Nordazepam (INN; marketed under brand names Nordaz, Stilny, Madar, Vegesan, and Calmday; also known as nordiazepam, desoxydemoxepam, and desmethyldiazepam) is a 1,4-benzodiazepine derivative. Like other benzodiazepine derivatives, it has amnesic, anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, muscle relaxant, and sedative properties. However, it is used primarily in the treatment of anxiety disorders. It is an active metabolite of diazepam, chlordiazepoxide, clorazepate, prazepam, pinazepam, and medazepam.

Nordazepam is among the longest lasting (longest half-life) benzodiazepines, and its occurrence as a metabolite is responsible for most cumulative side-effects of its myriad of pro-drugs when they are used repeatedly at moderate-high doses; the nordazepam metabolite oxazepam is also active (and is a more potent, full BZD-site agonist), which contributes to nordazepam cumulative side-effects but occur too minutely to contribute to the cumulative side-effects of nordazepam pro-drugs (except when they are abused chronically in extremely supra-therapeutic doses).

Side effects
Common side effects of nordazepam include somnolence, which is more common in elderly patients and/or people on high-dose regimens. Hypotonia, which is much less common, is also associated with high doses and/or old age.

Contraindications and special caution
Benzodiazepines require special precaution if used in the elderly, during pregnancy, in children, alcohol- or drug-dependent individuals, and individuals with comorbid psychiatric disorders.
As with many other drugs, changes in liver function associated with aging or diseases such as cirrhosis, may lead to impaired clearance of nordazepam.

Pharmacology
Nordazepam is a partial agonist at the GABAA receptor, which makes it less potent than other benzodiazepines, particularly in its amnesic and muscle-relaxing effects. Its elimination half life is between 36 and 200 hours, with wide variation among individuals; factors such as age and sex are known to impact it. The variation of reported half-lives are attributed to differences in nordazepam metabolism and that of its metabolites as nordazepam is hydroxylated to active metabolites such as oxazepam, before finally being glucuronidated and excreted in the urine. This can be attributed to extremely variable hepatic and renal metabolic functions among individuals depending upon a number of factors (including age, ethnicity, disease, and current or previous use/abuse of other drugs/medicines).

Chemistry
Nordazepam is similar to diazepam, except that the methyl group at the R1 position has been replaced with a hydrogen. Nordazepam can be synthesized with 2-amino-5-chlorobenzophenone and chloroacetyl chloride. Nordazepam itself can also be used in the synthesis of diazepam by methylating the R1 position using dimethyl sulfate.

Pregnancy and nursing mothers
Nordazepam, like other benzodiazepines, easily crosses the placental barrier, so the drug should not be administered during the first trimester of pregnancy. In case of serious medical reasons, nordazepam can be given in late pregnancy, but the fetus, due to the pharmacological action of the drug, may experience side effects such as hypothermia, hypotonia, and sometimes mild respiratory depression.
Since nordazepam and other benzodiazepines are excreted in breast milk, the substance should not be administered to mothers who are breastfeeding. Discontinuing of breast-feeding is indicated for regular intake by the mother.

Recreational use

Nordazepam and other sedative-hypnotic drugs are detected frequently in cases of people suspected of driving under the influence of drugs. Many drivers have blood levels far exceeding the therapeutic dose range, suggesting benzodiazepines are commonly used in doses higher than the recommended doses.

See also
 Benzodiazepine
 Benzodiazepine dependence
 Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome
 Long-term effects of benzodiazepines

References

External links
 Inchem - Nordazepam

Benzodiazepines
Lactams
Chloroarenes
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
Human drug metabolites

Nordazepam


William Caulfield (1665 – 24 August 1737) was an Irish barrister, Law Officer and judge: one of his sons became Lord Chief Justice of Ireland.

He sat in the Irish House of Commons for Tulsk, and was later raised to the bench as justice of the Court of King's Bench (Ireland), and served on that Court 1715–1734.

He was son of Thomas Caulfield of Donamon Castle (died 1691) and Anne Moore, and grandson of William Caulfield, 2nd Baron Caulfeild, and of Charles Moore, 2nd Viscount Moore of Drogheda.

As a wealthy landowner, he did not have to earn a living, and he was not called to the Irish Bar until he was forty, having previously entered Middle Temple. He became Second Serjeant in 1708, resigning in 1711, and was appointed Prime Serjeant in 1714. As a Law Officer he was noted for his zeal in dealing with agrarian disturbances.

Ball states that he owed his career advancement entirely to his Whig sympathies, but he seems to have been a conscientious enough judge. As Ball also notes he and his King's Bench colleagues dealt with all indictable crimes in Dublin city and county. The workload was heavy, and the late 1720s and early 1730s were noted for a number of much-publicised trials, such as that of the surgeon John Audoen, convicted and executed for the murder of his maid Margaret Keeffe in 1728. Another notable trial was that of Daniel Kimberley, an attorney who was charged with forcing a wealthy twelve-year-old girl, Bridget Reading, into marriage with one of his clients in 1730. In 1719 while on assize Caulfield narrowly escaped death when the roof of Roscommon Courthouse collapsed, with the loss of many lives.

The heavy workload affected Caulfield's health; he was unable to go on assize from 1730 onwards. He visited London and Bath in hopes of a cure. He retired on health grounds in 1734.

He married Lettice, daughter of Sir Arthur Gore, 1st Baronet by his wife Eleanor, daughter of Sir George St George (knight of Carrickdrumrusk), and was father of (among others) Thomas Caulfeild, Toby Caulfeild, and St George Caulfeild, all of whom were also MPs for Tulsk: St. George became Lord Chief Justice, and one of the most beloved Irish judges of his time.

William's residence was Donamon Castle, County Roscommon, which he inherited from his father in 1691.

References

 http://thepeerage.com/p1968.htm#i19677

1665 births
1737 deaths
18th-century Irish lawyers
William
Members of the Parliament of Ireland (pre-1801) for County Roscommon constituencies
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland
Members of the Middle Temple
Lawyers from County Roscommon
Justices of the Irish King's Bench
Serjeants-at-law (Ireland)
19th-century Irish judges
18th-century Irish landowners
19th-century Irish landowners

William Caulfeild (1665–1737)


Sommet Sports was a sports-oriented television channel operated in New Zealand that was broadcast on channel 14 on Freeview NZ. It offered a varied range of sporting events, some of which had never been screened in New Zealand. This included live weekly coverage of the German Bundesliga, delayed Liverpool FC matches from the English Premier League and coverage of the former SKY-broadcast Moto GP.

Sommet Sports was officially launched on 18 July 2013 after delays, the original launch date for the channel was 18 April 2013. The channel is available to Freeview HD homes via an UHF aerial. Sommet Sports was later made available on the Freeview Satellite service as the old Prime location was vacated and added to the Sky channel line-up.

At 11 am on 12 December 2014, Sommet Sports released a statement saying they would cease transmission at midday the same day. The statement cites lack of promised funds as the reason why the channel closed down.

In January 2015 a crowdfunding proposal under the slogan "Sommet Strikes Back" was devised to get the station back up and running. It sought NZ$300,000 at the minimum. By mid-March only about NZ$50,000 was pledged and the project was declared unsuccessful.

Sports coverage
Some sports broadcast by Sommet Sports included:

Australian rules football
 Australian Football League: 6 Games LIVE Per week plus 2 delayed games, Finals LIVE

Mixed martial arts
 World Series of Fighting

American football
 NFL

Football
 Bundesliga (LIVE coverage every week)
 DFB-Pokal
 UEFA Europa League
 Football League Championship
 Football League Cup
 England Home Internationals
 FA Community Shield
 LFC TV: Delayed Premier League match per week showing Liverpool fixtures
 ASB Premiership (Waitakere United home fixtures only)

Golf
 LPGA (featuring New Zealander Lydia Ko)
 The Evian Championship
 HSBC Women's Champions
 World Skins European Senior's Tour
 Great Golf Destinations: TV Show
 PowerPlay Golf
 Spirit of Golf: TV Show

Cricket
 Caribbean Premier League
 Sri Lanka tour to Bangladesh 2014
 2014 Asia Cup

Cycling
 Giro d'Italia

Motorsports
 Moto GP
 24 Hours of Le Mans
 Monster Jam
 Freestyle Motocross
 AMA Supercross Championship
 FIA European Championships for Rallycross Drivers
 2013 FIA World Endurance Championship season

References

External links
 Official Site

Defunct television channels in New Zealand
Sports television networks in New Zealand
Television channels and stations established in 2013
English-language television stations in New Zealand

Sommet Sports


Komal Rizvi (; born 3 August 1978) is a Pakistani actress, singer, songwriter, andtelevision host.  She is famous for her songs in Coke Studio (Pakistan).

Early life
Rizvi was born in Dubai and then raised in England and Nigeria. As a teenager, she came to Pakistan and launched her career in Karachi where she was also a student.

She started her career at age 16 when her talent was spotted by a family friend of her brother Hasan Rizvi, who is a dancer and an entrepreneur and also performed with Komal at various fashion events.

She released her first song in 1999 which went on to become the super hit Punjabi bhangra song "Bauji bauji bhangra saaday naal paoji". She became an overnight sensation.

She often writes the lyrics of her own songs.

Komal recently started her own safe skincare brand by the name of Truly Komal. Truly Komal is Pakistan's first line of Safe skincare products. Komal Rizvi along with top-notch chemist from Canada has developed her own skincare formulas which are all made in SPAIN! With over 30 products available in-store and online, Truly Komal is reshaping the landscape of the beauty industry in Pakistan.

Personal life
In April 2021, Komal Rizvi opened up about her abusive marriage and divorce. She said that shifted to Oman after her marriage and was treated badly by her husband. She further stated that her husband was mentally ill and he would raise his hand against her. She finally got divorced in 2019.

Career

Acting
Rizvi's first screen role was for Pakistan Television (PTV), the super hit Hawain in 1997, followed by Lehrein. TV serials like Kabhi Kabhi, Teesra Peher and Samandar Hai Darmiyan helped establish her as one of the leading actresses in the Pakistani television industry. She received a lot of praise for her role in Hum TV's Mujhay Roothnay Na Daina.

Despite the critical acclaim she has received for her acting, Rizvi is very selective about her acting projects as she tries to maintain her main focus on singing. "There are a few things that I look at before accepting a role. The major thing is the script and the production team. I accept only if the script is strong, realistic and relatable. I don't accept to act if the part I am going to play and the script are not good enough," Rizvi said in an interview given to You! Magazine.

In September 2016, it was reported that Rizvi would star in a Hollywood movie under the banner of a Canadian production house. This  new film, named Afreen, was scheduled to be released in 2017. Rizvi said in a newspaper interview, about the film's subject and plot, "It's an anti-ISIS and a pro-Muslim film".

Television show hosting
Rizvi started her TV hosting career with Karachi Nights With Komal. The highlight of her hosting career remains the TV show she did for Hum in Pakistan where she hosted Hum TV Mornings With Komal and Nachley, and the popular dance reality show for ARY.

Singing
Rizvi was a part of Coke Studio's third season where she performed "Daaneh Pe Daanah" with folk singer Akhtar Chanal Zahri. Originally written and composed by Zahri himself, the song fondly sings the praises of the province Balochistan he hails from. Presenting an unconventional alliance, this Coke Studio rendition of the popular folk song fused with Sindhi Sufi classic "Lal Meri Path" took both well-loved anthems to a new level in 2011.
Reborn against the backdrop of a modern funk groove, the song became a colorful musical demonstration of diversity with Zahri and Rizvi, two strong yet vastly different personalities, combining their voices in a symbolic celebration of individuality.

Rizvi also performed "Lambi Judaai", a classic Reshma number. Reshma caused a stir across the border when "Lambi Judaai" from the soundtrack of 1983 Bollywood film Hero became a massive hit. Coke Studio presented the nostalgic melody against a fluid backdrop of rich chordal elements to take on the quality of a ballad from the 1950s.
Both numbers were featured on the Top 10 all-time hits of Coke Studio. Rizvi is the only female singer to be featured twice on that list.

She has performed many old Punjabi songs.

Filmography

Drama serials

References

External links

1981 births
Living people
Pakistani television actresses
Pakistani television hosts
VJ (video performance artists)
Pakistani Muslims
20th-century Pakistani actresses
21st-century Pakistani actresses
21st-century Pakistani women singers
21st-century Pakistani singers
Actresses from Karachi
Singers from Karachi
Pakistani women television presenters

Komal Rizvi


Herbert James Haddock  (27 January 1861 – 4 October 1946) was an English naval reserve officer and ship's captain, and was best known as the captain of the RMS Olympic at the time of the sinking of the Titanic. He was the first person to captain Titanic, overseeing the ship at Belfast while her delivery-trip crew was assembling there from 25 to 31 March 1912.

Early life
Haddock was born to Herbert James Haddock (born 1825) in Rugby, Warwickshire on 27 January 1861. He joined the Royal Navy, serving as a lieutenant aboard HMS Edinburgh. In 1902, Haddock was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath. He was later aide de camp to King George V.

White Star Line
After his Royal naval service, Haddock joined the White Star Line, where he captained a number of liners including the RMS Britannic, SS Germanic, RMS Cedric, and RMS Oceanic.

Haddock was also nominally the first commander of RMS Titanic.  He signed on as her master at Southampton on 25 March 1912, and then travelled to Belfast to oversee the crew that was assembling there for the ship's delivery trip to Southampton.  He was relieved by Edward J. Smith at Belfast on 31 March and then returned to Southampton to take command of Smith's previous ship, RMS Olympic. On 3 April he began Olympics tenth Southampton-New York-Southampton roundtrip, arriving in New York on 10 April, the day Titanic left Southampton. Olympic was given the radio call sign MKC.

At the time of Titanics sinking Haddock was sailing Olympic easterly from New York to Southampton, approximately  west by south of Titanics location. Haddock was informed of the disaster by wireless operator Ernest James Moore at 2250 ET on 14 April. After receiving a CQD call from Titanic, Haddock calculated a new course and headed directly to her. He also sent for an engineer to set the ship's engines to full power. When  from Titanic, at approximately 1600 ET on 15 April, Haddock received a message from Captain Rostron of RMS Carpathia, explaining that continuing on course to Titanic would gain nothing, as "All boats accounted for. About 675 souls saved [...] Titanic foundered about 2.20 am." Rostron requested that the message be forwarded to White Star and Cunard.  He said that he was returning to harbour in New York, and recommended that other ships do the same. Subsequently, the wireless room aboard the Olympic operated as a clearing room for radio messages.

In the United States Senate inquiry into the sinking of the Titanic, Haddock was interviewed by William Alden Smith on 25 May 1912. Haddock gave his residence as Southampton, and his employment as a "Master Mariner". Seven weeks after the Titanic disaster, Haddock steaming at night almost ran the Olympic aground on rocks near Land's End. Fortunately lookouts spotted waves breaking at the base of the rocks in time and another disaster was averted. The error was attributed to faulty navigation, and Haddock was under strict observation for his next few voyages. On 9 October 1912 White Star withdrew Olympic from service and returned her to her builders at Belfast to have modifications added to incorporate lessons learned from the Titanic disaster six months prior, and improve safety. This refit lasted until mid 1913 and while Olympic was laid up Haddock commanded other White Star ships.

WWI
With the start of the First World War, in October 1914, Haddock was back in command of Olympic during her attempt to assist the battleship HMS Audacious after she had collided with a German mine off the western coast of Scotland. Olympic was subsequently laid up until being converted to a troopship at the outbreak of World War I. Haddock was redeployed to command a dummy fleet of wooden dreadnoughts and battle cruisers, and was stationed in Belfast. In 1915, Harold Sanderson, head of International Mercantile Marine, tried to reassign Haddock to captain Britannic when she was converted to a hospital ship. However, the Admiralty refused to release Haddock from his assignment in Belfast and by 1916 Haddock had resigned from the White Star Line. From 5 to 14 May 1917, Haddock sailed from Liverpool to New York City as a passenger aboard the SS Saint Paul, six months before she was taken over for wartime service. The voyage's manifest shows that Haddock's trip was funded by the Admiralty, and states that his final destination was Newport News, Virginia, where he would be received by the British Navy. According to the 1917 ship's manifest, Haddock had not been back to the United States since 1914.  Later that year he made a second trip to the United States arriving in New York on 31 August 1917 as a passenger aboard the White Star liner RMS Adriatic with his occupation listed on the manifest as "naval officer" and a final destination of Norfolk, Virginia.  His passage on this trip was paid for by his former employer, the White Star Line. The purpose of these two trips is unknown.

Post War

After the armistice that ended World War I, Haddock continued to serve as Royal Naval Reserve aide-de-camp to King George V until he was succeeded in that role by White Star commander Charles A. Bartlett on 16 July 1919.  On 8 December 1919, Capt. Herbert J. Haddock was placed on the Royal Naval Reserve's retired list. It is not thought that Haddock who would have reached the age of 60, the mandatory retirement age for White Star officers, in 1921 returned to the White Star Line after the war.

Personal life
Haddock married Mabel Eliza Bouchette, in Rock Ferry, Merseyside on 13 May 1893. Bouchette was born in Liverpool in  and lived with her father, Francis, at 91 Townsend Lane, West Derby, Liverpool. Other sources state that Bouchette was from Quebec.
Haddock and Bouchette had four children – Geoffrey (10 January 1895 – 17 September 1916), Ruth (1896 – 26 October 1958), and twins Herbert (21 October 1903 – 1988) and Joan (21 October 1903 – 21 November 1920). Geoffrey was a Lieutenant in the Victoria Rifles of Canada.  He was killed in action on 27 September 1916 at the age of 21, and was commemorated on the Canadian National Vimy Memorial. In the 28 May 1935 edition of the London Gazette, Ruth was described as a spinster.  UK censuses and civil registers show that the family lived in Rock Ferry until at least 1904.  They later moved to Southampton, living in the suburb of Bitterne. Bouchette died on 11 March 1935.

A 1911 story in The New York Times described Haddock as the "only skipper in the Atlantic trade who wears the mid-Victorian mutton chop whiskers without a beard or mustache".

Death
Haddock died in Southampton on 4 October 1946 at the age of 85.

References

Footnotes

Sources

1861 births
1946 deaths
English sailors
RMS Titanic's crew and passengers
Steamship captains
White Star Line
Companions of the Order of the Bath
British Merchant Navy officers
British Merchant Service personnel of World War I
Royal Navy officers
People from Rugby, Warwickshire
Royal Naval Reserve personnel

Herbert Haddock


A parole camp was a place during the American Civil War in which Union or Confederate soldiers on parole could be kept by their own side, in a non-combat role. They could be restored to a combat role if some prisoners of war were traded to the other side. That would enable them to be returned to a combat role as an exchange for the newly-freed prisoners of war. Conditions in the camps were unpleasant; the parolees refused to do guard duty or routine work and claimed that would violate their parole. Many escaped to go home.

An honor system was set up in which each side would take care of housing its own soldiers who had been designated as being on parole. That meant they would not fight in combat unless they were formally exchanged. The Confederates did not set up parole camps but let their men go home and expected them to return to duty once they had been officially exchanged. Parole camps were set up by the Union Army for its own soldiers who had been captured by the Confederacy and then released on the condition that they would honor the terms and conditions of their parole.

In 1862, a parole camp was established in Annapolis, Maryland, on the grounds of St. John's College, However, since the camp soon ran out of space, two more were soon built in the local area. One was located in nearby Parole, Maryland, which is how the town got its name. The resulting influx of soldiers changed the nature of the town since the soldiers were free to visit the local area as much as they might wish. Many soldiers disliked the camp and described it as dirty in their letters home. There were some occasional problems with disorderly conduct by some of the soldiers who were sent there.

There was a short-lived parole camp in West Chester, Pennsylvania, known as Camp Elder. One paroled soldier, Warren H. Freeman, wrote to his father and said that the parolees in the camp were being guarded by inexperienced members of the Pennsylvania militia, all of whom were fairly lenient in their guard duties, presumably because they were guarding members of their own army.

See also
 Dix–Hill Cartel
 Parole
 Prisoner-of-war camp

Footnotes

Further reading
 Pickenpaugh, Roger. Captives in Blue: The Civil War Prisons of the Confederacy (2013) excerpt and text search ch 4 pp 57-73 covers US Army parole camps in the North
Parole of Civil War Prisoners, civil war.com
Camp Parole, Annapolis, Maryland, pa-roots.com.
The American Civil War: 365 Days, from the Library of Congress, by Margaret Wagner, entry for October 6, Harry Abrams Inc., 2006. Listing for book at loc.gov.
Subject: NARA US Army Continental Commands, 1821-1920, From: Steven J. Coker (email@example.com), Date: April 10, 1999. lists all parole camps.
On the Edge of Discovery: Civil War POWs near West Chester?!, Chester County Historical Society website, accessed 4/8/13.
Author recounts Camp Parole history on 150th anniversary, capitalgazette.com, August 10, 2012.
Researcher delves into how Annapolis' Parole area got its name. Book details history of camp for former Civil War prisoners returned to Union army. By Mary Gail Hare, The Baltimore Sun, July 26, 2012.
Pennsylvania / Historical Marker of Camp Elder

Military history of the American Civil War
Prisoners of war
Parole in the United States
Prisoner-of-war camps
Internment camps

Parole camp


Backstay insulators, when used as a pair, are devices which allow for the electrical isolation of a section of wire on a yacht (e.g. the backstay) so that it can be used as an antenna for a single sideband (SSB) radio.

Since these insulators form part of the rigging, not only must they not leak current, but they must also be strong and durable enough not to fail mechanically under the sometimes tough load conditions experienced in sailing.

Manufacturers include Hi-MOD, Norseman-Gibb and Sta-Lok.  Each design is slightly different, but all share the common characteristics of having two attachment points set back-to-back and separated by some insulating material.

The Hi-MOD system has been designed in such a way that if the insulating material (typically some sort of plastic) were to fail mechanically, the fitting would retain structural integrity, keeping the wire from separating even when it stops functioning as an insulator.

References

Sailboat components
Dielectrics

Backstay insulator


Francesco Valaperta (Milan, 1836 – 1908) was an Italian painter.

Biography
A pupil of Francesco Hayez at the Brera in Milan, Valaperta made his debut at the Academy's annual exhibition in 1859 with a painting on a religious subject, followed in later years by works of a historical and literary character. Having adapted in the late 1860s to the great demand of contemporary collectors for subjects of a more intimate nature, he took part in the 2nd Esposizione Nazionale di Belle Arti at the Palazzo di Brera in 1872 and then went on to produce genre scenes in the manner of Gerolamo Induno and Eleuterio Pagliano. He received numerous commissions from important figures in Milan's middle-class society and also from the Ospedale Maggiore for portraits of its benefactors. He presented a group of portraits at the 2nd Milan Triennale in 1894.

In 1886 in Milan, he exhibits a canvas depicting the Death of Charles Emmanuel II. Among other works are: Queen Elisabeth of England refuses to suspend the execution of Mary Stuart despite the request by the Scottish Ambassador, exhibited at Parma in 1870. In 1877 in Naples, he exhibited the Last Supper of Mary Stuart. Also in 1877 in Milan, he exhibited a portrait of a lady, and La musica buffa; I facili ammiratori; Mi ama o non mi ama?.

References
 Laura Casone, Francesco Valaperta, online catalogue Artgate by Fondazione Cariplo, 2010, CC BY-SA (source for the first revision of this article).

Other projects

19th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
20th-century Italian painters
20th-century Italian male artists
1836 births
1908 deaths
Brera Academy alumni
19th-century Italian male artists

Francesco Valaperta


The amethyst gem clam (Gemma gemma) is species of very small saltwater clam, a marine bivalve mollusk in the family Veneridae, the Venus clams.

It is a small species, reaching a length of only 5 mm. The shell color is whitish or grayish, suffused with purple on both outer and inner surfaces.

The species is native to the Atlantic coast of North America, from Labrador to Texas, but it is now also found as an introduced species in some locations on the Pacific coast.

References

Veneridae
Bivalves described in 1834
Taxa named by Isaac Lea

Amethyst gem clam


Gerard "Gerry" Tsutakawa (born 1947), son of artist George Tsutakawa, is an accomplished Pacific Northwest sculptor. A studio apprentice for his artist father for 20 years, Gerry created his own first commissioned work in 1976. In the same studio where his father worked, he continues to design and fabricate anything from small studio bronze pieces to large public art fountains and sculptures.

History of artwork

Past sculpture projects include the Urban Peace Circle Memorial at Sam Smith Park in 1994, a collaboration with the Stop the Violence Committee where Tsutakawa contributed a  bronze sculpture to the City of Seattle, in memory of youth who have died by handgun violence. In 1999, Tsutakawa created The Mitt for Safeco Field and in 2000 the Fountain of Seseragi at the Seattle Center.

Recent commissions include the Salish Sea Circle in Port Townsend, bronze entrance gates for Seattle Park's Kubota Garden and the Washington Park Japanese garden, the Annie Curtis sculpture at the Port of Anacortes, Uzumaki Curve in St Louis, and Thunderbolt at Union Plaza in downtown Seattle.

Tsutakawa continues to work on public and private commissions around the Northwest and across the nation.

References

External links
 Artist's Website.
 .
 Artwork and additional information at Woodside/Braseth Gallery, Seattle

1947 births
Living people
Pacific Northwest artists
20th-century American sculptors
21st-century American sculptors

Gerard Tsutakawa


Masahiko Aoki (April 1, 1938 – July 15, 2015) was a Japanese economist, Tomoye and Henri Takahashi Professor Emeritus of Japanese Studies in the Economics Department, and Senior Fellow of the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research and Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies at Stanford University. Aoki was known for his work in comparative institutional analysis, corporate governance, the theory of the firm, and comparative East Asian development.

Early life and education
Aoki was born in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture in 1938. He received his B.A. and M.A. in economics from Tokyo University in 1962 and 1964. As a university student, Aoki was a communist activist, and one of the leaders of a radical Marxist student activist organization, the Communist League, better known by its German-derived nickname, "The Bund." Writing a number of theoretical tracts under his pen name, Himeoka Reiji, Aoki was also the Bund's primary ideologue and theoretician, and helped drive the Bund's radical behavior during the massive 1960 Anpo protests against the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty.

After the protests, however, Aoki disavowed his previous stances and moved to the United States to pursue a Ph.D. degree in economics. In 1967, Aoki received his Ph.D from the University of Minnesota, where he studied under John Chipman and Nobel Laureate Leonid Hurwicz.

Academic career
Aoki became assistant professor at Stanford University in 1967, Harvard University in 1968, and Kyoto University in 1969, where he remained until his promotion to full professor in 1977. In 1984, he returned to Stanford University as a professor of economics, and became Professor Emeritus of Kyoto University in 2001. In order to focus on research and take a greater role in international activities, he became Professor Emeritus of Stanford University in 2004.  Since 2011 he served as the Senior Visiting Fellow at the Asian Development Bank Institute in Tokyo. Aoki also held visiting positions at Tokyo University, Keio University, Hitotsubashi University, Harvard University, the London School of Economics, and the Max Planck Institute in Cologne.

Research career
Aoki's research has been also published in the leading journals in economics, including the American Economic Review, Econometrica, the Quarterly Journal of Economics, Review of Economic Studies, the Journal of Economic Literature, Industrial and Corporate Change, and the Journal of Economic Behavior and Organizations.

Aoki was the founding editor of the Journal of the Japanese and International Economies.

Besides authoring five books, Aoki was active in organizing international research projects on various institutional topics and has edited more than ten books for institutions such as the World Bank and the International Economic Association, to which more than 200 scholars from more than 20 countries contributed.

Aoki was President of the Japanese Economic Association from 1995 to 1996, and President of the International Economic Association from 2008 to 2011. He was also a Fellow of the Econometric Society.

Aoki served as President of the Japanese Government's Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry (RIETI), where he stressed the necessity of a trans-disciplinary approach to public policy research.

Academic Contributions
Aoki's major academic contributions to economics and the social sciences in general were in the fields of the comparative institutional analysis, the theory of the firm, and corporate governance.

Comparative institutional analysis
Aoki's research made him a pioneer and leader in comparative institutional analysis.

Together with Paul Milgrom, Avner Greif, Yingyi Qian, and Marcel Fafchamp, he created a comparative institutional field in the economics department at Stanford in the early 1990s.  They conceptualized institutions as equilibrium phenomena in societal games rather than something given exogenously by factors such as law, policy, and culture. From this perspective he laid analytical foundations for basic concepts in institutional analysis such as institutional complementarities, social embedeness (linked games), and public representations mediating the salient features of the state of play and individual beliefs, and applied them to comparative analysis across countries and regions. Aoki was the first to directly apply institutional analysis to Japan, arguing in the late 1980s that institutions such as lifetime employment, the main bank system, long-term supplier relations, and government as an interest group mediator were in mutually complementary, game-theoretic equilibria in the context of Japan's institutional evolution.

In his 2001 work, Toward a Comparative Institutional Analysis, Aoki developed a conceptual and analytical game theoretic approach to comparative studies of institutions.  He used this framework to analyze how institutions evolve, why institutional structures are diverse across economies, and what factors lead to institutional change or rigidity.

Theory of the firm
The Cooperative Game Theory of the Firm (1984) was a first attempt to synthesize and unify various theories of the firm, such as neoclassical, worker controlled, and stakeholder society views, as special cases of corporate governance with varied weights of bargaining power attributed to the members of the firm. Aoki's interests then moved into comparisons of various internal information structures of the firm (hierarchical, horizontal and modular), and its applications to international varieties of corporate firms across Anglo-American, Japanese, German, Silicon Valley, and Chinese systems, as well as to a comparative assessment of nuclear power disasters (Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and Fukushima).  These two viewpoints on corporate firms: a game-theoretic approach to corporate governance and information systemic approach to the internal structure of corporate firms are synthesized in Aoki's 2008 Clarendon Lectures, Corporations in Evolving Diversity.  Relying on a recent development of potential game theory, he also showed that sufficient and necessary conditions for corporate stakeholders with different payoff functions to behave as if they have a common objective is that they share a common distributive value (technically represented as Shapley value). This insight places the economic theory of the firm in a broader frame of institutional analysis.

Death
Aoki died on July 15, 2015, at the age of 77.  A Memorial Conference celebrating his life and work was held at Stanford University on December 4, 2015 and included addresses by Kenneth Arrow, Francis Fukuyama, Koichi Hamada, and Dale Jorgenson.

Awards and honors
 1981 Fellow, Econometric Society
 1990 Japan Academy Prize
 1990 Hiromi Arisawa Memorial Award for the Best Book on Asia (The Association of American University Presses)
 1993 Foreign Member, Swedish Royal Academy of Engineering Sciences (Economics)
 1995–96 President, Japanese Economic Association
 1996 Honorary Visiting Professor, People's University of China
 1997 Distinguished Visiting Fellow, LSE
 1998 Schumpeter Prize (International Joseph A. Schumpeter Society)
 1999 Walras-Pareto Lecture, University of Lausanne
 2003 Honorary Guest Professor, Tsinghua University (Beijing)
 2008 Clarendon Lectures in Management Studies, Oxford University
 2008–2011 President, the International Economic Association

Selected works
 The Cooperative Game Theory of the Firm (Oxford University Press, 1984, trans., Japanese, 1984) ;
 Economic Analysis of the Japanese Firm (ed.), (North-Holland, 1984);
 Information, Incentives, and Bargaining in the Japanese Economy (Cambridge, 1988, trans. Spanish 1990, French 1991, Italian 1991, Japanese 1991, Chinese 1994, Russian 1995);
 The Japanese Firm: It's Competitive Sources, (co-ed with R Dore), (Oxford University Press, 1994, trans. Japanese);
 The Japanese Main Bank System and its Relevancy for Developing and Transforming Economies, (co-edited with H Patrick), (Oxford University Press, 1994, trans. Japanese and Chinese);
 Corporate Governance in Transitional Economies:  Insider Control and Roles of Banks, (ed.) (The World Bank, 1994, trans Chinese, Vietnamese, and Russian);
 Information, Corporate Governance, and Institutional Diversity: Japan, US, and Transitional Economies in Comparative Perspective (Oxford 2000, original Japanese 1995);
 The Role of Government in East Asian Economic Development: Comparative Institutional Analysis, (co-ed with H Kim and M Okuno-Fujiwara), (Oxford University Press, 1997, trans Chinese and Japanese);
 Communities and Markets in Economic Development, (co-ed with Y Hayami), (Oxford University Press, 2001);
 Toward A Comparative Institutional Analysis (MIT Press, 1992. trans. Japanese 2001, Chinese 20001, French 2002).
 Corporate Governance in Japan, with Gregory Jackson and Hideaki Miyajima (Oxford University Press, 2008).
 Corporations in Evolving Diversity (Oxford University Press, 2010).
 The Chinese Economy: A New Transition, with Jinglian Wu (Palgrave Macmillan 2012).
 Complexity and Institutions: Markets, Norms and Corporations, with Kenneth Binmore, Simon Deakin, and Herbert Gintis (Palgrave Macmillan 2012).
 Institutions and Comparative Economic Development, with Timur Kuran and Gérard Roland (Palgrave Macmillan 2012).
 The Global Macro Economy and Finance, with Franklin Allen, Nobuhiro Kiyotaki and Roger Gordon (Palgrave Macmillan 2012).

References

External links

1938 births
2015 deaths
People from Nagoya
Japanese economists
20th-century American economists
21st-century American economists
Innovation economists
New institutional economists
University of Tokyo alumni
University of Minnesota College of Liberal Arts alumni
Harvard University faculty
Academic staff of Kyoto University
Stanford University Freeman Spogli Institute faculty
Stanford University Department of Economics faculty
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Presidents of the Japanese Economic Association

Masahiko Aoki


József Kossics, also known in Slovene as Jožef Košič (around October 9, 1788, Bogojina, Austria-Hungary – December 26, 1867, Felsőszölnök), was a Hungarian-Slovenian writer, Catholic priest, ethnologist, linguist, poet, and historian.

Kossics was born in Bogojina, Moravske Toplice, then part of the Kingdom of Hungary, now in Slovenia. His father József Kossics was a teacher born in Varaždin and his mother Ana Kregar was from a petty noble family.

Kossics served as a priest in the first half of the 19th century in Alsószölnök and later in Felsőszölnök (1829–1867) in Vas country. He was also a poet, linguist, historian, and ethnologist. He was a subscriber to the early Hungarian scholarly journal Tudományos gyűjtemény (Scientific Collection, 1817–1841). In 1828, his monograph on the Hungarian Slovenes appeared in this journal, earning him respect in ethnological circles. Kossics continued to attentively follow developments in Hungarian science and culture.

In his pursuit of promoting the special features of ethnic groups, he later became something of an activist. In 1837, he joined an appeal for a poem from every ethnic group living in the Kingdom of Hungary to be read in the respective languages for the opening of the Hungarian National Theater in Pest. For this purpose, Kossics himself wrote a poem in his native Slovene and added a rough Hungarian translation.

Kossics died in 1867 in Felsőszölnök.

See also

 Hungarian Slovenes
 List of Slovene writers and poets in Hungary
 Prekmurje

References
 Mária Mukics: Changing World - The Hungarian Slovenes (Változó Világ - A magyarországi szlovének) Press Publica

1788 births
1867 deaths
Hungarian ethnologists
Slovenian ethnologists
Hungarian male poets
People from the Municipality of Moravske Toplice
19th-century Slovenian Roman Catholic priests
Slovenian writers and poets in Hungary
19th-century Hungarian poets
Slovenian male poets
19th-century Hungarian male writers

József Kossics


Georgina Jane Ainslie, Lady Ainslie (born 25 September 1977), better known as Georgie Thompson, is an English television presenter.

Education
Thompson was educated at Queenswood School, an independent boarding school for girls near Hatfield in Hertfordshire, followed by the University of Leeds, where she studied Broadcast Journalism. She graduated in 1999 with a 2:1.

Career
After graduating, Thompson worked as a production assistant on a research and production scheme for GMTV before moving to Sky Sports in January 2001.

She has covered major sporting events for the network since then, including the US Open Tennis and has been part of Sky's coverage of the A1 Grand Prix, Grand Prix Masters, Speedway World Cup, Race of Champions, America's Cup and the 2011 Wimbledon Championships. She was a presenter on Sky Sports News, often presenting Afternoon Report with her run ending on 29 December 2011.

She also presented Sky1's Greatest Sporting Legends series with David Frost in 2005.

She was also a regular panellist on the Sky1 show, A League of Their Own for its first four series from 2010 to 2011.

In the May 2007 issue of the British men's magazine FHM, Thompson was voted the 93rd Sexiest Female in the World.

Thompson left Sky Sports News on 29 December 2011 to become a presenter on Sky Sports F1. During the 2012 season, Thompson presented Friday night magazine show The F1 Show alongside pit-lane reporter Ted Kravitz and during race weekends, presented the Sky Pad segment of Sky's F1 coverage, usually alongside Anthony Davidson. Thompson left Sky Sports F1 in 2013. She was replaced as co-host of The F1 Show by close Sky Sports F1 pit-lane reporter Natalie Pinkham.

Thompson moved to Fox Sports in 2013 as a panellist on Regis Philbin's sports talk show Crowd Goes Wild, which aired its final show on Thursday, 8 May 2014.

It was announced on 1 July 2014 that Thompson would be one of the new presenters of BBC Radio 5 Live's Saturday Morning comedy show Fighting Talk, sharing duties with comedian Josh Widdicombe. They both left in August 2016, and previous host Colin Murray returned.

Personal life
Thompson was in a relationship with Declan Donnelly, one half of the presenting duo Ant and Dec, from January 2009 until April 2011.

In September 2011, Thompson was banned from driving for 19 months, fined £1,000 and ordered to pay £100 in costs after being caught more than twice the legal limit for drunk driving.
On 20 December 2014, Thompson married British sailor Ben Ainslie. The couple have a daughter, Bellatrix, born in 2016.

References

External links
 Fighting Talk

1977 births
Alumni of the University of Leeds
English expatriates in the United States
English reporters and correspondents
English television presenters
Living people
Motorsport announcers
People educated at Queenswood School
Place of birth missing (living people)
Tennis commentators
Sky Sports presenters and reporters
Wives of knights

Georgie Thompson


Dr. Harriet B. Jones (3 June 1856 –  28 June 1943) was the first woman to be licensed as a physician in West Virginia. She was also one of the first woman to be elected to the West Virginia House of Delegates.

Life
In 1856, Harriet B. Jones was born in Ebensburg, Pennsylvania to John P. Jones and Hanna Rodgers Jones. When she was 6 years old, her family moved to Terra Alta, West Virginia in Preston County, which was at the time called Cranberry Summit. Her father John was born in 1832 in Cardiganshire, Wales and immigrated to the United States in 1838. Her mother, Hanna, was born in 1832 and was also from Wales. Her father was an active politician, and was also involved in the local Presbyterian church. He also served in the state legislature for three terms. She was one of five children in her family. In her private life, Jones enjoyed playing music. She played the piano since childhood, and received instruction for piano at Wheeling Female Seminary. While alive, her flower garden was well known in Marshall County, West Virginia. She died in 1943.

Career

Education
Jones attended Wheeling Female College, located in West Virginia, and went on to graduate from Woman's Medical College of Baltimore with honors in 1884. She pursued training after graduation in Chicago, New York, and Philadelphia. She specialized in gynecology and abdominal surgery. Upon completing her training, she returned to West Virginia, settling in Wheeling.

Medical career
In 1886, Jones became the first female doctor to ever be licensed in the state of West Virginia. In 1888, she was named assistant superintendent by the board of the West Virginia Hospital for the Insane located in Weston, West Virginia. She served as assistant superintendent until 1892. This hospital would later be renamed Weston State Hospital. In 1892, she returned to Wheeling and established a women's hospital. The hospital would go on to operate for 20 years. Over the course of her career, she founded four state institutions: The West Virginia Industrial Home for Girls, located in Salem, West Virginia; The State Tuberculosis Sanitarium, located in Terra Alta, West Virginia; the West Virginia Children's Home in Elkins, West Virginia; and the State Tuberculosis Sanitarium for the Colored. Additionally, Jones served on the state board of nurses.

Activism & Politics

Jones held a great interest in the rights of women in the United States. In 1889, she won the right for women to attend West Virginia's state colleges and universities. She was active in many organizations, including the West Virginia Equal Suffrage Association, the State Medical Association, the Ohio County Medical Society, The American Medical Association, the League of Women Voters, and the West Virginia chapter of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union,. Women's suffrage was very important to Jones, and she was very involved in encouraging women to vote. She was heavily involved in the League of Women Voters. She was the only woman from West Virginia to be honored on a commemorative tablet by the League of Women Voters. The tablet was meant to honor the leaders of the movement, and was established in 1930 in Washington, D.C.

Jones was also a successful lobbyist. She also held an interest in improving the lives of delinquent girls, and lobbied to establish state legislature that would establish a school for them. This lobbying process took six years. In 1897, she finally won this battle, and The West Virginia Industrial Home for Girls was established in Salem, West Virginia 1899. She remained on the board of this institution for 12 years. As secretary of the West Virginia Anti-Tuberculosis League, Jones also gave lectures on tuberculosis to thousands throughout West Virginia, advocated for better knowledge of the disease.

Jones also entered the field of politics, once the right to vote was established in 1920. She became the first woman to serve in the West Virginia House of Delegates. (Incorrect, check source, Anna Johnson Gates was the first woman in the state government.) She was elected as a Republican, representing Marshall County. She went on to be re-elected, and served a second term.

Works
 Registration, Primary, and General Election Law.
 Facts that Every Intelligent Voter Should Know About the Government of West Virginia
 The Health Laws of West Virginia
 The Prevalence of Tuberculosis and the Danger of Infection
 Introductory Parliamentary Law

References

1856 births
1943 deaths
American women's rights activists
Physicians from West Virginia
Republican Party members of the West Virginia House of Delegates
Homelessness activists
Activists from West Virginia
20th-century American politicians
People from Ebensburg, Pennsylvania
People from Preston County, West Virginia
Politicians from Wheeling, West Virginia
Women's suffrage in West Virginia

Harriet B. Jones


The Windsor Hotel is a heritage-listed building in South Perth, Western Australia. Designed by J. J. Talbot Hobbs, the building is of Federation Filigree style. Built in 1898, it is one of the earliest surviving hotels in Perth's southern suburbs. The Windsor is sited to take advantage of patrons visiting Perth Zoo, coming via ferry along the Swan River. Since its construction, the hotel has had several major renovations.

History
The Windsor Hotel was designed by prominent architect J. J. Talbot Hobbs, and built for George Strickland in 1898 at a cost of £4,050. The hotel opened on the corner of Mends Street and Mill Point Road at a time when the popularity of South Perth was increasing; by the mid-1890s the suburb was well established. In 1898, the Perth Zoo opened, along with a post office, which operated out of the hotel for a period of time. Part way through World War II, the Strickland family sold the hotel to Mary Thomas (later Mary Raine), who willed it to the University of Western Australia. Major works have taken place since the Windsor was constructed in 1898, with renovations carried out in 1962, 1965, 1970, the 1980s and 1991.

Style
The building was designed in Federation Filigree style. The building is constructed with tuck-pointed brickwork in Flemish bond and its corrugated iron roof is concealed behind a parapet. The veranda and balcony extend along both street facades and are covered with a lean-to roof. The veranda roof is broken by gables, which highlight the main entrance to each street facade and the truncated corner. The veranda roof is supported on fine, ornamental cast-iron posts with capitals and cast-iron balustrading. Its intact street veranda and roof details are now very scarce and so have rarity value. The Windsor Hotel is representative of the Australian pub tradition: a two-storey hotel with verandas, usually located on a prominent street corner in a suburb or country town.

It was listed with the Heritage Council of Western Australia in 1995.

References

External links

South Perth, Western Australia
Historic hotels in Perth, Western Australia
State Register of Heritage Places in the City of South Perth

Windsor Hotel (Perth)


Hans-Egon Richert (June 2, 1924 – November 25, 1993) was a German mathematician who worked primarily in analytic number theory. He is the author (with Heini Halberstam) of a definitive book on sieve theory.

Life and education
Hans-Egon Richert was born in 1924 in Hamburg, Germany. He attended the University of Hamburg and received his Ph.D under Max Deuring in 1950. He held a temporary chair at the University of Göttingen and then a newly created chair at the University of Marburg. In 1972 he moved to the University of Ulm, where he remained until his retirement in 1991. He died on November 25, 1993 in Blaustein, near Ulm, Germany.

Work
Richert worked primarily in analytic number theory, and beginning around 1965 started a collaboration with Heini Halberstam and shifted his focus to sieve theory. For many years he was a chairman of the Analytic Number Theory meetings at the Mathematical Research Institute of Oberwolfach.

Analytic number theory
Richert made contributions to additive number theory, Dirichlet series, Riesz summability, the multiplicative analog of the Erdős–Fuchs theorem, estimates of the number of non-isomorphic abelian groups, and bounds for exponential sums. He proved the exponent 15/46 for the Dirichlet divisor problem, a record that stood for many years.

Sieve methods
One of Richert's notable results was the Jurkat–Richert theorem, joint work with Wolfgang B. Jurkat that improved the Selberg sieve and is used in the proof of Chen's theorem.
Richert also produced a "readable form" of Chen's theorem (it is covered in the last chapter of Sieve Methods).

Halberstam & Richert's book Sieve Methods was the first exhaustive account of the subject.

In reviewing the book in 1976, Hugh Montgomery wrote "In the past, researchers have generally derived the sieve bounds required for an application, but now workers will find that usually an appeal to an appropriate theorem of Sieve methods will suffice," and "For years to come, Sieve methods will be vital to those seeking to work in the subject, and also to those seeking to make applications."

Notes

External links

1924 births
1993 deaths
20th-century German mathematicians
Number theorists
University of Hamburg alumni
Academic staff of the University of Marburg
Academic staff of the University of Ulm

Hans-Egon Richert


Play is a word used in psychology and ethology to describe voluntary activities associated with recreational pleasure and enjoyment, and with early learning in mammals. Although everyone understands what the word means, it is extremely difficult to define. Play is usually connected with children and their juvenile-level activities, but it can also be a useful adult activity, and occurs among other higher-functioning animals as well.

Many of the most prominent researchers in the field of psychology (including William James, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky) have viewed play as endemic to the human species. Play may be frivolous; but it may be serious. A player can be intently focused on his or her objective (in the zone), particularly when play is structured and goal-oriented, as in a game. Accordingly, play can range from relaxed, free-spirited and spontaneous through frivolous to planned or even compulsive.

Function of play
There have been two major reviews of research into animal play, and both have said it is extremely difficult to define. Play is almost universal in very young mammals, and also in some groups of birds such as parrots and ravens. Therefore, it must have a function, but what is that function? It is definitely not immediate survival. In fact, the young animals of many species may risk their lives playing.preface Yet, since it survives in so many species, it must have survival value. That, as Fagan says, is a paradox.
"The problem of defining play is one of the greatest challenges facing neurology, behavioral biology, psychology, education and the social sciences generally". Burghardt.preface

The main idea is that play is basically useful, and so it can be explained by the normal process of evolution by natural selection. This was proposed by Karl Groos over a century ago, and it is still the majority explanation.

Identifying play
Researchers know the difficulty of deciding when a behaviour is play, and when it is not. Konrad Lorenz developed a criterion. To be called "play", the behaviour should be really distinct from the response in the normal situation. Thus, play-fighting of young pups is quite different from serious dog-fights, not just a lesser degree of the same thing.
"The main difference is... the maintenance of all social inhibitions in play, even in the most boisterous and passionate types of play. Above all, the inhibition against genuine biting is maintained, whereas in serious fights, even in the slightest disputes, this inhibition is at once lifted".

Children's play
Play can take the form of improvisation or pretend, performance, mimicry, games, sports. Play can be structured, with goals and rules; when this is the case, the play is a "game". Other play is unstructured, without rules. The gurus of children's games were Iona and Peter Opie, who collected them in England in the post-World War II period.

Often sports with specific rules will take place within designated play spaces, such as sports fields. Other play spaces may be playgrounds with equipment and structures to promote active and social play. Some play spaces may be indoors, as with museums, or family entertainment centres.

The National Institute for Play describes seven play types:
 Attunement play, which makes a connection, such as between newborn and mother.
 Body play, in which an infant explores the ways in which his or her body works and interacts with the world. Examples: making funny sounds or discovering what happens in a fall.
 Object play, such as playing with toys, banging pots and pans, handling physical things in ways that use curiosity.
 Social play, play which involves others in activities. Examples: tumbling, making faces, and making connections with other children.
 Imaginative play (also called "pretend" or "fantasy"). The child invents scenarios from their imagination. They act in their dream world, for example, as a kind of princess or pirate play.
 Storytelling play (or narrative), the play of learning and language that develops intellect. They may play a parent reading aloud to a child, or a child retelling the story in his or her own words.
 Creative play. This means play with imagination to create a higher mental state. For example, an adult might experiment to find a new way to use a musical instrument; or, as Einstein was known to do, a person might wonder about things which are not yet known and play with unproven ideas as a bridge to discover new knowledge.

Piaget had a general framework for play:
 games of mastery: e.g. building, copying, designing
 games with rules: e.g. marbles, war games, hide-and-seek games
 games of make-believe and fantasy

Separate from self-initiated play, play therapy is used as a clinical application of play aimed at treating children who suffer from trauma, emotional issues and other problems.

References

Human behavior
Ethology

Play (activity)


Blowback is a system of operation for self-loading firearms that obtains energy from the motion of the cartridge case as it is pushed to the rear by expanding gas created by the ignition of the propellant charge.

Several blowback systems exist within this broad principle of operation, each distinguished by the methods used to control bolt movement.  In most actions that use blowback operation, the breech is not locked mechanically at the time of firing: the inertia of the bolt and recoil , relative to the weight of the bullet, delay opening of the breech until the bullet has left the barrel.  A few locked breech designs use a form of blowback (example: primer actuation) to perform the unlocking function.

The blowback principle may be considered a simplified form of gas operation, since the cartridge case behaves like a piston driven by the powder gases. Other operating principles for self-loading firearms include delayed blowback, blow forward, gas operation, and recoil operation.

Principle of operation
In firearms, a blowback system is generally defined as an operating system in which energy to operate the firearm's various mechanisms, and automate the loading of another cartridge, is derived from the inertia of the spent cartridge case being pushed out the rear of the chamber by rapidly expanding gases produced by a burning propellant, typically gunpowder.  When a projectile (e.g. bullet) is still within the gun barrel, the high-pressure propellant gas behind it is contained within what could be seen as a closed system; but at the moment it exits the muzzle, this functional seal is broken, allowing the propellant gas to be suddenly released in an explosive muzzle blast. The expanding gas also creates a jet propulsion effect rearward in the barrel against the spent cartridge case.  This "blowback" is the predominant component of the recoil. Some guns use energy from blowback to perform the automatic bolt cycling /reloading process, while others will use a portion of the blowback to operate only certain parts of the cycle or simply use the blowback energy to enhance the operational energy from another system of automatic operation.

What is common to all blowback systems is that the cartridge case must move under the direct action of the powder pressure, therefore any gun in which the bolt is not rigidly locked, and permitted to move while there remains gas pressure in the chamber, will undergo a degree of blowback action. The energy from the expansion of gases upon firing appears in the form of kinetic energy transmitted to the bolt mechanism, which is controlled and used to operate the firearm's operation cycle. The extent to which blowback is employed largely depends on the manner used to control the movement of the bolt and the proportion of energy drawn from other systems of operation. How the movement of the bolt is controlled is where blowback systems differ. Blowback operation is most often divided into three categories, all using residual pressure to complete the cycle of operation: "simple blowback" (often just "blowback"), "delayed/retarded blowback", and "advanced primer ignition".

Relating blowback to other types of automatic firearm operation, George M. Chinn wrote that: "In the larger sense, blowback might well be considered a special form of gas operation. This is reasonable because the cartridge case may be conceived of as a sort of piston driven by the powder gases. Actually, blowback involves so many special problems that it is best considered to be in a class by itself. The question whether or not it should be included within the more general class of gas operation or recoil operation is purely academic. The important point is that it partakes some of the properties of both classes and, depending on the particular problem at hand, may be considered to be either one."

History
In 1663 a mention is made in the journal of the Royal Society for that year of an engineer who came to Prince Rupert with an automatic weapon, though how it worked is unknown. In 1854 a hydropneumatically delayed-blowback cannon was patented by Henry Bessemer. In 1856 a crank-operated cannon with a blowback-operated cocking mechanism was patented in the US by Charles E. Barnes. In 1876 a single-shot breech-loading rifle with an automatic breech-opening and cocking mechanism using a form of blowback was patented in Britain and America by the American Bernard Fasoldt. In 1883 Hiram Maxim patented a blowback-operated rifle. In 1884 he would also patent a toggle-lock delayed-blowback-operated rifle. Also in 1884, a few months after Maxim, a British patent for blowback-operated pistols and rifles was filed by Richard Paulson. In 1887 a patent was filed by an American inventor called Carl J. Bjerkness for a blowback-operated rifle. In 1888 a delayed-blowback machine gun known as the Skoda was invented by Grand Duke Karl Salvator and Colonel von Dormus of Austria.

Simple blowback

The blowback (sometimes referred to as "simple", "straight" or "pure" blowback) system represents the most basic auto loading operation type.  In a blowback mechanism, the bolt rests against the rear of the barrel, but is not locked in place.  At the point of ignition, expanding gases push the bullet forward through the barrel while at the same time pushing the case rearward against the bolt.  The expanding gases push the bolt assembly to the rear, but the motion is slowed by the mass of the bolt, internal friction, and the force required to compress the action spring.  The design must ensure that the delay is long enough that the bullet exits the barrel before the cartridge case clears the chamber.  The empty case is ejected as the bolt travels to the rear.  The stored energy of the compressed action spring then drives the bolt forward (although not until the trigger is pulled if the weapon fires from an open bolt).  A new cartridge is stripped from the magazine and chambered as the bolt returns to its in-battery position.

The blowback system is practical for firearms using relatively low-power cartridges with lighter weight bullets.  Higher power cartridges require heavier bolts to keep the breech from opening prematurely; at some point, the bolt becomes too heavy to be practical.  For an extreme example, a 20 mm cannon using simple blowback and lubricated cartridges would need a  bolt to keep the cartridge safely in the barrel during the first few milliseconds; furthermore, the average force supplied by the return spring is limited to  or the bolt will not travel back far enough to feed a new round. Consequently, the return spring is not powerful enough to keep the bolt closed when the gun is tilted up. In addition, there is not enough energy stored in the bolt to cycle the weapon.

Due to the required bolt weight, blowback designs in pistols are generally limited to calibers smaller than 9×19mm Parabellum (e.g., .25 ACP, .32 ACP, .380 ACP, 9×18mm Makarov, etc.) There are exceptions such as the simple blowback pistols from Hi-Point Firearms which include models chambered in .40 S&W and .45 ACP. Simple blowback operation can also be found in small-bore (such as .22LR) semi-automatic rifles, carbines and submachine guns.  Most simple blowback rifles are chambered for the .22 Long Rifle cartridge. Popular examples include the Marlin Model 60 and the Ruger 10/22. Most blowback carbines and submachine guns are chambered for pistol cartridges such as the 9×19mm Parabellum, .40 S&W and .45 ACP. Examples include the MP 40, Sten and UZI.  The bolt can be made bigger and more massive in these weapons than in handguns, as they are intrinsically heavier and designed, ideally at least, to be fired with both hands, often with the aid of a shoulder stock; and these factors help to ameliorate the disruption to the shooter's aim caused by the heavy bolt's movement. Consequently, simple blowback is adequate for somewhat more powerful rounds in submachine guns than in standard pistols. There were also a few rifles that chambered cartridges specifically designed for blowback operation. Examples include the Winchester Model 1905, 1907 and 1910. The only known assault rifle to use simple blowback was the Burton Model 1917.

Whereas simple blowback is limited to guns using low-power rounds, it is so efficient in this context that in small-calibre semi-automatic pistols it is by now almost ubiquitous.  Heavier calibre semiautomatic handguns typically employ a short recoil system, of which by far the most common type are Browning-derived designs which rely on a locking barrel and slide assembly instead of blowback. But blowback guns can be used to fire powerful cartridges if they are of the other two types already mentioned: API or delayed blowback.

Advanced primer ignition (API) blowback

In the API blowback design, the primer is ignited when the bolt is still moving forward and before the cartridge is fully chambered (akin to the fire-out-of-battery principle used in some mountain guns like Canon de 65 M (montagne) modele 1906, although there the bolt is locked and whole ordnance is moving at fire). This requires a very careful design to ensure the proper balance and equalization of forces between the projectile weight, propellant charge, barrel length, bolt weight, and return spring strength. In a simple blowback design, the propellant gases have to overcome static inertia to accelerate the bolt rearwards to open the breech. In an API blowback, they first have to do the work of overcoming forward momentum to arrest the forward motion of the bolt. Because the forward and rearward speeds of the bolt tend to be approximately the same, the API blowback allows the weight of the bolt to be halved. Because the momentum of the two opposed bolt motions cancels out over time, the API blowback design results in reduced recoil.

Advanced primer ignition (API) was originally developed by Reinhold Becker for use on the Becker Type M2 20 mm cannon. It became a feature of a wide range of designs that can be traced back to Becker's, including the Oerlikon cannon widely used as anti-aircraft weapons during World War II.

To increase performance of API blowback firearms, larger calibre APIB guns such as the Becker and Oerlikon use extended chambers, longer than is necessary to contain the round, and ammunition for APIB firearms come with straight-sided cartridges with rebated rims (rims that are smaller in diameter than the cartridge itself). The last part of forward motion and the first part of the rearward motion of the case and bolt happen within the confines of this extended chamber. As long as the gas pressure in the barrel is high, the walls of the case remain supported and the breach sealed, although the case is sliding rearwards. This sliding motion of the case, while it is expanded by a high internal gas pressure, risks tearing it apart, and a common solution is to grease the ammunition to reduce the friction. The case needs to have a rebated rim because the front end of the bolt will enter the chamber, and the extractor claw hooked over the rim therefore has to fit also within the diameter of the chamber. The case generally has very little neck, because this remains unsupported during the firing cycle and is generally deformed; a strongly necked case would be likely to split.

The API blowback design permits the use of more powerful ammunition in a lighter gun than would be achieved by using simple blowback, and the reduction of felt recoil results in further weight savings. The original Becker cannon, firing 20×70mmRB ammunition, was developed to be carried by World War I aircraft, and weighed only 30 kg. Oerlikon even produced an anti-tank rifle firing 20×110mmRB ammunition using the API blowback operation, the SSG36. On the other hand, because the design imposes a very close relationship between bolt mass, chamber length, spring strength, ammunition power and rate of fire, in APIB guns high rate of fire and high muzzle velocity tend to be mutually exclusive. API blowback guns also have to fire from an open bolt, which is not conducive to accuracy and also prevents synchronized fire through an aircraft propeller arc.

According to a United States Army Materiel Command engineering course from 1970, "The advanced primer ignition gun is superior to the simple blowback because of its higher firing rate and lower recoil momentum. However, favorable performance depends on timing that must be precise. A slight delay in primer function, and the gun reverts to a simple blowback without the benefit of a massive bolt and stiffer driving spring to soften the recoil impact. [...] The exacting requirements in design and construction of gun and ammunition reduce this type almost to the point of academic interest only."

API mechanisms are very sensitive to the ammunition used. For example, when the Germans switched their MG FF (an Oerlikon FFF derivative) to their new, lighter mine shell, they had to rebalance the spring strength and bolt weight of the gun, resulting in a new MG FF/M model with ammunition not being interchangeable between the two models. The 30 mm MK 108 cannon was perhaps the apogee of API blowback technology during World War II.

The principle is also used in some automatic grenade launchers, for example in the US Mk 19 grenade launcher or Russian AGS-30.

Delayed blowback

For more powerful rounds that cannot be safely used in simple blowback, or in order to obtain a lighter mechanism than the simple format can provide, the alternative to API is some system of delayed or retarded blowback, in which the bolt is never fully locked, but is initially held in place, sealing the cartridge in the chamber by the mechanical resistance of one of various designs of delaying mechanism.  As with the resistance provided by momentum in API, it takes a fraction of a second for the propellant gases to overcome this and start moving cartridge and bolt backwards; this very brief delay is sufficient for the bullet to leave the muzzle and for the internal pressure in the barrel to decrease to a safe level.  The bolt and cartridge are then pushed to the rear by the residual gas pressure.

Because of high pressures, rifle-caliber delayed blowback firearms, such as the FAMAS and G3, typically have fluted chambers to ease extraction. Below are various forms of delayed-blowback actions:

Roller-delayed

Roller-delayed blowback was first used in Mauser's Gerät 06H prototype. Roller-delayed blowback operation differs from roller-locked recoil operation as seen in the MG 42 and gas operated roller locked, as seen in the Gerät 03 and Gerät 06. Unlike the MG 42, in roller-delayed blowback the barrel is fixed and does not recoil, and unlike the Gerät 03 and Gerät 06 and StG 44, roller-delayed blowback systems lack a gas piston. These omissions are conducive to relatively light construction by significantly reducing the number of parts required and the amount of machining required to produce a rifle. As the bolt head is driven rearward, rollers on the sides of the bolt are driven inward against a tapered bolt carrier extension. This forces the bolt carrier rearward at a much greater velocity and delays movement of the bolt head. The primary advantage of roller-delayed blowback is the simplicity of the design compared to gas or recoil operation.

The roller-delayed blowback firearm action was patented by Mauser's Wilhelm Stähle and Ludwig Vorgrimler. Though appearing simple, its development during World War II was a hard technical and personal effort, as German engineering, mathematical and other scientists had to work together on a like-it-or-not basis led by Ott-Helmuth von Lossnitzer, the director of Mauser Werke's Weapons Research Institute and Weapons Development Group. Experiments showed roller-delayed blowback firearms exhibited bolt-bounce as the bolt opened at an extreme velocity of approximately  during automatic fire. To counter bolt-bounce the perfect angle choice on the nose of the bolt head had to be found to significantly reduce the opening velocity of the bolt. The extremely high bolt carrier velocities problem was not solved by trial and error. Mathematician Karl Maier provided analysis of the components and assemblies in the development project. In December 1943 Maier came up with an equation that engineers used to change the angles in the receiver to 45° and 27° on the locking piece relative to the longitudinal axis reducing the bolt-bounce problem. With these angles the geometrical transmission ratio of the bolt carrier to the bolthead became 3:1, so the rear bolt carrier was forced to move 3 times faster than the bolthead. The rearward forces on the bolt carrier and receiver were 2:1. The force and impulse transmitted to the receiver increases with the force and impulse transmitted to the bolt carrier. Making the bolt carrier heavier lessens the recoil velocity. For Mausers StG 45(M) project Maier assumed a  bolt head and  bolt carrier (1 to 3 ratio). The prototype StG 45 (M) assault rifle had 18 longitudinal gas relief flutes cut in the chamber wall to assist the bloated cartridge casing from the chamber walls during extraction. Fluting the end of the chamber provides pressure equalization between the front outer surface of the cartridge case and its interior and thus ensures extraction without tearing the case making extraction easier and more reliable. In 1944 other German companies like Großfuß (de), Rheinmetall and C.G. Haenel showed interest in developing roller-delayed blowback small arms. Großfuß worked on a roller-delayed blowback MG 45 general-purpose machine gun that, like the StG 45 (M), had not progressed beyond the prototype stage by the end of World War II.

After World War II, former Mauser engineers Ludwig Vorgrimler and Theodor Löffler perfected the mechanism between 1946 and 1950 while working for the French small arms manufacturer Centre d'Etudes et d'Armament de Mulhouse (CEAM). In 1950 Ludwig Vorgrimler was recruited to work for CETME in Spain. The first full-scale production rifle to utilize roller-delay was the Spanish CETME battle rifle, which was closely followed by the Swiss SIG SG 510 and the CETME Model B-based Heckler & Koch G3. The G3 bolt features an anti-bounce mechanism that prevents the bolt from bouncing off the barrel's breech surface. The G3's "bolt head locking lever" is a spring-loaded claw mounted on the bolt carrier that grabs the bolt head as the bolt carrier group goes into battery. The lever essentially ratchets into place with friction, providing enough resistance to being re-opened that the bolt carrier does not rebound. Due to the relative low bolt thrust exhibited by pistol cartridges the anti-bounce mechanism is omitted by Heckler & Koch on their roller-delayed blowback firearms chambered for pistols cartridges. Heckler & Koch's MP5 submachine gun is the most common weapon still in service worldwide using this system. The Heckler & Koch P9 semi-automatic pistol, CETME Ameli light machine gun and SIG MG 710-3 and Heckler & Koch HK21 general-purpose machine guns also use it.

Roller-delayed blowback arms are ammunition specific, since they lack an adjustable gas port or valve to adjust the arm to various propellant and projectile specific pressure behavior. Their reliable functioning is limited by specific ammunition and arm parameters like bullet weight, propellant charge, barrel length and amount of wear. At the moment of cartridge ignition the chamber has to be and remain sealed, until the bullet has exited the barrel and the gas pressure within the bore has dropped to a safe level before the seal is broken and chamber starts to open. For obtaining a proper and safe functioning parameters bandwidth arms manufactures offer a variety of locking pieces with different mass and shoulder angles and cylindrical rollers with different diameters. The angles are critical and determine the unlock timing and gas pressure drop management as the locking piece acts in unison with the bolt head carrier. The bolt gap width determines the headspace and hence the correct positioning of the cartridges in the (closed) chamber. Due to usage wear the bolt gap between the locking piece and bolt head carrier is expected to gradually increase. It can be determined and checked by a feeler gauge measurement and can be altered by changing the cylindrical rollers for rollers with a different diameter. Installing larger diameter rollers will increase the bolt gap and push the locking piece forward. Installing smaller diameter rollers results in the reverse effects.

Lever-delayed

Lever-delayed blowback utilizes leverage to put the bolt at a mechanical disadvantage, delaying the opening of the breech. When the cartridge pushes against the bolt face, the lever moves the bolt carrier rearward at an accelerated rate relative to the light bolt. Leverage can be applied with a dedicated part or through inclined surfaces interacting with each other. This leverage significantly increases resistance and slows the movement of the lightweight bolt.  The reliable functioning of lever-delayed blowback arms is limited by specific ammunition and arm parameters like bullet weight, propellant charge, barrel length and amount of wear. John Pedersen patented one of the first known designs for a lever-delay system. The mechanism was also used by Hungarian arms designer Pál Király in the 1910s and 1930s and used in the Danuvia 39M and 43M submachine guns for the Hungarian Army. After World War II, Király settled in the Dominican Republic and developed the Cristóbal Carbine (or Király-Cristóbal Carbine) employing a similar mechanism. Other weapons to use this system are the Hogue Avenger and Benelli B76 pistols, the FNAB-43 submachine gun, the TKB-517, VAHAN and FAMAS assault rifles, the Sterling 7.62 and AVB-7.62 battle rifles/light machine guns, and the AA-52 general-purpose machine gun.

Gas-delayed
Gas-delayed blowback should not be confused with gas-operation. In gas-delayed guns the bolt is never locked, and so is pushed rearward by the expanding propellant gases, as in other blowback-based designs. However, propellant gases are vented from the barrel into a cylinder with a piston that delays the opening of the bolt. It was used by some World War II German designs for the 7.92×33mm Kurz cartridge, including the Volkssturmgewehr rifle (with little effectiveness) and the Grossfuss Sturmgewehr (with slightly more efficiency), and after the war by the Heckler & Koch P7, Walther CCP, Steyr GB and M-77B pistols.

Chamber-ring delayed
When a cartridge is fired, the case expands to seal the sides of the chamber. This seal prevents high-pressure gas from escaping into the action of the gun. Because a conventional chamber is slightly oversized, an unfired cartridge will enter freely. In a chamber-ring delayed firearm, the chamber is conventional in every respect except for a concave ring within the chamber wall. When the cartridge is fired, the case expands into this recessed ring and pushes the bolt face rearward. As the case moves to the rear this ring constricts the expanded portion of the case. The energy required to squeeze the walls of the cartridge case slows the rearward travel of the case and slide, reducing their mass requirements. The first known use of the system was on the Fritz Mann pistol in 1920 and later on the High Standard Corp model T3 experimental pistol developed by Ott-Helmuth von Lossnitzer while working for High Standard.  Other firearms that used this system were the LWS Seecamp pistol, the AMT Automag II, and the Kimball .30 Carbine pistol.  The SIG SG 510 rifle family incorporates a chamber ring near the shoulder which is used to avoid bolt-bounce rather than a delay element.

Hesitation locked
John Pedersen's patented system incorporates a breech block independent of the slide or bolt carrier. When in battery, the breech block rests slightly forward of the locking shoulder located in the frame of the firearm. When the cartridge is fired, the cartridge case, bolt and slide move together a short distance until the breech block strikes the locking shoulder and stops. The slide continues rearward with the momentum it acquired in the initial phase while the breech remains locked. This allows chamber pressure to drop to safe levels once the bullet departs the barrel. The continuing motion of the slide lifts the breech block from its recess and pulls it rearward, continuing the firing cycle. The Pedersen Remington Model 51 pistol, SIG MKMO submachine gun and R51 pistol are the only production firearms to have used this design.

Flywheel delayed blowback

Flywheel delayed blowback operation is where, during firing, the bolt opening is delayed by the rotational inertia of a flywheel. This is driven by a rack and pinion arrangement on the bolt carrier. The Barnitzke, Kazachok SMG, and the MGD PM-9 uses this operation.

Toggle-delayed

In toggle-delayed blowback firearms, the rearward motion of the breechblock must overcome significant mechanical leverage. The bolt is hinged in the middle, stationary at the rear end and nearly straight at rest. As the breech moves back under blowback power, the hinge joint moves upward. The leverage disadvantage keeps the breech from opening until the bullet has left the barrel and pressures have dropped to a safe level. This mechanism was used on the Pedersen rifle and Schwarzlose MG M.07/12 machine gun.

Off-axis bolt travel
John Browning developed this simple method whereby the axis of bolt movement was not in line with that of the bore probably during late WWI and patented it in 1921. The result was that a small rearward movement of the bolt in relation to the bore-axis required a greater movement along the axis of bolt movement, essentially magnifying the resistance of the bolt without increasing its mass. The French MAS-38 submachine gun of 1938 utilizes a bolt whose path of recoil is at an angle to the barrel. The Jatimatic and KRISS Vector use modified versions of this concept.

Radial-delayed

CMMG introduced the Mk 45 Guard rifle incorporating a radial-delay in 2017. This system uses the rotation of the bolt head to accelerate the bolt carrier of an AR-15 pattern rifle. The bolt locking lugs are adapted to incorporate 120° angles that rotate the bolt as it travels rearward under conventional blowback power. As the bolt rotates 22.5˚, it must accelerate the bolt carrier to the rear through an adapted 50° angle cam-pin slot. This acceleration amplifies the effective mass of the bolt carrier, slowing the speed of the bolt head. This delay allows pressure to drop prior to extraction without the penalty of a heavier bolt carrier assembly. The system is similar to roller and lever-delayed blowback in that it uses the mass of the bolt carrier moving at a faster rate than the bolt head to delay the action from opening. The design is described in .

Screw-delayed
First used on the Mannlicher Model 1893 automatic rifle, the bolt in screw-delayed blowback uses a turn bolt that was delayed by angled interrupted threads delayed by a quarter twist to unlock. John T. Thompson designed an autorifle that operated on a similar principle around 1920 and submitted it for trials with the US Army. This rifle, submitted multiple times, competed unsuccessfully against the Pedersen rifle and Garand primer-actuated rifle in early testing to replace the M1903 Springfield rifle. This operation is one of the most simple forms of delayed blowback but unless the ammunition is lubricated or uses a fluted chamber, the recoil can be volatile especially when using full length rifle rounds. Rotation of the bolt should be at least 90° to prevent ruptured cartridges. Another form of this operation using a helical screw to delay rearward movement was the Salvator-Dormus M1893 machine gun and later the prototype Kalashnikov Model 1942 submachine gun in 1942 and the Fox Wasp carbine.

Other blowback systems

Floating chamber
David Marshall Williams (a noted designer for the U.S. Ordnance Office and later Winchester) developed a mechanism to allow firearms designed for full-sized cartridges to fire .22 caliber rimfire ammunition reliably. His system used a small "piston" that incorporates the chamber.  When the cartridge is fired, the front of the floating chamber is thrust back by gas pressure impinging on the front of the chamber as in a traditional piston.  This, added to the blowback energy imparted on the cartridge, pushes the bolt back with greater energy than either force alone.  Often described as "accelerated blowback", this amplifies the otherwise anemic recoil energy of the .22 Rimfire cartridge.  Williams designed a training version of the Browning machine gun and the Colt Service Ace .22 long rifle version of the M1911 using his system. The increased recoil produced by the floating chamber made these training guns behave more like their full-power counterparts while still using inexpensive low-power ammunition. The floating chamber is both a blowback and gas operated mechanism.

Primer actuated
Primer actuated firearms use the energy of primer setback to unlock and cycle the firearm. John Garand developed the system in an unsuccessful bid to replace the M1903 bolt-action rifle in the early 1920s. Garand's prototypes worked well with US military .30-06 ammunition and uncrimped primers, but then the military changed from a fast burning gunpowder to a progressive burning Improved Military Rifle (IMR) powder.  The slower pressure rise made the primer actuated prototypes unreliable, so Garand abandoned the design for a gas operated rifle that became the M1 Garand. AAI Corporation used a primer piston in a rifle submitted for the SPIW competition. Other rifles to use this system were the Postnikov APT and Clarke carbine as described in .

A similar system is used in the spotting rifles on the LAW 80 and Shoulder-launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon use a 9mm, .308 Winchester based cartridge with a .22 Hornet blank cartridge in place of the primer.  Upon firing, the Hornet case sets back a short distance, unlocking the action.

Case setback
The case cartridge itself has been used experimentally to actuate the action similar to Garand's primer-actuation. Known prototypes using this method of operation include two 1936 rifle designs, one by Mihail Mamontov and another by Makar Goryainov at TsKB-14, and a 1980s design by A.F. Barishev. The Mamontov and Goryainov rifles are only partially automatic; only the bolt unlocking is powered by the gases pushing the cartridge back, while the rest of the cycle (ejection, reloading) is done manually as in a traditional bolt-action rifle. A major problem with using the case cartridge as piston is that its motion is much faster (about 1 ms) compared to tapping gas further down the bore through a piston—about 5 ms in the Dragunov sniper rifle, which used the same cartridge as Mamontov's rifle. Barishev made a fully automatic, but rather bulky mechanism that used a mechanical delay. In his system, the case cartridge pushed back a tilting bolt face, that upon reaching a certain angle pushes backwards an unlocking lever that continues farther before unlocking the bolt. The GRAU however still gave a negative evaluation of Barishev's gun, pointing out that the main problems with reliability of firearms using the cartridge case as a piston were known since the 1930s and still unsolved.

Limited-utility designs

Blish lock

The Blish Lock is a breech locking mechanism designed by John Bell Blish based upon his observation that under extreme pressures, certain dissimilar metals will resist movement with a force greater than normal friction laws would predict. In modern engineering terminology, it is called static friction, or stiction. His locking mechanism was used in the Thompson submachine gun, Autorifle and Autocarbine designs. This dubious principle was later eliminated as redundant in the M1 and M1A1 versions of the submachine guns at the insistence of the US Army. Lubrication or fouling would completely defeat any delay. Whatever actual advantage a clean, unlubricated Blish system could impart could also be attained by adding a mere ounce of mass to the bolt.

Savage rotating barrel
The Savage system employed the theory that the rifling in the barrel caused a rotational force that would hold the gun locked until the projectile left the barrel.  It was later discovered that the bullet had left the barrel long before any locking could occur. Savage pistols were in fact operating as simple blow back firearms.  The French MAB PA-15 and PA-8 9mm pistols feature a similar design and work correctly.

Headspace actuated unlocking
An unusual operation that uses a bolt head that moves rearwards when firing that allows the cartridge to move backwards or even stretching it until the bolt unlocks. When firing the cartridge moves the bolt head rearwards around 2.5mm until it stops, then rotates the bolt to unlock and cycle the operation.

Magnet delay
An operation using a "simple blowback" type bolt that has neodymium magnets to delay its operation. A special buffer using this operation has been developed by TACCOM.

Other autoloading systems
Other autoloading systems are:
 Blow forward, which is similar to blowback, but with the whole barrel being pushed forward rather than the bolt pushed back.
 Recoil operation uses the rearward movement of parts of the weapon counter to the ejecta (bullet and propellant) moving forward, as described by Newton's third law of motion.
 Gas-operated reloading

See also
 List of blow forward firearms
 List of delayed-blowback firearms
 List of API blowback firearms

References

Bibliography
 Bremner, Derek, The MG42V and the Origins of Delayed Blowback Roller Lock: WWII German Equipment (Paperback). .

External links

 How Does it Work: Blowback Action Forgotten Weapons
 How Does it Work: Gas-Delayed Blowback Forgotten Weapons
 How Does It Work: Lever Delayed Blowback Forgotten Weapons
 How Does It Work: Roller Delayed Blowback Forgotten Weapons
 How Does It Work: Toggle Actions Forgotten Weapons

Radial Delayed Blowback
Radial Delayed Blowback
Information about the TZ45 submachine gun and the concept of advanced primer ignition
Blowback action, Animation and explanation at howstuffworks.com
Heckler and Koch USA now uses the "roller-delayed blowback" terminology
Blow-Forward operated submachine gun patent
Blow-Forward firearm patent
Kewish primer actuated patent (1/4 assigned to Garand)
US1603684 Garand patent making reference to earlier primer actuated application in 1919.
Burke v US, 67 F.Supp 827 (1947) has comment about Kewish and Garand.
What Does Blowback Mean In Airsoft?

Firearm actions
Firearm terminology

Blowback (firearms)


37 Comae Berenices is a variable star system located around 690 light years away from the Sun in the northern constellation of Coma Berenices. It has the variable star designation LU Comae Berenices. 37 Comae Berenices was a later Flamsteed designation of 13 Canum Venaticorum. This object is visible to the naked eye as a faint, yellow-hued star with a baseline apparent visual magnitude of 4.88. It is drifting closer to the Earth with a heliocentric radial velocity of −14 km/s.

Tokovinin (2008) catalogued this as a wide triple star system. The primary component is an aging giant star, currently in the Hertzsprung gap, with a stellar classification of . It is a weak G-band star, a luminous giant star with a carbon abundance about a factor of 5 lower than is typical for such stars. This is a variable star most likely of the RS CVn type with an amplitude of 0.15 in magnitude, and it displays magnetic activity. It has 5.25 times the mass of the Sun and, having exhausted the supply of hydrogen at its core, has expanded to 38 times the Sun's radius.

References

G-type giants
RS Canum Venaticorum variables
Triple star systems

Coma Berenices
BD+31 2434
Comae Berenices, 37
112989
063462
4924
Comae Berenices, LU

37 Comae Berenices