China is the largest market in the world for both photovoltaics and solar thermal energy.
China's photovoltaic industry began by making panels for satellites, and transitioned to the manufacture of domestic panels in the late 1990s. After substantial government incentives were introduced in 2011, China's solar power market grew dramatically: the country became the world's leading installer of photovoltaics in 2013. China surpassed Germany as the world's largest producer of photovoltaic energy in 2015, and became the first country to have over 100 GW of total installed photovoltaic capacity in 2017.

At the end of 2020, China's total installed photovoltaic capacity was 253 GW, accounting for one-third of the world's total installed photovoltaic capacity (760.4 GW). Most of China's solar power is generated within its western provinces and is transferred to other regions of the country. In 2011, China owned the largest solar power plant in the world at the time, the Huanghe Hydropower Golmud Solar Park, which had a photovoltaic capacity of 200 MW. In 2018, it held the record again with the Tengger Desert Solar Park with its photovoltaic capacity of 1.5 GW. China currently owns the second-largest solar plant in the world, the Huanghe Hydropower Hainan Solar Park, which has a capacity of 2.2 GW. In 2023, China completed the world's largest hydro-solar power plant in Sichuan, which utilises the consistency in hydropower production to offset the variability in solar power.

Solar power contributes to a small portion of China's total energy use, accounting for 3.5% of China's total energy capacity in 2020. Chinese President Xi Jinping announced at the 2020 Climate Ambition Summit that China plans to have 1,200 GW of combined solar and wind energy capacity by 2030.

Solar water heating is also extensively implemented, with a total installed capacity of 290 GWth at the end of 2014, representing about 70% of world's total installed solar thermal capacity.

The expansion of the solar sector in China has been criticized due to the large quantities of waste being produced and improperly disposed of from the production of photovoltaic cells. Criticism over large amounts of unused energy being produced has appeared along with criticism over the forced removal of native populations for development land and the usage of forced labor in the production of photovoltaic cells.

History

Photovoltaic research in China began in 1958 with the development of China's first piece of monocrystalline silicon. Research continued with the development of solar cells for space satellites in 1968. The Institute of Semiconductors of the Chinese Academy of Sciences led this research for a year, stopping after batteries failed to operate. Other research institutions continued the development and research of solar cells for Dongfanghong satellites. In 1975, domestic solar cell production began with factories in Ningbo and Kaifeng. These cells were produced in a similar fashion to the satellite cells of the past. Annual solar capacity installations were still low, as only 0.5 kW of photovoltaic capacity was installed. This increased to 8 kW in 1980, 70 kW in 1985, 500 kW in 1990, and 1550 kW in 1995.

China's Sixth Five-Year Plan (1981-1985) was the first to address government policy support for solar PV panel manufacturing. Policy support for solar panel manufacturing has been a part of every Five-Year Plan since.

In the early 1990s, Tsinghua University scientists developed a new type of evacuated tube solar water heater design. These units became ubiquitous in rural China during the early 2000s. By 2014, China had more than 85 million solar water heaters, primarily operating in rural households.

In 1998, demonstration projects for solar energy production began to appear, starting with a 3W polysilicon battery and applications for the energy. Yingli became one of the first producers of this new solar energy. However, annual capacity did not increase much until 2002 when a 10 MW solar cell production line was put into operation by Suntech Power. That year, a program aimed to install more solar and wind energy in Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, and Sichuan was introduced by the National Development and Planning Commission. This spurred solar cell production and annual installations skyrocketed from 3.3 MW in 2000 to 20.3 MW in 2002. Photovoltaic cell production expanded in the following years, with 140 MW manufactured in 2005. Only 5 MW of solar energy was installed in China that year, however, as most of the manufactured photovoltaic cells were sold to European countries, with Germany being the largest buyer. China's annual solar energy installations grew to 10 MW installed in 2006, increasing China's total installed solar energy capacity to 80 MW. Annual solar energy installations continued to grow, with 20 MW of capacity installed in 2007 and 40 MW installed in 2008.

In 2007, the National Development and Reform Commission planned to have China's solar capacity increase to 1,800 MW by 2020. However, according to Wang Zhongying, the head of the National Development and Reform Commission's renewable energy development, stated that China would far exceed this goal, predicting that at least 10 GW can be installed by 2020, with 20 GW of installed capacity within the realm of possibility. Despite these predictions, solar energy accounted for only a small fraction of China's total installed energy in 2008.

The global financial crisis of 2007-2008 prompted significant stimulus efforts by China to invigorate its then-struggling solar industry.

In 2011, feed-in-tariffs for solar power projects completed before a certain deadline were introduced. These feed-in tariffs were extremely successful at expanding China's solar power sector, largely exceeding the Chinese government's expectations for growth. The Huanghe Hydropower Golmud Solar Park was also completed in 2011 in Golmud, a county-level city in Qinghai province. The solar park contains 200 MW of installed photovoltaic capacity and was the largest individual solar plant in the world on its completion. Other solar parks such as the 20 MW Qinghai Golmud Solar Park were also installed in Golmud, with 570 MW of capacity installed in total at the end of 2011.

The Chinese PV production system faced severe external shocks since 2010. A sharp recession in the global demand due to institutional alterations in the German market in 2010, followed by anti-dumping duties and anti-subsidy countervailing duties on Chinese PV products enforced in both USA and EU. Chinese PV manufacturers, which were already running at full capacity, faced a difficult situation in 2011 and 2012 with huge financial losses that led to the bankruptcy of some important companies, such as Suntech Power in 2013 which defaulted on $541 million of convertible bonds. To rescue the huge PV industry with its large labor market and assets, a comprehensive set of policies was introduced by the Chinese government mainly to stimulate the domestic market. Accordingly, the annual installed capacity in China experienced notable growth since 2011. This growth was mainly due to the construction of several PV power plants around the country.

In May 2011, the National People's Congress (NPC) revised the solar target again, setting 5 GW as an official minimum PV target for 2015, with a longer-term target of 20–30 GW by 2020.
According to a 2012 forecast by the European Photovoltaic Industry Association, the total installed capacity was predicted to reach between 47 GW and 66 GW by 2017.

In 2014, the National Development and Reform Commission increased the solar capacity target to 70 GW by 2017. The National Energy Administration also announced plans to install 100 GW of solar power along with other renewable energy sources and nuclear energy by 2020 in 2014. However, market analysts expected for 110 GW to be installed by 2018 and that by 2020, more solar energy could be installed than planned. In 2015, the solar capacity target was initially planned to be 15 GW but was increased in March 2015 by the National Energy Administration to 17.8 GW of installed solar capacity for the year. This target was increased again to 23.1 GW in October, a very ambitious goal considering that the annual solar energy installations for the entire world in 2010 were less than 20 GW. Despite these ambitious goals, China only 7.73 GW of solar energy in the first half of 2015. By the end of 2015, China installed 15.1 GW of solar energy, failing to meet both of the raised goals, but meeting the original goal. The plan for annual solar capacity for 2020 was also increased in October 2015 to 150 GW.

In 2016, China added 34.5 GW of solar energy. The first 105 GW solar capacity by 2020 goal set by Chinese authorities was met in July 2017. In the first nine months of 2017, China saw 43 GW of solar energy installed in the first nine months of the year and saw a total of 52.8 GW of solar energy installed for the entire year. 2017 is currently the year with the largest addition of solar energy capacity in China. China's total photovoltaic energy capacity at the end of 2017 was 130 GW, surpassing Germany as the world's largest producer of solar energy. In 2018, China saw a decrease in annual solar energy, dropping down to 44.4 GW. In 2019, annual solar energy installation further dropped to 30.1 GW, even lower than the installations made in 2016. This decline in growth is attributed to the Chinese government restructuring government incentives to start solar energy projects in May 2018. Despite this decline in growth, China remained the largest market for solar energy with 205 GW total installed capacity in 2019, which was almost as much as the total installed capacity in the European Union (132 GW) and the United States (76 GW) combined. However, from all of the total energy produced by China in 2019, only 3.9% of that energy was produced by solar energy. This was lower than the percent energy production from solar power of the European Union (4.9%) but greater than the percent share in the United States (2.8%).

In 2020, China saw an increase in annual solar energy installations with 48.4 GW of solar energy capacity being added, accounting for 3.5% of China's energy capacity that year. 2020 is currently the year with the second-largest addition of solar energy capacity in China's history. Combined with wind energy, almost 10% of China's energy came from non-hydroelectric renewable power in 2020. China's total photovoltaic energy capacity at the end of 2020 was 252.5 GW. China has stated that it aims to increase the energy share of solar and wind energy to 11% by the end of 2021. Renewable energy subsidies for 2021 for increased, with subsidies for solar power having increased more than subsidies for wind energy. The Huanghe Hydropower Hainan Solar Park was also completed in 2020 in Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Qinghai Province. The solar park has an installed capacity of 2.2 GW, making it the second-largest solar plant in the world as of 2021, behind the Bhadla Solar Park in India. The solar plant is connected to the world's first ultra-high voltage power line which gets all of its power from renewable energy and is capable of transferring power over 1000 km. The solar plant is planned to expand to a photovoltaic capacity of 10 GW.

At the Climate Ambition Summit in 2020, Xi Jinping announced that China planned to have 1,200 GW of solar and wind energy capacity by 2030.

Between first 6 months of 2022, China built nearly 31GW of new solar power capacity, which up 137% compared to a years before. It expected the full-year installations would hit a record high. China added a total of 87.41 GW of solar in 2022, up 62% from the year before.

Because solar works well as a distributed power source, recent Chinese policies have focused on increasing the prevalence of distributed solar energy and for developing systems so that electricity from solar energy can be used at its point of generation instead of transmitted over long distances.

Solar resources
A July 2019 report found that local air pollution (black carbon and sulfur dioxide) has decreased the available solar energy that can be harnessed today by up to 15% compared to the 1960s.

Solar photovoltaics

Solar PV by province
A large part of the solar power capacity installed in China is in the form of large PV power plants in the west of the country, an area much less populated than the eastern part but with better solar resources and available land.

Solar PV by type

In 2018 23,300 MW of utility scale power plant installations were added bring the cumulative total in this sector to 123,730 MW of power. Distributed installations rose by almost as much during 2018 at 20,960 MW bringing the cumulative total in the sector to 51,250 MW by year end 2018. Off-grid solar was the smallest component in 2018 with just 360 MW cumulatively installed.

Manufacturers

China has been the world's largest manufacturer of solar panels since 2008 and, since 2011, has produced the majority of global photovoltaics on an annualized basis.
Industry projections estimated that, by the end of 2017, China would have enough manufacturing capacity to produce 51 GW of PV modules per year, an amount over twice as large as 2010's global production of 24 GW.

The industry is dominated by several major manufacturers.
They include CHINT Group Corporation, JA Solar Holdings, Jinniu Energy, Suntech Power, Yingli, China Sunergy and Hanwha SolarOne.
Large debt challenges several manufacturers.

Concentrated solar power

Solar resource
China has large potential for concentrated solar power (CSP), especially in the south-western part of the country.
The highest daily mean values of direct normal radiation are found in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Sichuan Basin, at 9 kWh/m2.
Most of northern and western China has daily average direct normal radiation over 5 kWh/m2, considered the limit for economical use of CSP.
Practical limitations for deployment of CSP include mountainous terrain and distance from energy load centers, mostly concentrated in the east.

Public policy
The 12th five-year plan, for 2011 to 2015, called for the installation of 1,000 MW by 2015, and 3,000 MW of CSP plants by 2020.
However, at the end of 2014, only several demonstration stations were operational in the country. In the subsequent 13th five-year plan a demonstration batch for 20 CSP plants for 1.35 GW was launched, which aimed to bring latest international technologies to China and build a domestic CSP industry. Plants were located in different provinces and used several different routes, including parabolic trough, central receiver towers and a novel beam-down tower design.
The initially target for 2018 could not be met and deadlines were extended multiple times, and the initially planned second batch was canceled. At the end of 2021 the installed capacity stood at 550 MW.
Chinese industry has gained considerable experience in the molten-salt storage technology and operating results of the plants are promising and meet their design parameters.

In the current 14th five-year plan there is no federal support for CSP. However, several provinces including Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjian UAR and Jilin have announced CSP projects in the context of the storage and peak shaving legislation. Optimistic assessments suggest that several GW could be built in the next five years

Solar water heating

China is the leading country for solar water heating capacity in the world, with 290 GWth in operation at the end of 2014, accounting for about 70% of the total world capacity. In terms of capacity per unit of population, China comes 7th in the world with 213 kWth per 1,000 people. Most of the installed capacity (92%) was evacuated tube water heaters.

Effects on the global solar power industry
The growth of solar power industries worldwide has been rapidly accelerated by the growth of the solar market in China. Chinese-produced photovoltaic cells have made the construction of new solar power projects much cheaper than in previous years. Domestic solar projects have also been heavily subsidized by the Chinese government, allowing for China's solar energy capacity to dramatically soar. As a result, they have become the leading country for solar energy, passing Germany's capacity in 2015. As other countries from around the world look to switch to renewable energy sources, cheap options for solar and wind have become focal points of interest for investments. China's mass production of cheap photovoltaic cells and wind energy have consequently spurred investments in Chinese products from around the world and expanded the construction of solar energy projects worldwide.

Government incentives
The China Development Bank provided $20 billion of financing to domestic solar manufacturers in 2010.

In 2011, new feed-in tariffs were promised to potential solar power developers to help drive investments and growth in the solar power market. The government of Qinghai province offered solar projects that were operational before 30 September, 1.15 yuan ($0.18) for each kWh they produced in May 2011. The National Development and Reform Commission offered same-priced subsidies to potential solar power project operators nationwide. These tariffs were not capped. Other subsidies, such as Top Runner and Poverty Alleviation programs, were used in conjunction with feed-in tariffs to help grow the solar power market immensely. These incentives were more successful in garnering attention and investment to the solar power sector than the Chinese government expected. Consequently, the Chinese government has struggled to keep up with these incentives. The government incentives have also contributed to the curtailment of solar energy, as many of the solar projects have been built in northern and western regions of China where there is a low demand for electricity and a lack of infrastructure to transfer energy towards China's main power grid.

In response to the growing problems of the rapidly expanding solar power market and the need to meet promised subsidies, the National Development and Reform Commission announced in May 2018 that solar power subsidies would be slashed and feed-in tariffs would be significantly reduced in favor of an auction-based system. In 2020, the Ministry of Finance of the People's Republic of China slashed the solar energy subsidy budget down to 1.5 billion yuan ($233 million) from 3 billion yuan in 2019. With the auction-based system, companies are to submit subsidies bids for solar power construction projects to the National Energy Administration. Companies that do not partake in competitive bidding must instead accept a largely reduced amount of subsidies for projects that are already in operation while new projects do not receive any subsidies outside of auctions. The switch to the auction system and capping of subsidies was designed to alleviate costs of solar subsidies and is attributed to the decline of the growth of the Chinese solar market in 2018 and 2019. However, the auction system has made renewable energy in western provinces cheaper than thermal energy in some cases, with Qinghai observing periods of time in which all of its energy usage was supplied through renewable energy.

China's budget for renewable energy subsidies was increased to 6 billion yuan for 2021, with solar power receiving 3.38 billion yuan. These grants are set to be distributed to 14 provinces, with Inner Mongolia receiving the majority of the funding with 5.10 billion yuan.

Controversy

Government incentives
The government subsidies for solar power energy projects have been considered "unsustainable" as the costs of subsidizing a rapidly growing industry are massive and some of China's struggles dealing with the costs have become visible. The renewable energy fund, which is paid by consumers, has a 100 billion yuan deficit while tariff payments have occasionally been paid late. Government subsidies for solar power have also been attributed to over construction, as many solar power projects have been funded by the Chinese government but do not operate at full capacity due to the inability to transfer the full energy capacity from production sites.

Solar cell production pollution
Chinese green energy companies such as Luoyang Zhonggui High-Technology Co. in Henan have become large producers of polysilicon in response to growing the demand for solar cells. However, polysilicon production produces silicon tetrachloride as a byproduct. Silicon tetrachloride is a poisonous material that can make soil infertile and harm humans if it is not disposed of properly. In developed countries, silicon tetrachloride is recycled and reprocessed, preventing the substance from entering the environment. However, special technology and large amounts of energy are required to reprocess silicon tetrachloride. Chinese green energy companies have not invested in recycling this byproduct, instead opting to lower production costs and dump waste into nearby residential areas. This lack of investment into environmental safety protocols has also been attributed to Chinese factories attempting to open much sooner than it would take normally.

Some solar cells are also made with chemicals such as sulfuric acid and phosphine gas as well as metals such as lead, chromium, and cadmium. These chemicals and metals are toxic to humans through contact and contamination of resources. While many developed countries that produce photovoltaic cells have properly disposed of or repurposed wasted solar cells, many Chinese firms have not adopted the practice recycling solar panels and waste. Non-hazardous materials have also been dumped instead of repurposed, further contributing to waste.

Various protests over solar cell production pollution have been staged. In Zhejiang province, protests over the destruction of fish habitats emerged in September 2011. Hundreds of villagers rioted in the Zhejiang Jinko Solar Co., Ltd. factory, which produces photovoltaic cells and wafers. The factory had previously failed pollution tests in April and that its waste control was inadequate despite warnings from the local environmental protection bureau. The protests occurred over multiple days, in which company property was damaged and destroyed.

Climate change contribution
China has pledged to peak its carbon emissions by 2030 and has invested into renewable sources of energy, including solar power, to help meet this pledge. China has been opening new plants for solar energy production. Critics of China's climate policy argue that China is not trying to replace fossil fuels with renewable sources of energy, but instead trying to increase the energy capacity of both forms of energy. Although China's solar energy capacity has increased dramatically in recent years, its carbon emissions have risen as well. Consequently, critics have seen China's pledge to peak its carbon emissions as a time window for it to increase its carbon emissions rather than reduce them, with its investments into renewable energy sources such as solar power being used as a coverup for China's plan to continue expanding with fossil fuel-powered production.

The mass government subsidy-fueled construction of solar power plants has also been linked to climate change contribution as mass construction has contributed to increases in carbon emissions while the energy produced by the projects has not been fully used.

Green grabbing
China's expansion of solar power capacity has been met with criticism over implications of "green grabbing". Critics argue that China has seized land from native populations and repurposed it for its own projects, such as solar farms, using the need to protect the country from climate change as a justification for land seizure. Renewable energy projects, such as solar power plants, have been built in western regions of China where many native nomadic people have had their land taken away. As such, critics argue that investments into renewable energy sources such as solar power are means to increase the power of the central state rather than protect the environment. This argument has been complemented by China's expansion of fossil fuel plants in conjunction with solar energy.

Following claims of China has taken land from rural natives under the guise of climate protection, many rural populations have been encouraged to move to government housing or urban centers. However, as expectations for the arrival of urban citizens have risen, so has the construction of buildings infrastructure projects. This speculation of the growth of urban centers has led to a housing bubble in China, where buildings and infrastructure are being constructed at a rate in which much of the construction is unused or redundant. As these unused buildings and towns are constructed, more carbon emissions are produced due to the usage of cement and other building materials. Thus, China's "green grabbing" has also been criticized by environmentalists who see China's urban expansion as useless and damaging to the environment. The forced movement of rural populations, as critics claim that these rural populations do not receive adequate compensation for removal and face discrimination and a lack of support to thrive in urban centers in contrast to citizens who have lived in urban centers throughout their lives.

Curtailment
The high amount of government incentives has encouraged the mass development of solar projects, especially in the northern and western regions of China. Consequently, there has been mass investment in energy production in low-population regions where energy usage is relatively low and not enough investment in infrastructure to transfer this produced energy to China's main power grid. This has caused the curtailment of solar energy to which critics point out to argue that many of China's heavy investments in renewable energy are inefficient and will become unsustainable for the country in the future. This inability to transfer energy to regions that require it has led many critics to call for China to invest more into power transfer infrastructure instead of solely energy capacity. Although curtailment rates have lowered since 2016, dropping down from 17% to 7% in 2016, some critics argue that these rates are still too high. Critics have used solar power curtailment as an example to argue for China to change its methods for dealing with the climate crisis as they see that its current efforts are ineffective.

Use of forced labor

China's production of cheap photovoltaic cells has been the target of a large amount of criticism due to claims of forced labor being used to drive production costs down. Reports of large Chinese solar manufacturing companies using forced labor from Uyghurs of Xinjiang to produce photovoltaic cells have appeared. Reports for forced labor being used to acquire polysilicon, a key component of solar panels, have also emerged. Although the Chinese government claims that the labor used for material acquisition and production is voluntary, reports claim that there is substantial evidence that Uyghur laborers have been coerced to produce solar panels, threatened by internment camps. As the demand for solar power increases due to climate change, the cheap nature of Chinese photovoltaic cells has resulted in China's solar exports growing massively in recent years in spite of the labor used in production. The usage of forced labor in China has only been partially condemned globally, in part due to the fact that many countries depend on China's cheap labor and photovoltaic cells to afford the transition from thermal energy to renewable energy. Since China is responsible for 80% of the world's polysilicon production, with half of the world's polysilicon produced in Xinjiang, many critics of the forced labor usage have stated that it is difficult for many countries to avoid Chinese made solar power solutions. As a result, debates over whether or not solar energy components from China should be used have arisen.

U.S. sanctions
In June 2021, the United States Department of Commerce placed five Chinese solar companies, including Daqo New Energy, on the Bureau of Industry and Security's Entity List.

See also

 Climate change in China
 Electricity sector in China
 Growth of photovoltaics
 List of photovoltaics companies

 List of solar thermal power stations
 Renewable energy in China
 Solar Valley (China)
 Solar power by country

References

Science and technology in the People's Republic of China

Solar power in China


Saint-Omer Cathedral () was a cathedral, in Saint-Omer, France. Today, it is an ordinary church. This is because after the French revolution, the seat of the bishop was moved to Arras. It is still a historical monument. There was a small chapel where the Cathedral stands today. The chapel was built in the 8th century. Around 1052, a church was built on the site. Around 1200, a fire greatly damaged the church. Reconstruction in Gothic style started around 1263. Since it was a major work, it took a long time. The main construction works were done form the 13th to the 16th century. By that time, there was a college associated with the church. 1714 saw the installation of the bishop's seat; in 1717 the last touch-ups were done to the pipe organ. The woodwork and the bishop's seat date from 1753.

In 1792 there was the French Revolution. The Church was closed to worshippers. It was converted into a storage area. Unlike other churches, there was little vandalism done to it. The Concordat of 1801 saw the suppression of the diocese of Saint-Omer, it was moved to Arras.

Roman Catholic cathedrals
Cathedrals in France
Pas-de-Calais
13th-century buildings and structures

Notre-Dame de Saint-Omer


"The Letter" is a song recorded by American country music artists Conway Twitty and Loretta Lynn as a duet. It was released in June 1976 as the first single from their album United Talent. The song peaked at number 3 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart. It also reached number 1 on the RPM Country Tracks chart in Canada.  It was written by Twitty and Charles Haney.

The song – spoken wall-to-wall, with Twitty and Lynn trading spoken parts and set to a ballad-type musical background – is about a young man who is unfaithful to his girlfriend, resulting in the end of the relationship. Some time later, the two meet up again and she asks him to make good on a promise they made that if one ever needed to help the other, he or she would. She asks him to write a letter that affirms love and faithfulness, regret and willingness to repent under the guise that it would be seen by her current boyfriend (who, like the male protagonist was unfaithful) and that he would realize his mistake and that he had a good thing. The letter turns out to be ironic: It is a type of a Dear John letter, and it is the letter writer who, in writing the letter, admits his own mistakes and expresses his willingness to change.

"B" Side: "God Bless America Again"
The B-side, "God Bless America Again," did not chart as a flip side or on its own, but still received significant airplay due to its release close to the United States Bicentennial. Twitty recites the spoken word part while Lynn signs the refrain, with Twitty joining on the final refrain. This song still receives airplay today on classic country radio stations.

Chart performance

References

Songs about letters (message)
1976 singles
Conway Twitty songs
Loretta Lynn songs
Songs written by Conway Twitty
Song recordings produced by Owen Bradley
Male–female vocal duets
MCA Records singles

The Letter (Conway Twitty and Loretta Lynn song)


Ricardo Sanchez Colclough ( ; born September 26, 1983) is a former Canadian football cornerback  and linebacker in the Canadian Football League (CFL). He was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the second round of the 2004 NFL Draft. He played college football at Kilgore College for one season (2001) under head coach Jimmy Rieves on an undefeated NJCAA football team, then played at Tusculum.

Colclough has also been a member of the Cleveland Browns, Carolina Panthers, and Kansas City Chiefs. He earned a Super Bowl ring with the Steelers in Super Bowl XL against the Seattle Seahawks.

Professional career

Pittsburgh Steelers
He was drafted with the sixth pick of the second round of the 2004 NFL Draft out of Tusculum College. He is perhaps best known for his momentum-shifting muffed punt in week three of the 2006 season.  With the Steelers up 17 to 14 against the Cincinnati Bengals, Colclough was back for a punt with roughly eight minutes remaining.  He attempted to field the punt by raising his hands above his head, then dropping the punt.  He and teammate free safety Tyrone Carter both had a chance to recover, but both failed.  One play after the miscue, Bengals quarterback Carson Palmer hit wide receiver T. J. Houshmandzadeh for a score.  The Steelers ended up losing the game, 28-20.

Colclough was put on the injured reserve list in early October of the 2006 NFL season. On October 30, 2007, Colclough was released by the Steelers after appearing in three games.

Cleveland Browns
The next day, he was claimed off waivers by the Cleveland Browns. He was with the team the rest of the 2007 season, but did not play in any games for the Browns before becoming a free agent.

Carolina Panthers
On March 1, 2008, Colclough signed a two-year, $4 million contract with the Carolina Panthers. Colclough was released by the Panthers on August 30, 2008, hours after receiving a DWI.

Kansas City Chiefs
Colclough was signed by the Kansas City Chiefs on November 5, 2008. He was waived on September 29, 2009.

Omaha Nighthawks
Colclough was signed by the Omaha Nighthawks in 2010. He was re-signed by the team on July 15, 2011.

Edmonton Eskimos
On March 12, 2012, Colclough signed with the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League.  In two games, he recorded 6 tackles.

Hamilton Tiger-Cats
On September 13, 2012, Colclough was traded from the Eskimos to the Hamilton Tiger-Cats along with a 6th round pick the CFL draft for non-import fullback Darcy Brown. Colclough was released by the Tiger-Cats on July 18, 2013

Toronto Argonauts
On July 23, 2013, Colclough signed with the Toronto Argonauts. He was released by the Argonauts on May 26, 2014.

References

External links
CFL stats
stats
Just Sports Stats

1983 births
Living people
American football cornerbacks
Carolina Panthers players
Cleveland Browns players
Edmonton Elks players
Hamilton Tiger-Cats players
Kansas City Chiefs players
Kilgore Rangers football players
Omaha Nighthawks players
Sportspeople from Sumter, South Carolina
Pittsburgh Steelers players
Players of American football from South Carolina
Toronto Argonauts players
Tusculum Pioneers football players

Ricardo Colclough


The Life Extension Society (LES) with its network of coordinators was the first cryonics organization in the world. It was founded by Evan Cooper in 1964 to promote cryonic suspension of people, and became the seed tree for cryonics societies throughout the US where local cryonics advocates would meet as a result of contact through the LES mailing list.  The original LES ceased existence near the end of the 1960s, but an organization with the same name and similar objectives was incorporated in Maryland in 1992.

History
In 1962, Cooper privately published a manuscript named Immortality: Physically, Scientifically, Now under his pseudonym, Nathan Duhring. The book is considered by Michael Darwin "a modest, almost apologetic one; the ideas it contains are the stuff of genius and the fabric of change, in it, he advocated that men need not be born only to die and that if they were frozen at or near the time of death they might yet have a chance to live again, whole and complete, forever." In the same year, but shortly after Cooper's book appeared, a Michigan college physics teacher, Robert Ettinger, privately published his book The Prospect of Immortality, that independently suggested the same idea. Ettinger came to be credited as the originator of cryonics, perhaps because his book was republished by Doubleday in 1964 on the recommendations of Isaac Asimov and Fred Pohl, and received more publicity. Ettinger also stayed with the movement longer. Nevertheless, the cryonics historian R. Michael Perry has written: "Evan Cooper deserves the principal credit for forming an organized cryonics movement."

See also
 Life extension

References

External links
 Evan Cooper, Immortality: Physically, Scientifically, Now
 Robert Ettinger, The Prospect of Immortality

Cryonics organizations in the United States
Medical and health organizations based in Maryland

Life Extension Society


Victor Emery (born June 28, 1933) is a Canadian athlete and businessman. Emery was born in Montreal, Quebec. He is a gold medallist in the four man bobsleigh pilot from the 1964 Olympic Winter Games, as well as the 1965 World Championships.

Involved in diverse athletics from a young age, Emery, was a "Mustang" in swimming, wrestling and skiing at the University of Western Ontario. He later graduated with an MBA from the Harvard Business School.

Emery attempted to ski across the mountains from St. Moritz to Cortina in order to watch the 1956 Winter Olympics. However, there was little snow near Merano. By chance, the British Bobsleigh Team gave him a lift the rest of the way. In spite of that long ride on a bobsleigh seat in an open truck at -20, this is where his interest in the bob sport was inspired.

He became a "surrogate" Spaniard on the Marquis de Portago's bob team in St Moritz's Swiss Meisterschaft, which followed the Olympics.

Portago subsequently encouraged Emery to try his hand at piloting a bobsleigh by loaning him a Spanish sled. Emery, who was a Navy Reserve pilot familiar with unusual positions, became immediately hooked on bob sleighing. He and a fellow Western graduate - Lamont Gordon, gained enough competency in Lake Placid to represent Canada in the 1959 World Bobsleigh Championships in St Moritz, accompanied by Vic's brother John and Charles Rathgeb.

Their performance was less than stellar in 1959, however, Emery sought guidance from the great world champion and 1956 Olympic Silver medallist, Eugenio Monti, who became a lifelong friend, mentoring Vic at annual World Championships from there on.

The initial goal of Vic and his teammates was to be the first Canadian bobsleigh team to compete in the Winter Olympic Games. Squaw Valley, host of the 1960 Winter Olympics, did not build a bobsleigh run for the Games, and so, the bobsledders of the time, including Monti and other world champions, chomped at the bit for the eight years from 1956 for another chance at Olympic medals.

Canada's Bobsleigh contingent realized their dream at the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, Austria. Without corporate or government sponsorship, they purchased their equipment and generally paid their own way. And while strong in pre-race practice runs, they were given little chance against Monti's Italian world champion team, and double silver medallist in the 1956 Olympics, also the heavily favoured Austrians, as well as the Swiss, German champions and other long standing bobsledders. In the first heat, however, the Canadians astonished everyone, with a magical run which set a track record, leading the field by over a half second.

Their sled's axle was damaged when hitting a side wall in the finish straight. With little time allotted between heats, if the Canadians had missed their starting slot, the team would have been disqualified. However, Emery's rival and friend, Eugenio Monti and his mechanics, came to the rescue, adequately repairing the sled in time. The team carried on with second fastest second and third heats, and then, on the third day of the competition garnered another first place in the fourth heat to win overall by a full second.

Alongside his comfort with the Igls bob Track, Vic Emery attributes their win to a fantastic team spirit credited to the number two man - Doug Anakin, a former Intercollegiate wrestling finalist, the strength of brakeman Peter Kirby, a former FIS skier for Canada and strong start helped enormously by the speed of Vic's track star brother Dr. John in the awkward #3 slot. John forsook his place as pilot of the other Canadian four man sled in favour of joining Vic's team during the last days before the four man competition. With him on board, Canada's starts became almost as good as those of the Austrian and Italian teams which came second and third.

In the same Olympics, Vic Emery & Peter Kirby earned a fourth-place finish in the two-man bobsled competition.

The following year, 1965, in St Moritz, Vic Emery's team, with new additions Gerald Presley and Michael Young sandwiched between him and brakeman Peter Kirby, won the FIBT World Bobsled Championship. Emery and Young finished third in the two-man event.

In 1966, due to a deteriorating track which precipitated a tragic crash killing the German pilot, the World four man Bob Championships in Cortina were cancelled part way through. By 1967, the Emery team retired from bob sleighing then, however encouraged the young through their example and by recruitment to firmly establish the sport of bobsleigh on Canadian soil, now supported by bobsleigh tracks in both Alberta (1988 Winter Olympics) and British Columbia (2010 Winter Olympics).

Today, after reactivating the Lake Louise Ski area and a number of other entrepreneurial, corporate and philanthropic activities, Vic Emery is retired and living in Europe - London and Oslo.

The two Emery brothers, Anakin and Kirby, were inducted into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame in 1964 and Canada's Olympic Hall of Fame in 1971. Young and Presley also followed into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame after the 1965 win.

References
 Bobsleigh four-man Olympic medalists for 1924, 1932-56, and since 1964
 Bobsleigh two-man world championship medalists since 1931
 Bobsleigh four-man world championship medalists since 1930

1933 births
Bobsledders at the 1964 Winter Olympics
Canadian male bobsledders
Harvard Business School alumni
Living people
Olympic bobsledders for Canada
Olympic gold medalists for Canada
Sportspeople from Montreal
Anglophone Quebec people
Olympic medalists in bobsleigh
University of Western Ontario alumni
Medalists at the 1964 Winter Olympics

Vic Emery


A fishing hook is a hook used to catch fish. There are many types of fishing hooks. Most have a sharp point which sticks into the fish when it is caught. There are lots of types of fishing hooks, and they all depend on how powerful they can hold the line and the size. Many hooks have different sizes for different fish.

Sports equipment
Fishing

Fishing hook


Jerseyville is a small village on the Mid North Coast of New South Wales, Australia in Kempsey Shire.  It is on South West Rocks Road, near South West Rocks.  It is situated between Spencers Creek and the Macleay River. The village consists of only a handful of streets. It is a satellite suburb of South West Rocks and is a well-known fishing village. The town was originally called "Robinson's Wharf" and was founded in the 19th century after George Robinson subdivided his property. It was also known as ' Pelican's Island'. Its importance during the next generation or so was based upon the fact that coastal shipping was the main method of transport between the major Australian cities and the Macleay River Valley.

Towns in New South Wales
Mid North Coast
Kempsey Shire

Jerseyville, New South Wales


Cellulose is the main chemical that forms the main structure of plants.  It is the most abundant macromolecule and the most common organic compound on  Earth.  It is also a kind of fiber.  Cellulose is a very complex carbohydrate, consisting of 3,000 or more glucose units.  Cellulose was discovered by Anselme Payen in 1838.  He isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula.

Properties
Cellulose has no taste. It is odorless and hydrophilic, meaning it attracts water.  It is insoluble in water and most organic solvents.  It is chiral and is biodegradable.

Cellulose is made from a form of glucose and makes up most of the cell wall of plant cells. This is what keeps a plant in shape. Humans and other animals cannot digest cellulose but some animals such as termites and ruminants use bacteria to digest it.

It is a polysaccharide, which is repeating units of a monosaccharide joined together by a glycosidic bond by a condensation reaction.  It is very tough because when you join beta glucose together, they are opposite ways up. The bonds are straight, forming straight chains. There are hydrogen bonds between the polymers.

These fibers are in bundles of about 40, called microfibrils. Microfibrils are embedded in a hydrated network of other polysaccharides. The cell wall is assembled in place. The parts are made inside the cell and then assembled by enzymes associated with the cell membrane.

Uses

It is mainly used to make paper. It is also used to make as cotton, linen, and rayon for clothes, nitrocellulose for explosives, and cellulose acetate for films. Cellulose is used as insulation in transformers, cables, and other electrical equipment. Microcrystalline cellulose and powdered cellulose are used as inactive fillers in drug tablets. Cellulose derivatives are used as emulsifiers, thickeners and stabilizers in processed foods. Cellulose can be converted into cellophane. Cellulose is used to make water-soluble adhesives and binders such as methyl cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose.

Celluose can also be used as a anti-caking agent in some foods like pre-shredded cheese.

References

Carbohydrates
Molecular biology

Cellulose


Phillip Andrew Arnold (born April 26, 1992, in Marietta, Georgia), known professionally as Pip, is an American, funk-pop artist who participated in season 2 of The Voice as part of Team Adam Levine.

Early life
During his childhood, Pip was interested in music, reading, lacrosse, and Boy Scouts of America, attaining the rank of Eagle Scout in 2009.

Pip's musical aspirations were fostered by his older sister who holds a degree in musical theater. Growing up in a large musical family Pip learned to play various instruments, mainly piano, sang lead in local shows, and performed/entertained in the Marietta area. During four years at Kennesaw Mountain High School Pip starred in several plays, landing the lead of Huckleberry Finn during his senior year in the musical Big River.

The Glee Project and The Voice
Pip auditioned in 2011 for Oxygen show The Glee Project Season 1, landing a spot only on the first episode's audition rounds. In 2011 Pip was chosen as 1 of 5 select performers from Atlanta's 11alive "The Voice" VIP Early Auditions Contest (Pip was selected during a blind audition by co-host Chesley McNeil). Pip moved forward into national auditions and was picked as 1 of 120 contestants to fly out to Studio City, California for the blind auditions of NBCUniversal TV reality show The Voice.

Pip first appeared in episode 3 of season 2, auditioning with the song "The House of the Rising Sun". Judges Adam Levine, Blake Shelton, Cee Lo Green and Christina Aguilera all turned around for Pip; he picked Levine.

Pip competed on "Team Adam" on season 2 of The Voice, retaining his status on the team by winning the "Battle Rounds" against Nathan Parrett, singing Amy Winehouse's "You Know I'm No Good". He performed The Killers' song "When You Were Young" on the live shows, moving on in the competition with teammates Tony Lucca, Katrina Parker, and Mathai . On April 23, 2012, he performed Keane's "Somewhere Only We Know" for the quarter-finals, but was instantly eliminated by Levine at the end of the show. Despite being eliminated he reappeared on the season 2 finale performing "I Want You Back" on stage with Jermaine Paul, Jamar Rogers, and James Massone.

After The Voice
After The Voice, Pip moved to Los Angeles to continue his music career.
Pip's debut single, "Who Cares", was released September 11, 2012. It is the lead single from his debut EP No Formalities, released on January 4, 2013.

In February 2014, Pip signed a deal with Indi.com to start marketing and distributing music on a bigger scale. Releasing the single "Hooked" on May 19, 2014, with an EP and possible tour in the works for later in 2014. Indi.com was backing Pip's single "Trash Talk", partnering it with a new music video and anti-bullying campaign.

In November 2015, Pip joined the cast of For The Record: The Brat Pack on Norwegian Escape for five months, as "The Geek", a role he would later reprise in November 2016.

Pip has also been involved in making movies with long time collaborator Nanea Miyata. He served as First Assistant Director on Christmas Harmony (2018), where he also appeared in a minor role, and once again in Dead In The Water (2021) which he also wrote and released his single "Burn" for.

Currently, Pip is part of a NYC-based wedding/event band called "The Chromantics"

Personal life
In 2012, Pip set up a charity called Youth in Mission to help fund youth involvement in mission work around the world, in honor of his mentor, missionary, and close family friend, the late Stewart Hay. In 2014 the charity became a non-profit corporation, with Pip as president. Pip currently resides in New York City. Pip is openly gay.

Discography

Studio albums
2014: No Formalities

Singles
2014: "Hooked"
2021: "Burn"
2022: "Nothing / Sad N Stuff"

Featured
2022: "Beam Me Up" by Mystery Skulls

References

External links
 Official website

1992 births
Living people
American gay musicians
American LGBT singers
LGBT people from Georgia (U.S. state)
21st-century American male singers
21st-century American LGBT people
21st-century American singers
The Voice (franchise) contestants

Pip (musician)


Christopher Lee Cook (born September 1, 1976) is an American IFBB professional bodybuilder.

He served in the United States Air Force. Chris Cook's first bodybuilding competition was in 1996, where he placed 1st in the heavy weight division and Overall in the NPC (National Physique Committee) Mr. Anchorage.  His first IFBB event was in The New York Cup of 2005, where he placed 6th.  In 2006 he competed in the Arnold Classic and the Ironman Pro Invitational, both for the first time, and placed 15th and 10th respectively.  Chris Cook has been featured in many fitness and bodybuilding articles, including being featured on the cover of FLEX magazine, Muscle and Fitness, MuscleMag International, and Muscular Development.

Stats
 Height: 5'10
 Off-season weight: 295 lbs
 Competition weight: 250 lbs

Contest history
 1996 NPC Mr. Anchorage, 1st and Overall
 1997 NPC Mr. Alaska, Heavyweight, 4th
 1997 NPC Emerald Cup, Junior, 2nd
 1999 NPC Mr. Alaska, Heavyweight, 1st
 1999 NPC Emerals Cup, Heavyweight, 2nd
 2000 NPC Sacramento, Heavyweight, 1st
 2000 NPC Nationals, Heavyweight Did not place
 2002 NPC California Championships, Super-Heavyweight, 3rd
 2003 NPC USA Championships, Super-Heavyweight, 1st
 2004 NPC Nationals, Super-Heavyweight, 1st and Overall
 2004 NPC USA Championships, Super-Heavyweight, 1st
 2005 New York Pro Championships, 6th
 2005 Toronto Pro Invitational, 10th
 2006 Arnold Classic, 15th
 2006 Ironman Pro Invitational, 10th
 2006 San Francisco Pro Invitational, 12th

Filmography
 2004: Malcolm in the Middle, episode Buseys Run Away as Nick, the bodybuilder

See also
 List of male professional bodybuilders
 Arnold Classic
 Mr. Olympia

References

External links
Chris Cook's photographs

1976 births
American bodybuilders
Living people
Professional bodybuilders
United States Air Force airmen

Chris Cook (bodybuilder)


Old Gala House is a museum and conference centre situated in the Old Town area of Galashiels in the Scottish Borders. The building was originally built as a tower house in 1457 by the Hoppringill (Pringle) family, who had been granted the lands of Gala by the Earl of Douglas. In 1583, Andrew Hoppringill carried out much improvement and extended the house as his family home. Further expansion took place in 1611, before Andrew returned to live at the family seat of Smailholm Tower in 1635, when his daughter, Jean, married Hugh Scott. A ceiling painting was rediscovered in 1952 celebrating that marriage. Hugh Scott, the new laird, carried out more improvements and extended the house. Further extensions were carried out in the 17th and 18th centuries, completing the edifice we see today. The five bay, U-shaped house is built of rubblestone and is embraced on three sides by gardens complete with water features.

In 1872, Hugh Scott 9th of Gala commissioned Scottish architect David Bryce to design and build a new house. On completion the family moved to New Gala House, abandoning the old house. New Gala House was demolished in 1985 around the time the Scottish Borders Council renovated the old house and converted it to a venue. As well as being a museum and conference centre, the house plays a role in the graduation ceremonies of the local university and also caters for all forms of meetings including marriages. The house also holds the archives of Borders Family History Society.

References

External links
 Old Gala House - official site at Scottish Borders Council
 Old Gala House - Galashiels town site
 Architect David Bryce
 Old Gala Club - Galashiels Local History Society

Category A listed buildings in the Scottish Borders
Listed houses in Scotland
Houses in the Scottish Borders
Museums in the Scottish Borders
Art museums and galleries in Scotland
Local museums in Scotland
Galashiels

Old Gala House


Brent Belke (born February 1, 1965 in Edmonton, Alberta) is a Canadian guitarist and composer.  After playing in the punk and alternative rock bands SNFU and The Wheat Chiefs between 1981 and 1998, Belke began a career composing music for film and television.

Career

SNFU and the Wheat Chiefs (1981–1998)

Belke formed Live Sex Shows with his twin brother Marc, also a guitarist, and singer Ken Chinn in 1981 after they met through the skateboarding subculture in Edmonton, Alberta.  The band was short-lived, but the three founded a new group called Society's No Fucking Use (better known by the acronym SNFU) later that year.  With a rotating rhythm section, SNFU released four LPs and served as catalysts for the skate punk movement in addition to influencing the punk rock scene at large before disbanding temporarily in 1989.  After the group's first breakup, Marc and Brent founded the Wheat Chiefs, whose sound reflected power pop and melodic hardcore influences not immediately apparent in SNFU's material.

In 1991, offers for touring and significant record deals helped lead to SNFU's reformation, and the two bands, now located in Vancouver, British Columbia, operated in tandem for the next seven years.  SNFU signed to Epitaph Records, released three further studio and one live album, and toured extensively; the Wheat Chiefs were less active, releasing only the Redeemer album in 1996.

Belke left rock music in 1998 to focus on scoring in film and television, accruing university degrees in jazz and classical composition.  SNFU continued in his absence, while the Wheat Chiefs permanently disbanded.

Work in composition, recent activity (1998–present)
Belke has composed music for the films Cries in the Dark and The Accidental Witness, the television shows Road Hockey Rumble (for which he received a Leo Award nomination in 2008), So Weird, The Stagers, and numerous other works.

He performed a one-off concert with SNFU in 2001, and also played on one track on SNFU's 2004 album In the Meantime and In Between Time, their only release after his departure.  His newest project is Existential Angst Party, an experimental avant-garde group.  They released a full-length album in 2005.

References

External links
Official SNFU website

1965 births
Canadian composers
Canadian male composers
Canadian punk rock guitarists
Living people
Musicians from Edmonton
Wheat Chiefs members
SNFU members

Brent Belke


Dakar (  ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of Senegal. The city of Dakar proper has a population of 1,030,594, whereas the population of the Dakar metropolitan area is estimated at 3.94 million in 2021.

The area around Dakar was colonized by the Portuguese in the early 15th century. The Portuguese established a presence on the island of Gorée off the coast of Cap-Vert and used it as a base for the Atlantic slave trade. France took over the island in 1677. Following the abolition of the slave trade and French annexation of the mainland area in the 19th century, Dakar grew into a major regional port and a major city of the French colonial empire. In 1902, Dakar replaced Saint-Louis as the capital of French West Africa. From 1959 to 1960, Dakar was the capital of the short-lived Mali Federation. In 1960, it became the capital of the independent Republic of Senegal.

History

The Cap-Vert peninsula was settled no later than the 15th century, by the Lebu people, an aquacultural subgroup of the Wolof ethnic group. The original villages—Ouakam, Ngor, Yoff and Hann—still constitute distinctively Lebou neighborhoods of the city today. In 1444, the Portuguese reached the Bay of Dakar. Peaceful contact was finally opened in 1456 by Diogo Gomes, and the bay was subsequently referred to as the "Angra de Bezeguiche" (after the name of the local ruler).  The bay of "Bezeguiche" would go on to serve as a critical stop for the Portuguese India Armadas of the early 16th century, where large fleets would routinely stop, both on their outward and return journeys from India, to repair, collect fresh water from the rivulets and wells along the Cap-Vert shore and trade for provisions with the local people for their remaining voyage. (It was famously during one of these stops, in 1501, where the Florentine navigator Amerigo Vespucci began to construct his "New World" hypothesis about America.)

The Portuguese eventually founded a settlement on the island of Gorée (then known as the island of Bezeguiche or Palma), which by 1536 they began to use as a base for slave exportation. The mainland of Cap-Vert, however, was under control of the Jolof Empire, as part of the western province of Cayor which seceded from Jolof in its own right in 1549. A new Lebou village, called Ndakaaru, was established directly across from Gorée in the 17th century to service the European trading factory with food and drinking water. Gorée was captured by the United Netherlands in 1588, which gave it its present name (spelled Goeree, after Goeree-Overflakkee in the Netherlands). The island was to switch hands between the Portuguese and Dutch several more times before falling to the English under Admiral Robert Holmes on January 23, 1664, and finally to the French in 1677. Though under continuous French administration since, métis families, descended from Dutch and French traders and African wives, dominated the slave trade. The infamous "House of Slaves" was built at Gorée in 1776.

In 1795, the Lebou of Cape Verde revolted against Cayor rule. A new theocratic state, subsequently called the "Lebou Republic" by the French, was established under the leadership of the Diop, a Muslim clerical family originally from Koki in Cayor. The capital of the republic was established at Ndakaaru. In 1857 the French established a military post at Ndakaaru (which they called "Dakar") and annexed the Lebou Republic, though its institutions continued to function nominally. The Serigne (also spelled Sëriñ, "Lord") of Ndakaaru is still recognized as the traditional political authority of the Lebou by the Senegalese State today.

The slave trade was abolished by France in February 1794. However, Napoleon reinstated it in May 1802, then finally abolished it permanently in March 1815. Despite Napoleon's abolition, a clandestine slave trade continued at Gorée until 1848, when it was abolished throughout all French territories. To replace trade in slaves, the French promoted peanut cultivation on the mainland. As the peanut trade boomed, tiny Gorée Island, whose population had grown to 6,000 residents, proved ineffectual as a port. Traders from Gorée decided to move to the mainland and a "factory" with warehouses was established in Rufisque in 1840.

Large public expenditure for infrastructure was allocated by the colonial authorities to Dakar's development. The port facilities were improved with jetties, a telegraph line was established along the coast to Saint-Louis and the Dakar-Saint-Louis railway was completed in 1885, at which point the city became an important base for the conquest of the Western Sudan.

Gorée, including Dakar, was recognised as a French commune in 1872. Dakar itself was split off from Gorée as a separate commune in 1887. The citizens of the city elected their own mayor and municipal council and helped send an elected representative to the National Assembly in Paris. Dakar replaced Saint-Louis as the capital of French West Africa in 1902. A second major railroad, the Dakar-Niger built from 1906 to 1923, linked Dakar to Bamako and consolidated the city's position at the head of France's West African empire. In 1929, the commune of Gorée Island, now with only a few hundred inhabitants, was merged into Dakar.

Urbanization during the colonial period was marked by forms of racial and social segregation—often expressed in terms of health and hygiene—which continue to structure the city today. Following a plague epidemic in 1914, the authorities forced most of the African population out of old neighborhoods, or "Plateau", and into a new quarter, called Médina, separated from it by a "sanitary cordon". As first occupants of the land, the Lebou inhabitants of the city successfully resisted this expropriation. They were supported by Blaise Diagne, the first African to be elected Deputy to the National Assembly. Nonetheless, the Plateau thereafter became an administrative, commercial, and residential district increasingly reserved for Europeans and served as model for similar exclusionary administrative enclaves in French Africa's other colonial capitals (Bamako, Conakry, Abidjan, Brazzaville). Meanwhile, the Layene Sufi order, established by Seydina Mouhammadou Limamou Laye, was thriving among the Lebou in Yoff and in a new village called Cambérène. Since independence, urbanization has sprawled eastward past Pikine, a commuter suburb whose population (2001 est. 1,200,000) is greater than that of Dakar proper, to Rufisque, creating a conurbation of almost 3 million (over a quarter of the national population).

In its colonial heyday Dakar was one of the major cities of the French Empire, comparable to Hanoi or Beirut. French trading firms established branch offices there and industrial investments (mills, breweries, refineries, canneries) were attracted by its port and rail facilities. It was also strategically important to France, which maintained an important naval base and coaling station in its harbor, and which integrated it into its earliest air force and airmail circuits, most notably with the legendary Mermoz airfield (no longer extant).

In 1940, Dakar became involved in the Second World War when General de Gaulle, leader of the Free French Forces, sought to make the city the base of his resistance operations. The object was to raise the Free French flag in West Africa, to occupy Dakar and thus start to consolidate the French resistance of its colonies in Africa. The plan had British naval support when fighting alone against the Axis powers. However, due to delays and the plan becoming known, Dakar had already come under the influence of the German controlled will of the Vichy government. With the arrival of French naval forces under Vichy control and faced by stubborn defences onshore, de Gaulle's proposals were resisted, and the Battle of Dakar ensued off the coast lasting three days September 23–25, 1940, between the Vichy defences and the attack of the Free French and British navy. The enterprise was abandoned after appreciable naval losses. Although the initiative on Dakar failed, General de Gaulle was able to establish himself at Douala in the Cameroons which became the rallying point for the resistance of the Free French cause.

In November 1944 West African conscripts in the French army mutinied against poor conditions at the Thiaroye camp, on the outskirts of the city. The mutiny was seen as an indictment of the colonial system and constituted a watershed for the nationalist movement. On December 1, 1944, French soldiers guarding the camp opened fire on the West African soldiers. Accounts of the death toll range from around 35 (the official French account) to over 300 (army veterans active at the time).

Dakar was the capital of the short-lived Mali Federation from 1959 to 1960, after which it became the capital of Senegal. The poet, philosopher and first President of Senegal Léopold Sédar Senghor tried to transform Dakar into the "Sub-Saharan African Athens" (l'Athènes de l'Afrique subsaharienne), as his vision was for it.

Dakar is a major financial center, home to a dozen national and regional banks (including the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO) which manages the unified West African CFA franc currency), and to numerous international organizations, NGOs and international research centers. Dakar has a large Lebanese community (concentrated in the import-export sector) that dates to the 1920s, a community of Moroccan businesspeople, as well as Mauritanian, Cape Verdean, and Guinean communities. The city is home to as many as 20,000 French expatriates. France still maintains an air force base at Yoff and the French fleet is serviced in Dakar's port.

Beginning 1978 and until 2007, Dakar was frequently the ending point of the Dakar Rally.

Geography

Dakar is located on the Cap-Vert peninsula on the Atlantic coast and is the westernmost city on the African mainland.

Climate
The Dakarois climate is generally very warm. Dakar has an ocean-influenced hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh), with a short rainy season and a lengthy dry season. Dakar's rainy season lasts from July to October while the dry season covers the remaining eight months. The city sees approximately  of rainfall per year.

Dakar between December and May is usually very warm with daily temperatures around . Nights during this time of the year are warm, some . However, between May and November the city becomes decidedly hotter with daily highs reaching  and night lows a little bit above . Notwithstanding this hotter season Dakar's weather is far from being so hot as experienced in inland Sahelian cities like Niamey and N'Djamena, where temperatures hover above  for much of the year. Dakar is cooled year-round by sea breezes.

Climate change
A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~ by 2100, the climate of Dakar in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Praia in Cape Verde. The annual temperature would increase by , and the temperature of the warmest and the coldest month by  and , respectively. According to Climate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with , which closely matches RCP 4.5.

Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Dakar is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) which would be the most severely affected by future sea level rise. It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$65 billion under RCP 4.5 and US$86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050. Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$137.5 billion in damages, while the additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to US$187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, US$206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario. Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures.

Administration

The city of Dakar is a commune (also sometimes known as commune de ville), one of the 125 communes of Senegal. The commune of Dakar was created by the French colonial administration on June 17, 1887, by detaching it from the commune of Gorée. The commune of Gorée, created in 1872, was itself one of the oldest Western-style municipalities in Africa (along with the municipalities of Algeria and South Africa).

The commune of Dakar has been in continuous existence since 1887, being preserved by the new state of Senegal after independence in 1960, although its limits have varied considerably over time. The limits of the commune of Dakar have been unchanged since 1983. The commune of Dakar is ruled by a democratically elected municipal council (conseil municipal) serving five years, and a mayor elected by the municipal council. There have been 20 mayors in Dakar since 1887. The first black mayor was Blaise Diagne, mayor of Dakar from 1924 to 1934. The longest-serving mayor was Mamadou Diop, mayor for 18 years between 1984 and 2002.

The commune of Dakar is also a department, one of the 45 departments of Senegal. This situation is quite similar to Paris, which is both a commune and a department. However, contrary to French departments, departments in Senegal have no political power (no departmental assembly), and are merely local administrative structures of the central state, in charge of carrying out some administrative services as well as controlling the activities of the communes within the department.

The department of Dakar is divided into four arrondissements: Almadies, Grand Dakar, Parcelles Assainies (which literally means "drained lots"; this is the most populous arrondissement of Dakar), and Plateau/Gorée (downtown Dakar). These arrondissements are quite different from the arrondissements of Paris, being merely local administrative structures of the central state, like the Senegalese departments, and are thus more comparable to French departmental arrondissements.

In 1996 a massive reform of the administrative and political divisions of Senegal was voted by the Parliament of Senegal. The commune of Dakar, whose population approached 1 million inhabitants, was deemed too large and too populated to be properly managed by a central municipality, and thus on August 30, 1996, Dakar was divided into 19 communes d'arrondissement. These communes d'arrondissement were given extensive powers and are very much like regular communes. They have more powers than the arrondissements of Paris and are more akin to the London boroughs. The commune of Dakar was maintained above these 19 communes d'arrondissement, and it coordinates the activities of the communes d'arrondissement, much as Greater London coordinates the activities of the London boroughs. The 19 communes d'arrondissement belong to either of the four arrondissements of Dakar, and the  of each arrondissement is in charge of controlling the activities of the communes d'arrondissement in his arrondissement.

The commune d'arrondissement of Dakar-Plateau (34,626 inhabitants), in the arrondissement of Plateau/Gorée, is the historical heart of the city, and most ministries and public administrations are located there. The densest and most populous commune d'arrondissement is Médina (136,697 inhabitants), in the arrondissement of Plateau/Gorée. The commune d'arrondissement of Yoff (55,995 inhabitants), in the arrondissement of Almadies, is the largest one, while the smallest one is the commune d'arrondissement of Île de Gorée (1,034 inhabitants), in the arrondissement of Plateau/Gorée.

Dakar is one of the 14 régions of Senegal. The Dakar région encompasses the city of Dakar and all its suburbs along the Cape Verde Peninsula. Its territory is thus roughly the same as the territory of the metropolitan area of Dakar. Since the administrative reforms of 1996, the régions of Senegal, which until then were merely local administrative structures of the central state, have been turned into full-fledged political units, with democratically elected regional councils, and regional presidents. They were given extensive powers, and manage economic development, transportation, or environmental protection issues at the regional level, thus coordinating the actions of the communes below them.

Notable sites

The city of Dakar is a member of the Organization of World Heritage Cities and contains several landmarks. One of the most notable is Deux Mamelles, twin hills located in Ouakam commune. The hills are the only high ground in the city, providing views of the entire area and sweeping views of the city. The first hill is topped with Mamelles Lighthouse built in 1864. The second hill has the newly completed African Renaissance Monument built on top, which is considered the tallest statue in Africa.

Other landmarks of the city include the medina quarter located in Médina commune. Médina is originally built as a township for local populace during the French colonial-era. Today it is a traditional commercial center packed with tailors' shops. The most notable street market is Soumbédioune, which is also a major tourist attraction. The quarter also houses Dakar Grand Mosque at the heart of the commune, which is built in 1964 and one of the prominent landmarks of the city.

Dakar is flanked by two small islands, Île de N'Gor and Île de Gorée. The former is on the northern shore of N'Gor commune with beaches providing attractions such as surfing. N'Gor commune also has other popular beach resorts such as Plage de N'Gor. Île de Gorée, formerly a slave island, is today a UNESCO World Heritage Site which preserves the colonial era architectures and facilities. Some notable places on the island include the Gorée Memorial which is a memorial for the slaves, and the House of Slaves which is a museum dedicated to the Atlantic slave trade. Today, the island is also hosting the art scene of the hundreds of local artists who line up their works at the outdoor exhibitions.

Some other notable places include Layen Mausoleum which entombs the founder of the Layene Sufi tariqa, Palais Présidentiel which is the seat of the government constructed in 1907, Place de l'Indépendance which is the central square of Dakar, Dakar Cathedral, and Cheikh Anta Diop University also known as the University of Dakar, which was established in 1957.

Places of worship
The most common places of worship in Dakar are Muslim mosques.   There are also Christian churches: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dakar (Catholic Church), Assemblies of God, Universal Church of the Kingdom of God.

Dakar was selected as the Capital of Islamic Culture for African Region for the year 2007 by the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO), honoring its Islamic heritage. ISESCO and its parent organization Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) have held several regional and international conferences in the city, best known for adoption of Dakar Declaration in 1991 which aimed at fostering the cooperation between the member states.  Dakar is also known as the birthplace of the Layene Brotherhood, a Sufi tariqa founded by Seydina Mouhammadou Limamou Laye in 1883 at the commune of Yoff. Seydina is buried in the Layen Mausoleum which is among the major landmarks of Dakar. Today, Layene Brotherhood is consisted mostly of the Lebou people and based in the Cap-Vert area. It is also the third biggest Sufi order in Senegal.

Prominent worshiping sites for Muslims in Dakar include the Grand Mosque of Dakar, built in 1964, which is situated at Allée Pape Gueye Fall of Medina, the Mosque of the Divinity, constructed in 1973, situated in Ouakam, with the characteristic triangular windows, and Omarienne Mosque with minarets topped by green orbs.

Culture

In Senegal the traditional culture is very centred around the idea of family. This even includes the way that they eat. When it is time to eat a typical meal, someone will say "kay lekk" which means 'come eat'. Everyone will come together and sit around the plate and eat with their hands. Some famous dishes include Cebbu Jën (Tiéboudienne) and Yassa. The etiquette of people in Dakar is very simple but very vital. To not greet someone upon sight is to portray rudeness and oftentimes ignorance. Due to French colonialism the children of Dakar have a unique school system. The school will get a break at about midday and return home to get some rest. Since the population is majority Muslim there are numerous daily Islamic activities ongoing such as participating in noon prayer at the nearest mosque and attending the local mosque on Fridays. Music has a big influence on the youth with famous artists like Daara J Family who use their voice to represent the problems in their communities.

Dakar is home to multiple national and international festivals, like World Festival of Black Arts, Festival international du film de quartier de Dakar, Dakar Biennale. It was also the location of Taf Taf, an international artist residency program.

Museums

IFAN Museum of African Arts or Musee Theodore Monod
Henriette-Bathily Women's Museum
House of Slaves
Village des Arts
Parc Forestier et Zoologique de Hann, aka the Senegal Zoo
Museum of Black Civilisations
Dynamic Museum

Sports
Sports club AS Douanes are based in Sicap-Liberté; they play in the Senegal Premier League and previously won the 2014–15 Ligue 1 (Senegal) season.

Dakar used to be the finishing point of the Dakar Rally until 2007, before the event was moved to South America for the security concerns in Mauritania.

Dakar was set to host the 2022 edition of the Youth Summer Olympics, however, the games have been postponed to 2026, it will be the first of its kind Olympics ever held in Africa.

Transport

The town is home to the Autonomous Port of Dakar and the terminus of the non-functioning Dakar-Niger railroad line.

The Train Express Regional Dakar-AIBD (TER) will connect Dakar with Blaise Diagne International Airport (AIBD).  An initial 36 km will link Dakar to Diamniadio and a second phase of 19 km would connect Dakar to the Blaise Diagne airport. A total of 14 train stations will be served and the fastest end-to-end journey will take 45 minutes. The railway is expected to carry 115 000 passengers per day. The TER's first test run launched on 14 January 2019 and the first passenger train ran in December 2021.

Blaise Diagne International Airport is the city's international airport; it handles flights by several airlines, including Air France, Delta, Emirates and Emirates Sky Cargo, Iberia, TAP Air Portugal and Turkish, and is the hub of Senegal's flag carrier, Air Senegal.

Notable people

Abdoulaye Faye, footballer
Akon, R&B singer
Baaba Maal, singer and guitarist
Babacar Khane, yoga practitioner
Boris Diaw, basketball player
Bouna Coundoul, footballer
Cheikh Anta Diop, Historian, anthropologist, physicist, politician Cheikh Anta Diop University
Cheikh Samb, basketball player
DeSagana Diop, former basketball player, head coach of the Westchester Knicks
Didier Raoult, microbiologist and virologist, was born in Dakar in 1952
Fatou Samba, member of South Korean girl group Blackswan
Hamady Ndiaye, basketball player
Ibrahim Ba, former footballer
Ismaël Lô, singer-songwriter
Idrissa Gueye, footballer
Issa, R&B singer
Macoumba Kandji, footballer
Mamadou N'Diaye, former basketball player for Auburn University and the Toronto Raptors
Mame Biram Diouf, footballer
Marc Lièvremont, former rugby player and former head coach of the France national rugby union team
Marcel Lefebvre, Founder of the SSPX, Apostolic delegate to Pope Pius XII, and Archbishop of Dakar.
Mbaye Diagne, United Nations military observer and hero during the Rwandan genocide
Mouhamed Gueye, basketball player
Ofeibea Quist-Arcton, foreign correspondent for NPR News
Orchestra Baobab
Ousmane Barro, basketball player
Papa Bouba Diop, former footballer
Pape Paté Diouf, football player
Papiss Cisse, footballer
Patrice Evra, former footballer,
Patrick Vieira, former footballer
Pélagie Gbaguidi, contemporary artist
Sadio Mane,  footballer
N'Goné Fall, cultural consultant
Sheck Wes, rapper, songwriter, model
Ségolène Royal, French politician born in Dakar
Souleyman Sané, former footballer
Tacko Fall, basketball player
Thione Seck, singer and songwriter
Wasis Diop, musician
Youssou N'Dour, singer and percussionist

International relations

Dakar is twinned with:

 Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
 Baku, Azerbaijan
 Douala, Cameroon
 Isfahan, Iran
 Melbourne, Australia
 Milan, Italy
 Oran, Algeria
 Rangpur, Bangladesh
 Rosario, Argentina
 Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
 Taipei, Taiwan
 Washington, D.C., United States

References

Bibliography

External links

Dakar official website  (archived)

1664 establishments in the British Empire
1677 establishments in the French colonial empire
1857 establishments in the French colonial empire
Capitals in Africa
Communes of Senegal
Dakar 1677-1959
Populated coastal places in Senegal
Populated places established in the 15th century
Populated places in Dakar Region
Port cities in Africa
Regional capitals in Senegal

Dakar


The Ariidae or ariid catfish are a family of catfish that mainly live in marine waters with many freshwater and brackish water species. They are found worldwide in tropical to warm temperate zones. The family includes about 143 species.

Taxonomy
The relationships of this family are not yet clear. Two of the genera, Gogo and Ancharius, have been moved to a separate family called Anchariidae. The Ariidae are divided into three subfamilies: Galeichthys is the only genus classified in the subfamily Galeichthyinae and similarly Bagre is the only genus in the subfamily Bagreinae, while the rest of the genera are classified in the subfamily Ariinae.

Previously, the family Ariidae has been grouped in the superfamily Doradoidea, but then it was moved into Bagroidea (along with Austroglanididae, Claroteidae, Schilbeidae, Pangasiidae, Bagridae, Malapteruridae, and Pimelodidae. It has also been classified in a superfamily Arioidea containing Ariidae and Anchariidae.

Distribution and habitat
Ariids are found worldwide in tropical to warm temperate zones. Ariids are unusual among catfish in that they live primarily in the sea; the majority of catfish families are strictly freshwater and have little tolerance for brackish or marine conditions. Ariid catfish are found in shallow temperate and tropical seas around the coastlines of North and South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia.

Many other species of catfish are also present in freshwater habitats; some species only occur in freshwater. In North and South America, about 43 species extend into brackish water or are found exclusively in fresh water.

Appearance and anatomy
Ariid catfish have a deeply forked caudal fin. Usually, three pairs of barbels are present. They possess some bony plates on their heads and near their dorsal fins. Some species have venomous spines in their dorsal and pectoral fins.

Skull

The gafftopsail catfish is sometimes called the "crucifix catfish" because its dried skull bones resembles a cruciform man. This is an example of pareidolia.

Ecology
Beyond their maritime habitat, ariid catfish have a number of unique adaptations that set them apart from other catfish. Most, if not all species, are mouthbrooding fish, with the male carrying a small clutch of a few dozen, tiny  eggs for about two months until the eggs hatch and the fry become free-swimming.

Relationship to humans

One well-known ariid catfish is the hardhead catfish, Ariopsis felis, abundant along the Western Atlantic coast from Massachusetts to Mexico. Although hardhead catfish reach a weight of about  and are edible, they have a mixed reputation as game fish and are often considered nuisance bait stealers.

A less-abundant species, more highly regarded as a game and food fish, is the gafftopsail catfish, Bagre marinus.  The range of the gafftop extends further south, to Venezuela.

The smaller ariid catfishes have minor value as public and home aquarium fish. In 1972, the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago received worldwide acclaim for the first successful breeding of Ariopsis felis in captivity, a feat they have repeated several times since. The Colombian shark catfish Sciades seemanni (until recently Hexanematichthys seemanni) is a fairly popular aquarium fish, though it has been traded under a variety of spurious names, such as Arius jordani and Arius seemani. Less commonly traded aquarium species include Arius berneyi and Arius graeffei.

See also
List of fish species that protect their young

References

Catfish families
Taxa named by Lev Berg

Ariidae


Ladoo is a sweet from the Indian subcontinent. It is mainly popular in India.

Preparation
Common flours used for laddu include gram flour (chickpea flour), wheat semolina and ground coconut. These are combined with sugar and other flavourings, cooked in ghee, and moulded into a ball shape. Some laddu recipes are prepared using Ayurvedic medicinal ingredients, including methi laddu, multigrain, and resin laddu. Nuts such as pistachios and almonds are commonly stuffed into laddus.

Ancient Indo-Pakistani history

2600 BCE, Harappan archaeological site,  4MSR near Binjor, western Rajasthan (India); seven closely kept similar sized nutritional Laddus,consisting of ingredients  legumes and cereals like barley, wheat, chickpea and  Mung (Vigna radiata) as main component, were found in intact  form, along with two figurines of bulls and a hand-held copper adze,  during 2017 archeological excavations. According to Rajesh Agnihotri, the presence of bull figurines, adze and a Harappan seal along with the food balls indicates, Indus valley civilization people might have revered these items to perform some kind of ritual.

References

desserts
Indian food
Pakistani food

Laddu


Peter Sohn (Born 1/23/1977) is an American animator, director, voice actor, and storyboard artist. Sohn has acted for many Disney/Pixar movies, including Lightyear, Luca, The Good Dinosaur, Toy Story of Terror, Monsters University, WALL·E,Ratatouille, and The Incredibles. He also was the director of The Good Dinosaur.

As well as acting and directing, Peter Sohn was in the art department for Toy Story 3 as a production artist and as a storyboard artist, Up, WALL·E, Ratatouille, The Incredibles, and Osmosis Jones as a storyboard artist, and Finding Nemo as a production artist.

Living people

Peter Sohn


Himmatsinhji M. K. (9 October 1928 – 22 February 2008) was a noted ornithologist, politician and scion of the erstwhile Jadeja ruling family of Kutch, who was member of 3rd Lok Sabha from Kutch.

Himmatsinhji also served as trustee of Ashapura Mata temple at Mata no Madh and Narayan Sarovar Temples.

Life
Born on 9 October 1928 at Bhuj, Maharaj Kumar Himmatsinhji was the youngest of five sons of Mirza Maharao Vijayrajji Sawai Bahadur, the Maharaja of Cutch and as such younger brother of last Maharaja of Cutch, Shri Madansinhji. His early education was under private tutors and later educated at Rajkumar College, Rajkot. He later studied agriculture at Wadia College, Pune.

In 1947, when India got independence, his father Sri Vijayaraji was away in US for his treatment and Yuvraj Madansinhji was in Delhi.  Himmatsinhji, who was at the time a student, hoisted both the flags of Kutch and of India on 15 August 1947, in the grounds of Gangaba Sahib Middle School at Bhuj.

He married Princess Padmini Kumari, daughter of Maharaja Pratapsinhji Jhala of Wankaner in 1951. He died at Bhuj on 22 February 2008 and was survived by a daughter.

Political career
After independence of India, he represented Kutch constituency in 3rd Lok Sabha, for the years 1962–67, as a member of Swatantra Party which won over the rival Congress party. He was also President of local caste body of Rajputs – Sri Cutch Rajput Sabha, for several decades.

Ornithology career
Himmatsinhji's great grandfather, Maharao Pragmalji had formed a museum of natural history in Bhuj while his grandfather Maharao Khengarji was among the first Indian members of the Bombay Natural History Society. Himmatsinhji's father, Maharao Vijayaraji, funded Salim Ali's survey of the birds of Kutch and Himmatsinhji took considerable interest and later became an ornithologist in his own right and regularly published notes on the birds of the Kutch region, most of these were in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society apart from a few books and these include:

Short notes and articles
Himmatsinhji, M.K. 1959. The different calls of the Grey Partridge, Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 56(3):632–633.
Himmatsinhji, M.K. 1960. The Eastern Calandra Lark (Melanocorypha bimaculata). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 57(2):408.
Himmatsinhji, M.K. 1963. Occurrence of the Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike [Coracina melanoptera (Ruppell] in Kutch. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 60(3):735.
Himmatsinhji, M.K. 1964. Additions to the birds of Kutch, Monarcha azurea (Bodd.) and Muscicapa thalassina (Swainson). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 61(2):449–450.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1966. The Great Crested Grebe [Podiceps cristatus (Linnaeus)] in Kutch. J. Bombay Natural History Society. 62(3): 551–553.
Himmatsinhji, M.K. 1966. Another bird record from Kutch. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 63(1):202–203.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1969. Stray observations. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 9(11): 1–3.
Himmatsinhji, M.K. 1969. Large Cuckoo-shrike and Black-headed Oriole in Kutch. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 66(2):376.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1969. Rednecked Phalarope in Kutch. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 9(2): 8–9.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1970. Peculiar feeding habit of a Whitebrowed Fantail Flycatcher Rhipidura aureola Lesson. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 10(9): 10.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1970. Greyheaded Myna Sturnus malabaricus (Gmelin) in Kutch. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 67(2):332–333.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1979. Unexpected occurrence of the goldenbacked woodpecker Dinopium benghalense (Linnaeus) in Kutch. (1979) J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 76(3):514–515.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1981. The Common Hawk-Cuckoo, Cuculus varius Vahl in Kutch. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 77(2):329.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1981. The Bluecheeked Bee-eater Merops superciliosus (Linnaeus) in Kutch. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 77(2): 328–329.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1982. Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster) in Kutch and some general comments. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 79(1): 198.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1985. Disappearance of some birds from Bhuj. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 25(3–4): 13–14.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1985. The Black Stork in Kutch: old record confirmed. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 82(2):403.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1986. Peculiar feeding behaviour of the Shikra Accipiter badius (Gmelin) and the Honey Buzzard Pernis ptilorhyncus (Temminck). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 83:201–202.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1987. Partridges. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 27(7–8): 16.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1988. Birds seen in my garden. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 28(9–10): 2–4.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1988. Some rare birds reappear in Kutch. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 27(11–12): 7–9.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1989. Occurrence of Ciconia ciconia Gruidae and breeding of Phoenicopteridae in Kutch, Gujarat. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86(3):443–444.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1991. The 'flamingo city' in the Rann of Kutch. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 31(5–6):3–4.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1995. Sálim Ali and the birds of Kutch. Hornbill. 1995(4): 8–11.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1995. Lanius cristatus Linn. in Kutch, Gujarat — a westward extension. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1):123.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1996. Dr. Sálim Ali's contribution to Kutch ornithology. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): v–vii.
Tiwari, JK; Varu, SN; Himmatsinhji, MK  1996. The occurrence of Grey Hypocolius Hypocolius ampelinus in Kutch, Gujarat, India. Forktail. 11(February):33–38.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1997. Chhari Dhandh – wonderful wetland of Kutch. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 37(3): 39–41.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1998. Notes – Haircrested Drongo. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 37(6): 97–98.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 1999. The occurrence of Collared Pratincole or Swallow Plover Glareola pratincola (Linn.) in Kutch. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 96(2): 316–317.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 2003. Observations of squatting posture adopted by Chlamydotis undulata (Jaquin). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 99(3): 522.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 2004. On the behaviour and habitat preference of Stoliczka's Bushchat Saxicola macrorhyncha (Stoliczka). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101(2): 323–324.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 2005. On the insectivorous diet of Columba livia Gmelin. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101(3): 455.
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 2007. An account of some bird introductions into Kachchh. Flamingo. 5(1&2): 3–5.

Books
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 2003. Dr. Salim Ali's contribution to Kutch ornithology. In: Petronia: fifty years of post-independence ornithology in India. 101–103 Daniel, J. C.,Ugra, Gayatri W., (ed.) Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society & Oxford University Press. (Book chapter)
Himmatsinhji, M. K. 2006. The semi-arid region of Gujarat and Rajasthan. In: India through its birds. 30–43 in Futehally, Zafar (ed.) Bangalore: Dronequill (Book chapter)

Note

References

Further reading
Link to see photo of Himatsinhji (then aged 73) being interviewed in the Prag Mahal for the Star News "Focus Asia" Program, March 2, 2001 after Gujarat earthquake

1928 births
2008 deaths
Indian naturalists
India MPs 1962–1967
People from Bhuj
Indian royalty
English-language writers from India
Indian ornithologists
Gujarati people
Maharajas of Kutch
Swatantra Party politicians
Lok Sabha members from Gujarat
20th-century Indian zoologists
Scientists from Gujarat
20th-century naturalists
Members of the Bombay Natural History Society

Himmatsinhji M. K.