The Spring and Autumn period (pinyin: "Chunqiu") in Chinese history lasted from approximately 770 to 481 BCE (or later) which corresponds roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou period.  The period's name derives from the Spring and Autumn Annals, a chronicle of the state of Lu between 722 and 481 BCE, which tradition associates with Confucius (551–479 BCE). During this period, royal control over the various local polities eroded as regional lords increasingly exercised political autonomy, negotiating their own alliances, waging wars amongst themselves, up to defying the king's court in Luoyi. The gradual Partition of Jin, one of the most powerful states, is generally considered to mark the end of the Spring and Autumn period and the beginning of the Warring States period.

Background

In 771 BCE, a Quanrong invasion in coalition with the states of Zeng and Shen — the latter polity being the fief of the grandfather of the disinherited crown prince Yijiu — destroyed the Western Zhou capital Haojing, killing King You and establishing Yijiu as king at the eastern capital Luoyi (). The event ushered in the Eastern Zhou dynasty, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods.  During the Spring and Autumn period, China's feudal system of fengjian (封建) became largely irrelevant. The Zhou court, having lost its homeland in the Guanzhong region, held nominal power, but had real control over only a small royal demesne centered on Luoyi. During the early part of the Zhou dynasty period, royal relatives and generals had been given control over fiefdoms in an effort to maintain Zhou authority over vast territory.  As the power of the Zhou kings waned, these fiefdoms became increasingly independent states.

The most important states (known later as the twelve vassals) came together in regular conferences where they decided important matters, such as military expeditions against foreign groups or against offending nobles. During these conferences one vassal ruler was sometimes declared hegemon (; later, ).

As the era continued, larger and more powerful states annexed or claimed suzerainty over smaller ones. By the 6th century BCE most small states had disappeared and just a few large and powerful principalities dominated China. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue).

Amid the interstate power struggles, internal conflict was also rife: six élite landholding families waged war on each other inside Jin, political enemies set about eliminating the Chen family in Qi, and the legitimacy of the rulers was often challenged in civil wars by various royal family members in Qin and Chu. Once all these powerful rulers had firmly established themselves within their respective dominions, the bloodshed focused more fully on interstate conflict in the Warring States period, which began in 403 BCE when the three remaining élite families in Jin—Zhao, Wei, and Han—partitioned the state.

Early Spring and Autumn (771–685 BCE)

Court moves east (771)
After the Zhou capital was sacked by the Marquess of Shen and the Quanrong barbarians, the Zhou moved the capital east from the now desolated Zongzhou in Haojing near modern Xi'an to Wangcheng in the Yellow River Valley.  The Zhou royalty was then closer to its main supporters, particularly Jin, and Zheng; the Zhou royal family had much weaker authority and relied on lords from these vassal states for protection, especially during their flight to the eastern capital.  In Chengzhou, Prince Yijiu was crowned by his supporters as King Ping.  However, with the Zhou domain greatly reduced to Chengzhou and nearby areas, the court could no longer support the six army groups it had in the past; Zhou kings had to request help from powerful vassal states for protection from raids and for resolution of internal power struggles.  The Zhou court would never regain its original authority; instead, it was relegated to being merely a figurehead of the regional states and ritual leader of the Ji clan ancestral temple. Though the king retained the Mandate of Heaven, the title held little actual power.

With the decline of Zhou power, the Yellow River drainage basin was divided into hundreds of small, autonomous states, most of them consisting of a single city, though a handful of multi-city states, particularly those on the periphery, had power and opportunity to expand outward.  A total of 148 states are mentioned in the chronicles for this period, 128 of which were absorbed by the four largest states by the end of the period.

Shortly after the royal court's move to Chengzhou, a hierarchical alliance system arose where the Zhou king would give the title of hegemon () to the leader of the state with the most powerful military; the hegemon was obligated to protect both the weaker Zhou states and the Zhou royalty from the intruding non-Zhou peoples: the Northern Di, the Southern Man, the Eastern Yi, and the Western Rong.  This political framework retained the fēngjiàn power structure, though interstate and intrastate conflict often led to declining regard for clan customs, respect for the Ji family, and solidarity with other Zhou peoples.  The king's prestige legitimized the military leaders of the states, and helped mobilize collective defense of Zhou territory against "barbarians".

Over the next two centuries, the four most powerful states—Qin, Jin, Qi and Chu—struggled for power.  These multi-city states often used the pretext of aid and protection to intervene and gain suzerainty over the smaller states.  During this rapid expansion, interstate relations alternated between low-level warfare and complex diplomacy.

Zheng falls out with the court (722–685)
Duke Yin of Lu ascended the throne in 722. From this year on, the state of Lu kept an official chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals, which along with its commentaries is the standard source for the Spring and Autumn period. Corresponding chronicles are known to have existed in other states as well, but all but the Lu chronicle have been lost.

In 717, Duke Zhuang of Zheng went to the capital for an audience with King Huan. During the encounter the duke felt he was not treated with the respect and etiquette which would have been appropriate, given that Zheng was now the chief protector of the capital. In 715, Zheng also became involved in a border dispute with Lu regarding the Fields of Xu. The fields had been put in the care of Lu by the king for the exclusive purpose of producing royal sacrifices for the sacred Mount Tai. For Zheng to regard the fields as just any other piece of land was an insult to the court.

By 707, relations had soured enough that the king launched a punitive expedition against Zheng. The duke counterattacked and raided Zhou territory, defeating the royal forces in the Battle of Xuge and injuring the king himself. Zheng was the first vassal to openly defy the king, kicking off the centuries of warfare without respect for the old traditions which would characterize the period.

The display of Zheng's martial strength was effective until succession problems after Zhuang's death in 701 weakened the state.

In 692, there was a failed assassination attempt against King Zhuang, orchestrated by elements at court.

The Five Hegemons (685–591 BCE)

Hegemony of Qi (685–643)

The first hegemon was Duke Huan of Qi (r. 685–643).  With the help of his prime minister, Guan Zhong, Duke Huan reformed Qi to centralize its power structure.  The state consisted of 15 "townships" () with the duke and two senior ministers each in charge of five; military functions were also united with civil ones.  These and related reforms provided the state, already powerful from control of trade crossroads, with a greater ability to mobilize resources than the more loosely organized states.

By 667, Qi had clearly shown its economic and military predominance, and Duke Huan assembled the leaders of Lu, Song, Chen, and Zheng, who elected him as their leader.  Soon after, King Hui of Zhou conferred the title of bà (hegemon), giving Duke Huan royal authority in military ventures. An important basis for justifying Qi's dominance over the other states was presented in the slogan 'Revere the King, Expel the Barbarians' (). The role of subsequent hegemons would also be framed in this way: as the primary defender and supporter of nominal Zhou authority and the existing order. Using this authority, during the first eleven years of his hegemony, Duke Huan intervened in a power struggle in Lu; protected Yan from encroaching Western Rong nomads; drove off Northern Di nomads after their invasions of Wey and Xing, providing the people with provisions and protective garrison units; and led an alliance of eight states to conquer Cai and thereby block the northward expansion of Chu.

At his death in 643, five of Duke Huan's sons contended for the throne, badly weakening the state so that it was no longer regarded as the hegemon. For nearly ten years, no ruler held the title.

Hegemony of Song (643–637)

Duke Xiang of Song attempted to claim the hegemony in the wake of Qi's decline, perhaps driven by a desire to restore the Shang dynasty from which Song had descended. He hosted peace conferences in the same style as Qi had done, and conducted aggressive military campaigns against his rivals. Duke Xiang's ambitions met their end when, against the advice of his staff, he attacked the much larger state of Chu. The Song forces were defeated at the battle of Hong (泓) in 638, and the duke himself died in the following year from an injury sustained in the battle. After Xiang's death his successors adopted a more modest foreign policy, better suited to the country's small size.

As Duke Xiang was never officially recognized as hegemon by the King of Zhou, not all sources list him as one of the Five Hegemons.

Hegemony of Jin (636–628)

When Duke Wen of Jin came to power in 636 after extensive peregrinations in exile, he capitalized on the reforms of his father, Duke Xian (r. 676–651), who had centralized the state, killed off relatives who might threaten his authority, conquered sixteen smaller states, and even absorbed some Rong and Di peoples to make Jin much more powerful than it had been previously.  When he assisted King Xiang in a succession struggle in 635, the king awarded Jin with strategically valuable territory near Chengzhou.

Duke Wen then used his growing power to coordinate a military response with Qi, Qin, and Song against Chu, which had begun encroaching northward after the death of Duke Huán of Qi.  With a decisive Chu loss at the Battle of Chengpu in 632, Duke Wen's loyalty to the Zhou king was rewarded at an interstate conference when King Xīang awarded him the title of bà.

After the death of Duke Wen in 628, a growing tension manifested in interstate violence that turned smaller states, particularly those at the border between Jin and Chu, into sites of constant warfare; Qi and Qin also engaged in numerous interstate skirmishes with Jin or its allies to boost their own power.

Hegemony of Qin (628–621)

Duke Mu of Qin had ascended the throne in 659 and forged an alliance with Jin by marrying his daughter to Duke Wen. In 624, he established hegemony over the western Rong barbarians and became the most powerful lord of the time. However he did not chair any alliance with other states nor was he officially recognized as hegemon by the king. Therefore, not all sources accept him as one of the Five Hegemons.

Hegemony of Chu (613–591)

King Zhuang of Chu expanded the borders of Chu well north of the Yangtze River, threatening the Central States in modern Henan. At one point the Chu forces advanced to just outside the royal capital of Chengzhou, upon which King Zhuang sent a messenger to inquire into the heft and bulk of the  Nine Cauldrons – the symbols of royal ritual authority – implying he might soon arrange to have them moved to his own capital. In the end the Zhou capital was spared, and Chu shifted focus to harassing the nearby state of Zheng. The once-hegemon state of Jin intervened to rescue Zheng from the Chu invaders but were resolutely defeated, which marks the ascension of Chu as the dominant state of the time.

Despite his de facto hegemony, King Zhuang's self-proclaimed title of "king" was never recognized by the Zhou states. In the Spring and Autumn Annals he is defiantly referred to as Zi (, ruler; unratified lord), even at a time when he dominated most of south China. Later historians however always include him as one of the Five Hegemons.

Late Spring and Autumn (591–453 BCE)

The Six Ministers (588)

In addition to interstate conflict, internal conflicts between state leaders and local aristocrats also occurred. Eventually the dukes of Lu, Jin, Zheng, Wey and Qi would all become figureheads to powerful aristocratic families.

In the case of Jin, the shift happened in 588 when the army was split into six independent divisions, each dominated by a separate noble family: Zhi (智), Zhao (趙), Han (韓), Wei (魏), Fan (范), and Zhonghang (中行). The heads of the six families were conferred the titles of viscounts and made ministers, each heading one of the six departments of Zhou dynasty government. From this point on, historians refer to "The Six Ministers" as the true power brokers of Jin.

The same happened to Lu in 562, when the Three Huan divided the army into three parts and established their own separate spheres of influence. The heads of the three families were always among the department heads of Lu.

Rise of Wu (584)
Wu was a state in modern Jiangsu outside the Zhou cultural sphere, considered "barbarian", where the inhabitants sported short hair and tattoos and spoke an unintelligible language. Although its ruling house claimed to be a senior lineage in the Ji ancestral temple, Wu did not participate in the politics and wars of China until the last third of the Spring and Autumn period.

Their first documented interaction with the Spring and Autumn states was in 584, when a Wu force attacked the small border state of Tan (郯) causing some alarm in the various Chinese courts. Jin was quick to dispatch an ambassador to the court of the Wu king, Shoumeng. Jin promised to supply Wu with modern military technology and training in exchange for an alliance against Chu, a neighbour of Wu and Jin's nemesis in the struggle for hegemony. King Shoumeng accepted the offer, and Wu would continue to harass Chu for years to come.

Attempts at peace (579)

After a period of increasingly exhausting warfare, Qi, Qin, Jin and Chu met at a disarmament conference in 579 and agreed to declare a truce to limit their military strength.  This peace did not last very long and it soon became apparent that the bà role had become outdated; the four major states had each acquired their own spheres of control and the notion of protecting Zhou territory had become less cogent as the control over (and the resulting cultural assimilation of) non-Zhou peoples, as well as Chu's control of some Zhou areas, further blurred an already vague distinction between Zhou and non-Zhou.

In addition, new aristocratic houses were founded with loyalties to powerful states, rather than directly to the Zhou kings, though this process slowed down by the end of the seventh century, possibly because territory available for expansion had been largely exhausted. The Zhou kings had also lost much of their prestige so that, when Duke Dao of Jin (r. 572–558) was recognized as bà, it carried much less meaning than it had before.

Hegemony of Wu (506–496)

In 506, King Helü ascended the throne of Wu. With the help of Wu Zixu and Sun Tzu, the author of The Art of War, he launched major offensives against the state of Chu. They prevailed in five battles, one of which was the Battle of Boju, and conquered the capital Ying. However, Chu managed to ask the state of Qin for help, and after being defeated by Qin, the vanguard general of Wu troops, Fugai, a younger brother of Helü, led a rebellion. After beating Fugai, Helü was forced to leave Chu. Fugai later retired to Chu and settled there. King Helü died during an invasion of Yue in 496. Some sources list him as one of the Five Hegemons.

He was succeeded by his son King Fuchai of Wu, who nearly destroyed the Yue state, imprisoning King Goujian of Yue. Subsequently, Fuchai defeated Qi and extended Wu influence into central China.

In 499, the philosopher Confucius was made acting prime minister of Lu. He is traditionally (if improbably) considered the author or editor of the Spring and Autumn annals, from which much of the information for this period is drawn. After only two years he was forced to resign and spent many years wandering between different states before returning to Lu. After returning to Lu he did not resume a political career, preferring to teach. Tradition holds that it was in this time he edited or wrote the Five Classics, including the Spring and Autumn Annals.

Hegemony of Yue (496–465)

In 482, King Fuchai of Wu held an interstate conference to solidify his power base, but Yue captured the Wu capital. Fuchai rushed back but was besieged and died when the city fell in 473. Yue then concentrated on weaker neighbouring states, rather than the great powers to the north. With help from Wu's enemy Chu, Yue was able to be victorious after several decades of conflict. King Goujian destroyed and annexed Wu in 473, after which he was recognized as hegemon.

The Zuozhuan, Guoyu, and Shiji provide almost no information about Goujian's subsequent reign or policies. What little is said is told from the perspective of other states, such as Duke Ai of Lu trying to enlist Yue's help in a coup against the Three Huan. Sima Qian notes that Goujian reigned on until his death, and that afterwards his descendants—for whom no biographical information is given—continued to rule for six generations before the state was finally absorbed into Chu during the Warring States period.

Partition of Jin

After the great age of Jin power, the Jin rulers began to lose authority over their ministerial lineages.  A full-scale civil war between 497 and 453 ended with the elimination of most noble lines; the remaining aristocratic families divided Jin into three successor states: Han, Wei, and Zhao. This is the last event recorded in the Zuozhuan.

With the absorption of most of the smaller states in the era, this partitioning left seven major states in the Zhou world: the three fragments of Jin, the three remaining great powers of Qin, Chu and Qi, and the weaker state of Yan () near modern Beijing. The partition of Jin, along with the Usurpation of Qi by Tian, marks the beginning of the Warring States period.

Interstate relations

Ancient sources such as the Zuo Zhuan and the eponymous Chunqiu record the various diplomatic activities, such as court visits paid by one ruler to another (), meetings of officials or nobles of different states (), missions of friendly inquiries sent by the ruler of one state to another (), emissaries sent from one state to another (), and hunting parties attended by representatives of different states ().

Because of Chu's non-Zhou origin, the state was considered semi-barbarian and its rulers—beginning with King Wu in 704 BCE—proclaimed themselves kings in their own right. Chu intrusion into Zhou territory was checked several times by the other states, particularly in the major battles of Chengpu (632 BCE), Bi (595 BCE) and Yanling (575 BCE), which restored the states of Chen and Cai.

Literature

Some version of the Five Classics existed in Spring and Autumn period, as characters in the Zuozhuan and Analects frequently quote the Book of Poetry and Book of Documents. On the other hand, the Zuozhuan depicts some characters actually composing poems that would later be included in the received text of the Book of Poetry. In the Analects there are frequent references to "The Rites", but as Classical Chinese does not employ punctuation or any markup to distinguish book titles from regular nouns it is not possible to know if what is meant is the Etiquette and Ceremonial (known then as the Book of Rites) or just the concept of ritual in general. On the other hand, the existence of the Book of Changes is well-attested in the Zuozhuan, as multiple characters use it for divination and accurately quote the received text.

Sima Qian claims that it was Confucius who, towards the close of the Spring and Autumn period, edited the received versions of the Book of Poetry, Book of Documents, and Book of Rites; wrote the "Ten Wings" commentary on the Book of Changes; and wrote the entirety of the Spring and Autumn Annals. This was long the predominant opinion in China, but modern scholarship considers it unlikely that all five classics could be the product of one man. The transmitted versions of these works all derive from the versions edited by Liu Xin in the century following Sima Qian.

While many philosophers such as Lao Tzu and Sun Tzu were active in the Spring and Autumn period, their ideas were probably not put into writing until the following Warring States period.

Aristocracy

While the aristocracy of the Western Zhou frequently interacted via the medium of the royal court, the collapse of central power at the end of the first half of the dynasty left in its wake hundreds of autonomous polities varying drastically in size and resources, nominally connected by bonds of cultural and ritual affiliation increasingly attenuated by the passage of time. Whole lineage groups moved around under socioeconomic stress, border groups not associated with the Zhou culture gained in power and sophistication, and the geopolitical situation demanded increased contact and communication.

Under this new regime, an emergent systematization of noble ranks took root. Where the Western Zhou had concerned itself with politics, the ancestral temples, and legitimacy, in the Eastern Zhou politics came to the fore. Titles which had previously reflected lineage seniority took on purely political meanings. At the top of the bunch were Gong () and Hou (), favoured lineages of old with generally larger territories and greater resources and prestige at their disposal. The majority of rulers were of the middling but tiered grades Bo () and Zi (). The rulers of two polities maintained the title Nan (). A 2012 survey found no difference in grade between Gong and Hou, or between Zi and Nan. Meanwhile a new class of lower-tier aristocrats formed: the Shi (), gentlemen too distantly related to the great houses to be born into a life of wielding power, but still part of the elite culture, aiming at upward social mobility, typically through the vector of officialdom.

One individual well attested in the process of fixing the ranks of rulers into a coherent scheme was Zichan of Zheng, who both submitted a memorial to the king of Chu informing him of the proposed new system in 538 BCE, and argued at a 529 BCE interstate conference that tributes should be graded based on rank, given the disparity in available resources.

Alongside this development, there was precedent of Zhou kings "upgrading" noble ranks as a reward for service to the throne, giving the recipients a bit more diplomatic prestige without costing the royal house any land. During the decline of the royal house, although real power was wrested from their grasp, their divine legitimacy was not brought into question, and even with the king reduced to something of a figurehead, his prestige remained supreme as Heaven's eldest son.

Archaeologically excavated primary sources and received literature agree to a high degree of systematization and stability in noble titles during the Eastern Zhou, indicating an actual historical process. A 2007 survey of bronze inscriptions from 31 states found only eight polities whose rulers used varying titles of nobility to describe themselves.

Important figures

The Five Hegemons (春秋五霸):
With the royal house of Zhou lacking the military strength to defend itself, and with the various states experiencing tension and conflict, certain very powerful lords took the position of hegemon, ostensibly to uphold the house of Zhou and maintain the peace to the degree possible. They paid tribute to the royal court, and were owed tribute by the other rulers. Traditional history lists five hegemons during the Spring and Autumn period:
 Duke Huan of Qi (r. 685–643 BCE)
 Duke Xiang of Song (r. 650–637 BCE)
 Duke Wen of Jin (r. 636–628 BCE)
 Duke Mu of Qin (r. 659–621 BCE)
 King Zhuang of Chu (r. 613–591 BCE)

Alternatively:
 Duke Huan of Qi (r. 685–643 BCE)
 Duke Wen of Jin (r. 636–628 BCE)
 King Zhuang of Chu (r. 613–591 BCE)
 King Fuchai of Wu (r. 495–473 BCE)
 King Goujian of Yue (r. 496–465 BCE)

Bureaucrats or Officers
 Guan Zhong, advisor of Duke Huan of Qi
 Baili Xi, prime minister of Qin
 Wu Zixu, Duke of Shen, important adviser of King Helü, early culture hero, sometimes considered "the single best recorded individual in the history of the Spring and Autumn period"
 Bo Pi, bureaucrat under King Helü who played an important diplomatic role in Wu–Yue relations
 Wen Zhong, advisor of King Goujian of Yue in his war against Wu
 Fan Li, another advisor to Goujian, also renowned for his incredible business acumen
 Zichan, leader of self-strengthening movements in Zheng
 Yan Ying or Yanzi, central figure of the Yanzi Chunqiu

Influential scholars
 Confucius or Kongzi, leading figure in Confucianism
 Lao-tse or Laozi, teacher of Taoism
 Mo Di, Mozi, or Mo-tse, founder of Mohism
 Sun Tzu or Sunzi, author of The Art of War

Other people
 Lu Ban, master builder
 Yao Li, sent by King Helü to kill Qing Ji
 Zhuan Zhu, sent by Helü to kill his cousin King Liao
 Bo Ya, outstanding musician

List of states

The Liji claims that the Eastern Zhou was divided into 1773 states, of which 148 are known by name.

{| class="wikitable collapsible"
|- "
! Name
! Chinese
! Capital
! Location
! Established
! Dissolved
|-
|rowspan=6 | Ba
|rowspan=6 | 巴
| Yicheng (夷城)
| Changyang County, Hubei
|rowspan=6 | King Wu's reign
|rowspan=6 | 316 BCE: to Qin
|-
| Pingdu (平都)
| Fengdu County, Chongqing
|-
| Zhi (枳)
| Fuling District, Chongqing
|-
| Jiangzhou (江州)
|Chongqing
|-
| Dianjiang (垫江)
| Hechuan District, Chongqing
|-
| Langzhong (閬中)
| Langzhong, Sichuan
|-
| Bi
| 畢
| Bi
| unknown
| King Wu's reign
| unknown
|-
|Biyang, Fuyang
|偪陽 or 傅陽
|Biyang
|Yicheng District, Zaozhuang, Shandong
|unknown
|563 BCE: to Song
|-
|rowspan=3| Cai
|rowspan=3| 蔡
| Shangcai (上蔡)
| Shangcai County, Henan
|rowspan=3| King Wu's reign
|rowspan=3| 447 BCE: to Chu
|-
|Xincai (新蔡)
| Xincai County, Henan
|-
|Xiacai (下蔡)
| Fengtai County, Anhui
|-
| Cao
| 曹
| Taoqiu (陶丘)
| Dingtao District, Heze, Shandong
| King Wu's reign
| 487 BCE: to Song
|-
| Chao
| 巢
| Chao
| Chaohu, Anhui
| unknown
| : to Wu
|-
| Chen
| 陳
| Wanqiu (宛丘)
| Huaiyang District, Zhoukou, Henan
| King Wu's reign
| 479 BCE: to Chu
|-
| Cheng
| 郕 or 成
|Cheng
|Ningyang County, Shandong
| King Wu's reign
| 408 BCE: to Qi
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|rowspan=4| Chu
|rowspan=4| 楚 or 荊
| Danyang (丹陽)
|Xichuan County, Henan
|rowspan=4| King Cheng's reign
|rowspan=4| 223 BCE: to Qin
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|Ying (郢)
|Jingzhou, Hubei
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|Chen (陳)
|Huaiyang District, Zhoukou, Henan
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|Shouchun (壽春)
| Shou County, Anhui
|-
|Chunyu, Zhou
|淳于 or 州
|Zhou (州)
| Anqiu, Shandong
|King Wu's reign
|706 BCE: to Qi (杞)
|-
|Dai
|戴
|Dai
|Minquan County, Henan
|unknown
|713 BCE: to Zheng
|-
| Dao
| 道
| Dao
| unknown
| unknown
| unknown
|-
| Deng
| 鄧
| Deng
| Dengzhou, Henan
| before Western Zhou
| 678 BCE: to Chu
|-
| E
| 鄂
| E
| Nanyang, Henan
| before Western Zhou
| 863 BCE: to Chu
|-
|Fan
|番 or 潘 or 鄱
|Fan
|Gushi County, Henan
|unknown
|504 BCE: to Wu
|-
|Fan
|凡
|Fan
|Huixian, Henan
|unknown
|unknown
|-
|rowspan=2| Fan
|rowspan=2| 樊
| Fan
| Chang'an District, Xi'an, Shaanxi
|rowspan=2| King Xuan's reign
|rowspan=2| 635 BCE: to Jin
|-
|Yang (陽)
|Jiyuan, Henan
|-
| Gan
| 甘
| Gan
| Yuanyang County, Henan
| King Xiang's reign
| unknown
|-
|Gao
|郜
|Gao
| Chengwu County, Shandong
|King Wu's reign
|8th century BCE: to Song
|-
|Ge
|葛
|Ge
|Ningling County, Henan
|before Western Zhou
|unknown
|-
| Gong
| 鞏
| Gong
| Xiaoyi, Henan
| unknown
| 516 BCE: to Jin
|-
|Gong
|共
|Gong
|Huixian, Henan
|unknown
|mid-7th century BCE: to Wey
|-
|Guang
|光
|Guang
|Guangshan County, Henan
|before Western Zhou
|650 BCE: to Chu
|-
|Guo
|郭
|Guo
| Liaocheng, Shandong
|unknown
|670 BCE: to Qi
|-
| Eastern Guo
| 東虢
| Zhi (制)
| Xingyang, Henan
| King Wu's reign
| 767 BCE: to Zheng
|-
| rowspan=2| Western Guo
| rowspan=2| 西虢
| Yongdi (雍地)
|Baoji, Shaanxi
| rowspan=2| King Wu's reign
| rowspan=2| 687 BCE: to Jin
|-
|Shangyang (上陽)
|Shan County, Henan
|-
| Hu
| 胡
| Hu
| Wuyang County, Henan
| unknown
| 763 BCE: to Zheng
|-
|rowspan= 2| Hua
|rowspan= 2| 滑
| Hua
| Minquan County, Henan
|rowspan= 2| unknown
|rowspan= 2| 627 BCE: to Qin
|-
| Fei (費)
| Yanshi, Henan
|-
|Huang
|黃
|Longgu Xiang
|Huangchuan County, Henan
|unknown
|648 BCE: to Chu
|-
|Hui
|鄶 or 會 or 檜
|Hui
|Xinzheng, Henan
|unknown
|769 BCE: to Zheng
|-
| Ji
| 紀
| Ji
| Shouguang, Shandong
| unknown
| 690 BCE: to Qi
|-
| Ji
| 極
| Ji
| Shan County, Shandong
| unknown
| 721 BCE: to Lu
|-
| rowspan=2|Ji
| rowspan=2| 祭
|Ji
|Changyuan, Henan
| rowspan=2| King Wu's reign
| rowspan=2| 750 BCE: to Zheng
|-
|Guan (管)
|Zhengzhou, Henan
|-
|Jiang
| 江
|Jiang ()
| Xi County, Henan
| 1101 BCE
| 623 BCE: to Chu
|-
|Jiang
| 蔣
| Jiang
| Gushi County, Henan
|King Cheng's reign
|617 BCE: to Chu
|-
|Jie
|介
|Jie
| Jiaozhou, Shandong
|unknown
|unknown: to Qi
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
| rowspan=4| Jin
| rowspan=4| 晉
| Tang (唐), or Jin
|Yicheng County, Shanxi
| rowspan=4| King Cheng's reign
| rowspan=4| 376 BCE: to Han and Zhao
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|Quwo (曲沃)
| Wenxi County, Shanxi
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|Jiang (絳), or Yi (翼)
|Yicheng County, Shanxi
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|Xintian (新田), or Xinjiang (新絳)
| Houma, Shanxi
|-
| rowspan=2| Ju
| rowspan=2| 莒
| Jiegen (介根)
| Jiaozhou, Shandong
| rowspan=2| King Wu's reign
| rowspan=2| 431 BCE: to Chu
|-
|Ju
| Ju County, Shandong
|-
| Lai
| 萊
| Changle (昌樂)
| Changle County, Shandong
| before Western Zhou
| 567 BCE: to Qi
|-
|Lan
|濫
|Lan
| Tengzhou, Shandong
|781 BCE
|521 BCE: to Lu
|-
| Liang
| 梁
| Liang
|Hancheng, Shaanxi
| unknown
| 641 BCE: to Qin
|-
| Liao, Miu
| 蓼 or 繆
| Liao
| Gushi County, Henan
| unknown
| 622 BCE: to Chu
|-
| Liu
| 劉
| Liu
| Yanshi, Henan
| 592 BCE
| : to Zhou dynasty
|-
| rowspan=3| Lu
| rowspan=3| 魯
| Lu
| Lushan County, Henan
| rowspan=3| King Cheng's reign
| rowspan=3| 256 BCE: to Chu
|-
|Yancheng (奄城)
| Qufu, Shandong
|-
|Qufu (曲阜)
| Qufu, Shandong
|-
| Lü
| 呂
| Lü
| Nanyang, Henan
| unknown'
| 688 BCE: to Chu
|-
| Mao
| 毛
| Mao
| Qishan County, Shaanxi
| King Wu's reign
| 516 BCE: to Qin
|-
|Mao
|茅
|Mao
|Jinxiang County, Shandong
|King Cheng's reign
|6th century BCE: to Zou
|-
| Ni, Xiaozhu
| 郳 or 小邾
| Ni
| Shanting District, Zaozhuang, Shandong
|King Cheng's reign
|335 BCE: to Chu
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
| Qi
| 齊
| Yingqiu (營丘), or Linzi (臨淄)
| Linzi District, Zibo, Shandong
| King Wu's reign
| 221 BCE: to Qin
|-
|rowspan=4| Qi
|rowspan=4| 杞
| Qi
| Qi County, Henan
|rowspan=4| before Western Zhou
|rowspan=4| 445 BCE: to Chu
|-
|Pingyang (平陽)
|Xintai, Shandong
|-
|Yuanling (緣陵)
|Changle County, Shandong
|-
|Chunyu (淳于)
| Anqiu, Shandong
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|rowspan=6| Qin
|rowspan=6| 秦
| Qin
| Qingshui County, Gansu
|rowspan=6| King Xiao's reign
|rowspan=6| 206 BCE: to Western Chu
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|Qian (汧)
| Long County, Shaanxi
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|Pingyang (平陽)
| Mei County, Shaanxi
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|Yong (雍)
| Fengxiang County, Shaanxi
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|Yueyang (櫟陽)
| Yanliang District, Xi'an, Shaanxi
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|Xianyang (咸阳)
|Xianyang, Shaanxi
|-
| Quan
| 權
| Quan
| Jingmen, Hubei
| unknown| 704 BCE: to Chu
|-
|Ren
|任
|Ren
| Weishan County, Shandong
|unknown|Warring States period
|-
|rowspan=2| Ruo
|rowspan=2| 鄀
| Shangruo (上鄀) or Shangmi (商密)
| Xichuan County, Henan
|rowspan=2| unknown|rowspan=2| unknown|-
|Xiaruo (下鄀)
| Yicheng, Hubei
|-
| Shao
| 召 or 邵
| Shao
| Qishan County, Shaanxi
| King Wu's reign
| 513 BCE: to Zhou dynasty
|-
| Shan, Tan
| 單 or 檀
| Shan
| Mengjin County, Henan
| King Cheng's reign
| unknown|-
| Shen, Xie
| 申 or 謝
| Shen
| Nanyang, Henan
| King Xuan's reign
| 688 – 680 BCE: to Chu
|-
| Shen
|
| Shen
| Linquan County, Anhui
| King Cheng's reign
| 506 BCE: to Cai
|-
| Shu
| 蜀
| unknown| unknown| unknown| 316 BCE: to Qin
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
| Song
| 宋
| Shangqiu (商丘)
| Shangqiu, Henan
| King Cheng's reign
| 286 BCE: to Qi
|-
|Su
|宿
|Su
| Dongping County, Shandong
|unknown|7th century BCE: to Song
|-
|Sui
|遂
|Sui
| Ningyang County, Shandong
|before Western Zhou
|681 BCE: to Qi
|-
|Tan
|郯
|Tan
| Tancheng County, Shandong
|unknown|414 BCE: to Yue
|-
|Tan
|譚
|Tan
| Zhangqiu, Shandong
|
|684 BCE: to Qi
|-
| Teng
| 滕
| Teng
| Teng County, Shandong
| King Wu's reign
| 297 BCE: to Song
|-
| Wangshu
| 王叔
| Wangshu
| Mengjin County, Henan
| King Xiang of Zhou
| 563 BCE: to Zhou dynasty
|-
|rowspan=5 | Wei (Wey)
|rowspan=5| 衛
| Zhaoge (朝歌)
| Qi County, Henan
|rowspan=5| King Cheng's reign
|rowspan=5| 209 BCE: to Qin
|-
|Cao (曹)
| Hua County, Henan
|-
|Chuqiu (楚丘)
| Hua County, Henan
|-
|Diqiu (帝丘)
| Puyang County, Henan
|-
|Yewang (野王)
| Qinyang, Henan
|-
| Wen
| 溫
| Wen
| Wen County, Henan
| King Wu's reign
| 650 BCE: to Beidi
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
| Wu
| 吳
| Wu, or Gusu (姑蘇)
| Suzhou, Jiangsu
| unknown| 473 BCE: to Yue
|-
| Xi
| 息
| Xi
|Xi County, Henan
| unknown| 684 – 680 BCE: to Chu
|-
| Xian
| 弦
| Xian
| Huanggang, Hubei
| unknown| 655 BCE: to Chu
|-
| Xiang
| 向
| Xiang
| Ju County, Shandong
| unknown| 721 BCE: to Ju
|-
|rowspan=2 | Xing
|rowspan=2 | 邢
| Xing
| Xingtai, Hebei
|rowspan=2 | King Cheng's reign
|rowspan=2 | 632 BCE: to Wey
|-
|Yiyi (夷儀)
| Liaocheng, Shandong
|-

| Xu
| 徐
| Xu
| Tancheng County, Shandong
| before Western Zhou
| 512 BCE: to Wu
|-
|rowspan=5 | Xu
|rowspan=5 | 許 or 鄦
| Xu
| Xuchang, Henan
|rowspan=5 | King Wu's reign
|rowspan=5 | : to Chu
|-
|Ye (葉)
| Ye County, Henan
|-
|Yi (夷) or Chengfu (城父)
| Bozhou, Anhui
|-
|Xi (析)
| Xixia County, Henan
|-
|Rongcheng (容城)
| Lushan County, Henan
|-
|rowspan=3 | Xue, Pi
|rowspan=3 | 薛 or 邳
|Xue
| Tengzhou, Shandong
|rowspan=3 |before Western Zhou
|rowspan=3 |418 BCE: to Qi
|-
|Xiapi (下邳)
| Pi County, Jiangsu
|-
|Shangpi (上邳)
| Pi County, Jiangsu
|-
|Xuqu
|須句
|Xuqu
| Dongping County, Shandong
|unknown|620 BCE: to Lu
|-
|rowspan=2 | Yan
|rowspan=2 | 燕
| Bo (亳), or Shengju (聖聚)
| Fangshan District, Beijing
|rowspan=2 | King Wu's reign
|rowspan=2 | 222 BCE: to Qin
|-
|Ji (薊)
|Beijing
|-
| Southern Yan
| 南燕
| Yan
| Yanjin County, Henan
| unknown| unknown|-
| Yan
| 鄢
| Yan
| Yanling County, Henan
| King Wu's reign
| 769 BCE: to Zheng
|-
|Yang
|
|Yang
| Yinan County, Shandong
|unknown|660 BCE: to Qi
|-
| Yin
| 尹
| Yin
| Xin'an County, Henan
| King Xuan's reign
| unknown|-
| Ying
| 應
| Ying
| Pingdingshan, Henan
| King Cheng's reign
| 646 BCE: to Chu
|-
|Yu
|邘 or 于
|Yu
|Qinyang, Henan
|King Wu's reign
|unknown|-
| Yu
| 鄅
| Yu
| Linyi, Shandong
| unknown| 524 BCE: to Lu
|-
| Yuan
| 原
| Yuan
| Jiyuan, Henan
| King Wu's reign
| 635 BCE: to Jin
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|rowspan=3 | Yue
|rowspan=3| 越
| Kuaiji (會稽)
| Shaoxing, Zhejiang
|rowspan=3| unknown|rowspan=3| 306 BCE: to Chu
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
|Langya (琅邪)
| Jiaonan, Shandong
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
| Wu (吳)
| Suzhou, Jiangsu
|-
| Zeng, Sui
| 曾 or 隨
| Sui
| Suizhou, Hubei
| unknown| unknown: to Chu
|-
|Zeng
|鄫
|Zeng
| Fangcheng County, Henan
|before Western Zhou
|567 BCE: to Ju
|-
| Zhan
| 詹
| unknown| unknown| 827 BCE
| unknown|-
|Zhang
|鄣
|Zhang
|Dongping County, Shandong
|early Western Zhou
|664 BCE: to Qi
|-
|rowspan=2| Zheng
|rowspan=2| 鄭
| Zheng
| Hua County, Shaanxi
|rowspan=2| 806 BCE
|rowspan=2| 375 BCE: to Han
|-
|Xinzheng (新鄭)
|Xinzheng, Henan
|-
|rowspan=2| Zhongshan
|rowspan=2| 中山
| Gu (顧)
| Dingzhou, Hebei
|rowspan=2| 506 BCE
|rowspan=2| 296 BCE: to Zhao
|-
|Lingshou (靈壽)
| Lingshou County, Hebei
|-

| Zhou
| 周
| Zhou
| Fengxiang County, Shaanxi
| King Wu's reign
| unknown|-
| Zhoulai
| 州來
| Zhoulai
| Fengtai County, Anhui
| 8th century BCE
| 528 BCE: to Chu
|-
| Zhu
| 祝
| Zhu
| Changqing District, Jinan, Shandong
| King Wu's reign
| 768 BCE: to Qi
|-
|Zhu
|鑄
|Zhu
|Feicheng, Shandong
|King Wu's reign
|unknown: to Qi
|-
|Zhuan
|鄟
|Zhuan
|Tancheng, Shandong
|unknown|585 BCE: to Lu
|-
|Zhuanyu
|顓臾
|Zhuanyu
|Pingyi County, Shandong
|King Wu's reign
|unknown|-
|rowspan=2| Zou, Zhu
|rowspan=2| 鄒 or 邾
| Zhu (邾)
| Qufu, Shandong
|rowspan=2| King Wu's reign
|rowspan=2| 4th century BCE: to Chu
|-
|Zou (鄒)
| Zoucheng, Shandong
|-
| colspan="6" | Key:
|- style="background:#eca4a4"
| colspan="6" | Hegemon
|-
| colspan="6" |Note: Capitals are listed in chronological order.|}

Notes

 References
 Citations

 Sources

Further reading
 Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  (paperback).

External links

  – linked to their occurrences in classical Chinese texts.

1st millennium BC in China

Spring and Autumn period


Stéphane Bédard (born 11 March 1968) is a Canadian lawyer and politician. Bédard  was interim leader of the Parti Québécois from 2014 to 2015. He was the Member of the National Assembly of Quebec for the provincial riding of Chicoutimi. He was chosen as interim parliamentary leader by the PQ caucus on April 10, 2014, following the PQ government's defeat in the 2014 general election and the resignation of Pauline Marois and officially became Leader of the Opposition when the legislature resumed on April 23, 2014. He officially became acting leader of the party on June 7, 2014, when Marois' resignation took effect at Parti Québécois Council of Presidents.  He held the position until Pierre Karl Péladeau was elected party leader in the Parti Québécois leadership election held on May 15, 2015. He resigned from the legislature and the Parti Québécois on October 22, 2015.

Biography
Born in Chicoutimi, Quebec, Stéphane Bédard is the son of Marc-André Bédard. After studying administration at HEC Montréal (1987-1988), he received a bachelor's degree in law at the Université de Montréal in 1991 and was admitted in 1992 at the Barreau du Québec. He was a lawyer from 1992 to 1998 in Chicoutimi. He was involved in politics during this period being the President of the Parti Québécois in Chicoutimi from 1994 to 1998 and was a member of the Yes Committee for the 1995 referendum.

Bédard ran for MNA in Chicoutimi in 1998 and was elected. While he was not named in a Ministry position, he was the Parliamentary assistant to the Minister of State for Education and Youth from March 21, 2001, to December 5, 2001, Parliamentary assistant to the Minister of State for Education and Employment from December 5, 2001, to January 30, 2002, and Parliamentary assistant to the Minister of State for Administration and the Public Service and Chair of the Conseil du trésor from January 30, 2002, to April 29, 2003. He was Secretary of State for the Renewal of the Public Service from January 30, 2002, to April 29, 2003.

Bédard was re-elected in 2003 but the Parti Québécois lost to the Quebec Liberal Party. He was named the Assistant Deputy Leader of the Opposition and after being re-elected for a third term in 2007, he was named the PQ's chief Whip. After the 2008, he was named the House leader of the opposition while being replaced by Pointe-aux-Trembles MNA Nicole Léger as Chief Whip of the PQ.

He was elected for a fifth term in the 2012 general election, as the Parti québécois regained power. On September 19, 2012, he became Minister responsible for Government Administration, Chair of the Conseil du trésor (Treasury Board), Government House Leader and Minister responsible for the Saguenay–Lac‑Saint-Jean region in the government of Premier Pauline Marois.

Notes and references

External links

1968 births
French Quebecers
Living people
Parti Québécois MNAs
Members of the Executive Council of Quebec
Politicians from Saguenay, Quebec
Lawyers in Quebec
Université de Montréal alumni
HEC Montréal alumni
Leaders of the Parti Québécois
21st-century Canadian politicians
Quebecor people

Stéphane Bédard


Gertrude Homan Thanhouser (April 23, 1882 – May 29, 1951), wife of co-founder Edwin Thanhouser, worked at the Thanhouser Company film studio as actress, scenario writer, film editor, and studio executive. Her efforts made the studio one of the key independent US film studios in the nickelodeon and transitional era, praised for its erudite adaptations of Shakespeare and other "classical" stage dramas to the screen.

Biography
Gertrude Homan was born in 1882 (one family account gives the date as 1880) in Beauvoir, Mississippi, one of 10 children in her family. When she was very young, the family moved to Brooklyn, New York, and she became involved in acting as a child, performing her first stage role at the age of six. As a child actress, her theatrical parts included title roles in  Little Lord Fauntleroy and Editha's Burglar. In the 1890s she was part of a stock company in Milwaukee that was managed by Edwin Thanhouser, whom she married in 1900.

In the spring of 1909, Gertrude moved with her husband to New Rochelle, New York where they established Thanhouser Company as an independent motion picture studio; it was the first to be organized by leaders with strong theatrical training. Gertrude's acting career of fourteen years gave her the stagecraft to be a powerful and creative force in this new venture. She received co-scenario writing credit with brother-in-law, Lloyd Lonergan, for the screen adaptation of Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale. Behind the scenes, Gertrude was heavily involved in scenario development, creation of mise en scène and film editing. In 1912, the Thanhousers sold their shares in the company to Charles J. Hite of Mutual Film Corporation for $250,000 and retired from the industry.

In August 1914, Hite was killed in an automobile accident. In February 1915, the Mutual board of directors in an extraordinary move lured Edwin and Gertrude out of retirement. Gertrude immediately resumed her role as supervisor of the scenario department and was credited for writing the scenario for their first "new" release, Their One Love. She remained active in company affairs including attending a meeting with President Woodrow Wilson in 1916. In the summer of 1916 the death of Thanhouser leading actress Florence LaBadie and the rise of feature films with stars such as Mary Pickford contributed to the decline in popularity of the studio's films. In 1918, the founders retired permanently from the film industry leaving the Thanhouser Film Corporation with a positive bank balance, unlike many others of the era.

References

External links
 Gertrude Homan Thanhouser at the Women Film Pioneers Project
 Gertrude Homan Thanhouser Biography entry on Thanhouser website

1880s births
1951 deaths
19th-century American actresses
American stage actresses
Thanhouser Company
Burials at Kensico Cemetery
20th-century American actresses
Silent film people
Actresses from New Rochelle, New York
Women film pioneers
American women film editors
American film editors

Gertrude Thanhouser


Karl Bergemann Parsons (23 January 1884 – 30 September 1934) was a British stained glass artist associated with the Arts and Crafts movement.

Early life, 1884 – 1898
Parsons was born in Peckham in south London on 23 January 1884, the 12th and youngest child of Arthur William Parsons (1838–1901), a foreign language translator, and Emma Matilda Parsons, née Bergemann (1837–1914).  He was christened with the names Charles Bergemann, though the family always called him Karl, the name he was to use in later life.

From 1893 to 1898 he attended Haberdashers' Aske's Hatcham Boys School at New Cross in south London.

Introduction to Whall, 1898 – outbreak of war

One of Parsons' older sisters was the artist Beatrice Emma Parsons (1869–1955). Beatrice worked for a while in Christopher Whall's studio and when Parsons left school, Beatrice persuaded Whall to take him on as an apprentice.  Whall it seems saw promise in Parsons' sketches.  Apart from starting with Whall as a pupil-apprentice at Whall's Hammersmith studio, he also worked at Lowndes and Drury in Chelsea, this under Whall's supervision.  He also attended Whall's classes at the L.C.C. Central School of Arts & Crafts.

He completed his apprenticeship in the 1900s and then worked as one of Whall's assistants. In September 1904 he began teaching at the Central School, initially as one of Whall's assistants and then as principal teacher of stained glass. One pupil was M. E. Aldrich Rope, cousin of Margaret Agnes Rope. Another pupil was Joan Fulleylove who worked with Mabel Esplin and in fact continued Esplin's work for the Anglican cathedral in Khartoum when Esplin could no longer do so.

Throughout the 1900s he was to assist Whall on his major commissions and in 1905 drew some of the illustrations for Whall's book Stained Glass Work this along with fellow student Edward Woore.  Parsons assisted Whall with the windows for Gloucester Cathedral and also those for Canterbury Cathedral, Southwell Minster, Tonbridge School Chapel, and churches in Ashbourne, Ledbury and Burford.

In 1907 he married Grace Millicent Simmons.  She too studied at the Central School and became an Arts and Crafts embroiderer.

In 1908 he worked with Whall on the design and execution of apse windows for Cape Town Cathedral and in that year set up his own studio at the Glass House in Fulham. In the same year he began work on his first independent commission, a series of windows for St Alban, Hindhead. He also exhibited three designs at the Royal Academy and 25 September 1908 saw the birth of his daughter Margaret Rosetta.

It was the architect Herbert Baker who had asked Whall to take on the Cape Town windows and it was Baker's associate Fleming, who in later years was to invite Parsons to undertake other commissions in South Africa. Close connections with architects were important to people like Parsons and he was to have a similar relationship with Robert Lorimer in Scotland which was to lead to his receiving important Scottish commissions.  Other important contacts were John Duke Coleridge, and Everard and Pick.  Whall had similarly benefitted from close ties to the likes of the architects John Dando Sedding and Henry Wilson.

During the period 1909 to 1910, he worked for a short period with Louis Davis, cartooning windows from Davis' designs.  In 1910 he exhibited designs at the Arts and Crafts Exhibition.  Certainly Parsons worked closely with Davis in 1910 on the windows for St Anseln church (seven lancets for the Holy Spirit chapel) and Holy Trinity in St Andrew's Fife (a five-light Crucifixion window). It was Davis who had introduced Parsons to Robert Lorimer. In 1910, Parsons lived at 38 Gainsborough Road in Bedford Park, London.

1911 saw the birth of his second daughter, Jacynth Mary, who became a book illustrator.

In 1912 he received a commission for the Rolls and Grace memorial window at Eastchurch on the Isle of Sheppey and in the next year his work was exhibited at the Ghent International Exhibition.  It was in 1913 that Parsons met the Irish artist Harry Clarke.  One was to influence the other.

1914 – 1930

The Great War saw many of the Glass House staff leave to do military service and in 1916 Parsons himself was conscripted into the
Army but was not posted overseas.

Demobilised in 1918, he resumed work at the Glass House and went back to teaching at the Central School.  As a teacher, Parsons was, like Whall before him, to inspire several of his pupils to become stained glass artists, including Lilian Pocock, Joseph Edward Nuttgens and Herbert Hendrie.

After the war there was a boom in demand for stained glass, particularly with many memorial windows being commissioned and Parsons appointed Edward Liddall Armitage as an assistant and later Leonard Potter. Both were ex-pupils.

1924 saw Parsons make what was to prove a seminal visit to Chartres where, with his brother Ambrose, he carried out a detailed study of medieval glass.  Parsons wrote "So far as my knowledge goes, this world cannot show anything made by men so amazingly beautiful".

In 1927 he was commissioned to make the apse windows for the new St Mary's Cathedral in Johannesburg.

1929 saw a collection of poems that he had written published by the Medici Society under the title Ann's Book. His daughter Jacynth provided the illustrations. (The previous year she had illustrated Forty Nine Poems by W. H. Davies, also for Medici). Over the years Parsons had several of his poems published in anthologies and periodicals.  In the same year he resigned from his teaching post at the Central School.

1930 to 1934 – final years

In 1930 Parsons moved from Northwood, where he had lived for many years, to Shalbourne in Wiltshire.  There he set up a studio at Ropewind Farm where he converted a mid-18th century three-bay barn, adding a large, porch-like window to let in natural light on the north side.  He also incorporated a small granary on unusual brick and timber staddles thus converting it into a larger purpose-built storage building and garage, giving access directly from Rivar Road. The house he lived in adjoined the site.  It should have been an idyllic time for Parsons but his health deteriorated and finally, in 1933, he had to return to London, took a flat in Putney and worked for a while with his great friend Edward Woore. He died there the following year at the young age of 50.  After his death on 30 September 1934, the cause of death being given as cerebral thrombosis and arteriosclerosis, existing commissions were taken over or completed by Woore.

Works

Gallery

Notes

References

External links
 Flickr photographers' pool of Karl Parsons' work

1884 births
1934 deaths
British stained glass artists and manufacturers
People from Shalbourne
People from Hillingdon
People from Peckham
Military personnel from Surrey
British Army personnel of World War I
British Army soldiers

Karl Parsons


Computational chemistry is a type of chemistry that uses computer science to help solve chemical problems. These programs help scientists learn about molecules and solids. Computational chemistry is often used with chemical experiments to get more information. It can predict chemical phenomena that have not yet been seen. It is widely used to design new drugs and materials.

Computational chemistry can predict the structure of molecules. It can help find where a molecule's atoms are. It can also find absolute and relative (interaction) energies, electronic charge distributions, dipoles and higher multipole moments, vibrational frequencies, reactivity or other spectroscopic quantities, and cross sections for collision with other particles.

Computational chemistry looks at both static and dynamic systems. In all cases, as the size of the system being studied grows, the computer time and other resources (such as memory and disk space) used also grows. That system can be a single molecule, a group of molecules, or a solid. Computational chemistry methods range from highly accurate to very approximate. Highly accurate methods are typically feasible only for small systems.

Related pages
 Bioinformatics
 Statistical mechanics
 Theoretical chemistry

Other websites
NIST Computational Chemistry Comparison and Benchmark DataBase  - Contains a database of thousands of computational and experimental results for hundreds of systems
American Chemical Society Division of Computers in Chemistry - American Chemical Society Computers in Chemistry Division, resources for grants, awards, contacts and meetings.
CSTB report Mathematical Research in Materials Science: Opportunities and Perspectives - CSTB Report
3.320 Atomistic Computer Modeling of Materials (SMA 5107) Free MIT Course
Technology Roadmap for Computational Chemistry
Applications of molecular and materials modelling.
Impact of Advances in Computing and Communications Technologies on Chemical Science and Technology CSTB Report
MD and Computational Chemistry applications on GPUs

Computational chemistry
Theoretical chemistry

Computational chemistry


Robert Marion Gist (October 1, 1917 – May 21, 1998) was an American actor and film director.

Life and career
Gist was reared around the stockyards of Chicago, Illinois, during the Great Depression. Reform school-bound after injuring another boy in a fistfight, Gist instead ended up at Chicago's Hull House, a settlement house originally established by social worker Jane Addams. There he first became interested in acting.

Work in Chicago radio was followed by stage acting roles in Chicago and on Broadway (in the long-running Harvey with Josephine Hull).  While acting in Harvey, he made his motion picture debut in 20th Century-Fox's Christmas classic Miracle on 34th Street (1947). Gist was also seen on Broadway in director Charles Laughton's The Caine Mutiny Court Martial (1954) with Henry Fonda and John Hodiak.

While shooting Operation Petticoat (1959), Gist told director Blake Edwards that he was interested in directing.  Edwards later hired Gist to helm episodes of the TV series Peter Gunn. Gist also directed episodes of TV shows Naked City, The Twilight Zone, Route 66 and many others.

Gist directed the world premiere of Edna St. Vincent Millay's Conversation at Midnight, produced by Worley Thorne and Susan Davis, in November 1961, on stage, at the Coronet Theatre in Los Angeles. Playing only on the three "off-nights" the theatre was available, Monday through Wednesday, the production was received enthusiastically by critics and audiences, and the small 160-seat theatre was filled to capacity each night for six weeks.  With that success, the production moved to the larger Civic Playhouse, where it ran for more than four more months. In the cast were James Coburn, Jack Albertson, Eduard Franz, Hal England, Sandy Kenyon, Frank DeKova and Bill Berger. Three years later, Gist directed another production of the piece on Broadway, at the Billy Rose Theatre, again produced by Thorne, in association with Davis, with some of the first cast. However, notably absent in key roles were James Coburn and Jack Albertson. The "play," a dramatic dialogue of ideas, delivered in various poetic forms, did not do well on Broadway and closed within the week.

Personal life
He was married to actress Agnes Moorehead from 1954 to 1958, although they separated in 1955. They met during  the filming of The Stratton Story (1949).

In a 1970 interview with David Frost, Gist discussed his involvement with and commitment to Synanon.

Filmography

 Miracle on 34th Street (1947) - Department Store Window Dresser (uncredited)
 Jigsaw (1949) - Tommy Quigley
 The Stratton Story (1949) - Earnie
 Scene of the Crime (1949) - P.J. Pontiac
 Oh, You Beautiful Doll (1949) - Musician (uncredited)
 A Dangerous Profession (1949) - Roy Collins, aka Max Gibney
 Wabash Avenue (1950) - Sailor (uncredited)
 I Was a Shoplifter (1950) - Barkie Neff
 Love That Brute (1950) - Rookie Police Officer Wilson (uncredited)
 The Jackpot (1950) - Pete Spooner
 Strangers on a Train (1951) - Det. Leslie Hennessey
 One Minute to Zero (1952) - Maj. Carter
 Angel Face (1953) - Miller
 The Band Wagon (1953) - Hal Benton
 Ford Star Jubilee (1955, TV Series) - Lt. Thomas Keefer
 D-Day the Sixth of June (1956) - Dan Stenick
 Ford Television Theatre (1956, TV Series) - Rev. Wilkerson
 Studio One (1957, TV Series) - Coley Davis
 The Phil Silvers Show (1957, TV Series) - Red Thompson
 Flight (1957, TV Series)
 The Walter Winchell File (1957, TV Series) - Lawton
 The Walter Winchell File "The Boy From Mason City" (1957, TV Series) - Tony Romo
 Richard Diamond, Private Detective (1958, TV Series) - Joe Quincy
 Decision (1958, TV Series) - Dawes
 The Naked and the Dead (1958) - Red
 Gunsmoke (1955-1958, TV Series) - Cam Speegle / Rourke / Rabb Briggs
 Wolf Larsen (1958) - Matthews
 Goodyear Theatre (1959, TV Series) - Ben Moore
 Black Saddle (1959, TV Series) - Milo Dawes
 Al Capone (1959) - Dean O'Banion
 The FBI Story (1959) - Medicine Salesman
 Lock Up (1959, TV Series) - Wayne Powell
 Johnny Ringo (1960, TV Series) - Virgil Kincaid
 Alcoa Theatre (1959, TV Series) - Walter Parker
 Men into Space (1959, TV Series) - Capt. Dan Freer
 Operation Petticoat (1959) - Lt. Watson
 Tales of Wells Fargo (1959, TV Series) - Stanley
 Hawaiian Eye (1960, TV Series) - Barney Mitchell
 The DuPont Show with June Allyson (1960, TV Series) - Lennie Vale
 The Untouchables (1960, TV Series) - Fred 'Caddy' Croner
 Death Valley Days (1960, TV Series) - Aaron Taggert
 Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theater (1960, TV Series)
 General Electric Theater (1960, TV Series) - Committee Chairman
 Hennesey (1960, with Jackie Cooper, recurring role, TV Series) - Dr. Owen King
 Perry Mason (1960, TV Series) - Deputy D.A. Claude Drumm
 Hotel de Paree (1960) - Zack
 Pony Express (1960, TV Series) - Slater
 Sea Hunt (1960) - Captain Olsen
 Blueprint for Robbery (1961) - Chips McGann
 The Aquanauts (1960, TV Series) - Darrell Willoughby
 The Americans (1961, TV Series) - Gen. Charles P. Stone
 The Law and Mr. Jones (1961, TV Series) - District Attorney Tom Starkowski
 Peter Gunn (1958-1961, TV Series) - Cesar Carlyle / Miles Spence / Jason Willows
 The Detectives Starring Robert Taylor (1962, TV Series) - Tully
 Rawhide (1959-1962, TV Series) - Harleck / Sheriff Ed Stockton / Sheriff
 Have Gun - Will Travel (1958-1962, TV Series) - Gavin O'Shea / Sheriff Ernie Backwater / Ike Brennan / Matt Baker / Ben Tyler
 Jack the Giant Killer (1962) - Scottish Captain
 Vacation Playhouse (1965, TV Series) - Ben Moore
 An American Dream (1966)
 Nichols (1971, TV Series) - Gulley (final appearance)

Teaching
Robert Gist was appointed Head of the School of Arts at the Darling Downs Institute of Advanced Education (DDIAE)
now the University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia from the beginning of 1973 to the end of 1975.

Also, during the 1960s, he made himself into a Hollywood acting coach, forming one of the actors' workshops of that time. In 1964, he used its members—who he named "The Group"—to perform several evenings of Carl Sandburg's poetry. The event was titled The People Yes.

Students
 Philip Barter Cameraman/artist
 Neville Tranter, Australian actor/puppeteer
 Bernd Ullrich, German artist
 Lenore Robbins [nee Lee], Australian dancer and choreographer. Contemporary dancer who, following a brief but highly successful performance career, has influenced a generation of young dancers through a succession of regional dance schools in Queensland, Australia.

References

External links

1917 births
1998 deaths
20th-century American male actors
American male film actors
American film directors
American male television actors
American television directors
Male actors from Los Angeles
Male actors from Miami
Joan Crawford FULL Interview (January 16th, 1970) / https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=2865131750218048

Robert Gist


London Midland and Scottish Railway's number 5552 (British Railways' number 45552), named Silver Jubilee was a Jubilee Class 4-6-0 express steam locomotive.  It was specially named for the Silver Jubilee of George V.

Overview
The original 5552 was the first of the class that emerged in June 1934 from Crewe Works (Maker's number: 63 Lot Number: 97).  The original 5552 however swapped identities with classmate 5642 in April 1935 (built December 1934 Crewe, Makers Number: 203 Lot Number: 112, later named Boscawen).  5552 was given a special livery of all over black (it originally had been, like the rest of the class, painted crimson lake) with silver lining and specially cast chrome numbers and named Silver Jubilee to mark the silver jubilee of George V.  This scheme was retained until the 1948 nationalization by British Railways. The rest of its class were thereafter officially known as the Jubilee Class.

It originally had a low degree superheat domeless boiler but received a high degree superheat domed boiler in 1940.  The loco was allocated to several LMS depots during its service, including Longsight, Manchester, in 1947/48, from where it ran on express trains to London Euston and other destinations. It was renumbered 45552 in 1951, receiving new cast numbers.  It was also given a livery of Brunswick green during the 1950s.  45552 was withdrawn in September 1964, and scrapped at Cashmore's, Great Bridge.

Preservation
Although 5552 was not preserved, it has been represented in preservation.  In 1994, classmate 5593 Kolhapur was disguised as 5552 in original livery to mark the silver jubilee of the preserved Great Central Railway.  In 2003, another preserved Jubilee, 5690 Leander was temporarily renamed Golden Jubilee for the Golden Jubilee of George V's granddaughter HM Queen Elizabeth II, though retaining the crimson lake livery.

See also
 Silver Jubilee (train)

References

External links
 Jubilees page
 Railuk database

Silver Jubilee of George V
5552 Silver Jubilee
Scrapped locomotives
Standard gauge steam locomotives of Great Britain
Individual locomotives of Great Britain
Railway locomotives introduced in 1934
4-6-0 locomotives

LMS Jubilee Class 5552 Silver Jubilee


Mirage is a name given to several types of jet aircraft designed by the French company Dassault Aviation (formerly Avions Marcel Dassault), some of which were produced in different variants. Most were supersonic fighters with delta wings. The most successful was the Mirage III in its many variants and derivatives, which were widely produced and modified both by Dassault and by other companies. Some variants were given other names, while some otherwise unrelated types were given the Mirage name.

Early prototypes
 MD550 Mystère Delta, the original Dassault experimental delta jet, which provided the baseline for the main Mirage series. Two were built, later renamed Mirage I and II respectively:
 Mirage I, the MD550-01 renamed.
 Mirage II, the MD550-02 renamed.

Mirage III/5/50 series

The most successful line of Mirages were a family of supersonic delta-winged fighters, all sharing the same basic airframe but differing in powerplant, equipment and minor details. Early examples were tailless, while many later variants had  canard foreplanes added.

France
The main production variants include:
 Mirage III, definitive production type which established the series.
 Mirage 5, developed from the Mirage III.
 Mirage 50, developed from the Mirage 5.

Minor projects and prototypes include:
 Balzac, Mirage IIIT and Mirage IIIV: Prototypes researching supersonic VTOL design. The Balzac and Mirage IIIV both had VTOL capability.
 Milan: a Mirage III example, modified with retractable foreplanes or "moustaches".
 Mirage IIING, developed from the Mirage 50 and featuring fixed canard foreplanes similar to the preceding Milan (see above). Like the Milan, only one airframe was converted.

Israel
Israel produced several progressive developments of the Mirage 5:
 IAI Nesher, a standard Mirage 5 with revised avionics.
 IAI Kfir, re-engined with further revised avionics and canard foreplane.
 IAI Nammer, again re-engined with further revised avionics and canard foreplane. Prototype only.

Pakistan
Pakistan acquired a number of used Mirage IIIs and 5s, manufactured variously in France and Australia.
Project ROSE upgraded the fleet with new avionics.

South Africa
South Africa upgraded its fleet of Mirage IIIs to meet local requirements:
 Atlas Cheetah, a Mirage III upgrade based on the IAI Kfir.

Chile
Chile upgraded its fleet of Mirage 50s to meet local requirements:
 ENAER Pantera (Mirage 50CN and 50DC), a Mirage 50 upgrade based on the IAI Kfir.

Other Mirage types

Production models
 Mirage IV: Delta-winged tailless supersonic nuclear bomber. Largest of all the Mirages.
 Mirage F1 and MF2000: Conventional-configuration supersonic fighter.
 Mirage 2000 supersonic tailless delta-winged successor to the Mirage 50, with an all-new airframe.

Prototypes
 Mirage F2: Strike fighter, a larger and more powerful version of the conventionally tailed F1.
 Mirage G, G4 and G8: Variable-geometry (swing-wing) fighters. The G was effectively a swing-wing F2, while the G4 and G8 were twin-engined developments.
 Mirage 4000 or Super Mirage 4000: Prototype larger version of the Mirage 2000 design.

Project studies
 Mirage 6000: the MD.750 Mach 3 capable fighter, developed under the Système Avion Mach Élevé (High Mach Aircraft System) SAME project.

References

Citations

Bibliography
 Garcia, Miguel, and Waseb Al-Qisuini. Iraqi Mirages in Combat: The Story of the F. I EQ in Iraq. Monee, Illinois, 2018.
 Green, W. and Swanborough, G.; The Complete Book of Fighters, Salamander, 1994.
 France (III), q-zon-fighterplanes.com (retrieved 11:54, 2 October 2015 (UTC))
 Rivas, Santiago, and Juan Carlos Cicalesi. Latin American Mirages: Mirage III / 5 / F.1 / 2000 in Service with South American Air Arms. Houston, TX: Harpia Publishing, 2010.

Mirage

Dassault Mirage


A paper cutter, also known as a paper guillotine or simply a guillotine, is a tool often found in offices and classrooms. It is designed to administer straight cuts to single sheets or large stacks of paper at once.

History
Paper cutters were developed and patented in 1844 by French inventor Guillaume Massiquot. Later, Milton Bradley patented his own version of the paper cutter in 1879.  Since the middle of the 19th century, considerable improvements to the paper cutter have been made by Fomm and Krause of Germany, Furnival in England, and Oswego and Seybold in the United States.

Description
Paper cutters vary in size, usually from approximately 30 centimeters (11.8 inches) in length on each side for office work to , the length of a sheet of A1 paper. The surface typically has a grid that is either painted or inscribed on the surface. It may also include a ruler across the top. The surface also includes a flat edge against which the user may line up the paper at right angles before passing it under the blade.

On the right-hand edge is a long, curved steel blade, often referred to as a knife, attached to the base at one corner. Larger versions have a strong compression coil spring as part of the attachment mechanism that pulls the knife against the stationary edge as the knife is drawn down to cut the paper. The other end of the knife unit is a handle. The stationary right edge of the base is also steel, with an exposed, finely-ground edge. When the knife is pulled down to cut paper, the action resembles that of a pair of scissors; only instead of two knives moving against each other, one is stationary. The combination of a blade mounted to a steady base produces clean and straight cuts, the likes of which would have otherwise required a ruler and razor blade to achieve on a single page. Paper cutters are also used for cutting thin sheet metal, cardboard, and plastic.

A variant of this design uses a wheel-shaped blade mounted on a sliding shuttle attached to a rail. This type of paper cutter is known as a rotary paper cutter. Advantages of this design include being able to make wavy cuts, and perforations or to simply to score the paper without cutting, merely by substituting various types of circular blades. With a rotary cutter, it is also almost impossible for the user to cut oneself, except while changing the blade. This makes it safer for home use. Higher-end versions of rotary paper cutters are used for precision paper cutting and are popular for trimming photographs.

An even simpler design uses double-edged blades which do not rotate but cut like a penknife. While cheaper, this design is not preferable for serious work due to its tendency to tear paper, and poor performance with thick media.

Safety
Most modern paper cutters come equipped with a finger guard to prevent users from accidentally cutting themselves or severing a digit while using the apparatus.  However, injuries are still possible if the device is not used with proper care or attention.

Industrial paper cutters
In the modern paper industry, larger machines are used to cut large stacks of paper, cardboard, or similar material. Such machines operate in a manner similar to a guillotine.  Commercial versions are motorized and automated, and include clamping mechanisms to prevent shifting of the material during the cutting process.

In addition to simple straight paper cutters, vinyl cutters can cut shapes or stencils out of paper, card, vinyl, or thin plastic sheets. Such cutters require vector files and cutting software to manage the cutter. Using small blades, the machine can cut shapes out of the material.

See also
 Board shear
 Scissors

References

Office equipment
Stationery

Paper cutter


Dislipidemia is the condition of having too much much lipids (essentially: fat) in the bloodstream. The main treatmeent consists in lowering the amount of cholesterol. In most cases, this is done with a change of the diet and the lifestyle. In some cases, drugs are used to help. There are several cases, where dislipidemia is caused by a birth defect. Other conditions affecting dyslipidemia is being overweight, or an unbalanced nutrition. Many diseases of the liver, or the thyroid gland can cause dyslipidemia. Another disease that can cause dyslipidemia is Diabetes mellitus.

Blood disorders

Dyslipidemia


Richard Franz Marian Yary (also: Riko Yary, , , ; pseudonyms: "Yaryga", "Karpat", "Riko") (1898–1969) was a Ukrainian nationalist journalist, politician and military figure.

Born in Rzeszów, Galicia (then part of Austria-Hungary) in present-day Poland, he became one of the highest functionaries of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) and a close associate of and advisor to Stepan Bandera.

Origin
According to the Yary family legend the Yarys descended from a Ukrainian Cossack wounded during the Siege of Vienna in 1685.

According to historians O. Kucheruk and Z. Knysh, Yary was of patrilineal Czech and matrilineal Hungarian-Jewish descent(Polish rather than Hungarian (maiden name "Pollack") according to Patrylyak).. Yary's Jewish descent was affirmed by the historian Z. Knysh, but denied by P. Mirchuk who affirmed that Yary was not Jewish, but was denounced as such by his enemies in OUN-M, and Knysh himself was Yary's personal enemy.

Family
Yary married Olga Rosalie Spielvogel, a Jewish woman from Peremyshliany in 1923.

In the military
In 1912, he completed his studies in the Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt, and commanded a sapper battalion after graduation. In the years of World War I (1914–18), he was an officer in the 9th Dragoons Legion of the Austrian Army. In 1918, he went over to the side of the Ukrainian Galician Army (UHA) and commanded a sniper division and later the 2nd cavalry. In 1919, he fought with the 5th Kherson battalion of the Ukrainian National Republic. In 1920, as part of the battalion he was interned in Czechoslovakia and was held at an internment camp in Uzhhorod.

In the OUN
From 1921-29, he was an active member of the Ukrainian Military Organization (UVO), one of the closest advisers to Yevhen Konovaletz. In January 1929, he took part in the First Congress of Ukrainian Nationalists in Vienna, where the formation of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists OUN was announced. In 1933 Yary attempted to obtain a post at the Ukrainian Institute founded by hetman Skoropadsky in Berlin (on OUN's behalf), but he could not secure an appointment due to opposition from the Nazi authorities. This attempt led to a smear campaign in the Polish press that accused Yary and Konovalets of being German agents. From 1937-38, he became the liaison officer between Yevhen Konovaletz and admiral Wilhelm Canaris of the Abwehr, and directed espionage training courses of the UVO organized by the Abwehr. He became an agent of the Special services, and was an adviser during the discussions between Y. Konovaletz and the Japanese Military Attache. During the 1930s Yary was one of the members of the Provid, or leadership council, of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists. He was the only member of the Provid to side with Bandera when the organizations split into Bandera and Melnyk factions. Yary's support for Bandera turned some Ukrainians against Bandera because it was considered suspicious that of all the members of the OUN's leadership council, only the one of not fully Ukrainian ethnicity chose to follow Bandera.
Yary's influence on Stepan Bandera was instrumental in the division of the OUN into its two factions. After the division, he stayed with the OUN(b) (Bandera faction). In November 1940, he arranged contact between Bandera and the Abwehr and set up the Vienna Bureau of the OUN(b). On his initiative, the Nachtigall and Roland Battalion were formed. After the Proclamation of Ukrainian Independence he was given the portfolio of Ambassador to Japan. At the same time, there were reports by the Einsatzgruppe B that Yary and his wife were Jewish, and as such subject to persecution. After the abrogation by the Nazis of the independent Ukrainian State, Yary left the General Government and from 1942 he lived in the Rumanian-occupied Bukovina. In 1943, he was arrested by the Gestapo and was sent to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp.

After World War II
After the war, he returned to his own house in Austria in the Soviet occupational sector. The Soviet occupation forces made no attempt to arrest him, which has led to suspicions that he might have worked for the Soviet intelligence. However, after retiring in Austria, in order to avoid Soviet persecution, he moved to the British sector. After the war, he left political life entirely. According to another source, in the 1950s, Yary became active in OUNb again.

Notes

Sources
 (In Ukrainian) О.Кучерук "Рико Ярий - загадка ОУН" Львів, ЛА "ПІРАМІДА" 2005.
 (In Russian) Chuyev, Sergei - Ukrainskyj Legion - Moscow, 2006
 І.К. Патриляк. Військова діяльність ОУН(Б) у 1940—1942 роках. — Університет імені Шевченко \Ін-т історії України НАН України Київ, 2004 p. 261-262
 "Енциклопедія українознавства" - Riko Yary

1898 births
1969 deaths
People from Rzeszów
People from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
Ukrainian Austro-Hungarians
Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I
Ukrainian politicians before 1991
Austrian people of Czech descent
Ukrainian people of Czech descent
Ukrainian people of Hungarian descent
20th-century Ukrainian people
Ukrainian nationalists
Ukrainian collaborators with Nazi Germany

Richard Yary


Nadhmi Shakir Auchi,  (; born 11 June 1937) is a British-Iraqi businessman and billionaire, founding president of the Anglo Arab Organisation, and the founder and chairman of General Mediterranean Holding (GMH), a conglomerate of 120 companies worldwide.

According to The Sunday Times Rich List in 2023, Auchi is worth £1.182 billion.

Personal life
Born in the Karadat Mariam area of Baghdad, Iraq, in 1937 to an Assyrian family of the Chaldean Catholic Church, Auchi attended Al Mansoor Primary School and Baghdad College High School, before going on to study at Baghdad's Mustansiriyah University. He married his wife Ibtisam in 1963, and together they have 3 daughters and 1 son, born in 1964 and 1972 respectively. In 1979, he and his family fled to London following an extortion attempt by an enforcer for Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti. Six years later, Auchi's younger brother Naseer was hanged by the Baathist regime after discovering the extent of al-Tikriti's corruption. Auchi became a British citizen in 1989 and currently resides in London.

Education and career
Auchi graduated with a B.Sc. in Economics and Political Science from Al-Mustansiriya University, Baghdad, in 1967. He also worked with the Iraqi Ministry of Oil, becoming Director of Planning and Development in 1969. In 1979, he founded General Mediterranean Holding SA in Luxembourg. He was also vice chair of Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University from 1996 and 2000.

He has been president of the Anglo Arab Organisation (AAO), since its founding in 2002. The AAO is a private non-profit making organisation, promoting the integration of British Arabs into mainstream British society, whilst retaining their identity. AAO's achievements include donating money to families affected by the earthquake in Pakistan in 2005, building a school in the earthquake-devastated town of Hoceima, Morocco and hosting a charity gala that collected £35,000 in donations to the benefit of the Cancer Research Unit of the Kingston Hospital in London. Auchi and AAO have also led and sponsored high level delegations made up of Arab, British and French dignitaries, religious and political figures pressing for the release of hostages in Baghdad, including securing the release of two French journalists, Christian Chesnot and Georges Malbrunot and their Syrian driver in 2004.

In 2007, Auchi, in collaboration with the American University in Cairo (AUC) announced the launch of the 'Nadhmi Auchi fellowship for young Arab leaders', a fellowship dedicated to the development of the abilities of Arab youth in institution management and leadership. Auchi pays the full study and living costs of ten students from Egypt and other Arab states. The fellowship plan was announced during an annual ceremony at the Egyptian Embassy in London to celebrate AUC achievements.

Honours and awards
In 1996, the President of Tunisia, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, made him an Officer of the Order of the Republic. In 2002, he was also awarded the Grand Cordon of the Order of Independence by King Abdullah II of Jordan.

In 2003, Auchi was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Francis I (GCFO) by Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro, this in recognition of his major contributions to inter-church and inter-faith dialogue. In England, the College of Arms approved his Coat of Arms in 2004. In the same year the president of the Republic of Lebanon, Émile Lahoud, awarded Auchi with the Membership First Grade of the Lebanese Order of Merit, having already appointed him as a Commander of the National Order of the Cedar in 2000. He was made a Knight of the Order of St. Sylvester (KSS) by Pope John Paul II in 2004.

In 2005 Auchi was made Grao-Mestre da Ordem do Merito Anhanguera in Brazil and was elected as an Honorary Member in the International College of Surgeons in Chicago, Illinois.

Auchi was awarded 'The Presidential Prize' in 2007 by the President of the American University in Cairo, this in appreciation of his efforts in supporting higher education in the Arab World.

On 18 July 2013, he was awarded the Freedom of the City of London

On 13 November 2014, Auchi was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of the Nation (KCN) of Antigua and Barbuda. This knighthood was later removed by the Governor General of Antigua following accusations around the circumstances in which it was given.

Controversies
In 2003, Auchi was convicted of fraud following his involvement in a $504 million corruption scandal centred on the French oil company Elf Aquitaine, described as "the biggest political and corporate sleaze scandal to hit a western democracy since the second world war". Auchi was given a $2.8 million fine, along with a 15-month suspended jail sentence, for his involvement in the 1991 purchase by Elf Aquitaine of various Spanish oil refineries and petrol stations, having been accused by prosecutors of funneling $118 million of illegal commissions back to the Elf executives who had initially set up the deal.

Following the verdict, Elf (by now merged with TotalFina and renamed Total) decided to take legal action against Auchi in France; Auchi responded by suing Total for $327 million in turn, this time in the UK.

See also

References

External links
Nadhmi Auchi profile at the Sunday Times Rich List
General Mediterranean Holding website
Anglo Arab Organisation

Living people
1937 births
Businesspeople from Baghdad
Harvard Kennedy School people
British people of Iraqi descent
British Christians
Iraqi businesspeople
British billionaires
Iraqi emigrants to the United Kingdom
Al-Mustansiriya University alumni

Grand Cordons of the Order of Independence (Jordan)
Knights of the Order of St. Sylvester
Commanders of the National Order of the Cedar
Recipients of the Order of Merit 1st Grade (Lebanon)
People convicted of fraud
Iraqi billionaires

Nadhmi Auchi


Julius De Vigne (Ghent, 19 November 1844 – 1906) was a Belgian lawyer, politician and writer. He studied law at the University of Ghent and established himself as a lawyer. For several years, he was a member of the provincial - and municipal Council of Ghent. As a student at the university, he contributed to the student almanacs, published by the Flemish literary student organization 't zal wel gaan. When the Flemish weekly Het Volksbelang was founded by Julius Vuylsteke, in 1867, he was one of the editors together with Julius Sabbe, Jozef Van Hoorde, and Adolf Hoste.

In 1883 he was the primary supporter of the third Taalwet (E: language law), which stated that at the public schools and Royal Athenaea in Flanders, education would be preferably in Dutch instead of French.

See also
 Flemish literature

Bibliography
 Kiezers-handboek of uitleggingen op de Belgische kieswetten, Gent 1871
 Belgische kieswetboek van 18 Mei 1872, Nederlandsche vertaling met ophelderingen, Gent 1872
 De Zuidnederlandsche schrijvers van het tijdstip der Fransche Overheersching, Antw. 1873
 De wet op de jacht van 29 Maart 1873
 Reglement op de insectenvretende vogels, met Nederlandsche vertaling, Gent 1874
 De Staatswetten van België, (Grondwet, Provinciale wet, Gemeentewet, Kieswetboek), officiëele tekst met Nederlandsche vertaling, Gent 1874
 De Diensttijd in het Leger, Gent 1887.

Sources
 De Vlaamsche beweging en de Vlaamsche Poëzie
 Julius De Vigne

1844 births
1906 deaths
19th-century Belgian lawyers
Flemish activists
Ghent University alumni

Julius De Vigne


Lepidium nitidum, known by the common name shining  pepperweed, is a species of flowering plant in the mustard family.

It is native to far western North America from Washington, through Nevada and California, into Baja California. It thrives in diverse habitat types.

It may be found elsewhere as an introduced species.

Description
Lepidium nitidum is a mainly erect annual herb producing a slender stem up to about 40 centimeters tall. There are small leaves along the stem and larger ones at the base growing up to 10 centimeters long and divided into many narrow lobes.

At the top of the stem appear tiny flowers with spoon-shaped white petals only about a millimeter long.

The flowers give way to flattened, rounded to oval-shaped disclike fruits up to about half a centimeter long. Each green to pink shiny fruit is divided down the center into two chambers containing seeds.

External links
Jepson Manual Treatment of Lepidium nitidum
Lepidium nitidum — U.C. Photo gallery

nitidum
Flora of Baja California
Flora of California
Flora of Nevada
Flora of Oregon
Flora of Washington (state)
Flora of the California desert regions
Flora of the Cascade Range
Flora of the Great Basin
Flora of the Klamath Mountains
Flora of the Sierra Nevada (United States)
Flora of the Sonoran Deserts
Natural history of the California Coast Ranges
Natural history of the Central Valley (California)
Natural history of the Channel Islands of California
Natural history of the Colorado Desert
Natural history of the Mojave Desert
Natural history of the Peninsular Ranges
Natural history of the San Francisco Bay Area
Natural history of the Transverse Ranges
Plants described in 1838
Flora without expected TNC conservation status

Lepidium nitidum


Iago is a fictional character in Walt Disney Pictures' 31st animated feature movie Aladdin (1992), the sequels The Return of Jafar (1994), Aladdin and the King of Thieves (1996), and the television series. He is an anthropomorphic red-plumed talking red lory. Iago is one of Aladdin's best friends and Jafar's former henchman. He is voiced by Gilbert Gottfried.

Animated characters
Fictional birds

Iago (Aladdin)


Message-ID is a unique identifier for a digital message, most commonly a globally unique identifier used in email and Usenet newsgroups.

Message-IDs are required to have a specific format which is a subset of an email address and be globally unique. No two different messages must ever have the same Message-ID. If two messages have the same Message-ID, they are assumed to be the same and one version is discarded. This can cause issues if tools mangle the IDs created by other tools. Such a problem has been reported with Google MTAs mangling Message-IDs created by Outlook, making it difficult to reference other messages and breaking threading.

Message-IDs, if present, are generated by the client program sending the email or by the first mail server. A common method of generating such ID is by combining the time and domain name, for example: firstname.lastname@example.com.

References

External links
 Recommendations for generating Message IDs
 MessageID-Finder Thunderbird extension
 ThunderLink Thunderbird extension

Unique identifiers
Email
Usenet

Message-ID


General elections were held in India on 27 April, 2 May and 7 May 1996 to elect the members of the eleventh Lok Sabha. The elections resulted in a hung parliament with no single party having a clear majority. The Bharatiya Janata Party, which had won the most seats, formed a short-lived government under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee. However, two weeks later the United Front coalition was able to secure a parliamentary majority and H. D. Deve Gowda of Janata Dal became Prime Minister. In 1997 Inder Kumar Gujral, also from the United Front, succeeded Gowda as Prime Minister. Due to the instability, early elections were held in 1998. The elections were the first since 1980 in which every states' seats were elected in a single election period.

Background
The Indian National Congress government of Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao came into the election on the back of several government scandals and accusations of mishandling. Seven cabinet members had resigned during the previous term, and Rao himself faced charges of corruption. The Congress Party more generally had been plagued in recent years by a series of splits, issues conflicts and factional disputes that had seen various key regional parties and figures abandon the party. In particular, the high-profile May 1995 defection of Arjun Singh and Narayan Datt Tiwari to form the new All India Indira Congress (Tiwari) party underscored the internal divisions within the INC.

The government was further weakened by a series of major scandals breaking less than 12 months from the election. In July 1995 it was found a former Congress youth leader had murdered his wife and tried to destroy the evidence by stuffing her corpse into a tandoor. In August 1995 the Vohra Report was finally released to the parliament, decrying that a politician-criminal nexus was "virtually running a parallel government, pushing the state apparatus into irrelevance". Government credibility fell further still when in late 1995 when violence significantly worsened in the Kashmir region, and sporadic fighting and ethnic tensions boiled over in Punjab province. As a result of the scandals, the Rao government went into the 1996 election at a low of ebb of public support.

Campaign
The elections triggered a significant realignment of political forces in Indians, with all-India parties attempting to construct widespread regional coalitions with minor parties in order to secure a central majority. Such political negotiations were to become an increasingly necessary process in Indian politics over the next two decades as the dominance of the INC declined and smaller, ethnic and regional parties took its place. The Bharatiya Janata Party, led by Lal Krishna Advani attempted to add several regional coalition partners - most notably the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and the Bahujan Samaj Party, but was ultimately unsuccessful in overcoming ideological differences. Yet it did join with several strong regional partners - Shiv Sena, Haryana Vikas Party, and the Samata Party. The Congress party attempted to form regional allies as well, most notably with the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK).

The so-called "Third Force" during the 1996 elections was the National Front (NF). After its collapse in 1990, the coalition had chopped and changed before reuniting in the run up to the 1996 election. Three main parties grouped back together in September 1995 in hopes of presenting a viable political choice - the Left Front, Janata Dal and the Telugu Desam Party. It attempted to build a wider coalition of regional partners and state parties, however negotiations repeatedly broke down, and no consensus could be arrived at on a 'common minimum program' - a platform of issues on which all parties could agree upon. A split in the Uttar Pradesh government in December 1995 divided the front further. Finally, lacking a strong leader or common set of principles, the main three parties joined with the Samajwadi Party in a common goal of simply denying power to either the Congress or BJP. Thus a characteristic of the 1996 elections was a large number of strong regional and state parties declined to form an alliance with any of the three major contenders for government.

In January only a few months before the election, a major scandal erupted: the Jain hawala scandal. Jain, an industrialist in the steel and power sectors, was revealed to have given US$33 million in bribes to politicians from nearly all major parties in return for favours. Further shocking the public, Jain had also channelled money to Kashmiri Muslim militants. In the first wave of names implicated were three Rao cabinet members, Arjun Singh from the breakaway Congress (T) party, Bharatiya Janata Party leader Lal Krishna Advani, Sharad Yadav (leader of the Janata Dal Parliamentary Party), and former Congress Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. Almost 115 names would eventually be released, and numerous candidates and ministers were forced to resign in the aftermath. Most significantly was the forced resignation of L.K. Advani, with Atal Bihari Vajpayee taking over as leader of the BJP.

The BJP ran a campaign centred around a four-point plan which aimed for probity of public life, self-reliance in the economy, social harmony and greater security. It strongly advocated an economic plan which would significantly scale back government intervention and encourage capital investment and creation. It stressed the role of Hindutva in its vision for India, creating a more Hindu orientated state by banning cow slaughter, introducing a uniform civil code and removing the special status of Kashmir. The Congress Party attempted to campaign on its foreign policy record, its handling of the numerous natural and ethnic crises that had emerged over the past five years, and on better concessions for ethnic minorities and separated state governments. It additionally stressed the economic gains already made by the government due to its Liberalization policies post 1992. Janata Dal and the National Front campaigned on maintaining a strong public sector though with some commitment to deregulation and anti-corruption measures. It pushed other more populist measures as well, such as more state-run infrastructure projects, subsidised fertilizer, and increased education investment.

Results
The election delivered an unclear mandate and resulted in a hung parliament. The result was the worst result for the INC in history to that date, with commentators blaming the poor result on the personal unpopularity of Prime Minister Rao and the numerous internal divisions that had dogged the party. Congress was almost wiped out in its traditional strongholds of Uttar Pradesh & Bihar with many stalwarts like Ram Lakhan Singh Yadav, Jagannath Mishra, Satyendra Narain Sinha suffered electoral setbacks. The BJP became the largest party within the Lok Sabha, a first for a non-Congress party, although it secured neither a significant increase in the popular vote or enough seats to secure a parliamentary majority.

Following Westminster custom, Indian President Shankar Dayal Sharma invited Atal Bihari Vajpayee as leader of the BJP to form a government. Sworn in on 15 May, the new Prime Minister was given two weeks to prove majority support in parliament. In the weeks leading up to the first confidence vote on 31 May, the BJP attempted to build a coalition by moderating positions to garner support from regional and Muslim parties, however sectarian issues and fears of certain nationalist policies of the BJP hampered efforts. On 28 May, Vajpayee conceded that he could not arrange support from more than 200 of the 545 members of parliament, and thus resigned rather than face the confidence vote, ending his 13-day government.

The second largest party, the Indian National Congress, declined to attempt to form a government, instead choosing to support one headed by Janata Dal, and chose Karnataka Chief Minister H. D. Deve Gowda to assume the Prime Minister post. Janata Dal and a bloc of smaller parties thus formed the United Front, with outside support from INC. Gowda resigned on 21 April 1997 to pave way for I. K. Gujral, who maintained good relations with INC.

However the Fodder Scam resulted in many United Front members demanding the resignation of Lalu Prasad Yadav, an alliance partner and the then Chief Minister of Bihar. Yadav retaliated by breaking away from Janata Dal and forming Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) on 3 July 1997. Out of 45 Janata Dal members of parliament, 17 left the party and supported Yadav. However, the new party continued in the United Front and Gujral's government was saved from immediate danger. Gujral resigned 11 months later when INC withdrew support to the government, and the country went back to the polls in 1998.

See also
List of members of the 11th Lok Sabha
Election Commission of India
1992 Indian presidential election

References

India
India
General
India
General elections in India

1996 Indian general election


Queen's Park is a public park in Brighton, England.

In 1825, Thomas Attree, a property owner and developer in Brighton, acquired land north of Eastern Road—already known as Brighton Park—to build a residential park surrounded by detached villas, inspired by Regent's Park in London. He commissioned architect Charles Galloway to design it. Attree renamed it after Queen Adelaide, consort of William IV. Queen Adelaide patronised the German Spa opened in 1825 by Dr F A A Struve of Dresden at the south end of the park, which remained in operation until 1886 when it continued as a mineral water plant until 1960. On the site now stands the Royal Spa Nursery school. Attree's plan never fully materialised and the surrounding housing is mostly late Victorian with some late 20th century infill and replacement.

At the north-west corner is Pennant Lodge, once the home of Charles Freshfield. Also to the north-west of the park itself, on Queen's Park Road, stands the Pepper Pot (also called the "Pepper Box"). Probably originally built as a horizontal wind-powered water pump, and later used for the publishing of a local newspaper, it was later an artist's studio and by the 1990s a public convenience. In the 21st century it has been sealed and unused. The park itself, without the houses but including the Spa and the Pepper pot, was bought by the Race Stand Trustees in 1890 for £13,500 and donated to the town.

Today Queen's Park has a large pond, frequented by ducks, geese and herring gulls. A popular myth is that the pond was created when a First World War plane crashed in the middle of the park creating a crater lower than the water table. Although untrue, this myth is probably based on a real-life event when a recreational biplane, piloted by retired Air Marshall Phillip Austin, crash landed in the pond in 1923. Austin and the pond emerged unscathed.

The park is also home to a children's play area, a café, an extensive dog-free area, a scented garden for people with disabilities, a former bowling green, tennis courts, and an area that is left untended in order to encourage wildlife. Kemp Town Bowling Club stopped using the bowling green in 2007, it had previously provided a filming location for the 1987 film "Wish You Were Here" starring Emily Lloyd

References

External links
 Parks link on council site
 History and personal recollections on My Brighton and Hove site

Brighton
Parks and open spaces in East Sussex
Urban public parks
Conservation areas in England
Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen

Queen's Park, Brighton


Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted is a 2019 virtual reality survival horror video game created by Steel Wool Studios and published by ScottGames. The game is the seventh main game in the Five Nights at Freddy's series and the ninth game overall, and presents itself as "The Freddy Fazbear Virtual Experience".

The game was released on May 28, 2019 for HTC Vive and Oculus Rift headsets on Microsoft Windows, and PlayStation VR headsets on PlayStation 4.'

DLC
Lists all available downloadable content for the game.

Curse of Dreadbear
The Curse of Dreadbear is a DLC content pack that adds new Halloween themed content. The DLC when first bought was separate into days where content was added until the entire DLC was finished. The game includes 10 new minigames, including remakes of the base game.

The first section: Are you Afraid of the Dark includes a reskin of the plushbaby minigame, a gallery shooter game, and a free-roam corn maze where you must find keys to escape a maze with new character Grimm Foxy.

References

Five Nights at Freddy's

Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted