand banks. The attractiveness o the shelter affordit bi the river tae mariners wis tempert bi the problem o wind blown sand siltin up the harbour. In 1660 the villagers war forced tae start the construction o new warehouses on the opposite bank whaur the water wis deeper. The second village o Findhorn developed aroond the warehouses across the water frae the original village which war kent as the 'Altoun' or auld toun.

This village is weel kent in the maps an writins o the 17th yearhunner. It wis regarded as the principal port on the Moray Coast, providin safe harbour fur vessels tradin wi the Baltic, Norway an the Low Countries as well as ports aroond Scotland an England an servicin the towns frae Elgin tae Inverness. It wis made a Burgh o Barony in 1661.

In ten year prior tae 1702, the blown sand, which had been causin sic devastation in Culbin, slowly choked the River Findhorn. In the words o J.B. Ritchie (1938): 'The water wis dammed back bi the sand into a huge lake frae which it began tae escape bi a mair direct route tae the sea. than came unusually high floods tae which the barriers yielded. The pent up waters rushed along the new course, carryin wi them every vestige o the aulder Findhorn'.

The date gien frae this disaster varies but the consensus opinion gies it as 11th October 1702. Tho the final devastation came at nicht, thare wis nae loss o life due tae the astuteness o the villagers who had anticipated sic an ootcome frae some time an had already startit biggin noo hames aboot a mile south-east on the Muirtown Estate.

On returnin after the flood, the people war spellbound. Not a trace o thair hooses war seen. Everythin haed disappeared beneath the sand. frae that time tae this, the estate o Culbin hae been completely buried bi the sand. A portion o the auld mansion house appeared aboot a hundred years later, like a ghostly spectre amidst the sand, an became an object o superstitious interest tae the people o the neighbourhood, especially as one man who had cawed doon the chimney, heard a voice distinctly respond tae his caw. It eventually disappeared as suddenly as it came on the scene. The dovecote an chapel reappeared an aw, an thair ruins supplied stones fur neighbourin farm biggins.

The remains o the dwellins o the second village (nou under the sea, aboot half mile north-west o the present mouth o the river) became an ideal habitat frae mussels, an large mussel scaups developed thare. This is confirmed in the account o a court case in 1762 which states '...the present principal mussel scalp stands upon the very spot whaur Sir James Calder's cellars stood in the auld town o Findhorn'. The harvestin o these mussels wis an important industry frae the fishermen o the new village.

The village built on the Muirtown Estate frae 1700 onwards is the present village o Findhorn. The stabilisation o the Culbin Sands bi the plantin o trees prevented further sand blows, tho the village suffered great sandstorms an it is recorded that sometimes the villagers had tae dig as muckle as twa feet o sand oot o thair gardens followin a westerly gale.

The erosion o the sand dunes on the North Shore bi winter storms had gien concern fur many years. The final breachin o the sand dunes teuk place in the winter o 1983 an the influx o a considerable amoont o seawater endangered the fabric o many houses in that area. This prompted the Local Authority tae resolve the problem fur once an frae aw. The sea defenses which are nou hidden bi marram grass on the shore side an sea deposited shinle on the ither, comprise a line o massive rocks risin some 20ft abuin beach level an extendin the length o the danger zone. This is supplemented bi groynes o Greenhart wood placed strategically tae arrest the migration o westward drift sand. So far these measures appear tae hiv been effective.

Fishin at Findhorn
In the 12t yearhunner, the monks o Kinloss Abbey haudit the saumon rights o the bay, an war credited wi buildin the Sturdy, a stone isle uised as a fishin pynt, strategically placed tae catch the run o fish tae an frae the River Findhorn an the Moray Firth. The Sturdy is still visible at low tide, as are some o the remains o one o the earliest kent methods o catchin saumon, the Yaars, which consisted o erectin wicker fences at low tide an as the tide came in the fish swam ower the fence tae be trapped as the tide ebbed.

In the 17t yearhunner Findhorn wis the principal seaport o Moray an Forres an cargo vessels regularly sailed tae an fraw aw pairts o the North Sea an as far as the Baltic Ports an involved in the export o saumon, grain, an ither goods, an in the import o coals. Tidal changes tae the narrow an shallow entrance tae the bay created obstacles tae navigation an as the size o tradin vessels increased so the volume o trade tae the village declined. Durin the nineteenth yearhunner fishin predominated.

Tho considered a secondary industry tae coastal tradin, fishin wis o major importance tae the village economy, employin up tae 160 men. Because o the natural safe anchorage, unique along the north-east coast, herrin drifters, yawls an zulu sailboats uised Findhorn as a base frae both net an line fishin in the Moray Firth. Catches o herrin an whitefish war landed on the shore, equally divided atween the crews, than peddled aroond the immediate area bi the fishwives, or alternately, as most fisher cottages had a tarred curin shed, converted tae kippers in the case o herrins, or a famous local delicacy, speldins, dried haddock.

At the ootset o the 1914–18 war, many zulus o the herrin fleet wis beached at Elvin pynt when the crews war cawed up frae active service, an the day, the skeletal remains o yon boats can still be seen on the foreshore. ithers war beached aroond the harbour area tae be broken up fur firewood, an frae Findhorn it wis the stairt o the end. The slow decline o the whitefish industry began due tae several unavoidable contributory factors, chiefly the unstoppable siltin up o the bay bi sand-drift frae the Culbins, an the increasin difficulty o negotiatin the sand bar at the estuary entrance caused bi long-shore drift. The last locally awnt yawls sailed in the early thirties bi which steam pouer an engines had taken ower frae sail.

fur some years after that boats, generally Scaffies an Fifies, frae Burghhead, Hopeman an as far as Buckie, continued tae call in tae glean the huge mussel scaups in the bay. It wis a tough job undertaken bi men an women, the mussels bein gaithered bi haund an carried in creels tae the waitin boats, o when under water, a trawl wis uised tae raise the mussels, a hard an difficult task. Later the mussels would be shelled an baited on the hundreds o hooks ready fur the next day's expeditions.

Gradually, ancillary jobs in the village associated wi fishin – boat buildin, sail-makin, net barkin, guttin an curin – waned, an apairt frae coble buildin, eventually disappeared.

Railwey
Frae 1860 tae 1869 a branch o railwey ran frae Kinloss tae the harbour at Findhorn frae the salmon fishermen. It wis scunnert financially an wir closed frae passengers in 1869, an anley carried salmon an freight frae anither ten year before closin fur guid. The route o the wey can be made oot on fields durin dry spells, an it follaed the coast whaur the B9011 road is nou.

Saumon fishin
However, thare remained the commercial saumon fishin an in its hey-day Findhorn in the 1920's wis the control centre o the Moray Firth Salmon Fishin Company which operated 22 nettin stations dotted at intervals alang the coast frae Burghhead tae Balintore, wi crews o four or five men mannin the bothies. A series o leader nets on upright poles projected seawards whaur a maze o nettin made escape nearly impossible fur the unwary fish. Flat-bottomed, shallow-draught, 24 foot long cobles war uised tae collect the saumon frae the off-shore nets at suitable states o the tide, an records shaw that this method o fishin wis very successful, tho predatory seals war a constant maraudin enemy. Eventually the industry closed doun in 1987.

Inside the bay a different system kent locally as bangin wi uised, wi the fishin rights frae early last yearhunner tae the closure awnt bi C.R.Sellar an Company, an the buildins occupied bi Moray Water Sports war the bothies frae the crews nou. Bangin consisted o feedin oot nets frae the beach in a circular fashion in a smawer teep o coble frae stells, as the fishin points war kent, an thare war several aroond the bay but most uised war the Glory Hole at the estuary mouth an the Sturdy. The sweep o the encirclin nets trapped the passin saumon on thair wey up or doun stream, an again record shaw some amazin 'hauls'. A keen rivalry developed atween boat crews fur the muckle catches durin the saumon fishin season, thit lastit frae the icy waters an sleety winds o Februar tae the sunny balmy days o August. Holiday makers teuk a great interest in watchin the bangers at wirk an anticipatin the catches an aw.

Saumon catches diminished durin the late 20t yearhunner, an that wey o life ended in 1987.

Findhorn X class yacht
The interest in pleasure sailin wis probably kindled when the country wis rekiverin frae the First World War. Records are vague but in the early 1920s thare war at least five local yawls.

Aw saumon fishers worked on a bonus system ower thair wages, which wis paid oot at the season's finish, the back-end as it wis kent, in August an in that month an aw, the annual regatta wis haudit. The regatta wis a family fun day haudit atween the piers wi a series o coble races, boat tug-o-wars an ither aquatic sports.

The first pleasure orientated boats tae appear at Findhorn in any significant numbers war the Lymington scows, which war purchased in the sooth. They war sturdy centre-board dinghies, 11ft.3in. long, wi a 60sq.ft. single lug sail rig. A class o these scows wis soon estaiblisht at Findhorn an it wis the competitive element derived frae regular Saturday sailin o these vessels that wis perhaps responsible mair than any ither sinle factor frae the formation o a yacht club.

In 1929 James Chadwick (the first Commodore) alang wi ither dinhy sailors, foondit the Findhorn Yacht Club. His home wis uised as the club meetin place an this buildin wis eventually tae end up as the clubhouse we keek the day. 1930 saw the first o the Findhorn class boats, an 18.ft. boat built wi local help, bi James Chadwick frae aboot £80. The actual prototype wis constructed in the premises (kent in latter days as Frankie's boat-shed) an a number o such boats war built an kent as the Findhorn X class. This X class is reputed tae be the forerunner tae the 18ft boat class. This fleet expanded tae ower twinty boats before the Second World War when pleasure sailin largely ceased. After the war the sailin slowly recovered an the club began tae flourish wi the membership expandin quite dramatically in the late fifties an sixties wi a resultant increase in cruisers an dinhies. In 1971 the Findhorn Yacht Club wis awardit the Royal title

Suenos Stane
The proud Suenos Stane is steid juist ootside o Forres, owerlookin Findhorn Bay. It is the tallest in Scotland at seven metre tall, biggit in later 9t or 10t centuries, durin the time o kin Malcolm. It can be keeked juist north ae Forres on Timothy Pont's map as one o twa pillars, the secont stane is lost.

Employment
In 2011 thare war 463 fowk in employment. The main wirk in the community included:

 Manufacturin: 6.9%
 Construction: 3.7%
 Wholesale an Retail: 8.9%
 Accommodation an Food: 8.2%
 Scientific: 7.6%
 Admin an Defense: 12.5%
 Education: 18.6%
 Health an Social: 13.8%

References

Touns in Moray
Places o Scotland

Findhorn


Samuel Arza Davenport (January 15, 1834 – August 1, 1911) was a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.

Samuel A. Davenport was born near Watkins Glen, New York.  He moved to Pennsylvania with his parents, who settled in Erie, Pennsylvania, in 1839.  He attended the Erie Academy.  He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1854, in 1855 was graduated from the Harvard Law School, and commenced the practice of his profession in Erie.  He was elected district attorney for the county of Erie in 1860.  He was owner and publisher of the Erie Gazette from 1865 to 1890.  He was a delegate to the Republican National Conventions in 1888 and 1892.

Davenport was elected as an at-large Republican to the Fifty-fifth and Fifty-sixth Congresses.  He was not a candidate for renomination in 1900.  He resumed the practice of law in the county, State, and Federal courts.  He was also interested in the Erie Car Works, and in the manufacture of organs and boots and shoes.  He died in Erie in 1911 and buried in Erie Cemetery.

Sources

The Political Graveyard

1834 births
1911 deaths
Pennsylvania lawyers
Politicians from Erie, Pennsylvania
Harvard Law School alumni
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American lawyers

Samuel Arza Davenport


Radium jaw, or radium necrosis, is a historic occupational disease brought on by the ingestion and subsequent absorption of radium into the bones of radium dial painters. It also affected those consuming radium-laden patent medicines.

The condition is similar to phossy jaw, an osteoporotic and osteonecrotic illness of matchgirls, brought on by phosphorus ingestion and absorption.

Symptoms
The symptoms are necrosis of the mandible (lower jawbone) and the maxilla (upper jaw), constant bleeding of the gums, and (usually) after some time, severe distortion due to bone tumors and porosity of the lower jaw. Symptoms also include soreness throughout the body, significant decrease in body weight and loss of teeth.

Treatment
Once the symptoms of radium jaw take effect, there is nothing that can be done to reduce the chance of death from radiation poisoning. Radium can cause fatal injuries due to radium and calcium sharing similar chemistry, causing the body to mistake the radioactive metal for calcium and incorporate it into bone tissue. This is significant, because while calcium strengthens bone structures, radium degrades the quality of said bone structure. Alpha particles emitted by the radium lead to bone necrosis and bone cancer.

History
At the start of the 20th century, many believed that radium had beneficial health properties and was often added to consumer products such as toothpaste, hair creams, and even food. Used until the early 1970s, radium was found in some consumer paints, dials on clocks and some industrial applications. Radium was also used in some medical practices during the 20th century.

The disease was determined by pathologist Dr. H.S. Martland in 1924 to be symptomatic of radium paint ingestion, after many female workers from various radium paint companies reported similar dental and mandibular pain. The first written reference to the disease was by a dentist, Dr. Theodor Blum, in 1924, who described an unusual mandibular osteomyelitis in a dial painter, naming it "radium jaw". Symptoms were present in the mouth due to use of the lips and tongue to keep the radium-paint paintbrushes properly shaped. The disease was the main reason for litigation against the United States Radium Corporation by the Radium Girls, female factory workers who contracted radiation poisoning from painting watch dials with self-luminous paint in the early 20th century.

A prominent example of this condition was the death of American golfer and industrialist Eben Byers in 1932, after taking large doses of Radithor, a radioactive patent medicine containing radium, over several years. His illness garnered much publicity, and brought the problem of radioactive quack medicines into the public eye. The Wall Street Journal ran a story (in 1989 or after) titled "The Radium Water Worked Fine until His Jaw Came Off".

Stories such as the Radium Girls and Eben Byers death went public and due to public pressure/outrage, the Food and Drug Administration banned most radiation-based patent medicines in 1932.

See also
Acute radiation syndrome (not involved in radium jaw)
Radium Dial Company
Radium dials
Phossy jaw

References

External links
Radium in Humans: A Review of U.S. Studies

Occupational diseases
Radium
Osteonecrosis

Radium jaw


Johann Lohelius (1549 – November 2, 1622), better known as Johann Lohel, was the archbishop of Prague from September 18, 1612, until his death.

Early life
Born in 1549 in a poor family, Johann was piously brought up. At fifteen he was engaged as a domestic in the Norbertine Teplá Abbey (), but was allowed to follow the classes in the abbey school; he soon surpassed his fellow students, and in 1573 received the Norbertine habit. After a two-years novitiate, Lohelius went to study philosophy at Prague. He was ordained in 1576 and was recalled to the abbey. He gave a course of sermons at Tepl, with whom he reconverted many Lutherans back to Catholicism.

In 1579 he became prior of Mount Sion Abbey, at Strahov. The abbot and he strove, with some success, to lift the abbey out of the unfortunate state into which it had fallen. Lohelius was soon called back to Tepl. However, he was in 1583 allowed to resume the office of prior of Strahov.

Archbishop of Prague
Lohelius was elected abbot of the Strahov Monastery of Prague in 1586. With him a new era of progress and prosperity began on the Abbey of Strahov, which was in decline when he became its abbot. The emperor and the magnates of Bohemia generously assisted him in restoring the church and abbey buildings. The abbot-general, John Despruets, named him his vicar-general and visitor of the circles of Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland. In 1604 he was consecrated bishop of Sebaste in partibus, as auxiliary to the archbishop of Prague. During the illness of archbishop Karel Graf von Lamberk, Paul V appointed Lohelius coadjutor in May 1612. At the death of von Lamberg on 18 September 1612, Lohelius became archbishop of Prague. He crowned Ferdinand II (future Emperor) as King of Bohemia (29 June 1617),

Exile, return and death
In 1609 the Protestants of Bohemia were granted freedom of religion by the Letter of Majesty issued by Emperor Rudolph II. This strengthened them and, after having gained the upper hand in Prague, they began persecuting the clergy and expelled many priests, regular and secular. The cathedral, property of the Crown (as part of the Royal Castle ) and not of the Church, was altered to suit the Calvinistic worship; the altars were demolished, and the paintings and statues destroyed in December 1619. Lohelius had to take refuge in Vienna, where he remained until November 1620. After the battle of White Mountain, the archbishop and his chapter, as well as the Jesuits and other religious, returned to Prague. The cathedral, cleansed and refurnished, was again consecrated on 28 February 1621. Lohelius died soon after, of a slow fever on November 2, 1622; he was buried in the church of Strahov.

References

1549 births
1622 deaths
Roman Catholic archbishops of Prague
17th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the Holy Roman Empire

Johann Lohel