Lichenology is the branch of mycology that studies the lichens, symbiotic organisms made up of an intimate symbiotic association of a microscopic alga (or a cyanobacterium) with a filamentous fungus.

Study of lichens draws knowledge from several disciplines: mycology, phycology, microbiology and botany. Scholars of lichenology are known as lichenologists.

History

The beginnings

Lichens as a group have received less attention in classical treatises on botany than other groups although the relationship between humans and some species has been documented from early times. Several species have appeared in the works of Dioscorides, Pliny the Elder and Theophrastus although the studies are not very deep. During the first centuries of the modern age they were usually put forward as examples of spontaneous generation and their reproductive mechanisms were totally ignored. For centuries naturalists had included lichens in diverse groups until in the early 18th century a French researcher Joseph Pitton de Tournefort in his Institutiones Rei Herbariae grouped them into their own genus. He adopted the Latin term lichen, which had already been used by Pliny who had imported it from Theophrastus but up until then this term had not been widely employed. The original meaning of the Greek word λειχήν (leichen) was moss that in its turn derives from the Greek verb λείχω (liekho) to suck because of the great ability of these organisms to absorb water. In its original use the term signified mosses, liverworts as well as lichens. Some forty years later Dillenius in his Historia Muscorum made the first division of the group created by Tournefort separating the sub-families Usnea, Coralloides and Lichens in response to the morphological characteristics of the lichen thallus.

After the revolution in taxonomy brought in by Linnaeus and his new system of classification lichens are retained in the Plant Kingdom forming a single group Lichen with eight divisions within the group according to the morphology of the thallus. The taxonomy of lichens was first intensively investigated by the Swedish botanist Erik Acharius (1757–1819), who is therefore sometimes named the "father of lichenology". Acharius was a student of Carl Linnaeus. Some of his more important works on the subject, which marked the beginning of lichenology as a discipline, are:

 Lichenographiae Suecia prodromus (1798)
 Methodus lichenum (1803)
 Lichenographia universalis (1810)
 Synopsis methodica lichenum (1814)

Later lichenologists include the American scientists Vernon Ahmadjian and Edward Tuckerman and the Russian evolutionary biologist Konstantin Merezhkovsky, as well as amateurs such as Louisa Collings.

Over the years research is shedding new light into the nature of these organisms still classified as plants. A controversial issue surrounding lichens since the early 19th century is their reproduction. In these years a group of researchers faithful to the tenets of Linnaeus considered that lichens reproduced sexually and had sexual reproductive organs, as in other plants, independent of whether asexual reproduction also occurred. Other researchers only considered asexual reproduction by means of Propagules.

19th century

Against this background appeared the Swedish botanist Erik Acharius disciple of Linnaeus, who is today considered the father of lichenology, starting the taxonomy of lichens with his pioneering study of Swedish lichens in Lichenographiae Suecicae Prodromus of 1798 or in his Synopsis Methodica Lichenum, Sistens omnes hujus Ordinis Naturalis of 1814. These studies and classifications are the cornerstone of subsequent investigations. In these early years of structuring the new discipline various works of outstanding scientific importance appeared such as Lichenographia Europaea Reformata published in 1831 by Elias Fries or Enumeratio Critico Lichenum Europaeorum 1850 by Ludwig Schaerer in Germany.

But these works suffer from being superficial and mere lists of species without further physiological studies. It took until the middle of the 19th century for research to catch up using biochemical and physiological methods. In Germany  and Johann Bayrhoffer, in France Edmond Tulasne and Camille Montagne, in Russia Fedor Buhse, in England William Allport Leighton and in the United States Edward Tuckerman began to publish works of great scientific importance.

Scientific publications settled many unknown facts about lichens. In the French publication Annales des Sciences Naturelles in an article of 1852 "Memorie pour servir a l'Histoire des Lichens Organographique et Physiologique" by Edmond Tulasne, the reproductive organs or apothecia of lichens was identified.

These new discoveries were becoming increasingly contradictory for scientists. The apothecium reproductive organ being unique to fungi but absent in other photosynthetic organisms. With improvements in microscopy, algae were identified in the lichen structure, which heightened the contradictions. At first the presence of algae was taken as being due to contamination due to collection of samples in damp conditions and they were not considered as being in a symbiotic relation with the fungal part of the thallus. That the algae continued to multiply showed that they were not mere contaminants.

It was Anton de Bary a German mycologist who specialised in phytopathology who first suggested in 1865 that lichens were merely the result of parasitism of various fungi of the ascomycetes group by nostoc type algae and others. Successive studies such as those carried out by Andrei Famintsyn and Baranetzky in 1867 showed no dependence of the algal component upon the lichen thallus and that the algal component could live independently of the thallus. It was in 1869 that Simon Schwendener demonstrated that all lichens were the result of fungal attack on the cells of algal cells and that all these algae also exist free in nature. This researcher was the first to recognise the dual nature of lichens as a result of the capture of the algal component by the fungal component. In 1873 Jean-Baptiste Edouard Bornet concluded form studying many different lichen species that the relationship between fungi and algae was purely symbiotic. It was also established that algae could associate with many different fungi to form different lichen phenotypes.

20th century

In 1909 the Russian lichenologist Konstantin Mereschkowski presented a research paper "The Theory of two Plasms as the basis of Symbiogenesis, A new study on the Origin of Organisms", which aims to explain a new theory of Symbiogenesis by lichens and other organisms as evidenced by his earlier work "Nature and Origin of Chromatophores in the Plant Kingdom". These new ideas can be studied today under the title of the Theory of Endosymbiosis.

Despite the above studies the dual nature of lichens remained no more than a theory until in 1939 the Swiss researcher Eugen A Thomas was able to reproduce in the laboratory the phenotype of the lichen Cladonia pyxidata by combining its two identified components.

During the 20th century botany and mycology were still attempting to solve the two main problems surrounding lichens. On the one hand the definition of lichens and the relationship between the two symbionts and the taxonomic position of these organisms within the plant and fungal kingdoms. There appeared numerous renowned researchers within the field of lichenology such as Henry Nicollon des Abbayes, William Alfred Weber, Antonina Georgievna Borissova, Irwin M. Brodo, and George Albert Llano.

Lichenology has found applications beyond biology itself in the field of geology in a technique known as lichenometry where the age of an exposed surface can be found by studying the age of lichens growing on them. Age dating in this way can be absolute or relative because the growth of these organisms can be arrested under various conditions. The technique provides an average age of the older individual lichens providing a minimum age of the medium being studied. Lichenometry relies upon the fact that the maximum diameter of the largest thallus of an epilithic lichen growing on a substrate is directly proportional to the time from first exposure of the area to the environment as seen in studies by Roland Beschel in 1950 and is especially useful in areas exposed for less than 1000 years. Growth is greatest in the first 20 to 100 years with 15–50 mm growth per year and less in the following years with average growth of 2–4 mm per year.

The difficulty of giving a definition applicable to every known lichen has been debated since lichenologists first recognised the dual nature of lichens. In 1982 the International Association for Lichenology convened a meeting to adopt a single definition of lichen drawing on the proposals of a committee. The chairman of this committee was the renowned researcher Vernon Ahmadjian. The definition finally adopted was that lichen could be considered as the association between a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a thallus of specific structure.

Such a simple a priori definition soon brought criticism from various lichenologists and there soon emerged reviews and suggestions for amendments. For example, David L. Hawksworth considered the definition imperfect because it is impossible to determine which one thallus is of a specific structure since thalli changed depending upon the substrate and conditions in which they developed. This researcher represents one of the main trends among lichenologists who consider it impossible to give a single definition to lichens since they are a unique type of organism.

Today studies in lichenology are not restricted to the description and taxonomy of lichens but have application in various scientific fields. Especially important are studies on environmental quality that are made through the interaction of lichens with their environment. Lichen is extremely sensitive to various air pollutants, especially to sulphur dioxide, which causes acid rain and prevents water absorption.

Lichens in pharmacology
Although several species of lichen have been used in traditional medicine it was not until the early 20th century that modern science became interested in them. The discovery of various substances with antibacterial action in lichen thalli was essential for scientists to become aware of the possible importance of these organisms to medicine. From the 1940s there appeared various works by the noted microbiologist Rufus Paul Burkholder who demonstrated antibacterial action of lichens of the genus Usnea against Bacillus subtilis and Sarcina lutea. Studies showed that the substance that inhibited growth of bacteria was usnic acid. Something similar occurred with the substance Ramelina synthesised by the lichen Ramalina reticulata, nevertheless, these substances proved ineffective against Gram negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas. With these investigations the number of antibacterial substances and possible drug targets known to be produced by lichens increased ergosterol, usnic acid etc.

Interest in the potential of substances synthesised by lichens increased with the end of World War II along with the growing interest in all antibiotic substances. In 1947 antibacterial action was identified in extracts of Cetraria islandica and the compounds identified as responsible for bacterial inhibition were shown to be d-protolichosteric acid and d-1-usnic acid. Further investigations have identified novel antibacterial substances, Alectosarmentin or Atranorin.

Antibacterial action of substances produced by lichens is related to their ability to disrupt bacterial proteins with a subsequent loss of bacterial metabolic capacity. This is possible due to the action of lichen phenolics such as usnic acid derivatives.

From the 1950s the lichen product usnic acid was the object of most antitumour research. These studies revealed some in vitro antitumour activity by substances identified in two common lichens Peltigera leucophlebia and Collema flaccidum.

Recent work in the field of applied biochemistry has shown some antiviral activity with some lichen substances. In 1989 K Hirabayashi presented his investigations on inhibitory lichen polysaccharides in HIV infection.

Bibliography
"Protocols in Lichenology: Culturing, Biochemistry, Ecophysiology and Use in Biomonitoring" (Springer Lab Manuals, Kraner, Ilse, Beckett, Richard and Varma, Ajit (28 Nov 2001)
Lichenology in the British Isles, 1568–1975: An Historical and Biographical Survey, D. L. Hawksworth and M. R. D. Seaward (Dec 1977)
"Lichenology: Progress and Problems" (Special Volumes/Systematics Association) Denis Hunter Brown et al. (10 May 1976)
Lichenology in Indian Subcontinent, Dharani Dhar Awasthi (1 Jan 2000)
Lichenology in Indian Subcontinent 1966–1977, Ajay Singh (1980)
CRC Handbook of Lichenology, Volume II: v.2, Margalith Galun (30 Sep 1988)
A Textbook of General Lichenology, Albert Schneider (24 May 2013)
Horizons in Lichenology D. H. Dalby (1988)
Bibliography of Irish Lichenology, M. E. Mitchell (Nov 1972)
Diccionario de Liquenologia/Dictionary of Lichenology, Kenneth Allen Hornak (1998)
"Progress and Problems in Lichenology in the Eighties: Proceedings" (Bibliotheca Lichenologica), Elisabeth Peveling (1987)
A Textbook of General Lichenology with Descriptions and Figures of the Genera Occurring in the North Eastern United States, Albert Schneider (Mar 2010)
The Present Status and Potentialities of the Lichenology in China, Liu Hua Jie (1 Jan 2000)
Lichens to Biomonitor the Environment, Shukla, D. K. Vertika, Upreti and Bajpai, Rajesh (Aug 2013)
Lichenology and Bryology in the Galapagos Islands with Checklists of the Lichens and Bryophytes thus far Reported, William A. Weber (1966)
Flechten Follmann: Contributions to Lichenology in Honour of Gerhard Follmann, Gerhard Follmann, F. J. A. Daniels, Margot Schultz and Jorge Peine (1995)
Environmental Lichenology: Biomonitoring Trace Element Air Pollution, Joyce E. Sloof (1993)
The Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory: Devoted to Bryology and Lichenology, Zennosuke Iwatsuki (1983)
Contemporary Lichenology and Lichens of Western Oregon, W. Clayton Fraser (1968)
Irish Lichenology 1858–1880: Selected Letters of Isaac Carroll, Theobald Jones, Charles Larbalestier (1996)
Lichens from West of Hudson's Bay (Lichens of Arctic America Vol. 1), John W. Thompson (1953)
Les Lichens - Morphologie, Biologie, Systematique, Fernand Moreau (1927)
"Eric Acharius and his Influence on English Lichenology" (Botany Bulletins), David J. Galloway (Jul 1988)
"Lichenographia Thompsoniana: North American Lichenology in Honour of John W. Thompson", M. G. Gleen (May 1998)
"Monitoring with Lichens-Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop", Nimis, Pier Luigi, Scheidegger, Christoph and Wolseley, Patricia (Dec 2001)
Contributions to Lichenology: In Honour of A. Henssen, H. M. Jahns and A. Henssen (1990)
Studies in Lichenology with Emphasis on Chemotaxonomy, Geography and Phytochemistry: Festschrift Christian Leuckert, Johannes Gunther Knoph, Kunigunda Schrufer and Harry J. M. Sipman (1995)
Swedish Lichenology: Dedicated to Roland Moberg, Jan Erik Mattsson, Mats Wedin and Inga Hedberg (Sep 1999)
Index of Collectors in Knowles the Lichens of Ireland (1929) and Porter's Supplement: with a Conspectus of Lichen, M. E. Mitchell, Matilda C. Knowles and Lilian Porter (1998)
Biodeterioration of Stone Surfaces: Lichens and Biofilms as Weathering Agents of Rocks and Cultural Heritage, Larry St. Clair and Mark Seaward (Oct 2011)
The Lichen Symbiosis, Vernon Ahmadjian (Aug 1993)
Lichen Biology, Thomas H. Nash (Jan 2008)
Fortschritte der Chemie organischer Naturstoffe/ Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Natural Products, S. Hunek (Oct 2013)

Notable lichenologists

Lichen collections
British Lichen Society
Botanische Staatssammlung München
Canadian Museum of Nature
Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures
National Botanical Research Institute (CSIR), India
Iowa State University, Ada Hayden Herbarium, Ames, Iowa
National Museum Cardiff
Natural History Museum, London
New York Botanical Garden
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London
University of Michigan Herbarium, Ann Arbor, Michigan
Ulster Museum, Belfast

See also

 Outline of lichens

Footnotes

References

External links
American Bryological and Lichenological Society
Belgium, Luxembourg and Northern France, Lichens of
British Lichen Society
Central European Bryological and Lichenological Society (Ger)
Checklists of Lichens and Lichenolous Fungi
Chilean Lichens (Spa)
Czech Bryological and Lichenological Society (Cze)
French Lichenological Society (Fre)
Guide to using a Lichen-Based Index to Assess Nitrogen Air Quality
Identifying North American Lichens a Guide to the Literature
International Association for Lichenology
Irish Lichens
Italian Lichenological Society (Ita)
Japanese Lichenological Society (Eng)
Japanese Lichenological Society (Eng)
Lichenological Resources (Rus)
Lichen Herbarium University of Oslo
Lichenland Oregon State University
Links to Lichens and Lichenologists
Lichens of Ireland Project
Microscopy of Lichens (Ger)
Netherlands Bryological and Lichenological Society (nl)
National Biodiversity Gateway
Nordic Lichen Society (Eng)
North American Lichens
Paleo-Lichenology (Ger)
Russian Lichens (Rus)
Scottish Lichens
Swedish Lichens Lief & Anita Stridvall
Swiss Bryological and Lichenological Society (Ger)
Tropical Lichens
UK Lichens

Branches of biology
Branches of mycology
Fungi and humans
Mycology

Lichenology


The Car Nicobar class of high-speed offshore patrol vessels are built by Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers (GRSE) for the Indian Navy. The vessels are designed as a cost-effective platform for patrol, anti-piracy and rescue operations in India's exclusive economic zone. In 2023, one of the ships, INS Tarmugli, was donated to the Maldivian Coast Guard.

The class and its vessels are named for Indian islands. They are the first water jet-propelled vessels of the Indian Navy.

Unlike the United States Coast Guard's similarly sized Sentinel class cutters, the class is propelled by water jets, at up to , where the American patrol vessels conventional propulsion systems maximum stated speed is .  Both classes have a mission endurance of .

Design
The Car Nicobar-class vessels were designed and built by GRSE. Production of the class was fast tracked after the 2008 Mumbai attacks. The vessels feature improved habitability with fully air-conditioned modular accommodation, on board reverse osmosis plant for desalination, and a sewage treatment plant.

The vessels are each powered by three HamiltonJet HM811 water jets, coupled with MTU 16V 4000 M90 engines, delivering a combined  of power. An aluminium superstructure reduces weight and is designed to reduce radar cross-section.

As patrol vessels, they are lightly armed. They carry various sensors, including the Furuno navigation radar and sonar. Armament on board includes a 30 mm CRN-91 automatic cannon with an electronic day-night fire control system of Ordnance Factory Board (OFB) and Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) origin. The vessels also mount two 12.7 mm heavy machine guns (HMG) and multiple medium machine guns, besides carrying shoulder-launched Igla surface-to-air missiles to combat aerial threats.

The first two vessels commissioned were initially restricted to speeds up to  due to deficiency in the gearboxes, which was later rectified by KPCL. INS Kabra, the eighth in the class, has a top speed of more than . The improved maneuverability and speed allows these vessels to have high-speed interdiction of fast-moving targets.

The last four ships are an improved variant of the Car Nicobar-class patrol boats and have been dubbed 'follow on waterjet fast attack craft' (FOWJFAC) by the Indian Navy. Improvements include an enhanced electrical power generation capacity of 280 kW and twice the reverse osmosis (RO) capacity at 4 tonnes per day.

Vessels

Operations
INS Car Nicobar and INS Chetlat are based in Chennai under India's Eastern Naval Command.

INS Cankarso and INS Kondul are based in Goa under the Western Naval Command.

INS Kalpeni is based in Kochi under the Southern Naval Command.

Operation Island Watch
In January 2011, as a part of Operation Island Watch, INS Cankarso and INS Kalpeni were deployed on anti-piracy patrol to the west of the Lakshadweep archipelago. On 28 January, Cankarso responded to a Mayday call from a container ship. Upon reaching the site, she saw Somali pirate skiffs being hoisted aboard a hijacked Thai fishing trawler, Prantalay 14, which was being used as a pirate mother ship.

Cankarso ordered the pirated ship to stop for inspection. The pirates on board fired on Cankarso as they tried to flee west towards Somalia. Cankarso returned the fire, which hit some of the fuel drums stored on Prantalay 14s deck for refuelling the skiffs. The mother ship was set ablaze and sank, even as Kalpeni and an Indian Coast Guard patrol vessel, ICGS Sankalp, reached the site. 15 pirates were arrested, and the 20 crew of the fishing trawler were all rescued unharmed.

In another operation on 13 March 2011, an Indian Navy patrol aircraft spotted the Mozambique-registered fishing vessel, Vega 5, when responding to a merchant ship reporting a pirate attack. Beira-based Vega 5, owned by Spanish company Pescamar Lda, had been captured on 27 December 2010 by pirates who were demanding US$1.8 million in ransom. INS Kalpeni intercepted the pirated ship about  off Kochi on India's west coast. A fire broke out on the vessel when Kalpeni returned fired after being fired upon by the pirates. 61 pirates were rescued and arrested after they jumped into the Arabian Sea to escape the fire. The crew of Kalpeni put out the fire on board Vega 5, rescued her 13 crew members and escorted her to Mumbai. Rocket-propelled grenades and over 80 assault rifles were recovered from the pirates.

See also
 List of active Indian Navy ships

References

External links

 Car Nicobar Class – Bharat Rakshak
 New age ship for patrol

Video
 INS Cankarso - Comprehensive Review by Autocar India
 Indian Navy adds new warships

Images
 Commissioning ceremony of INS Kora Divh and INS Cheriyam
 Governor taking salute during commissioning ceremony
 INS Car Nicobar during commissioning ceremony
 INS Chetlat during commissioning ceremony

Ships built in India
Patrol boat classes

Car Nicobar-class patrol vessel


Charles John Frederick Lampe (1739 – 10 September 1767) was an English composer and organist, and the son of composer John Frederick Lampe and the singer Isabella Lampe (maiden name of Young).

Biography
Charles Lampe was born in London, one year into his parents' marriage. His father was a successful composer of stage music and his mother was a celebrated soprano who often appeared in her husband's operas. Isabella was also a part of the well-known Young family of musicians. Charles was named after his grandfather, Charles Young, who was a notable organist and composer. His great uncle, Anthony Young, was also a notable organist and composer. Charles's Aunt Cecilia (1712-1789), was one of the greatest English sopranos of the eighteenth century and the wife of composer Thomas Arne. His Aunt Esther was a well-known contralto and wife to Charles Jones, a successful music publisher in England during the eighteenth century. Three of his cousins, Isabella, Elizabeth, and Polly Young were all successful singers, and his cousin Michael Arne was a successful composer.

In 1758 Charles succeeded his grandfather Charles as organist at All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower, a post which he held until his death in 1767. From 1760-1761 he played in the Covent Garden orchestra. In 1763 he married Ann Smith, a singer who sang regularly at the Marylebone Gardens. The couple lived in the Drury Lane area from at least 1766, remaining there until Lampe's death in 1767 at the age of 28. As a composer Charles wrote mostly vocal songs for London's pleasure gardens and catches and glees.

Works
Charles's songs include the patriotic Britannia's Invitation to her Sons, to Partake of the Glory of the Intended Expedition (c. 1755), Damon & Delia or the Retreat (1759) and a collection, Six English Songs as Sung by Mr [Thomas] Lowe & Mrs Lampe Junr at Mary-bone Gardens (1764); his music is light and appealing with much use of the Scotch snap. Lampe's only other published compositions are some catches included in The Catch Club or Merry Companions … Selected by C.I.F. Lampe (c. 1765) and in A Second Collection of Catches.

References

External links

English composers
1739 births
1767 deaths
Musicians from London
Young musical family (England)
English classical organists
British male organists
English people of German descent
18th-century composers
18th-century British male musicians
18th-century keyboardists
Male classical organists

Charles John Frederick Lampe


Cynthia Weber is a Professor of International Relations at Sussex University, UK, and co-Director of the media company Pato Productions.

Cynthia Weber was born in New Jersey, USA, and raised in Pennsylvania. She received a BA in Political Science from West Virginia University (1983), an MA from Sussex University (1985), and a PhD from Arizona State University (1990).  She held a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Southern California (1989–1990) and has held visiting appointments at numerous universities including the New School University, the University of Arizona, University of Wales, Aberystwyth, and Queen's University Belfast in Northern Ireland.  Weber trained as a filmmaker in the early 2000s at the University of Leeds.  She is also an affiliated scholar with the Graduate Program in International Affairs and the Observatory for Latin America at the New School University in New York City.

She has published several internationally recognized books on topics ranging from US foreign policy and international relations to theory and film, including Simulating Sovereignty (Cambridge University Press, 1995), Imagining America at War (Routledge, 2006) and 'I am an American:  Filming the Fear of Difference (Intellect Books, 2011). Her 1999 book, Faking It: American Power in the Post-Phallic Age is widely considered a classic for its use of gender-queer theory. Her article 'Reconsidering Statehood:  Examining the Sovereignty/Intervention Boundary' won the British International Studies Prize for the best article published in the journal Review of International Studies in its year. Weber regularly contributes to BBC Radio 4's Woman's Hour.

In her 40s, Weber trained as a filmmaker.  She writes, produces, directs, and edits films that critically engage with US identity, US citizenship, and US human rights practices.  She is best known for her selection of 14 films called I am an American: Video Portraits of Post-9/11 US Citizens.  This work has been published on OpenDemocracy.net and was invited by the Board of the 11 September Memorial Museum to be part of the museum's permanent collection.

On 12 October 2017 she became a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences.

References

Academics of the University of Sussex
Alumni of the University of Sussex
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
Arizona State University alumni
Living people
Academics of Aberystwyth University
Educators from New Jersey
University of Southern California fellows
West Virginia University alumni
American women political scientists
American political scientists
International relations scholars
Year of birth missing (living people)
Fellows of the Academy of Social Sciences
American women academics
21st-century American women

Cynthia Weber


Sal Restivo (born 1940) is a sociologist/anthropologist.

Work
Restivo is a leading contributor to science studies and in particular to the sociology of mathematics. His current work focuses on the sociology of mind and brain, and the sociology of god and religion.  He has also done work in the sociology of social and sociable robotics. He helped launch the ethnographic study of science in the 1970s, and is a founding member (1975) and former president (1994/95) of the Society for Social Studies of Science. He was a founding member of the Association for Humanist Sociology, and was also involved with Science for the People in its formative years and active in the Radical Science Movement.

His pioneering work in the sociology of mathematics has been a key factor in bringing social constructionism into mathematics education and the philosophy of mathematics education. He also helped to develop the science and technology studies curriculum which has become a popular major at universities throughout the US and the world. He is based in the US and worked as a professor for many years at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY. He has been awarded multiple NSF and NEH grants and fellowships as well as support from other agencies.  He has been a Nordisk Forskerutdanningsakademi Professor simultaneously at Roskilde University (Denmark) and the University of Gothenburg (Sweden); a Belgian National Research Foundation Professor, Free University of Brussels (Belgium); and a Special Professor of Mathematics Education at Nottingham University (United Kingdom). He is a former Hixon/Riggs Professor of Science, Technology, and Society at Harvey Mudd College, and currently holds the title of Special Lecture Professor at the Research Institute for the Philosophy of Science and Technology at Northeastern University in Shenyang, China.

At RPI, he was Professor of Sociology, Science Studies, and Information Technology. He retired from RPI on June 30, 2012 and then spent six months as a Senior Fellow at the University of Ghent in Belgium. He is now living in Ridgewood, NY and taught in the Department of Technology, Culture, and Society at New York University Tandon School of Engineering in Brooklyn NY from 2015-2017.  He attended and graduated from Brooklyn Technical High School with honors in electrical engineering; earned his BA with honors at the City College of New York. He has a PhD earned with distinction from Michigan State University

Published works
Comparative Studies in Science and Society (C.E. Merrill, Columbus, 1974). Co-edited with C. K. Vanderpool.
The Sociological Worldview (B. Blackwell, Oxford, 1991); Swedish edition published by Bokforlaget Korpen, Goteborg, Sweden, 1995.
Mathematics in Society and History (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1992). Nominated for the Morris D. Forkosch Book Award of the Journal of the History of Ideas.
Math Worlds: Philosophical and Social Studies of Mathematics and Mathematics Education (SUNY Press, Albany, 1993). Co-edited with J. P. Van Bendegem and Roland Fischer.
Science, Society, and Values: Toward a Sociology of Objectivity (Lehigh University Press, Bethlehem PA, 1994).
Degrees of Compromise: Industrial Interests and Academic Values  (SUNY Press, Albany, 2001). Co-edited with Jennifer Croissant.
Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia (Oxford University Press, 2005). Editor-in-Chief.
Science, Technology, and Society: A Sociological Perspective (Blackwell Publishers, 2005).  With W. Bauchspies and J. Croissant.
Restivo, S. (1983) The Social Relations of Physics, Mysticism and Mathematics, Dordrecht: Pallas Paperback (1985), Reidel Publishing Company.
Battleground: Science and Technology, an encyclopedia in two volumes, co-edited with Peter Denton (Greenwood Publishers, 2008).
Restivo, S. (1983/1985) The Social Construction of Mathematics, Zentralblatt für Didaktik der Mathematik, Vol. 20, No. 1, 15-19.
"The Will to Mathematics: Minds, Morals, and Numbers," in Foundations of Science, 11, 1 & 2 (March 2006), 197-215, special issue on Mathematics: What Does It All Mean? Edited by Jean Paul Van Bendegem, Bart Kerkhove, and Sal Restivo,  With Wenda Bauchspies.  Portuguese translation, Bauchspies, W. & Restivo, S. (2001) - O arbítrio da matemática: mentes, moral e números.  BOLEMA, 16, pp. 102–124.
"Bringing Up and Booting Up: Social Theory and the Emergence of Socially Intelligent Robots," Proceedings of  the 2001 Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Conference, Tucson AZ, October 7–10, 2001.
"What is Science?" invited essay, contributed to Life: The Science of Biology, 7th ed.  by W.K. Purves et al. (Sinauer/Freeman, 2003), p. 163.
"From a Socially Intelligent Robot Concept to an Ad: Eliciting Audience Participation throughout the Graphic Design Process", in Design and Emotion: The Experience of Everyday Things, ed Deanna McDonagh-Philp et al., (London, Taylor & Francis; 2004). With Audrey Bennett.
"Mechanical Mathematicians: The End of Proof as We Know It," review essay, The Information Society, 20, 1 (January, 2004).
"Theories Of Mind, Social Science, And Mathematical Practice," J. P. Van Bendegem and Bart Van Kerkhove, editors, Perspectives on Mathematical Practices  (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 2005/06).
"Politics of Latour," review essay, Organization and Environment, 8, 1 (March, 2005), 111-115.
"Bodies of Information in the Information Age: Singing the Body Information," review essay, Science and Public Policy, 32, 3 (June 2005), pp. 231–246.
"Minds, Morals, and Mathematics in the Wake of the Deaths of Plato and God: Reflections on What Social Constructionism Means, Really," pp. 37–43 in Anna Chronaki (ed.), Mathematics, Technologies, Education: The Gender Perspective (Volos, Greece: University of Thessaly Press, 2008/2010).
Invited commentary, "Robots, Theology, and the Sociological Cogito," Erwägen Wissen Ethik, 20, 2 (2009/2010), 222-223.
Red, Black, and Objective: Science and the Anarchist Tradition (New York: Routledge, 2016; orig. publ. Ashgate, 2011); paperback edition, 2016
Asphalt Children (Rotterdam NL: Sense Publishers, 2011), co-authored with Monica Mesquita and Ubiratan D'Ambrosio.
Worlds of ScienceCraft: New Directions in Sociology, Philosophy, and Science Studies (New York: Routledge, 2016; orig. publ. Ashgate 2014), co-authored with Sabrina Weiss and Alex Stingl; paperback edition, 2016.
Sociology, Science, and the End of Philosophy: How Society Shapes Brains, Gods, Maths, and Logics (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
The Age of the Social: The Discovery of Society and the Ascendance of a New Episteme (Routledge, 2018).
Einstein's Brain: Genius, Culture, and Social Networks (Palgrave PIVOT, 2020)
Society and the Death of God (Routledge, 2021)
Inventions in Sociology: Studies in Science and Society (Palgrave Macmillan, 2022).

References

External links
Sal Restivo's Website
salrestivo.blogspot.com  Sal Restivo's blog: https://salrestivo.blogspot.com/

Living people
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute faculty
Social constructionism
Sociologists of science
Academics of the University of Nottingham
1940 births
Brooklyn Technical High School alumni
Polytechnic Institute of New York University faculty
City College of New York alumni
Michigan State University alumni

Sal Restivo


The Chicago Bee Building is a historic building on Chicago's South Side.  It originally housed the Chicago Bee, a newspaper serving the African Americans of Chicago. The building now houses the Chicago Bee Branch of the Chicago Public Library. The building was named a Chicago Landmark on September 9, 1998. It is located in the Black Metropolis-Bronzeville District in the Douglas community area of Chicago, Illinois.

The Chicago Bee was founded by the African American entrepreneur Anthony Overton in 1926. This building was Overton's affirmation of his confidence in the viability of the State Street Commercial district. This three-story building was one of the most picturesque in the district, and the one designed in the Art Deco style of the 1920s. All of Overton's enterprises shared this building until the early 1940s when the newspaper went out of business. The cosmetics firm continued to occupy the building until the early 1980s. The City of Chicago purchased the building and it is now a Chicago Public Library. It originally had upper-floor apartments. It also housed the offices of the Douglass National Bank and the Overton Hygienic Company, during the 1930s. The Overton Hygienic Company was nationally known as a cosmetics firm.

Overton Hygienic went out of business in the early 1980s. In the mid-1990s, the building was reused as a branch of the Chicago Public Library. It is one of nine structures in the Black Metropolis-Bronzeville Historic District. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 30, 1986.

Gallery

Notes

Chicago Bee Building, Tour Black Chicago

External links

Douglas, Chicago
Office buildings in Chicago
Chicago Landmarks
Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Chicago
Commercial buildings completed in 1929
Art Deco architecture in Illinois
African-American history in Chicago

Chicago Bee Building


The Earth phase, Terra phase, Terrestrial phase or phase of the Earth, is the shape of the directly sunlit portion of the Earth as viewed from the Moon (or elsewhere extraterrestrially). From the Moon, the Earth phases gradually and cyclically change over a period of about a month, as the orbital positions of the Moon around the Earth and of the Earth around the Sun shift.

Overview

Among the most prominent features of the Moon's sky is Earth. Earth's apparent size is four times the Moon's as seen from Earth. However, because the Moon's orbit is eccentric, Earth's size in the sky may be a bit smaller or larger at times. Earth shows phases, just like the Moon does for observers on the Earth. The phases, however, are opposite; when the observer on the Earth sees the "full Moon", the observer on the Moon sees a "new Earth", and vice versa. Earth's albedo is three times as high as that of the Moon (due in part to its whitish cloud cover), and coupled with the wider area, the "full Earth" glows over 50 times brighter than the "full Moon" does for the observer on Earth. This Earth light reflected on the Moon's darkened near-side half is bright enough to be visible from Earth – a phenomenon known as Earthshine.

As a result of the Moon's synchronous rotation, one side of the Moon (the "near side") is permanently turned towards Earth, and the other side, the "far side", mostly cannot be seen from Earth. This means, conversely, that Earth can be seen only from the near side of the Moon and would always be invisible from the far side.

If the Moon's rotation were purely synchronous, Earth would not have any noticeable movement in the Moon's sky. However, due to the Moon's libration, Earth does perform a slow and complex wobbling movement. Once a month, as seen from the Moon, Earth traces out a small oval. The exact shape and orientation of this oval depend on one's location on the Moon. As a result, near the boundary of the near and far sides of the Moon, Earth is sometimes below the horizon and sometimes above it.

To be aware, although genuine photographs of the Earth viewed from the Moon exist, many from NASA, some photographs shared on social media, that are purported to be the Earth viewed from the Moon, may not be real.

Eclipses from the Moon
Earth and the Sun sometimes meet in the lunar sky, causing an eclipse. On Earth, one would see a lunar eclipse, when the Moon passes through the Earth's shadow; meanwhile on the Moon, one would see a solar eclipse, when the Sun goes behind the Earth. Since the apparent diameter of the Earth is four times as large as that of the Sun, the Sun would be hidden behind the Earth for hours. Earth's atmosphere would be visible as a reddish ring. During the Apollo 15 mission, an attempt was made to use the Lunar Roving Vehicle's TV camera to view such an eclipse, but the camera or its power source failed after the astronauts left for Earth.

Solar eclipse shadows, when the Moon blocks sunlight to the Earth, on the other hand, would not be as spectacular for observers on the Moon viewing the Earth: the Moon's umbra nearly tapers out at the Earth's surface. A blurry dark patch would be barely visible. The effect would be comparable to the shadow of a golf ball cast by sunlight on an object  away. Observers on the Moon with telescopes might be able to discern the umbral shadow as a black spot at the center of a less dark region (penumbra) traveling across the full Earth's disk. It would look essentially the same as it does to the Deep Space Climate Observatory, which orbits Earth at the L1 Lagrangian point in the Sun-Earth system,  from Earth.

In summary, whenever an eclipse of some sort is occurring on Earth, an eclipse of another sort is occurring on the Moon. Eclipses occur for observers on both Earth and the Moon whenever the two bodies and the Sun align in a straight line, or syzygy.

Phases of the Earth

Related pages

 Earthrise
 Extraterrestrial sky
 Pale Orange Dot (Early Earth)
 Phases of the Moon
 Spaceship Earth
 The Blue Marble

References

Other websites
 Earth phases – model simulation program

Terrestrial planets

Earth phase


Freeman T. Eagleson (October 4, 1876 – January 12, 1967) was a Republican politician in the U.S. State of Ohio who was Speaker of the Ohio House of Representatives 1907–1908.

Freeman T. Eagleson was born in Guernsey County, Ohio and attended common schools, Washington High School, and Muskingum College. He taught school for six years. He studied law starting in 1901 with the firm Locke and Turnbaugh in Cambridge, and finishing at the Ohio State University. He was admitted to the bar December 1904.

After the death of his former instructor, Mr. Locke, Eagleson became the junior partner of Mr. Turnaugh, at Turnbaugh & Eagleson, Cambridge, Ohio. Eagleson was a member of the Ohio House of Representatives in the 76th General Assembly (1904–1905), and was selected Speaker pro tem in the 77th, (1906–1908). When Speaker Carmi Thompson was elected Ohio Secretary of State, with term starting in 1907, Eagleson was elevated to Speaker of the House.

Eagleson died January 12, 1967, and is interred at Green Lawn Cemetery, Columbus, Ohio.

References

External links

Republican Party members of the Ohio House of Representatives
People from Guernsey County, Ohio
1876 births
Ohio lawyers
Speakers of the Ohio House of Representatives
Muskingum University alumni
Ohio State University alumni
Burials at Green Lawn Cemetery (Columbus, Ohio)
1967 deaths

Freeman T. Eagleson


Maidstone-on-the-Potomac is a historic house and farm near Falling Waters, West Virginia.  Located on the Potomac River immediately opposite Williamsport, Maryland, the property consists of a  tract with a main house dating from c. 1741.  The house was built by Evan Watkins, who operated Watkins Ferry on the Potomac, which was used by George Washington and General Edward Braddock.

In 1795 the property was sold to Peter Light.  The Light family retained the property until 1854, substantially expanding the house.  The ferry and house, by now known as Light's Ferry passed to Robert Lemen, who converted the ferry into a cable ferry.

In 1861 the ferry was used by Union forces under Captain Abner Doubleday to cross into Virginia for raids.  In 1863 Doubleday again crossed the river by fording while pursuing Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia as it advanced on Gettysburg. A month later, following Lee's defeat, 70,000 confederate soldiers crossed at Lemen's Ferry.

In the late 19th century the first bridge crossing was built at this location.  Today, US 11 crosses here, bisecting the property.

The Watkins Family also became associated with the Boone Family during the time of their ownership of the Ferry.   A great-great grandson, John Watkins (His father John T Watkins was born at Watkins Ferry), of the original Evan Watkins married Elizabeth Karn, a 1st and 2nd cousin of Daniel Boone's.  Elizabeth was the daughter of Christopher Karn and Leah Boone.

John and Elizabeth's son Christopher Columbus Watkins married Rachel Bristow who was the granddaughter of Leah's sister, Hannah Boone.

Fire
Maidstone-on-the-Potomac was damaged in a fire of suspicious origin the night of March 7, 2009, one of several similar fires in Berkeley County, West Virginia and Washington County, Maryland in a short span of days.

References

American Civil War sites in West Virginia
Berkeley County, West Virginia, in the American Civil War
Farms on the National Register of Historic Places in West Virginia
Federal architecture in West Virginia
Houses completed in 1741
Houses in Berkeley County, West Virginia
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in West Virginia
National Register of Historic Places in Berkeley County, West Virginia

Maidstone-on-the-Potomac


Starblaze Graphics was an imprint of The Donning Company, a publishing company established in 1978 to publish illustrated books in the United States. Notable Starblaze publications include Robert Asprin's MythAdventures series, as well as two trade paperbacks collecting the series based on the first book. Donning also published a graphic version of the Thieves' World shared world anthology series, with art by Tim Sale.

Starblaze also published compilation reprints of the comics series Elfquest by Wendy and Richard Pini and A Distant Soil by Colleen Doran. The Pinis later sued Starblaze for continuing to publish Elfquest, and attempting to re-secure the rights to the A Distant Soil series. Starblaze countersued; the dispute was settled in 1988. A dozen Starblaze authors also sued Donning/Starblaze after the company folded the Starblaze division in 1989 and sold contracts and rights to multiple book properties to Schiffer Publishing.

Starblaze ceased operation in 1989, but the initial publications of MythAdventures novels M.Y.T.H. Inc. in Action (1990) and Sweet Myth-Tery of Life (1993) carried the Starblaze imprint.

Titles published
 Aria Takes Off (1986), translating Le Tribunal des corbeaux (1982).
 Buck Godot: Zap Gun for Hire (1986), collects three previously published Buck Godot stories along with one original.
 Buck Godot: PSmith (1987), an original graphic novel.
 The Colors of Space (1988), a graphic novel based on the 1963 book by Marion Zimmer Bradley.
 Cobalt 60 (1988), collects the story serialized in Epic Illustrated #27–31 (December 1984–August 1985).
 A Distant Soil: Immigrant Song (1987)
 A Distant Soil: Knights of the Angel (1989)
 Duncan & Mallory (1986)
 Duncan & Mallory: The Bar-None Ranch (1987)
 Duncan & Mallory: The Raiders (1987)
 ElfQuest, Books 1–4 (1981–1984), collecting color versions of ElfQuest v1, #1–20 (1978–1984).
 Fortune's Friends: Hell Week (1986)
 Gates of Ivrel: Claiming Rights (1986)
 Gates of Ivrel: Fever Dreams (1987)
 Lightrunner (1983)
 Mage: The Hero Discovered, Volumes 1–3 (1987), collecting Mage v1, #1–0 (1984–1986)
 Metropolis (1988), a graphic novel of the 1927 film.
 A Midsummer Night's Dream (1988), a graphic novel of the Shakespeare play.
 MythAdventures (1978–1993), the first ten novels.
 Myth Adventures One (1985), collects #1–4 of the WaRP Graphics series.
 Myth Adventures Two (1986), collects #5–8 of the WaRP Graphics series.
 Robotech Art 1 (1986), "The Official Guide to the Robotech Universe."
 Robotech Art 2 (1987), "New Illustrations and Original Art from The Robotech Universe."
 Robotech Art 3: The Sentinels (1988), a look at Robotech II: The Sentinels.
 Some Will Not Die (1978), reprint of 1961 novel by Algis Budrys with illustrations
 The Stones of Nomuru (1988), the L. Sprague de Camp and Catherine Crook de Camp novel.
 The Thief of Bagdad (1987), a graphic novel based on the 1924 film.
 Thieves' World Graphics, Volumes 1–6 (1985–1987)
 Thieves World Graphics (1986), collects volumes 1–3 of Thieves World Graphics
 On the Good Ship Enterprise: My 15 Years with Star Trek (1982)

Notes

References

Publishing companies established in 1978
Comic book publishing companies of the United States
Companies based in Virginia Beach, Virginia
Defunct comics and manga publishing companies
Small press publishing companies

Starblaze Graphics


An anti-eyebrow is a facial piercing that is placed above the cheek bone or below the eyebrow. Normally it is done with a small surface bar. This piercing can be vertical or horizontal, depending on the person's preference. Though it is a surface piercing, with proper care, placement, and jewelry, it can be a viable long-term piercing. Long-term viability is best with proper surface bars, and significantly reduced when barbells, or curved barbells are used. Often reputable piercers will refuse to do surface piercings, instead preferring sub-dermal implants.

Anti-eyebrows are also known as upper cheek piercings, tears, and teardrops or butterfly kiss.

References

Facial piercings
Eyebrow

Anti-eyebrow


French Creek is a creek located in the Big Bend Country region of British Columbia.  The creek is a northern tributary of the Goldstream River which flows into the Columbia River from the east, a little over 50 miles north of Revelstoke. This creek has been mined and has produced about $800,000 in gold. French Creek has been mined by Europeans and Chinese. There is evidence that part of French Creek has changed course over the years due to rock slides and other blockages. The empty former creek bed still parallels the present-day creek in some areas.

References

External links

Rivers of British Columbia

French Creek (British Columbia)


The Hazaraspids (, 1115–1424) were a Kurdish dynasty that ruled the Zagros Mountains region of southwestern Iran, essentially in Lorestan and which flourished in the later Saljuq, Ilkhanid, Muzaffarid, and Timurid periods.

Etymology
Although the founder was Abu Tahir ibn Muhammad, the dynasty is named after the latter's son and successor, Malik Hazarasp. The name of the dynasty is of Iranian origin, and means "thousand horses".

History
The founder of dynasty was Abu Tahir ibn Muhammad, a descendant of the Shabankara chieftain Fadluya, who was initially a commander of the Salghurids of Fars and was appointed as the governor of Kuhgiluya, but eventually gained independence in Luristan and extended his realm as far as Isfahan and assumed the prestigious title of atabeg. His son, Malik Hazarasp fought a successful campaign against Salghurids and assisted Jalal-al-din Khwarezmshah in his struggle against the Mongols. Another Hazaraspid ruler Takla, accompanied Hulagu on his march to Baghdad, but deserted because of the murder of the last caliph. He was eventually caught and executed on Hulagu's order.

Yusuf Shah I received Ilkhan Abaqa's confirmation of his rule and added Khuzestan, Kuhgiluya, Firuzan (near Isfahan) and Golpayegan to his domain. Afrasiab I attempted to extend his control to the coast of Persian Gulf but faced stiff opposition from the Mongols who defeated his army at Kuhrud near Kashan. He was reinstated by Ilkhan Gaykhatu but was executed by Gazan in October 1296.

The capital of Hazaraspids was located at Idaj located in present-day northern Khuzestan. Yusuf Shah II annexed the cities of Shushtar, Hoveizeh and Basra in the first half of fourteenth century. During the reign of Shams-al-din Pashang, the dynasty faced attacks from the Muzaffarids and the capital Idaj temporarily fell into their hands, until the occupiers had to retreat due to their own internecine fighting.

In 1424, the Timurid ruler Shahrukh Mirza overthrew the last Hazaraspid ruler Ghiyath al-Din thereby ended the dynasty. Maintaining their rule throughout the Seljuk, Mongol and somewhat into the Timurid era, the Hazaraspids played a part in the preservation of the Persian identity during foreign rule.

Rulers
Abu Tahir ibn Muhammad (r. 1115–1153)
Yusuf Shah I (r.1153-1023)
Malik Hazarasp (r. 1204–1248)
Imad al-Din ibn Hazarasp (r. 1248–1251)
Nusrat al-Din (r. 1252–1257)
Takla (r. 1257–1259)
Shams al-Din Alp Arghun (r. 1259-1274)
Yusuf Shah I (r. 1274–1288)
Afrasiab I (r. 1288–1296)
Nusrat al-Din Ahmad (r. 1296–1330)
Rukn al-Din Yusuf Shah II (r. 1330–1340)
Muzaffar al-Din Afrasiab II (r. 1340–1355)
Shams al-Din Pashang (r. 1355–1378)
Malik Pir Ahmad (r. 1378–1408)
Abu Sa'id (r. 1408–1417)
Shah Husayn (r. 1417–1424)
Ghiyath al-Din (r. 1424)

See also
List of Kurdish dynasties and countries
Khorshidi dynasty

References

Sources

Further reading

Kurdish dynasties
Atabegs
12th century in Iran
13th century in Iran
14th century in Iran
History of the Kurdish people
History of Kurdistan
History of Lorestan Province
History of Fars Province
History of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province
History of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province
15th century in Iran

Hazaraspids


"Up Where We Belong" is a song written by Jack Nitzsche, Buffy Sainte-Marie and Will Jennings that was recorded by Joe Cocker and Jennifer Warnes for the 1982 film An Officer and a Gentleman. Warnes was recommended to sing a song from the film because of her previous soundtrack successes, and she had the idea for the song to be a duet that she would perform with Cocker. Jennings selected various sections of the score by Nitzsche and Sainte-Marie in creating the structure of the song and added lyrics about the struggles of life and love and the obstacles that people attempt to dodge. It was released in July of that year to coincide with the release of the film.

The song reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US and topped the charts in several other countries. It also sold more than one million copies in the US and was recognized by the Recording Industry Association of America as one of the Songs of the Century. Cocker and Warnes were awarded the Grammy for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals, and Nitzsche, Sainte-Marie, and Jennings won both the Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. Despite the song's success, some industry observers believed it took Cocker away from his musical roots.

In 1984, the gospel duo BeBe & CeCe Winans recorded a religious variation of the song that received airplay on Christian radio stations, and their remake in 1996 earned them a GMA Dove Award. Various versions of the song have also been used to parody the final scene of the film on television shows such as Family Guy, The Simpsons, and South Park.

Background
On February 24, 1982, Joe Cocker performed "I'm So Glad I'm Standing Here Today" with the jazz group the Crusaders at the Grammy Awards. Their collaboration on the song for a Crusaders album had earned a nomination that year in the category of Best Inspirational Performance. Singer-songwriter Jennifer Warnes saw the show from home. She had been a fan of Cocker's since her teens and at one time had a poster of him on her wall showing him performing at Woodstock, and her love for the singer was still evident on this night many years later. "I was so moved, I was hollering out loud with joy, jumping up and down ... After a difficult battle with drugs and alcohol, Joe was in total command once again. I knew at that moment that I would sing with Joe."

Meanwhile, plans were being made for An Officer and a Gentleman to be distributed by Paramount Pictures, and studio executive Frank Mancuso was insistent upon having some kind of music to use to promote the film. The director of the film, Taylor Hackford, was also interested in producing an original title song to help market it, but there was no remaining budget for such a recording. He proceeded with the idea anyway, working with Joel Sill, who was head of music at Paramount at the time, without anyone else at the studio knowing that they were doing so. The director consulted his friend Gary George to select a recording artist for the song. George, the former head of publicity at Warner Bros. Records, had recently become a manager and suggested Warnes, who was a client of his.

One of the six songs that Warnes had placed in the top half of the Billboard Hot 100 at that point was the number six hit "Right Time of the Night" from 1977. Her soundtrack credits included the Oscar-nominated "One More Hour" from Ragtime and the Oscar-winning "It Goes Like It Goes" from Norma Rae, which, like the Hackford film, also had a lead female character who worked in a factory. Hackford initially rejected the idea of Warnes singing a song for An Officer and a Gentleman "because he felt she had too sweet a sound," but Warnes met with Sill and discussed the possibility of doing so: "I suggested to Joel that I sing on that film in a duet with Joe Cocker." Sill thought this was an interesting idea but needed to convince Hackford of that. He said, "I discussed with Taylor, since the film centered really around Richard [Gere] and Debra [Winger] primarily, that maybe we should have a duet" and that with Cocker and Warnes they would be "matching the characters to some degree. The dynamic between the two was the soft and the rough, that, to some degree, Debra Winger's character was very, very soft in the picture, even though she was in a rough environment. And Richard Gere's character, to some degree, was really a rough character until he was softened up by her." Hackford thought the idea had potential and now had another friend in the music industry to ask for a favor. Chris Blackwell was the owner of Island Records, and Cocker was now recording for Island. "I called Chris and said I want to do this, and he just, on the phone, said, 'OK, I'll make this happen. What would initially convince Cocker to work on the project, however, was a small portion of the lyrics. He described it as "the 'Up' part, which is what made me realize it had hit potential. It was so unusual – that 'Love, lift us up ...

Composition and lyrics

The last scene of the film brought the story to a happy ending, and Hackford wanted to have a song playing during the closing credits that would act as a reflection of the relationship portrayed and incorporate the score composed by Jack Nitzsche. Nitzsche was having trouble writing a theme as he was scoring the film, and his longtime friend Buffy Sainte-Marie played him the melody for a song she had started working on called "Up Where We Belong". Nitzsche wanted to have Sainte-Marie write the rest of the lyrics, but her background in folk music caused Sill and Hackford to look elsewhere. Sill invited a lyricist whom he'd worked with before, Will Jennings, to the studio to view a rough cut of the film, and that gave Jennings inspiration for the structure and lyrics of what became "Up Where We Belong". "And all through the film I was hearing these bits and pieces of music, and at the end of it I had it in my head, you know, how there was a song. I heard a chorus here and a verse here and a bridge there, and so when I finished, Joel was there, and I said, 'Joel, just give me all the music from it,' all of Nitzsche's music, ' 'cause I got an idea. When Jennings presented Hackford with his demo, the director felt it was the perfect fit.

According to Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing, "Up Where We Belong" is written in common time. It is in the key of D major and sung in a vocal range from A3 to G5. The lyrics "tell of the struggles of life and love and the obstacles in the way that we attempt to dodge."

Recording and aftermath

Sill described Stewart Levine as the "record producer who we felt would give us the right interpretation of the song, add some soulfulness to it and also make it a hit record at the same time," but Levine was hesitant about traveling from his home in upstate New York to California for the job. He felt it would be worthwhile, however, because Jennings was involved. When Jennings played the demo over the phone for him, Levine responded that it was "great", and Warnes was certain "Up Where We Belong" would be a hit. Cocker, on the other hand, described the demo as "dreadful", despite his appreciation of some of the lyrics and the fact that Jennings was the lyricist on "I'm So Glad I'm Standing Here Today" and his more recent single, "Talking Back to the Night".

Cocker wanted to make the recording by himself, so Levine had Warnes record her vocals separately. Cocker had taken a break from touring to fly to Los Angeles for the session, but when it came time to record he, as Hackford described it, "was terrified. He didn't even want to go into the studio. Stewart Levine had to go and talk him out of the hotel to get him there." Cocker admitted, "I'd sat with the words in the afternoon but still hadn't remembered them, so we had to draw 'em up on big blocks of wood and stuff." A recording was made where the two voices were spliced together, but Warnes explained how persuasive their producer was in getting Cocker to agree to record the song alongside her: "Stewart Levine was gently insistent on the duet. Stewart understood that the contrast in our voices, the aural chemistry, would work. So Joe and I sang the song together. One or two takes, that was all." Cocker came around to seeing a hit song once it was complete, saying, "I knew it was a number one. Other people were saying, 'Well ... perhaps', but I could just feel it."

Hackford said that "the final version was absolute magic—or at least Joel and I thought so." They now had to present this song that they weren't budgeted to make to the executives at Paramount. "When we played it for Michael Eisner and Don Simpson, they hated the record and said it would never be a hit." Simpson even bet Sill $100 that it wouldn't be. Hackford and Sill "called another prominent record executive, who said, 'Forget it. Jennifer Warnes has never had a hit song and Joe Cocker's a has-been. Eisner and Simpson made Hackford "meet with various recording artist friends of theirs who tried to write songs, but their title songs didn't fit the movie." Hackford said, "Finally, one of the famous artists who was involved looked at the movie and said, to his credit, 'Hey, I can write something, but it's not going to work as well as the song you've got. Because they were running out of time before the film's release, Eisner and Simpson finally gave in, and "Up Where We Belong" made the final cut of the film and was released as a single on July 22, 1982.

Reception

Some radio stations refused to play "Up Where We Belong", even going so far as to send their copies back to Island Records. Cocker said, "I remember going into their offices in New York. I walked in and I said, 'How's the single doing?' And this guy Mike Abrahams, who worked there, he said, 'This is how well it's doing'—and the office was piled with returns." The single may have been recorded to promote the film, but Warnes pointed out that, in a sense, the success of the film was what sold the record.

"Up Where We Belong" debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 in the issue dated August 21 of that year and spent 3 weeks at number one during its 23 weeks there. That same issue also marked its first appearance on the magazine's list of the 50 most popular Adult Contemporary songs in the US, where it stayed for 25 weeks, 6 of which were at its peak position at number three. It also reached number seven on the UK Singles Chart in 1983 and received a Gold certification from the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on January 6, 2023, for reaching sales and streams of 400,000 units. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) awarded the song both Gold and Platinum certification for achieving sales of 500,000 and one million copies, respectively, on January 17, 1989.

Billboard reviewed the single at the time of its release in their July 31 issue. "This unlikely vocal pairing could prove less of a long shot than it sounds, given the recent gains made by other soundtrack associations. Add radio's ongoing affection for strong duets and a restrained performance by Cocker that matches him more sympathetically with Warnes's gentler style, and this track should find friends at A/C and mainstream pop stations." Matthew Greenwald of AllMusic wrote, "A gospel-inspired piece of pop song craftsmanship, the song moves with an underlying grace and subtle beauty. Faith, virtue, and, yes, the power of love is at the lyrical core here, and [the songwriters] convey this with a literate and timeless style. Truly a modern-day pop standard."

Awards and accolades

On January 29, 1983, Jennings, Nitzsche, and Sainte-Marie won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. Cocker and Warnes won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals on February 23 of that year. Two months later, on April 11, the songwriters won the Academy Award for Best Original Song. They also won the BAFTA film award for Best Original Song in 1984. On the Songs of the Century list compiled by the RIAA in 2001, the song was listed at number 323. In 2004, it finished at number 75 on AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema, and in 2016, one of the duo's live renditions of the song was listed at number 18 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 20 Greatest Best Song Oscar Performances. In 2020, it was included on Billboard magazine's list of the 25 Greatest Love Song Duets.

Live performances

Warnes and Cocker kept to an agreement that they would never lip-sync their performances of the song. One of their earliest live appearances was on the November 20, 1982, episode of Solid Gold. Saturday Night Live followed on February 5, 1983, and their performance at the 25th Annual Grammy Awards came later that month, on February 23. Backstage at the Grammys Warnes said about working with Cocker, "I was told it was the weirdest pairing ever," and regarding their April 11 appearance at the 55th Academy Awards, she admitted, "Neither of us were comfortable in the Oscar world. Joe performing in a white tuxedo, me in pink taffeta—how absurd."

In 2013, Cocker was honored in Berlin with a Goldene Kamera award, and Warnes joined him to sing the song at the ceremony. The day after Cocker's death in 2014, Warnes wrote, "I realized yesterday that we will never sing our song again. That thought makes me feel sick. We met last year in Berlin to sing together. I didn't know that would be our last time." Her visceral reaction to his death parallels the powerful chemistry they had in their many performances of the song, which she had summed up years earlier: "I always thought the pairing had a strong ring of truth to it. It was so unlikely, because Joe has this well-known, very raw, masculine energy. I was less well known and had this very vulnerable, quintessential female energy and we were very polarized, as men and women often are these days. But we met in the middle."

Legacy

The success of "Up Where We Belong" was not without its drawbacks for Cocker. He admitted that Island Records owner Chris Blackwell also hated the song and wasn't interested in releasing it. They had put out Cocker's first project for the label, Sheffield Steel, in June 1982, just a month before the song needed to be on store shelves if it was to coincide with the opening of the film. Cocker said, "The song was recorded within a matter of hours. Sheffield Steel – I spent a year on that. And the single eclipsed it overnight." But even ignoring its success, Blackwell was bothered by the fact that the duet wasn't R&B, which is what he was aiming for on Sheffield Steel.

Stewart Levine produced Cocker's next LP, which was intended for Island, but, the singer revealed, as with the duet, Blackwell hated it, so Cocker left Island for Capitol. The new label also had reservations about the number of slow ballads included on the new project. Another producer was brought in to give the album a different tone, and the result was the 1984 release Civilized Man. Peaking at number 133 on the Billboard 200, it was his lowest charting studio album in the US at that point.

Capitol had been responsible for rejuvenating the careers of Tina Turner and Heart in the mid-80s, so a push was on to do so for their new client with his next project, the 1986 album Cocker. Capitol's vice president of a&r, Don Grierson, explained, "After Civilized Man came out, Joe, Michael Lang [Cocker's manager], and I spent a lot of time zeroing in on just what the heck Joe Cocker was really all about. And it's my firm belief that Joe is a rocker." His feeling was that "Up Where We Belong" turned out to be a double-edged sword. "It helped Joe in one sense, but it was very, very detrimental to him in another. It gave him a hit record and brought his name back to the mass market again. However, because it was such a pop, middle-of-the-road record, it took away Joe's roots in the eyes of the public and certainly in the industry."

Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from album liner notes for The Best of Joe Cocker.

Joe Cocker – lead vocals
Jennifer Warnes – lead vocals
Stewart Levine – producer
Abraham Laboriel – bass
Leon "Ndugu" Chancler – drums
Louis Shelton – guitar
Bobby Lyle – keyboards
Robbie Buchanan – keyboards
Paulinho da Costa – percussion

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications and sales

Notable cover versions and parodies

Televangelist Tammy Faye Bakker suggested that BeBe & CeCe Winans, two of the singers from The PTL Club, record "Up Where We Belong" after she heard the original duet in a record store, and Larnelle Harris helped BeBe make the lyrics more appealing to a Christian audience. Their 1984 cover of the song from their album Lord Lift Us Up reached number 27 on the Christian Radio Hits chart issued by SoundScan. The duo rerecorded their gospel version in 1996 for their Greatest Hits album, and their new version won the 1998 GMA Dove Award for Contemporary Gospel Song of the Year.

The part of the score of An Officer and a Gentleman that Jennings used in writing the chorus for "Up Where We Belong" can be heard in the final scene of the film in which Gere picks Winger up in his arms and carries her out of the factory past clapping co-workers. The last shot of the film freezes on their exit as the score comes to a big orchestral finish, and the credits start to roll as Cocker and Warnes begin singing the song at the chorus. Although the song itself is heard separately from the final scene, it has often taken the place of the score in send-ups of the grand finale over the years. Films and television shows that have used some variation of "Up Where We Belong" in doing so include Bridget Jones's Baby, The Cleveland Show,
Everybody Hates Chris, Family Guy, Friends, The Goldbergs, The Office, Sabrina the Teenage Witch, Scrubs, The Simpsons, and South Park.

See also
List of number-one singles of 1982 (Canada)
List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1982
List of number-one singles in Australia during the 1980s

References

Bibliography

1982 singles
1982 songs
American soft rock songs
British soft rock songs
Jennifer Warnes songs
Joe Cocker songs
Buffy Sainte-Marie songs
Glen Campbell songs
Yvonne Elliman songs
Island Records singles
Best Original Song Golden Globe winning songs
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songs
Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles
Cashbox number-one singles
RPM Top Singles number-one singles
Number-one singles in South Africa
Number-one singles in Australia
Songs written by Jack Nitzsche
Songs with lyrics by Will Jennings
Pop ballads
1980s ballads
Love themes
Male–female vocal duets
Rock ballads

Up Where We Belong


Hatto I (c. 850 – 15 May 913) was Archbishop of Mainz (Mayence) from 891 until his death.

Hatto belonged to a Swabian family, and was probably educated at the monastery of Reichenau, of which he became abbot in 888. He was also abbot of Ellwangen Abbey.

Hatto soon became known to the German king, Arnulf, who appointed him archbishop of Mainz in 891, and he became such a trustworthy and loyal counsellor that he was popularly called the heart of the king. He presided over the important synod at Tribur in 895 and accompanied the king to Italy in 894 and 895, where he was received with great favor by Pope Formosus. In 899, when Arnulf died, Hatto became regent of the Empire and guardian of the young king, Louis the Child, whose authority he compelled Zwentibold, duke of Lorraine, an illegitimate son of Arnulf, to recognize.

During these years Hatto did not neglect his own interests, for in 896 he secured for himself the abbey of Ellwangen and in 898 that of Lorsch. He assisted the Franconian family of the Conradines in its feud with the Babenbergs for supremacy in Franconia; after the battle of Fritzlar on 9 September 906 between the Babenbergs and Conradines he arranged for the capture and execution of Count Adalbert of Babenberg, breaking his promise of safe conduct. Hatto retained his influence during the entire reign of Louis the Child and on the king's death in 911 was prominent in securing the election of Conrad, duke of Franconia, to the vacant throne. When trouble arose between Conrad and Henry the Fowler, duke of Saxony, afterwards King Henry I, the attitude of Conrad was ascribed by the Saxons to the influence of Hatto, who wished to prevent Henry from securing authority in Thuringia, where the see of Mainz had extensive possessions. He was accused of complicity in a plot to murder Henry, who in return ravaged the archiepiscopal lands in Saxony and Thuringia.

Hatto died on 15 May 913, one legend saying he was struck by lightning, and another that he was thrown alive by the devil into the crater of Mount Etna. His memory was long regarded in Saxony with great abhorrence, and stories of cruelty and treachery gathered round his name.

The legend of the Mouse Tower at Bingen is connected with Hatto I and Hatto II, who was archbishop of Mainz from 968 to 970. This latter Hatto built the church of St. George on the island of Reichenau, was generous to the see of Mainz and to the abbeys of Fulda and Reichenau, and was a patron of the chronicler Regino, abbot of Prum.

See also
 Council of Tribur
 Southey's God's Judgement on a Wicked Bishop.

References

External links
  Exhibition about Hatto in Mainz (2013)

Archbishops of Mainz
9th-century archbishops
10th-century archbishops
850s births
913 deaths
Year of birth uncertain

Hatto I