Éva Marton (born 18  June 1943) is a Hungarian dramatic soprano, particularly known for her operatic portrayals of Puccini's Turandot and Tosca, and Wagnerian roles.

Vocal training and early years
Marton was born in Budapest, where she studied voice at the Franz Liszt Academy. She made her professional debut as Kate Pinkerton in Puccini's Madama Butterfly at Hungary's Margaret Island summer festival. At the Hungarian State Opera, she made her debut as Queen of Shemaka in  Rimsky-Korsakov's The Golden Cockerel in 1968.

In 1972, she was invited by Christoph von Dohnányi to make her debut as the Countess in The Marriage of Figaro at the Frankfurt Opera.  That same year, she sang Matilde in Rossini's William Tell in Florence, conducted by Riccardo Muti.  She also returned to Budapest to sing Odabella in Verdi's Attila. In 1973, Marton made her debut at the  Vienna State Opera in Puccini's Tosca. In 1977, she sang at the Hamburg State Opera, in the role of  the Empress in Richard Strauss's Die Frau ohne Schatten, and made her San Francisco Opera debut in the title role of Verdi's Aida. In 1978, Marton made her debut at  La Scala in Milan as Leonora in Verdi's Il trovatore.  She debuted at the Lyric Opera of Chicago in 1979 as Maddalena in Giordano's Andrea Chénier.

In 1981, she performed  at the Munich Opera Festival in the title role of Die ägyptische Helena by Richard Strauss with Wolfgang Sawallisch conducting. She sang the role of Leonore in Beethoven's Fidelio in 1982 and 1983, both performances conducted by Lorin Maazel.

Wagnerian roles
In 1976, she made her Metropolitan Opera debut in New York in the role of Eva in Richard Wagner's Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg.  At the Bayreuth Festival she sang both Elisabeth and Venus in Tannhäuser in 1977–1978.  In 1982, Marton performed the role of Elisabeth in Tannhäuser at the Metropolitan Opera.  Of that performance, The New York Times wrote:
  The arrival on the scene of a fully matured Wagnerian singer is always good news, however long we must wait between dispatches from the front. The news today is that Eva Marton has arrived. The Hungarian artist, portraying Elisabeth for the first time with the Metropolitan Opera in Monday night's Tannhäuser, showed that she has the vocal and temperamental qualities to become the opera world's next important dramatic soprano. She may, in fact, already be there. The timbre is right, the sheer staying power is impressive and the instincts are those of a born actress.

Marton later became a frequent interpreter of the role of Brünnhilde in Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen.  She performed in the complete Zubin Mehta-led Ring cycle at the Lyric Opera of Chicago in 1996. In 1998, she appeared in a new production of  Lohengrin at the Hamburg State Opera, portraying Ortrud.

Turandot
Marton first sang the title role of Puccini's last opera Turandot at the Vienna State Opera in 1983. It became a role with which she has been closely identified.  Since 1983, she has performed the role over a hundred times including at the  Metropolitan Opera, La Scala, Arena di Verona, San Francisco Opera, Lyric Opera of Chicago, Washington Opera, Opera Company of Boston under Sarah Caldwell (in 1983), Barcelona, and Houston Grand Opera. She has also portrayed Turandot in six television and video productions, including a Vienna State Opera production directed by Harold Prince featuring José Carreras as Calaf, a Metropolitan Opera production created by Franco Zeffirelli featuring Placido Domingo as Calaf, and a production designed by David Hockney filmed at the San Francisco Opera with Michael Sylvester as Calaf. She also sang the role at the Aurora Opera House in Gozo, Malta. She has recorded Turandot twice, conducted first by Lorin Maazel (again with Carreras as Calaf) and later Roberto Abbado (with Ben Heppner as Calaf).

Recent years
Marton's new roles in this millennium include Isolde in Wagner's Tristan und Isolde at Hamburg State Opera in 2000, and Kundry in Parsifal in Barcelona and Lisbon in 2001. In 2003, she sang the English-language role of Morgan Le Fay in the premiere of Isaac Albeniz's Merlin in Madrid. In 2006 and 2007, she performed in a concert version of Giordano's Fedora at the Miskolc Opera Festival, in Elektra by Richard Strauss at the Deutsche Oper am Rhein in Düsseldorf, and in Janáček's Jenůfa in Hamburg, in the role of the Kostelnicka. She retired from the operatic stage after performing the role of Klytemnestra in Elektra in Barcelona (Spain) in February and March 2008. However, she sang Klytämnestra in a staged performance of  Elektra in Grand Théâtre de Genève in November 2010. She also keeps a small studio at the Liszt Academy of Music in Budapest, Hungary. Marton received the Persian Golden Lioness Lifetime Achievement Award in operatic music from The World Academy of Arts, Literature and Media - WAALM in 2006.

Videography
 The Metropolitan Opera Centennial Gala, Deutsche Grammophon DVD, 00440-073-4538, 2009

Official Opera Gala and Concert Recordings

1./ José Carreras e le grandi voci festeggiano l'Arena – La grande notte a Verona (8. VIII. 1988. Arena di Verona)
CD POLYPHON 836 447 Live.
José Carreras & Éva Marton, Montserrat Caballé, Ghena Dimitrova, Ileana Cotrubas, Orquesta Sinfonica di Madrid, Conductors: José Collado, Carlo Franci

2./ Le donne di Puccini – Puccini-Gala (12. XI. 1994. München)
CD: NIGHTINGALE CLASSICS 7063197 Live.
Éva Marton, Gabriela Beňačková, Edita Gruberova, Gwyneth Jones
Münchner Rundfunkorchester, Conductor: García Navarro

3./ Let's Save the Liszt Academy!
HUNGAROTON HCD 31841 Live.
(Concerts in Budapest / Hungarian State Opera, Franz Liszt Academy of Music/, 1995, 1997, 1998)
Éva Marton, Éva Pánczél, Bartók String Quartet, Conductor: Ervin Lukács, János Kovács

Opera, Concert: Video and DVD

1./ Isaac Albéniz: Merlin – Morgan le Fay (2003. Madrid, Teatro Real – Live World Premier)
VHS and DVD BBC / Opus Arte B0001RVRX6 Live.
Éva Marton, Carol Vaness, Stuart Skelton, David Wilson-Johnson
Conductor: José de Eusebio, Production: John Dew

2./ Erkel: Bánk bán – Gertrudis (2001, Movie Film)
FHS and DVD - Warner Music Hungary 0927 44606
Andrea Rost, Éva Marton, Atilla Kiss B., Dénes Gulyás, Lajos Miller, Sándor Sólyom-Nagy, Attila Réti, Kolos Kováts
Orchestra for Hungarian Millennium, Hungarian National Chorus, Honvéd Male Chorus, - Conductor: Tamás Pál, Production: Csaba Káel, Cinematographer: Vilmos Zsigmond

3./ Umberto Giordano: Andrea Chénier – Maddaléna  (1985. Milano, Teatro alla Scala)
VHS and DVD: Warner Vision NVC Arts 3984 26655-2 Live.
Éva Marton, José Carreras, Piero Cappuccilli
Conductor: Riccardo Chailly, Production: Lamberto Puggelli

4./ Almicare Ponchielli: La Gioconda – Gioconda (1986, Wien, Staatsoper)
VHS ARTHAUS 100 232 (PAL), DVD ARTHAUS 100 233 Live.
Éva Marton, Plácido Domingo, Ludmilla Semtschuk, Matteo Manuguerra, Margarita Lilowa, Kurt Rydl
Conductor: Adam Fischer, Production / Bühnenbild / Kostüme: Filippo Sanjust

5./ Giacomo Puccini: Tosca – Tosca (1984, Arena di Verona)
VHS and DVD: NVC Arts 4509 99219-2 Live.
Éva Marton, Giacomo Aragall, Ingvar Wixell
Conductor: Daniel Oren, Production: Sylvano Bussotti

6./ Giacomo Puccini: Tosca – Tosca (1985, Sydney, Opera House)
VHS and DVD: KULTUR VIDEO 1213 (NTSC) Live.
Éva Marton, Lamberto Furlan, John Shaw
Conductor: Alberto Erede, Production: John Copley

7./ Giacomo Puccini: Turandot - Turandot (1983, Wien, Staatsoper)
VHS and DVD: Arthaus Musik 107319 Live.
Éva Marton, José Carreras, Katia Ricciarelli
Conductor: Lorin Maazel, Production: Harold Prince

8./ Giacomo Puccini: Turandot - Turandot (1987, New York, Metropolitan Opera House)
VHS and DVD: DG UCBG 1007; DG 073 058-9 Live.
Éva Marton, Plácido Domingo, Leona Mitchell, Paul Plishka
Conductor: James Levine, Production / Set designer: Franco Zeffirelli

9./ Giacomo Puccini: Turandot - Turandot (1993, San Francisco, War Memorial Opera House)
VHS and DVD: ARTHAUS 100 088 (PAL) Live.
Éva Marton, Lucia Mazzaria, Michael Sylvester, Kevin J. Langan
Conductor: Donald Runnicles, Production and Design: David Hockney, Stage Director: Peter McClintock

10./ Richard Strauss: Elektra - Elektra (1989, Wien, Staatsoper)
VHS and DVD ARTHAUS 100 016; ARTHAUS 100 049 Live.
Eva Marton, Cheryl Studer, Brigitte Fassbaender, James King, Franz Grundheber
Conductor: Claudio Abbado, Production: Harry Kupfer

11./ Richard Strauss: Die Frau ohne Schatten – Färberin (1992, Salzburger Festspiele)
VHS and DVD: DECCA 071 425-9 Live.
Cheryl Studer, Éva Marton, Andrea Rost, Elizabeth Norberg Schulz, Marjana Lipovšek, Thomas Moser, Herbert Lippert, Robert Hale, Bryn Terfel
Conductor: Sir Georg Solti, Production: Götz Friedrich

12./ Giuseppe Verdi: Il trovatore - Leonora (1988, New York, Metropolitan Opera House)
VHS and DVD DG 073 002-9 (NTSC) Live.
Éva Marton, Dolora Zajick, Luciano Pavarotti, Sherrill Milnes, Jeffrey Wells
Conductor: James Levine, Production: Fabrizio Melano

13./ Richard Wagner: Lohengrin - Elsa (1986, New York, Metropolitan Opera House)
VHS and DVD: DG 073 4176; DG 6727 Live.
Éva Marton, Leonie Rysanek, Peter Hofmann, Leif Roar, Anthony Raffell, John Macurdy Conductor: James Levine, Production: August Everding

14./ Richard Wagner: Tannhäuser – Elisabeth (1982, New York, Metropolitan Opera House)
VHS and DVD: DG 073 4171; DG B 0006580-09 Live.
Richard Cassilly, Eva Marton, Bernd Weikl, Tatiana Troyanos, John Macurdy
Conductor: James Levine, Production: Otto Schenk

15./ Éva Marton in Concert - 20. Anniversary Gala Concert - 3. IX. 1988. Budapest, Congress Center -MTV Live.
Éva Marton, Hungarian State Symphony Orchestra, Conductor: Julius Rudel

Opera Gala Video and DVD

1./New York, Metropolitan Opera House – Centennial Gala 1983. 10. 22.)
VHS and DVD: DG 001326309 Live.
Éva Marton: G. Puccini: Turandot – Turandot "In questa reggia…" Cond.: James Levine

2./ José Carreras e le grandi voci festeggiano l'Arena – La grande notte a Verona (1988. 08. 08., Arena di Verona)
VHS and DVD: Arthaus Music 101403 Live.
Éva Marton: G. Puccini: Manon Lescaut – Act IV. Aria of Manon Lescaut

References

External links
Two Interviews with Eva Marton by Bruce Duffie, October 28, 1982 & January 23, 1992

1943 births
Living people
Hungarian operatic sopranos
Singers from Budapest
20th-century Hungarian women opera singers
21st-century Hungarian women opera singers
Franz Liszt Academy of Music alumni

Éva Marton


Oishi Shinkage-ryū (大石神影流) is a traditional school (koryū) of Japanese martial arts, founded by Oishi Susumu Tanetsugu in the early 1800s.

History
The origin of Oishi Shinkage-ryū was Aizu Kage-ryū kenjutsu (swordsmanship), which was founded by Aizu Ikōsai Hisatada. Aizu Kage-ryū was transmitted to founder by Murakami Ittō. He came to Yanagawa domain from Ōoka domain. He taught Aizu Kage-ryū kenjutsu, Oshima-ryū sōjutsu (use of spear) and Okuyama Shinkan-ryū jujutsu. One of his student was Oishi Yuken who was a grandfather of Oishi Susumu. Oishi Yuken taught Oishi Susumu his kenjutsu and sōjutsu arts. Both Susumu's grandfather and his father were instructors of Yanagawa domain.

Oishi Susumu improved the protective gear used during practice. In addition, he improved fukuro shinai (bamboo sword covered with leather) to a modern bamboo sword. He devised stab technique, and a technique of striking one's opponent's breastplate. He was said to be five foot eleven inches tall (1.8 meters), a great height for a Japanese of his day. Therefore, his style of swordsmanship uses longer bamboo practice swords than most other styles. There are stories of him engaging in combat around Japan using his four shaku shinai (about 121 cm).

By the order of his feudal lord, he went to the capital city, Edo in 1832. In the next year, he did kenjutsu matches with many famous instructors. After Oishi Susumu, his son, also named Oishi Susume, inherited the school. Because the latter didn't have a son, his younger brother, Oishi Yukie was placed as the headmaster of the ryū. After the Meiji Restoration, they didn't practice swordsmanship for some time, but the school survived still. When Oishi Yukie died, his son, Oishi Hajime was young, so Itai Masumi, the pupil of Oishi Yukie protected the Oishi Shinkage-ryū. After Oishi Hajime grew up, he inherited his father's martial art. He taught the ryū to his grandson, Oishi Eiichi. And Oishi Eiichi taught the Oishi Shinkage-ryū to Morimoto Kunio. Morimoto Kunio was given menkyo kaiden (a teaching license) and is currently teaching the Oishi Shinkage-ryū.

Lineage

Early history pre-dating Oishi Shinkage-ryū:
 Aizu Ikōsai (Founder of the school that Oishi Susumu learned)
 Okuyama Saemondayu
 Kamiizumi Musashinokami
 Masunaga HakuenNyudo
 Yoshida Masuemon
 Ishihara Denjizaemon
 Murakami Ittou
 Oishi Yuken
 Oishi Tarobei

After founding of the school:
 Oishi Susumu Tanetugu (Founder of the Oishi Shinkage-ryū)
 Oishi Susumu Tanemasa
 Oishi Yukie
 Itai Masumi
 Oishi Hajime
 Oishi Eiichi
 Morimoto Kunio

Technical characteristics

Oishi Shinkage-ryu is a traditional school of swordsmanship. The features of the Oishi Shinkage-ryū are techniques called morotezuki (to make a both hands pass), katatezuki (to make a single hand pass) and dōgiri (to cut the waist). These techniques were used by Oishi Susumu for the first time in swordsmanship matches with the protective gear. Oishi Susumu made 79 kata, which are called tekazu in Oishi Shinkage-ryū.

Techniques of the Oishi Shinkage-ryu kenjutsu include use of one sword with both hands, techniques to use two swords, saya-no-uchi (iai) and naginata. The first three groups of kata is the basis of the ryū.

Shiaiguchi (試合口)

 Isshin
 Mumyouittou
 Suigetsu
 Suken
 Ichimi

Youno omote (陽之表:表拾本)

 Youken
 Gekken
 Muniken
 Nishou
 Inazuma
 Taiyouken
 Seitouken
 Muiken
 Norimi
 Chidori

Younoura (陽之裏)

 Seiryu
 Sachin
 Jumonji
 Harimi
 Yoyami
 Rankyoku
 Kurai
 Kyokuman
 Ootoshi
 Byako

Sangakuen-no-tachi (三學圓之太刀)

 Ittouryoudan
 Santan
 Saitetsu
 Hankai
 Hankou
 Usen
 Saten
 Choutan
 Ichimi

Yari awase (槍合)

 Irikake
 Uchikomi

Naginata awase (長刀合)

 Koran
 Hiryu

Bō awase (棒合)

 Uchiawase
 Uchiiri
 Enzan

Saya-no-uchi (鞘之内)

 Nukiuchi
 Koteotoshi
 Uken
 Saken
 Kabutowari

Nitō (二刀)

 Seifu
 Ayanochoushi
 Momijigasane
 Kasumi
 Ariake

Tengu-no-shou (天狗抄)

 Hishou
 Gyakufu
 Ransetsu
 Takanami
 Jyoboku
 Sasetsudan
 Sasetsudan
 Enki
 Marubashi
 Orihakou

Kodachi (小太刀)

 Mouko
 Kotsubogaeshi
 Engetu
 Jyushi
 Kyoujyaku

Shindensaiso (神傳截相)

 Enpi
 Enkai
 Yamagata
 Tsuikage
 Ukifune
 Uranami
 Rangyou
 Matsukaze
 Kasha
 Chotan
 Tettei
 Isononami
 seigan

See also
 Shinkage-ryū

References

External links

Ko-ryū bujutsu

Oishi Shinkage-ryū Kenjutsu


The Victorian Order of Nurses (VON) has been leading home and community care in Canada for over a century. Today, VON provides home and community support services to over 10,000 people every day across Ontario and Nova Scotia. It is registered as a charity with the Canada Revenue Agency, under charity number 129482493RR0001. Since 2014, the President and CEO is Jo-Anne Poirier.

History

Lady Aberdeen, wife of Canadian Governor General Lord Aberdeen, visited Vancouver, British Columbia, in 1896. While there, she heard many stories of women and children alone in remote areas of Canada as their husbands had to travel great distances for medical help. At a meeting of the National Council for Women in Halifax, Nova Scotia, she was asked to create an order of visiting nurses in Canada. It was to be a memorial for the 60th anniversary of Queen Victoria's ascent to the throne of the British Empire. At Rideau Hall on February 10, 1897, Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier hosted an inauguration to create the Victorian Order of Nurses "as a mode of commemoration by the Dominion of Canada (Canada) of the Queen's Diamond Jubilee". In 1898, the first nurse training program was established for the Victorian Order of Nurses in Ottawa, Ontario.

In 1898, one of the first high-profile projects for the VON was a call to women to join the Victorian Order of Nurses' Klondike contingent. Candidates had to be unmarried, at least twenty-eight years old, and be a graduate of a recognized nursing school. They were warned they would have to dress very plainly and not curl or crimp their hair. Four nurses were selected, three Canadians and one recent immigrant from England. They reached Dawson one month after the Sisters of Saint Anne and found their skills desperately needed to care for the many victims of the typhoid epidemic that was raging through the Klondike.

The VON has helped Canada through many incidents including World War I, the Halifax Explosion and World War II. More importantly, VON has been an important element of building community, creating opportunities for people to work together to meet their needs and those of their friends and neighbours.

VON Canada is structured into a national service provider and local charities. Both are governed by volunteer Board members. The National Board is composed of dedicated volunteers from across Canada elected by the representatives of the local branches. The local branches operate in each of their communities, raising funds and lobbying to meet specific needs.

On November 25, 2015, VON suddenly shut down all their operations outside of Ontario and Nova Scotia. The order was lacking in funding, and could no longer support operating offices in other areas. It will restructure to determine what services will continue to be offered while being financially viable.

Today, with a staff of 6,000 and as many volunteers, VON provides home and community support services to over 10,000 people every day across Ontario and Nova Scotia.

See also
 Elizabeth Lawrie Smellie
 Queen's Nursing Institute, England, Wales, and Northern Ireland
 James Thorburn (Canadian physician)

References

External links

1897 establishments in Ontario
Charities based in Canada
Nursing organizations in Canada
Organizations established in 1897
Organizations based in Ottawa

Victorian Order of Nurses


Bongani Christopher Majola is an advocate of the High Court of South Africa, an academic, human rights scholar, and the previous Assistant Secretary-General of the United Nations (UN) International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). He currently serves as the chairperson of the South African Human Rights Commission.

Academic background

South African studies
Bongani Majola did his studies in law at the University of Zululand and obtained a Public Service Law Diploma in 1975, a Public Service Senior Law Certificate in 1977 and a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree in 1982. From 1982 to 1988 he was a senior lecturer and the Associate Professor of Law at the University of Bophuthatswana where he was responsible for teaching law courses to undergraduate and postgraduate students. Majola then became a professor and the dean of the law faculty at the University of the North from 1989 to 1996.

International studies
Majola obtained a Master of Laws (LLM) degree from Harvard Law School in 1988. In 1990 he spent time at the School of Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University in Washington, D.C., as a visiting professor, and in 1993/4 he was at Yale University as a research fellow.

Career

Early career
Majola's career began as an Administrative Clerk and Clerk of the Magistrate's Court from 1971 to 1974 in the Madadeni district in KwaZulu-Natal, where he conducted "mostly government clerical work including collection of revenue, population registration, writing reports and labour matters." His experience with criminal trials started in Madadeni when he was appointed the District Court Magistrate from 1977 to 1979, following which he was seconded to the Institute for Public Service Training at the University of Zululand as a magistrate and lecturer from 1979 to 1982 - which also coincided with his studies at the university. Majola served as a legal adviser to Theme Committee 3 of the South African Constitutional Assembly that was responsible for drafting the Constitution of South Africa in 1995.

Legal Resources Centre

After his academic career Majola moved to Johannesburg in 1996 where he was appointed the National Director of the Legal Resources Centre (LRC), which is a non-profit public interest law organisation that defends poor and marginalised people in South Africa. During his time at the LRC he was involved with the Treatment Action Campaign in 2002 in relation to the "constitutional provisions dealing with the right of access by poor people to medical [health] care." In December 2000 Majola was elected to the board of the South African arm of the Open Society Foundations by billionaire and philanthropist George Soros. On the 21st anniversary of the LRC, Majola wrote an article about the significant contributions made by the LRC to the "development of a human rights  jurisprudence and the strengthening of constitutional democracy" in South Africa.

United Nations

ICTR Deputy Chief Prosecutor
In January 2003 Majola left the LRC to become the Deputy Chief Prosecutor at the UN ICTR headquartered in Arusha, Tanzania. His work included supporting the Chief Prosecutor Hassan Bubacar Jallow in "the prosecution of suspects indicted for international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes committed during the Rwandan genocide of 1994." In a report by the Institute of Security Studies on the investigation and prosecution of international crimes, Majola wrote an article on the work of the ICTR and the challenges pertaining to the prosecution of persons accused of "genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes".

ICTR Assistant Secretary-General

After 10 years as the Deputy Chief Prosecutor of the ICTR, Majola was appointed by Secretary-General of the United Nations, Ban Ki-moon, as the Assistant Secretary-General of the UN and Registrar of the ICTR. His role as Registrar was to support the organs of the ICTR, which are the judges, the Chambers and the Office of the Prosecutor. His duties also included being the head of the ICTR administration where he provided court management services, staff management, administrative support and Majola "handled related litigation within the UN internal justice system." Following the successful conclusion of the mandate of the ICTR and its subsequent closure in December 2015, Majola left his position as the Assistant Secretary-General.

South African Human Rights Commission

On 2 December 2016 President Jacob Zuma appointed Majola as the chairperson of the South African Human Rights Commission. Majola's seven-year term commenced on 3 January 2017.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Harvard Law School alumni
University of Zululand alumni
South African officials of the United Nations
Zulu people
21st-century South African lawyers

Bongani Christopher Majola


Quick Assist is a Microsoft Windows feature that allows a user to view or control a remote Windows computer over a network or the Internet to resolve issues without directly touching the unit. It is based on the Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP). It is complemented by Get Help, a feature introduced in Windows 10 that enables the user to contact Microsoft directly but does not allow for remote desktoping or screen sharing.

Before Quick Assist was introduced in Windows 10, Windows XP and later Windows versions offered a similar feature called Windows Remote Assistance.

Overview
Helpers offering remote assistance can open multiple simultaneous sessions—one for each remote computer. However, users seeking assistance from helpers can have only one remote assistance session waiting for a connection. Connect invitations can be sent to multiple recipients—any of which may connect. All subsequent connect attempts will be blocked until the first helper disconnects, after which another helper may connect. If the user disconnects the session, the remote assistance application terminates and no further connections are allowed.

Quick Assist is installed by default on Windows clients, but is not available on Windows Server 2008 R2 servers. The name of the tool differs depending on Windows language; a search for "Quick Assist" in the Start menu will locate the tool regardless of the language settings.

Quick Assist requests a code in order to match users to a session. This will allow the giver to access the computer of the receiver in Administrator mode while allowing the receiver to see the choices the giver made.

Connection
Quick Assist uses TCP port 443 and communicates with the following hosts:

The Quick Assist binary is located at "C:\Windows\System32\quickassist.exe"

History
The feature was first introduced in Windows XP as Remote Assistance and based on Remote Desktop technologies. Remote Assistance in Windows XP is integrated into the Help and Support Centre UI and allows sending invitations to the support person by email, Windows Messenger or saving the invitation as a file and transferring the file across through other methods. The computer can be controlled by both, the support person connecting remotely as well as the one sending the invitation. Chat, audio-video conversations and file transfer are available.

In Windows Vista, Remote Assistance is upgraded with a standalone user interface and based on RDP 6 and Windows Desktop Sharing API. Two systems administrators can simultaneously connect to a single computer. Remote sessions automatically reconnect after restarting the computer. It also supports session pausing, built-in diagnostics, chat, file transfer and XML-based logging. It reduces bandwidth requirements for low-speed connections. NAT traversal allows a session to be established even if the user is behind a Network Address Translation (NAT) device, for example, a router in a home network. Remote Assistance is configurable using Group Policy and supports command-line switches so that custom shortcuts can be deployed.

In Windows 7, Remote Assistance is based on RDP 7. An extra option to connect using Peer Name Resolution Protocol is added, called Easy Connect if IPv6 connectivity is present. With Easy Connect, only a password needs to be shared instead of an invitation file, and two computers can establish a peer-to-peer connection over the local area network (LAN) or the Internet without a relay server. However, Windows Remote Assistance does not support file transfer and clipboard sharing in Windows 7.

Remote Assistance is installed by default on Windows clients, but must be added manually on Windows Server 2008 R2 servers. Remote assistance sessions may be initiated using the Windows Remote Assistance application available on the Start menu under All Apps → Maintenance or by invoking msra.exe from command-line interface.

The original Remote Assistance is included on all releases of Windows 10 as well, but since the Windows 10 Anniversary Update, its Start menu shortcut is removed, effectively hiding it from the user. Instead, a new app called Quick Assist is added. It has mostly the same functionality and a similar user interface with buttons called Get assistance and Give assistance. The design is like UWP apps. Unlike Remote Assistant, Quick Assist requires the support person to sign in using a Microsoft account before dispensing help.

In November 2021, Microsoft announced a more business-friendly version of Quick Assist, called Remote Help. While later versions of Windows 10 allowed users and technicians to authenticate against Azure Active Directory, this version includes new integrations such as:

 UAC Elevation
 Remote Assistance Sessions Reports
 Roles Based Authentication (RBAC)
 Management from Intune / the ability to launch from Intune
 Limiting sessions within the organization (Azure AD Tenant)
 Branding
 Conditional Access
 ADFS support

While Remote Assistance establishes a Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) connection to the end user's computer (requires TCP port 3389 to be opened on the client machine and the firewall/NAT/router behind which the machine is), Quick Assist is cloud-based and requires one outbound connection from the helper's PC to the cloud service/Microsoft server, and a separate connection from the cloud service to the machine of the person getting assistance. There are no ports opened on the client device's firewall.

Features comparison

See also
Application sharing
Help desk

References

Further reading

Remote desktop
Collaboration
Groupware
Windows components
Assistance

Quick Assist


Büsingen am Hochrhein often just known as Busingen, is a German village. It is part of the German state (Bundesland) of Baden-Württemberg. The village belongs to the district (Kreis) of Konstanz. Büsingen has an area of about . About 1,350 people live there. The village is the only exclave of Germany. It is surrounded by territory that belongs to Switzerland.

A 680-metre wide strip of Swiss land separates the village from the rest of Germany. The village next to Büsingen is the Swiss village Dörflingen.

There are no border controls between Büsingen and Switzerland because Büsingen is in a customs union with this country. The two countries agreed this in 1964 and the treaty became law in 1967. At the same time another even small part of West Germany separated from the rest of the country by land belonging to Switzerland, called Verenahof became part of the Swiss village of Büttenhardt.

Because the village is completely surrounded by Swiss territory, but is politically German, many things exist twice there. Büsingen has for example two postal codes and residents may have phone numbers from two countries. The official currency is the Euro. However, most things like electricity and cable television come from Switzerland and have to be paid in Swiss francs. Büsingen depends heavily on Switzerland in economics.

Büsingen only has one elementary school. Pupils can attend the school there up to the fourth grade. After this, the parents have to decide whether the children should attend a German or a Swiss school.

A Swiss Postbus connects the village to the Swiss city Schaffhausen the Swiss villages Dörflingen, Buch and Ramsen and the German village Randegg.

Most people who live in Büsingen, work in Switzerland and earn their salary in Swiss francs.

Büsingen has a large proportion of residents who are retired people, many are Swiss, because they pay little or no tax on their pensions.

About 30% of the resident population of Büsingen hold a Swiss passport.

History
The oldest finds in the area of Büsingen date back to the Bronze Age. The village was first mentioned in historical documents in 1090. The area belonging to the village contains the sites of two abandoned villages.

References

Other websites

Towns in Baden-Württemberg
Konstanz (district)

Büsingen am Hochrhein


Design is the visual appearence or shape given to an object. Design aims to make things prettier, more comfortable, or better in some way by making them work well and look good.

Good design decisions can make a space, for example, a hospital or an airport, more accessible or an image more attractive for advertisements, adding value in the market.

Designers use knowledge and rules from geometry and art to create their designs.

Design is sometimes divided to sub-categories, including graphic design, interior design, vehicle design, furniture design, product design, type design, fashion design and web design, to name a few.

Design doesn't always lead to physical objects; it can involve applications, websites, prototypes, presentations, or serve as a plan for creating something else.

Design is also a concept used to create an object (virtual or not). Design is picturing things using the imagination; as to using perception or memory.

Related pages
 Universal design

Design


Albert II (; 1368 – January 21, 1397, Kelheim) was duke of Bavaria-Straubing alongside his father Albert I, who also ruled the counties of Holland, Hainaut, and Zeeland in the Low Countries. Additionally, from 1389 until his death in 1397, he administered the Bavarian province of Straubing in the name of his father, it being his Bavarian ducal line's appanage and seat. Albert II's mother was Margaret of Brieg, great-granddaughter of Wenceslaus II of Bohemia.

Albert II spent most of his time in Straubing, arranged tournaments, ordered the introduction of road surfaces but also encouraged the church. He did not intervene in the internal conflict of his cousins, the three sons of his uncle Duke Stephen II of Bavaria, but supported their war against a confederation of cities in Swabia and the archbishop of Salzburg. Albert visited the Low Countries several times and fought against the Frisians in 1396 alongside his father and his elder brother William II. Albert died after his return journey, in Kelheim.

Ancestry

1368 births
1397 deaths
14th-century dukes of Bavaria
Counts of Holland
House of Wittelsbach
14th-century counts in Europe

Albert II, Duke of Bavaria


The Macdonald Tobacco Company (initially called McDonald Brothers and Co.), founded in 1858 by William Christopher Macdonald and his brother Augustine, converted tobacco leaf from southern U.S. suppliers to pipe and chewing tobacco in Montreal. After several acquisitions, it is now known as Japan Tobacco International (JTI), which manages flagship brands such as Benson & Hedges, Camel, Glamour, LD, Mevius, Natural American Spirit, Silk Cut, Sobranie, and Winston.

History
The Macdonald Tobacco Company was founded in 1858 by William Christopher Macdonald and his brother Augustine. While the use of tobacco products was growing in popularity, the American Civil War afforded the fledgling company an opportunity that brought enormous financial success leading to Macdonald Brothers, emerging the preeminent tobacco company in the field in Canada. Since the northern U.S. faced a tobacco shortage due to the Civil War conflict (tobacco growers were located in the south), MacDonald Tobacco, a Canadian company, bought tobacco leaf from the Southern United States and transported it via ocean cargo vessels to Montreal. MacDonald Tobacco further processed it into a finished product, then selling to the northern U.S. tobacco-starved market.

By the early 1870s, the company acquired over 500 employees. During this period, William Macdonald bought out his brother's stock position.

Deeply proud of his Scottish heritage, William C. Macdonald imprinted a Scottish Lass on the product packaging for nearly a century. Macdonald actually disliked tobacco, and upon his death in 1917, he bequeathed his company to Walter and Howard Stewart, the two sons of company manager David Stewart. Walter Stewart, now president, replaced pipe tobacco with "roll your own" cigarettes. In 1922, packaged cigarette production was added, quickly becoming the mainstay of the business. During the 1960s, David M. Stewart (1920–1984), expanded the business into the manufacturing of cigars.

The Macdonald Tobacco company remained in the Stewart family until 1974 when David M. Stewart sold it to the American tobacco giant R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company who, in light of the uncertainty created by the Quebec sovereignty movement, relocated the head office to Toronto, Ontario.  Most of those assets were later purchased by Japan Tobacco.

References

Tobacco companies of Canada
Defunct manufacturing companies of Canada
R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company
Japan Tobacco
Companies based in Montreal
Centre-Sud

Macdonald Tobacco


Tarto maa rahva Näddali-Leht was a newspaper published in Estonia in 1806.

The first periodical publication in Estonian was Lühhike öppetus (1766–1767), but Tarto maa rahva Näddali-Leht has been considered as the first newspaper published in that language.

A total of 39 issues were printed.

At the time Estonia was under Russian rule and emperor of Russia forbid the publishing of this newspaper in the end of 1806 and let all of the papers to be destroyed.

References

Newspapers published in Estonia
Tartu County
Mass media in Tartu

Tarto maa rahva Näddali-Leht


William Frank Stanton (October 16, 1918 – December 31, 1996) was an American humorist whose short stories and articles appeared in monthly magazines such as Reader's Digest, Woman's Day, Saturday Evening Post and The New Yorker.  He wrote four books, one of which was published posthumously, and hundreds of stories and articles.

Biography

Stanton was born in Cleveland, Ohio on 16 October 1918. He was born to Frank White Stanton and Marie Seelbach Stanton. Frank White Stanton was a descendant of William White, a Mayflower pilgrim, through his son, Peregrine White. Marie Seelbach Stanton was a daughter of German immigrants. Frank White Stanton served as mayor of Chagrin Falls.

When Will was fifteen years old, his youngest brother, John, was born by emergency cesarean section and their mother died eight days later of complications. Their father raised his four sons with the help of housekeepers.

Being born in 1918 and living his teenage years during the depression had positive effects on Will Stanton's outlook on life. He believed life was simpler then, he was not wasteful, and he valued the lessons and skills he gained growing up at a time when families did more for themselves. He retained fond memories of his upbringing that were represented in his writing, particularly in his second book, THE GOLDEN EVENINGS OF SUMMER.

Will grew up nearby in Chagrin Falls, attended Princeton University, where he earned a degree in English, and then joined the Army Air Corps, where he served as a flight officer and flew glider planes in France during the Second World War.

After the war, Stanton began working as a full-time freelance writer and moved to Bolinas, California. He returned to Chagrin Falls in the mid-fifties, still writing full-time, and participated in the Chagrin Falls Little Theater, where he acted lead roles, including as Charles in "Blithe Spirit". It was there that he met his second wife, Elizabeth "Betty" Kain Oldham. The couple had seven children, six of them boys, all of whom provided ample material for stories. From Chagrin Falls, Will moved his family to Mantua, Ohio; then to Cambridge, Maryland; New London, Connecticut; and, finally, to his wife's family home in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, where after ten years, he died. As long as there was a post office, he could live anywhere, he would say.

Humorous short stories and articles

Some of Will Stanton's best-known articles were "How to Tell a Democrat from a Republican" (Ladies' Home Journal, November 1962), which was read into the Congressional Record and has been used in classrooms as a learning tool; "There's No Mayonnaise in Ireland" (Reader's Digest, May 1971) and "Rumpelstiltskin, He Said His Name Was" (Reader's Digest, August 1969).  "November" (Woman's Day, November 1969) was read for several years every November 1 by Jim Mader on radio station WIBA in Madison, Wisconsin. His story "Barney", about a rat who outsmarts a scientist, and "Dodger Fan", about a Mars alien coming to earth and being introduced to the game of baseball, were both published in the 1950s and have been the most requested articles for reprint in English books in Norway, Germany, Canada, and the US, and in science fiction anthologies.

Will's stories and articles were published for forty years in
 An American Christmas
 Annabel
 Atlantic Monthly
 Boy's Life
 Catholic Digest
 Cavalcade
 Chatelaine
 Christian Living
 Contemporary
 Coronet
 Elks, The
 Ellery Queen, Brazil and Chile
 Esquire
 Every Woman
 Family Digest
 Fantasy & Science Fiction, US and British editions
 Good Housekeeping
 Home and Gardens
 Ladies' Home Journal
 Life
 Look
 McCall's
 Milestones to Encounters
 Moments with Father
 Never in This World
 New Dawn
 New Yorker
 Northeast (Hartford Courant)
 Norton Reader
 Pan Am Clipper
 The Phoenix Nest
 Reader's Digest, which made Stanton a staff writer, offering a stipend in exchange for first refusal on appropriate stories
 Redbook
 Sarie
 Saturday Evening Post
 Saturday Review
 Sports Illustrated
 Star Weekly Fiction
 Time
 Valley Views
 Venture
 Weight Watcher's
 Woman
 Woman's Day, which sent Stanton and his family on several trips for the purpose of gathering story material.  Destinations were Washington DC, during the Cherry Blossom Festival; Disneyland (California); St. Augustine, Florida; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and New York City, during the Christmas season
 Woman's World
 Worst Contact
 Yankee

Some articles have been included on the "Will Stanton, Author" Facebook page.

Anthologies in which Stanton's work appeared
Staircase to Writing and Reading, Prentice-Hall
Rebels, Ginn and Co
Channel One, Dickenson Publishing Co
Words and Beyond, Ginn and Co
Scope, Harper and Row
The Best From Fantasy and Science Fiction, Ace Books, various volumes

Books
Once Upon A Time Is Enough, satirical analyses of seven traditional fairy tales.  Published by J.B. Lippincott Company in 1970.  Illustrated by Victoria Chess.
The Golden Evenings of Summer, a story of youth, life, and the opportunities for making money during Prohibition.  Published by McCall Publishing in 1971 in hardcover, in German by Hornemann, and in paperback by Lancer Books.  Walt Disney Productions bought rights to the book and based their movie Charley and the Angel on it.
The Old Familiar Booby Traps of Home, twenty-two humorous vignettes of the American family at home.  Published by Doubleday and Company in 1977.
A Likely Story, the story of Warren Plowright and how he went from predictable and quiet to being chased by the Mob and the FBI.  Published by CreateSpace in 2012.

References

American humorists
1996 deaths
Writers from Cleveland
1918 births
Princeton University alumni
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
American people of German descent
20th-century American writers
People from Chagrin Falls, Ohio
United States Army Air Forces officers

Will Stanton (author)


József Ficzkó or Fitzkó (Burgenland Croatian: Jožef Ficko) (15 March 1772 – 28 November 1843) was a Slovene Roman Catholic priest and writer. After becoming a priest in the village of Peresznye near the current Hungarian-Austrian border, he became one of the most important Burgenland Croatian writers of his time.

Biography
Ficzkó was born in Boreča (now Prekmurje, Slovenia), then part of Hungary, which became part of the Austrian Empire in 1804. His parents were Miklós Ficzkó and Ilona (Jelena) Ficzkó. He studied in Szombathely with the help of Miklós Küzmics, a Prekmurje Slovene writer, and was ordained in 1797.

From 1802 until his death, Ficzkó was the priest in the small village of Peresznye, near Kőszeg, in an area in western Hungary in which many Burgenland Croats lived. Here he learned the local dialect of Croatian and wrote books in Burgenland Croatian. Ficzkó was a significant writer working in the standard language of the Burgenland Croats. His style was known as the Baroque.

Ficzkó rejected Panslavism, Illyrism, the new Serbo-Croatian language, and Gaj's alphabet. Instead, he supported using a clear Burgenland Croatian language to be understood by the people of his region.

Works
 A.B.C. knyisicze za diczu Horváczkoga naroda va Kralyesztvi Vugerszkom (Primer for Croatian Children in the Kingdom of Hungary)
 Kratak pregléd Sztaroga Zakona (A Short Overview of the Old Testament), 1824
 Kratak pregléd Novoga Zakona (A Short Overview of the New Testament), 1824
 Nova hizsa zlata (The New Golden House), 1829
 Razlaganye velikoga katekismusa (An Explanation of the Great Catechism), 1836
 Kratko razlaganye czrikveni czeremoniov (Explanation of Church Ceremonies), 1836
 Novo Marianszko Zvetye (The New Virgin's Flower), 1837
 Nova Vrata nebeszka (The New Heavenly Gate), 1864

Literature
 Nikola Benčić: Književnost gradišćanskih Hrvata, Zagreb 1998.

See also
Catholic Church in Slovenia

References

External links
 Siegfried Tornow: Burgenlandkroatisch

1772 births
1843 deaths
Burgenland Croats
Croatian writers
19th-century Croatian Roman Catholic priests
18th-century Hungarian Roman Catholic priests
19th-century Hungarian Roman Catholic priests
People from the Municipality of Gornji Petrovci

József Ficzkó


The Fire Fighter Near Miss Reporting System was launched on August 12, 2005 by the International Association of Fire Chiefs. It was announced at a press conference in Denver, Colorado, after having completed a pilot program involving 38 fire departments across the country. The Near Miss Reporting System aims to prevent injuries and save lives of other firefighters by collecting, sharing and analyzing near-miss experiences. The near-miss experiences are collected by firefighters who voluntarily submit them; the reports are confidential, non-punitive, and secure. After the reports are compiled, they are posted to the website where firefighters can access them and learn from each other's real-life experiences. Overall these reports help to formulate strategies, reduce firefighter injuries and fatalities, and enhance the safety culture of the fire service. The program is based on the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS), which has been gathering reports of close calls from pilots, flight attendants, air traffic controllers since 1976. The reporting system is funded by the International Association of Fire Chiefs.

Near-miss event
A near-miss event is defined as an opportunity to improve health and safety practices based on a condition or an incident with potential for more serious consequence.".

Near-miss report
A near-miss report consists of five sections:

Report of the Week
Every Wednesday there is a new Report of the Week. These reports are available online and can be emailed for free with a Report of the Week subscription. They are ideal tools used for training and for informational purposes.

The reports chosen are recent and contain discussion questions for further thought. They are also matched with 5 similar reports from previous years. These reports give readers insight to what is currently going on, and how people are dealing with their near-misses. The discussion questions help readers understand what actions need to be taken in order to prevent further near-misses. Many subscribers use the reports for informal training drills, forward the reports to other fire departments, or use them for their own informational needs.

Resources
The Fire Fighter Near-Miss Reporting System website offers many different resources to its users. As mentioned above, there is a Report of the Week, which offers a training tool for departments all over the country. In addition to the Report of the Week, there are illustrated case studies, videos, grouped reports, and photos.

Videos and Photos: You can find many different visuals here that can help you understand the reports.
Near-Miss Calendar: The Near-Miss calendar contains case studies and other information about the program.

Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS)
The U.S. Navy's Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) was selected as the first tool for analyzing firefighter near-miss reports. HFACS takes four levels of individual and institutional performance into consideration.
 Unsafe acts
 Preconditions to unsafe acts
 Unsafe supervision
 Organizational influences

HFACS level 1 - Unsafe acts
The "unsafe acts" level contains two categories: errors and violations. The determination that an unsafe act has occurred is not an indictment of an individual firefighter or firefighters. So far, statistics have shown that 80% of reported near misses have occurred when firefighters were following established procedures.
Errors are classified as resulting from lack of skill, education or training, poor decision making, or misperception. Each in turn can be broken down into omissions, failure to prioritize, poor technique, misinterpretation of conditions, wrong response to conditions, and decision errors.

HFACS level 2 - Preconditions to unsafe acts
The "preconditions to unsafe acts" level focuses on the individuals involved. Was the individual focused or distracted? Was the individual hurried? Was the individual physically ill or otherwise unfit for duty? Was the individual somehow incompatible with the assigned task? The team is also analyzed. For example, are the team members familiar with, and do they practice crew resource management and personal readiness?

HFACS level 3 - Unsafe supervision
The "unsafe supervision" level mirrors the military's emphasis on the officer's role in all aspects of operations. Specifically it looks at factors like inadequate supervision, poor planning, failure to correct problems, and other supervisory problems.

HFACS level 4 - Organizational influences
The "organizational influences" level is the final level of evaluation. It acknowledges that a fire departments top management is ultimately responsible for organizational culture, and may have contributed to some degree to a firefighter's actions that led to a near-miss event.

Error management
Based on the first year of data, the various working groups of the National Fire Fighter Near-Miss Reporting System have offered the following recommendations for error-management and to improve firefighter performance and safety.
Require a 360-degree evaluation of all structures prior to interior operations.
Require all officers to perform a risk/benefit analysis. When the risk exceeds the benefit, safety trumps exposure to harm.
Adopt an error management philosophy at the department level and distinguish between good faith errors and willful disregard for policy.
Explore and adopt crew resource management to improve leader performance, crew safety, and incident management.
Aggressive mentalities need to transition into purposeful action mentalities. Blind "duty to act" mindsets create harmful institutional climates and put firefighters in unnecessary danger.
Fire departments must share knowledge gained from near-misses that were prevented by following procedure, as well as those that occur due to error.
The near-miss reporting system should add questions about SOPs/SOGs, supervisor training, and organizational elements to aid in the review process.

See also
Crew resource management
 Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program
 Human reliability
Swiss cheese model

References

 https://web.archive.org/web/20131203021531/http://www.firefighternearmiss.com/index.php/home

External links

 Annual Report 2006
 Lessons Learned from the Cyber Kitchen Table
 Firefighter Close Calls

Firefighting in the United States
Occupational safety and health
2005 establishments in the United States


Coulomb's inverse-square law, or simply Coulomb's law, is an experimental law of physics that calculates the amount of force between two electrically charged particles at rest. This electric force is conventionally called electrostatic force or Coulomb force. Although the law was known earlier, it was first published in 1785 by French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, hence the name. Coulomb's law was essential to the development of the theory of electromagnetism and maybe even its starting point, as it allowed meaningful discussions of the amount of electric charge in a particle.

The law states that the magnitude, or absolute value, of the attractive or repulsive electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of their charges and inversely proportional to the squared distance between them. Coulomb discovered that bodies with like electrical charges repel:

Coulomb also showed that oppositely charged bodies attract according to an inverse-square law:

Here,  is a constant,  and  are the quantities of each charge, and the scalar r is the distance between the charges.

The force is along the straight line joining the two charges. If the charges have the same sign, the electrostatic force between them makes them repel; if they have different signs, the force between them makes them attract.

Being an inverse-square law, the law is similar to Isaac Newton's inverse-square law of universal gravitation, but gravitational forces always make things attract, while electrostatic forces make charges attract or repel. Also, gravitational forces are much weaker than electrostatic forces. Coulomb's law can be used to derive Gauss's law, and vice versa. In the case of a single point charge at rest, the two laws are equivalent, expressing the same physical law in different ways. The law has been tested extensively, and observations have upheld the law on the scale from 10−16 m to 108 m.

History

Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers and pieces of paper. Thales of Miletus made the first recorded description of static electricity around 600 BC, when he noticed that friction could make a piece of amber attract small objects.

In 1600, English scientist William Gilbert made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined the Neo-Latin word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from  [elektron], the Greek word for "amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity", which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646.

Early investigators of the 18th century who suspected that the electrical force diminished with distance as the force of gravity did (i.e., as the inverse square of the distance) included Daniel Bernoulli and Alessandro Volta, both of whom measured the force between plates of a capacitor, and Franz Aepinus who supposed the inverse-square law in 1758.

Based on experiments with electrically charged spheres, Joseph Priestley of England was among the first to propose that electrical force followed an inverse-square law, similar to Newton's law of universal gravitation. However, he did not generalize or elaborate on this. In 1767, he conjectured that the force between charges varied as the inverse square of the distance.

In 1769, Scottish physicist John Robison announced that, according to his measurements, the force of repulsion between two spheres with charges of the same sign varied as .

In the early 1770s, the dependence of the force between charged bodies upon both distance and charge had already been discovered, but not published, by Henry Cavendish of England. In his notes, Cavendish wrote, "We may therefore conclude that the electric attraction and repulsion must be inversely as some power of the distance between that of the  and that of the , and there is no reason to think that it differs at all from the inverse duplicate ratio".

Finally, in 1785, the French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb published his first three reports of electricity and magnetism where he stated his law. This publication was essential to the development of the theory of electromagnetism. He used a torsion balance to study the repulsion and attraction forces of charged particles, and determined that the magnitude of the electric force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

The torsion balance consists of a bar suspended from its middle by a thin fiber. The fiber acts as a very weak torsion spring. In Coulomb's experiment, the torsion balance was an insulating rod with a metal-coated ball attached to one end, suspended by a silk thread. The ball was charged with a known charge of static electricity, and a second charged ball of the same polarity was brought near it. The two charged balls repelled one another, twisting the fiber through a certain angle, which could be read from a scale on the instrument. By knowing how much force it took to twist the fiber through a given angle, Coulomb was able to calculate the force between the balls and derive his inverse-square proportionality law.

Scalar form
Coulomb's law can be stated as a simple mathematical expression. The scalar form gives the magnitude of the vector of the electrostatic force  between two point charges  and , but not its direction. If  is the distance between the charges, the magnitude of the force is

where  is the electric constant. If the product  is positive, the force between the two charges is repulsive; if the product is negative, the force between them is attractive.

Vector form

Coulomb's law in vector form states that the electrostatic force  experienced by a charge,  at position , in the vicinity of another charge,  at position , in a vacuum is equal to

where  is the vectorial distance between the charges,  a unit vector pointing from  to  and  the electric constant. Here,  is used for the vector notation.

The vector form of Coulomb's law is simply the scalar definition of the law with the direction given by the unit vector,  parallel with the line from charge  to charge . If both charges have the same sign (like charges) then the product  is positive and the direction of the force on  is given by ; the charges repel each other. If the charges have opposite signs then the product  is negative and the direction of the force on  is  the charges attract each other.

The electrostatic force  experienced by , according to Newton's third law, is

System of discrete charges
The law of superposition allows Coulomb's law to be extended to include any number of point charges. The force acting on a point charge due to a system of point charges is simply the vector addition of the individual forces acting alone on that point charge due to each one of the charges. The resulting force vector is parallel to the electric field vector at that point, with that point charge removed.

Force  on a small charge  at position , due to a system of  discrete charges in vacuum is

where  and  are the magnitude and position respectively of the th charge,  is a unit vector in the direction of , a vector pointing from charges  to .

Continuous charge distribution
In this case, the principle of linear superposition is also used. For a continuous charge distribution, an integral over the region containing the charge is equivalent to an infinite summation, treating each infinitesimal element of space as a point charge . The distribution of charge is usually linear, surface or volumetric.

For a linear charge distribution (a good approximation for charge in a wire) where  gives the charge per unit length at position , and  is an infinitesimal element of length,

For a surface charge distribution (a good approximation for charge on a plate in a parallel plate capacitor) where  gives the charge per unit area at position , and  is an infinitesimal element of area,

For a volume charge distribution (such as charge within a bulk metal) where  gives the charge per unit volume at position , and  is an infinitesimal element of volume,

The force on a small test charge  at position  in vacuum is given by the integral over the distribution of charge

The "continuous charge" version of Coulomb's law is never supposed to be applied to locations for which  because that location would directly overlap with the location of a charged particle (e.g. electron or proton) which is not a valid location to analyze the electric field or potential classically. Charge is always discrete in reality, and the "continuous charge" assumption is just an approximation that is not supposed to allow  to be analyzed.

Coulomb constant
The Coulomb constant is a proportionality factor that appears in Coulomb's law and related formulas. Denoted , it is also called the electric force constant or electrostatic constant hence the subscript 'e'. When the electromagnetic theory is expressed in the International System of Units, force is measured in newtons, charge in coulombs and distance in meters. The Coulomb constant is given by . The constant  is the vacuum electric permittivity (also known as the electric constant). It should not be confused with , which is the dimensionless relative permittivity of the material in which the charges are immersed, or with their product , which is called "absolute permittivity of the material" and is still used in electrical engineering.

Since the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, the Coulomb constant, as calculated from CODATA 2018 recommended values, is

Limitations
There are three conditions to be fulfilled for the validity of Coulomb's inverse square law:
 The charges must have a spherically symmetric distribution (e.g. be point charges, or a charged metal sphere).
 The charges must not overlap (e.g. they must be distinct point charges).
 The charges must be stationary with respect to a nonaccelerating frame of reference.

The last of these is known as the electrostatic approximation. When movement takes place, Einstein's theory of relativity must be taken into consideration, and a result, an extra factor is introduced, which alters the force produced on the two objects. This extra part of the force is called the magnetic force, and is described by magnetic fields. For slow movement, the magnetic force is minimal and Coulomb's law can still be considered approximately correct, but when the charges are moving more quickly in relation to each other, the full electrodynamics rules (incorporating the magnetic force) must be considered.

Electric field

An electric field is a vector field that associates to each point in space the Coulomb force experienced by a unit test charge. The strength and direction of the Coulomb force  on a charge  depends on the electric field  established by other charges that it finds itself in, such that . In the simplest case, the field is considered to be generated solely by a single source point charge. More generally, the field can be generated by a distribution of charges who contribute to the overall by the principle of superposition.

If the field is generated by a positive source point charge , the direction of the electric field points along lines directed radially outwards from it, i.e. in the direction that a positive point test charge  would move if placed in the field. For a negative point source charge, the direction is radially inwards.

The magnitude of the electric field  can be derived from Coulomb's law. By choosing one of the point charges to be the source, and the other to be the test charge, it follows from Coulomb's law that the magnitude of the electric field  created by a single source point charge Q at a certain distance from it r in vacuum is given by

A system N of charges  stationed at  produces an electric field whose magnitude and direction is, by superposition

Atomic forces

Coulomb's law holds even within atoms, correctly describing the force between the positively charged atomic nucleus and each of the negatively charged electrons. This simple law also correctly accounts for the forces that bind atoms together to form molecules and for the forces that bind atoms and molecules together to form solids and liquids. Generally, as the distance between ions increases, the force of attraction, and binding energy, approach zero and ionic bonding is less favorable. As the magnitude of opposing charges increases, energy increases and ionic bonding is more favorable.

Relation to Gauss's law

Deriving Gauss's law from Coulomb's law
Gauss's law can be derived from Coulomb's law and the assumption that electric field obeys the superposition principle, which says that the resulting field is the vector sum of fields generated by each particle (or the integral, if the charges are distributed in a region of space).

Note that since Coulomb's law only applies to stationary charges, there is no reason to expect Gauss's law to hold for moving charges based on this derivation alone. In fact, Gauss's law does hold for moving charges, and in this respect Gauss's law is more general than Coulomb's law.

Deriving Coulomb's law from Gauss's law
Strictly speaking, Coulomb's law cannot be derived from Gauss's law alone, since Gauss's law does not give any information regarding the curl of  (see Helmholtz decomposition and Faraday's law). However, Coulomb's law can be proven from Gauss's law if it is assumed, in addition, that the electric field from a point charge is spherically symmetric (this assumption, like Coulomb's law itself, is exactly true if the charge is stationary, and approximately true if the charge is in motion).

In relativity
Coulomb's law can be used to gain insight into the form of the magnetic field generated by moving charges since by special relativity, in certain cases the magnetic field can be shown to be a transformation of forces caused by the electric field. When no acceleration is involved in a particle's history, Coulomb's law can be assumed on any test particle in its own inertial frame, supported by symmetry arguments in solving Maxwell's equation, shown above. Coulomb's law can be expanded to moving test particles to be of the same form. This assumption is supported by Lorentz force law which, unlike Coulomb's law is not limited to stationary test charges. Considering the charge to be invariant of observer, the electric and magnetic fields of a uniformly moving point charge can hence be derived by the Lorentz transformation of the four force on the test charge in the charge's frame of reference given by Coulomb's law and attributing magnetic and electric fields by their definitions given by the form of Lorentz force. The fields hence found for uniformly moving point charges are given by:where  is the charge of the point source,  is the position vector from the point source to the point in space,  is the velocity vector of the charged particle,  is the ratio of speed of the charged particle divided by the speed of light and  is the angle between  and .

This form of solutions need not obey Newton's third law as is the case in the framework of special relativity (yet without violating relativistic-energy momentum conservation). Note that the expression for electric field reduces to Coulomb's law for non-relativistic speeds of the point charge and that the magnetic field in non-relativistic limit (approximating ) can be applied to electric currents to get the Biot–Savart law. These solutions, when expressed in retarded time also correspond to the general solution of Maxwell's equations given by solutions of Liénard–Wiechert potential, due to the validity of Coulomb's law within its specific range of application. Also note that the spherical symmetry for gauss law on stationary charges is not valid for moving charges owing to the breaking of symmetry by the specification of direction of velocity in the problem. Agreement with Maxwell's equations can also be manually verified for the above two equations.

Coulomb potential

Quantum field theory

The Coulomb potential admits continuum states (with E > 0), describing electron-proton scattering, as well as discrete bound states, representing the hydrogen atom. It can also be derived within the non-relativistic limit between two charged particles, as follows:

Under Born approximation, in non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the scattering amplitude  is:

This is to be compared to the:

where we look at the (connected) S-matrix entry for two electrons scattering off each other, treating one with "fixed" momentum as the source of the potential, and the other scattering off that potential.

Using the Feynman rules to compute the S-matrix element, we obtain in the non-relativistic limit with

Comparing with the QM scattering, we have to discard the  as they arise due to differing normalizations of momentum eigenstate in QFT compared to QM and obtain:

where Fourier transforming both sides, solving the integral and taking  at the end will yield

as the Coulomb potential.

However, the equivalent results of the classical Born derivations for the Coulomb problem are thought to be strictly accidental.

The Coulomb potential, and its derivation, can be seen as a special case of the Yukawa potential, which is the case where the exchanged boson – the photon – has no rest mass.

Simple experiment to verify Coulomb's law

It is possible to verify Coulomb's law with a simple experiment. Consider two small spheres of mass  and same-sign charge , hanging from two ropes of negligible mass of length . The forces acting on each sphere are three: the weight , the rope tension  and the electric force . In the equilibrium state:

and

Dividing () by ():

Let  be the distance between the charged spheres; the repulsion force between them , assuming Coulomb's law is correct, is equal to

so:

If we now discharge one of the spheres, and we put it in contact with the charged sphere, each one of them acquires a charge . In the equilibrium state, the distance between the charges will be  and the repulsion force between them will be:

We know that  and:

Dividing () by (), we get:

Measuring the angles  and  and the distance between the charges  and  is sufficient to verify that the equality is true taking into account the experimental error. In practice, angles can be difficult to measure, so if the length of the ropes is sufficiently great, the angles will be small enough to make the following approximation:

Using this approximation, the relationship () becomes the much simpler expression:

In this way, the verification is limited to measuring the distance between the charges and checking that the division approximates the theoretical value.

See also

 Biot–Savart law
 Darwin Lagrangian
 Electromagnetic force
 Gauss's law
 Method of image charges
 Molecular modelling
 Newton's law of universal gravitation, which uses a similar structure, but for mass instead of charge
 Static forces and virtual-particle exchange
 Casimir effect

References

Related reading

External links

 Coulomb's Law on Project PHYSNET
 Electricity and the Atom—a chapter from an online textbook
 A maze game for teaching Coulomb's law—a game created by the Molecular Workbench software
 Electric Charges, Polarization, Electric Force, Coulomb's Law Walter Lewin, 8.02 Electricity and Magnetism, Spring 2002: Lecture 1 (video). MIT OpenCourseWare. License: Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike.

Electromagnetism
Electrostatics
Eponymous laws of physics
Force
Scientific laws

Coulomb's law


Lincoln green is the colour of dyed woollen cloth formerly originating in Lincoln, England, a major cloth town during the high Middle Ages. The dyers of Lincoln, known for colouring wool with woad (Isatis tinctoria) to give it a strong blue shade, created the eponymous Lincoln green by overdyeing this blue wool with yellow weld (Reseda luteola) or dyers' broom, Genista tinctoria. Other colours like "Coventry blue" and "Kendal green" were linked to the dyers of different English towns.

Lincoln green is often associated with Robin Hood and his Merry Men in Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire.

History
The first recorded use of Lincoln green as a colour name in English was in 1510.  By the late sixteenth century, Lincoln green was a thing of the past. Michael Drayton provided a sidenote in his Poly-Olbion (published 1612): "Lincoln anciently dyed the best green in England." Cloth of Lincoln green was more pleasing than undyed shepherd's gray cloth: "When they were clothed in Lyncolne grene they kest away their gray", according to A Lytell Geste of Robyn Hode, ca. 1510, and Lincoln green betokened an old-fashioned forester even in the fancy dress of Edmund Spenser's The Faery Queene:

Robin Hood's Garland, the popular ballad printed in eighteenth-century compilations, offers an unexpected picture of Robin as he presented himself at court:

The distinction was in the cost of scarlet, which was dyed with kermes, derived from the Kermes vermilio insect native to the Mediterranean. Lincoln scarlet, from its imported dyestuff, was more expensive than Lincoln green.

In 1198 the Sheriff of Lincoln bought ninety ells (about 112 yards) of scarlet cloth for £30 (6s 8d per ell); although the cloth was a finely finished fabric, its high price was almost certainly due mainly to the extremely costly dye-stuff, greyne (graine) from Kermes or scarlet grain.  In 1182 the Sheriff of Lincoln bought Scarlet at 6s 8d/ell, Green and Blanchet both at 3s/ell and Gray at approximately 1s 8d/ell. By 1216 three guilds controlling the cloth trade were established in Lincoln, the Weavers', Dyers', and Fullers' guilds.

Modern survivals
"Lincoln green" was revived in the years prior to the First World War, when it was adopted as the colour of the full-dress uniform of the Lincolnshire Yeomanry. This military version took the form of a distinctively light shade, which contrasted sharply with the sombre rifle green widely worn by other regiments of the British Army. Lincoln green was also worn as the facing colour on the scarlet tunics of the Sherwood Foresters Regiment from 1913.

The world renowned ice dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean, who both originate from Nottinghamshire in the East Midlands, wore "Lincoln green" during their free dance at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid.

In popular culture
In 'The Friar's Tale', part of The Canterbury Tales, Geoffrey Chaucer has the Corrupt Summoner meet a devil disguised as a Yeoman dressed in Lincoln green

Sir Walter Scott in his 1820 novel Ivanhoe mentioned Lincoln green three times: in Chapter 7 ("One of these, a stout well-set yeoman, arrayed in Lincoln green, having twelve arrows stuck in his belt...."), Chapter 15 ("...[I]f thou losest [the prize] thou shalt be stript of thy Lincoln green...."), and Chapter 23 (...[O]ne hundred yards of Lincoln green to make doublets to thy men....").

Charles Dickens, in his 1838 novel Nicholas Nickleby, mentions Lincoln green in Chapter Six's tale within a tale concerning the Baron of Grogzwig: "Well, but the Baron Von Koeldwethout of Grogzwig! He was a fine swarthy fellow, with dark hair and large moustachios, who rode a-hunting in clothes of Lincoln green, with russet boots on his feet, and a bugle slung over his shoulder like the guard of a long stage. When he blew this bugle, four-and-twenty other gentlemen of inferior rank, in Lincoln green a little coarser, and russet boots with a little thicker soles, turned out directly: and away galloped the whole train, with spears in their hands like lacquered area railings, to hunt down the boars, or perhaps encounter a bear: in which latter case the baron killed him first, and greased his whiskers with him afterwards."

William Makepeace Thackeray in his 1848 novel Vanity Fair mentioned Lincoln green in Chapter III: "What causes them to labour at piano-forte sonatas, and to learn four songs from a fashionable master at a guinea a lesson, and to play the harp if they have handsome arms and neat elbows, and to wear Lincoln Green toxopholite hats and feathers, but that they may bring down some "desirable" young man with those killing bows and arrows of theirs?"

The colour appears used in the dystopian novel Shades of Grey 1: The Road to High Saffron by Jasper Fforde, in which shades of green—and Lincoln green in particular—have narcotic effects.

In Chapter One of the 1938 novel The Fashion in Shrouds by Margery Allingham, in setting the scene for the "Whodunnit", the fortunes of a fashion house are revived "from the day that the Valentine cape in Lincoln-green face-cloth flickered across the salon and won the hearts of twenty-five professional buyers and subsequently five hundred private purchasers…".

See also
 Lists of colours

Notes

Shades of green
Plant dyes
Robin Hood
History of Lincolnshire
Lincoln, England

Lincoln green