In organic chemistry, an auxochrome () is a group of atoms attached to a chromophore which modifies the ability of that chromophore to absorb light. They themselves fail to produce the colour, but instead intensify the colour of the chromogen when present along with the chromophores in an organic compound. Examples include the hydroxyl (), amino (), aldehyde (), and methyl mercaptan groups ().

An auxochrome is a functional group of atoms with one or more lone pairs of electrons when attached to a chromophore, alters both the wavelength and intensity of absorption. If these groups are in direct conjugation with the pi-system of the chromophore, they may increase the wavelength at which the light is absorbed and as a result intensify the absorption. A feature of these auxochromes is the presence of at least one lone pair of electrons which can be viewed as extending the conjugated system by resonance.

Effects on chromophore

It increases the color of any organic compound. For example, benzene does not display color as it does not have a chromophore; but nitrobenzene is pale yellow color because of the presence of a nitro group (−NO2) which acts as a chromophore. But p-hydroxynitrobenzene exhibits a deep yellow color, in which the −OH group acts as an auxochrome. Here the auxochrome (−OH) is conjugated with the chromophore −NO2. Similar behavior is seen in azobenzene which has a red color, but p-hydroxyazobenzene is dark red in color.

The presence of an auxochrome in the chromogen molecule is essential to make a dye. However, if an auxochrome is present in the meta position to the chromophore, it does not affect the color.

An auxochrome is known as a compound that produces a bathochromic shift, also known as red shift because it increases the wavelength of absorption, therefore moving closer to infrared light. Woodward−Fieser rules estimate the shift in wavelength of maximum absorption for several auxochromes attached to a conjugated system in an organic molecule.

An auxochrome helps a dye to bind to the object that is to be colored.  Electrolytic dissociation of the auxochrome group helps in binding and it is due to this reason a basic substance takes an acidic dye.

Explanation for the colour modification
A molecule exhibits colour because it absorbs colours only of certain frequencies and reflects or transmits others. They are capable of absorbing and emitting light of various frequencies. Light waves with frequency very close to their natural frequency are absorbed readily. This phenomenon, known as resonance, means that the molecule can absorb radiation of a particular frequency which is the same as the frequency of electron movement within the molecule. The chromophore is the part of the molecule where the energy difference between two different molecular orbitals falls within the range of the visible spectrum and hence absorbs some particular colours from visible light. Hence the molecule appears coloured. When auxochromes are attached to the molecule, the natural frequency of the chromophore gets changed and thus the colour gets modified. Different auxochromes produce different effects in the chromophore which in turn causes absorption of light from other parts of the spectrum. Normally, auxochromes which intensify the colour are chosen.

Classification

There are mainly two types of auxochromes:

 Acidic: −COOH, −OH, −SO3H
 Basic: −NH2, −NHR, −NR2

References

Chemical compounds
Color
Chemical reactions

Auxochrome


Pyramids is a fantasy novel by British writer Terry Pratchett, published in 1989, the seventh book in his Discworld series. It won the BSFA Award for Best Novel in 1989.

Plot summary
The main character of Pyramids is Teppic (short for Pteppicymon XXVIII), the crown prince of the tiny kingdom of Djelibeybi (a pun on the candy Jelly Baby, meaning "Child of the Djel"), the Discworld counterpart to Ancient Egypt. The kingdom, founded seven-thousand years ago and formerly a great empire which dominated the continent of Klatch, has been in debt and recession for generations due to the construction of pyramids for the burial of its pharaohs and now occupies an area two miles wide along the 150-mile-long River Djel.

Young Teppic has been in training at the Assassins Guild in Ankh-Morpork for the past seven years, having been sent to bring in revenue for the kingdom. The day after passing his final exam by chance, he mystically senses that his father has died and that he must return home. Being the first Djelibeybian king raised outside the kingdom leads to some interesting problems, as Dios, the high priest, is a stickler for tradition, and does not actually allow the pharaohs to rule the country.

After numerous adventures and misunderstandings, Teppic (now Pteppicymon XXVIII) is forced to escape from the palace with a handmaiden named Ptraci, who was condemned to death for not wishing to die and serve the last king in the afterlife (despite Teppic wishing to pardon her). However, during the attempt, Dios discovers them and decrees that Teppic has killed the King (as the King is only recognised whilst wearing the Mask of the Sun and Dios reasons that Teppic's actions to save Ptraci would not be those of the King) and should be put to death. Meanwhile, the massive pyramid being built for Teppic's father (or, rather, in reaction to Dios's rejection of the old pharaoh's wish not to be buried in a pyramid) warps space-time so much that it "rotates" Djelibeybi out of alignment with the space/time of the rest of the Disc by ninety degrees.

Teppic and Ptraci travel to Ephebe to consult with the philosophers there as to how to get back inside the Kingdom. Meanwhile, pandemonium takes hold in Djelibeybi, as the kingdom's multifarious gods (many of whom occupy the same roles, such as Supreme God or God of the Sun) descend upon the populace, and all of Djelibeybi's dead rulers come back to life. Also, the nations of Ephebe and Tsort prepare for war with one another, as Djelibeybi can no longer act as a buffer zone between the two.

Eventually, Teppic re-enters the Kingdom and attempts to destroy the Great Pyramid, with the help of all of his newly resurrected ancestors. They are confronted by Dios, who, it turns out, is as old as the kingdom itself, and has advised every pharaoh throughout its history. Dios hates change and thinks Djelibeybi should stay the same. Teppic succeeds in destroying the Pyramid, returning Djelibeybi to the real world and sending Dios back through time (where he meets the original founder of the Kingdom, thereby restarting the cycle). Teppic then abdicates, allowing Ptraci (who turns out to be his half-sister) to rule. Ptraci immediately institutes much-needed changes, Teppic decides to travel the Disc, and Death comes to ferry the former rulers of Djelibeybi to the afterlife.

Characters
Teppic (short for Pteppicymon XXVIII), who left the kingdom to train at the Assassin's Guild of Ankh-Morpork as a boy, thus regarding himself more as Morporkian than Djelibeybian
Dios, the High Priest of Djelibeybi and chief minister
Pteppicymon XXVII, the late king of Djelibeybi and Teppic's father
Chidder, one of Teppic's classmates
Arthur Ludorum, one of Teppic's classmates and the son of Johan Ludorum, a famous assassin
Cheesewright, one of Teppic's classmates
Ptraci, a handmaiden of the late king and Teppic's half-sister
Dil and Gurn, master and apprentice embalmers tasked with mummifying Pteppicymon XXVII
Ptaclusp I, Ptaclusp IIa and Ptaclusp IIb, the pyramid-building dynasty tasked with the construction of the Great Pyramid

Major themes
The novel portrays a "time polder", a bubble which comprises a particular slice of history and a particular bit of geography. In this "polder", history repeats itself through Dios, and critic Stefan Ekman argues that a central theme of the novel is the struggle breaking free from the "polder", of leaving one's background behind.

References

External links

 Annotations for Pyramids
 Quotes from Pyramids
 Synopsis of Pyramids
 Pyramids at Worlds Without End

1989 British novels
Discworld books
1989 fantasy novels
Victor Gollancz Ltd books
Ancient Egypt in fiction
British comedy novels

Pyramids (novel)


Edmund Doubleday (died December 1620) was an English vintner, lawyer, office-holder and politician who sat in the House of Commons in 1614. He was jointly responsible for the capture of Guy Fawkes in the Gunpowder Plot.

Doubleday was acting as a scrivener and public notary by 1587 and then studied law at Middle Temple. He was active at the parish of St Margaret's, Westminster where he signed parish accounts from 1590. He was overseer of the poor in 1590. By the 1590s he had acquired leases of several properties from Westminster Abbey and marriages to wealthy widows brought him various property in Westminster which included the  Saracens Head on King Street.  In 1591 he was assigned half the lease of Ebury Manor by Thomas Knyvet with whom he was subsequently involved in various activities. From 1592 to 1595 he was High Constable of Westminster. Doubleday was built for law enforcement, being described in Anglorum Speculumas as  "a man of great stature, valour, gravity and activity".  He was given a position in the mint office in 1601. In 1604 Doubleday and Andrew Bright were granted the offices of distilling herbs and sweet waters at the palace of Whitehall and keeping the library there.

On 5 November 1605 Doubleday assisted  Knyvet in a search of the undercroft of the Palace of Westminster where they discovered Guy Fawkes. Fawkes gripped Doubleday "very violently"   by the fingers of the left hand. Doubleday in reaction was about to stab Fawkes but thought better of it. Instead he up-heeled Fawkes, searched him and tied him up with garters found in Fawkes pockets.

Doubleday went to Scotland as a royal commissioner to investigate the controversial new silver mine at Hilderston in January 1608. In 1609 Doubleday and Knyvett were given grant of "keeping plate and money in the tower and the coinage of money there and elsewhere for life"  In 1611 they were given the joint title of Warden of the Mint. Meanwhile, he had joined the Worshipful Company of Vintners in 1610 of which he became one of the wealthiest members.

Doubleday was involved in further law enforcement on Christmas Day 1611 at the chapel in Whitehall when King James and his family were at prayer. One John Selman went into the chapel and Doubleday spotted him as suspicious and kept a watch on him. Doubleday saw Selman picking the pocket of Leonard Barry and they gave chase. Once Selman was caught, Doubleday gripped him by both hands and Barry retrieved his purse. Selman was hanged in January.

In 1614, Doubleday was elected Member of Parliament for Westminster. He was master of the Vintners Company from 1616 to 1617.  In December 1620 he was re-elected MP for Westminster, but died two days after the election. He asked to be buried near the vestry in St Margaret's Church.

References

Year of birth missing
1620 deaths
English MPs 1614
Gunpowder Plot

Edmund Doubleday


The Privacy Sandbox is an initiative led by Google to create web standards for websites to access user information without compromising privacy. Its core purpose is to facilitate online advertising by sharing a subset of user private information without the use of third-party cookies. The initiative includes a number of proposals, many of these proposals have bird-themed names which are changed once the corresponding feature reaches general availability. The technology include Topics API (formerly Federated Learning of Cohorts or FLoC), Protected Audience, Attribution Reporting, Private Aggregation, Shared Storage and Fenced Frames as well as other proposed technologies. The project was announced in August 2019.

The initiative has been described as anti-competitive and has generated an antitrust response.

Privacy Sandbox will also be available on Android.

On September 7, 2023, Google announced general availability of Privacy Sandbox APIs, naming explicitly Topics, Protected Audience, Attribution Reporting, Private Aggregation, Shared Storage and Fenced Frames, meaning these features were enabled for more than half of Google Chrome users.

Model
Proposals in the Privacy Sandbox follow the idea of k-anonymity and are based on advertising to groups of people called cohorts instead of tracking individuals. They generally place the web browser in control of the user's privacy, moving some of the data collection and processing that facilitates advertising onto the user's device itself. There are three focuses within the Privacy Sandbox initiative: replacing the functionality of cross-site tracking, removing third-party cookies, and mitigating the risk of device fingerprinting.

Delivered technologies

Topics API
Topics API aims to provide the means for advertisers to show relevant content and ads by sharing interest-based categories, or 'topics', based on recent browsing history processed on the user device. Google Chrome, the only mainstream browser supporting Topics API as of September 2023, allows users to disable sharing of the interests via Topics API in browser's Settings.

Fenced Frames API
Fenced frames are an embedded frame type that is not permitted to communicate with a given host page, making it safe to access its unpartitioned storage as joining its identifier with the top site is impossible. FLEDGE-based will only be allowed to be displayed within Fenced Frames, although for the purpose of current testing it is still permissible.

Attribution Reporting API
The Attribution Reporting API facilitates conversion tracking, for example recording whenever an click on an ad or a view results in a purchase, while suppressing the ability to track users across multiple websites.

Protected Audience API
FLEDGE, which stands for "First Locally-Executed Decision over Groups Experiment", is a proposal that enables the targeting of interested audiences, including through retargeting. It allows vendors selected for advertising to take an advertiser's website data and to place users in interest groups specifically defined for a given advertiser, meaning that users can see tailored ads, with no infringement on their privacy. On August 17, 2023, Google renamed FLEDGE as Protected Audience API since the API reached global availability.

Shared Storage API
Shared Storage API addresses a need for browsers, for legitimate cases, to store information in different, multiple, unpartitioned forms, rather than separately as the prevention of cross-site tracking generally dictates. Despite being unpartitioned, Shared Storage API ensures data can only be read in a secure environment.

Private Aggregation
Private Aggregation API tracks some aggregated statistics across ad campaigns.

Proposals

In January 2020, Google invited advertising technology companies to join the Improving Web Advertising Business Group (IWABG) of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) as a way to participate in the proposal process for the Privacy Sandbox. The IWABG is chaired by Wendy Seltzer. The W3C is a consensus-building organization and would not prevent Google from deploying technology without consensus.

Each proposal within the Privacy Sandbox initiative would perform one of the functions of targeted advertising that is currently done through cookies.

Federated Learning of Cohorts (FLoC)/Topics API

The Federated Learning of Cohorts algorithm analyzes users' online activity within the browser, and generates a "cohort ID" using the SimHash algorithm to group a given user with other users who access similar content. Unlike other Privacy Sandbox proposals which replace existing functions of cookies, FLoC proposes a new mechanism for targeted advertising. The FLoC proposal has been criticized by privacy advocates, data ethics researchers, and others. All major browsers based on Chromium pledged to remove FLoC. Google ended development of FLoC and proposed Topics API as a replacement. Topics API, which transfers information about user interests from one site to another, has been criticized by web publishers for enabling user tracking often at the detriment to publishers with unique content.

Proposals for serving advertisements

TURTLEDOVE
TURTLEDOVE, which stands for "Two Uncorrelated Requests, Then Locally-Executed Decision On Victory", is a framework proposed by Google to serve ads through the browser.

Private state tokens

Private state tokens will be able to be issued by websites to verify those browsers whose behavior denotes a real person rather than a bot or malicious attacker. Private state tokens are encrypted, so that an individual's identity is protected.

First-party sets

First-party sets will allow domains that belong to the same entity, that have related sites with different domain names, to declare themselves, and be recognized, as a "first-party set". The exchange of information outside of a first-party set, is restricted to safeguard the privacy of users.

CHIPS

CHIPS (Cookies Having Independent Partitioned State) take into account that certain embedded services need to know a given user's activity on a site to function. CHIPS are partitioned cookies that will inform browsers that the necessary cookie is allowed to function only between a particular site and an embedded widget.

Storage Partitioning

Storage Partitioning will isolate certain web platform APIs that are used for storage or communication when used by an embedded service on a given site.This will enhance web privacy while still allowing web compatibility with existing sites.

Network State Partitioning

Network State Partitioning will partition a browser's network resources to prevent these resources from being shared across first-party contexts. It requires each request to have an additional "network partition key" for resources to be reused and safeguards user privacy by disallowing access to shared resources and metadata learned from loading other sites.

Federated Credential Management

Federated Credential Management is an API that will provide the primitives needed to support federated identity designs that previously depended on third-party cookies.

Same-site cookie label

Same-site cookie labels are required by Chrome and other browsers to define if a cookie is used in first- or third-party context. This protects cookies from cross-site injection and data disclosure attacks.

Client Hints API

Client Hints API allows sites to request required information directly rather than via a User-Agent String, a significant surface vulnerable to passive fingerprinting, therefore reducing details that can be shared about a user online.

User-Agent Reduction

User Agent reduction minimizes the information in a User-Agent String thereby reducing its vulnerability to passive fingerprinting.

HTTP Cache Partitioning

HTTP Cache Partitioning, to add additional security,  assigns cached resources with a 'Network Isolation Key' along with the resource URL, composed of the top-level site and current-frame site.

DNS-over-HTTPS

The DNS-over-HTTPS protocol prevents attackers from observing the sites a user visits by  encrypting Domain Name System (DNS) queries.

IP Protection

IP Protection is a proposal that will hide a user's IP address from third parties.

Privacy Budget

Privacy Budget aims to limit fingerprinting by restricting the identifying information that a site is allowed to access.

Privacy Sandbox for Android

For Android, Privacy Sandbox will use technology that operates without cross-app identifiers, such as  Android/Google Advertising ID. SDK (Software Development Kit) Runtime will limit covert tracking and the collection of user data by way of a process for third-party code, e.g. used for advertising, that runs separately from a given app's code.

For the measurement of digital ads, the Attribution Reporting API is intended to supersede current measurement methods with solutions not reliant on user-level tracking mechanisms.

In order to continue to show relevant ads and content on Android, Topics will present categories that are based on the use of apps on a user's device and are selected only through a given device's settings. To further supplement privacy on Android, FLEDGE will use "custom audiences" that are built by app developers based on interactions with their app, information that will be stored locally so that no individual identifiers are shared with external parties.

Testing

On March 31, 2022, Google announced the start of a single origin trial, for the Topics, FLEDGE and Attribution Reporting APIs. It allows sites to run unified experiments across the APIs.

In October 2022 RTB House published its findings of actively testing FLEDGE by adding users to interest groups. Google and Criteo, also ran tests. The report highlighted that, while positive, the FLEDGE origin trials were limited in scope. It noted that a number of essential features of FLEDGE, specifically k-anonymity requirements, were not available for testing, and will require adjustments after industry feedback.

The scale of tests is increasing. Google Chrome aims to dedicate H1 of 2023 to developer testing, and make FLEDGE available for the entirety of Chrome users in H2 of 2023.

In November 2022 the Competition and Markets Authority released a report on Google's quantitative testing of its Sandbox technologies that highlighted the importance of the industry adopting a common testing framework so that performance tests can be conducted more widely across multiple testing entities. Google is developing such a framework in cooperation with the CMA and is seeking to drive engagement with market participants on the design of testing between now and at least the beginning of General Availability in Q3 2023.

Antitrust concerns
In January 2021, the Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) in the United Kingdom announced plans to investigate the Privacy Sandbox initiative, with a focus on its potential impacts on both publishers and users. In a statement, CMA chief executive Andrea Coscelli said that "Google's Privacy Sandbox proposals will potentially have a very significant impact on publishers like newspapers and the digital advertising market," and that there were also "privacy concerns to consider."

CMA accepted legally binding commitments offered by Google concerning its proposals to remove third party cookies (TPCs) on Chrome and develop the Privacy Sandbox. The formal acceptance of these commitments by the CMA resulted in the closure of the investigation, with no decision on whether the Competition Act 1998 was infringed. CMA reported that Google was complying with its legally-binding commitments between July 2022 and September 2022.

In March 2021, 15 attorneys general of U.S. states and Puerto Rico amended an antitrust complaint filed the previous December; the updated complaint says that Google Chrome's phase-out of third-party cookies in 2022 will "disable the primary cookie-tracking technology almost all non-Google publishers currently use to track users and target ads. Then [...] Chrome, will offer [...] new and alternative tracking mechanisms [...] dubbed Privacy Sandbox. Overall, the changes are anticompetitive". The lawsuit suggests that the proposed changes in the Privacy Sandbox would effectively require advertisers to use Google as a middleman in order to advertise.

See also
 Web Environment Integrity

References

External links

Google
Web standards

Privacy Sandbox


The Dances of Tripura refer to several forms of folk dance performed in the state of Tripura in northeastern India. These dances are performed by the Tripuri (the largest regional ethnic group) and Mog (or Marma) peoples, during annual regional celebrations, such as sowing and harvesting festivals.

The dancers
The Tripuris comprise over half the tribal population of Tripura. They live in the hills of Tripura and are jhum cultivators. Their dances and festivals revolve around the agricultural seasons. Other large local groups, such as the Marmas , Halams, and Reangs share in and conduct their versions of these dance festivals as well.

Types of dances

Goria/Garia
The Tripuris practice jhum, or shifting cultivation and the Goria Puja festival marks the commencement of their sowing season. Garia is commemorated through the Garia dance that accompanies the prayers and pujas for a bountiful harvest and is held in April. The Goria or Garia dance is performed at the time of the sowing of the crops during the festival, in the month of April, and includes people from other ethnic groups in addition to the Tripuri themselves. The dance is accompanied by drums and flutes, and consists of both sexes dancing from village to village in a gradually increasing tempo through various mudra which mimic the movements of different aspects of nature.

Hai-hak
Hai-hak dance is a dance which is specific to the Halam community within the Tripuri. It is performed to honor the goddess Lakshmi after the annual harvest, and is typically done at her place of worship.

Hojagiri

Hojagiri is a folk dance performed by young women of the Bru Reang clanclan (Reang clan). It comprises four to six members in a team singing and balancing various objects or props on their head and hands, (such as a bottle or an earthen pitcher on the head; and lamps on the hands) while only moving the lower half of the body.

Jhum
The Jhum dance is a dance which is typically performed by girls and boys.

Lebang Boomani
Both men and women participate at harvest time in the Lebang Boomani dance. The men use bamboo clappers called tokkas to set a beat while the women join them waving colorful scarves to catch the lebang (colorful insects of the region). The rhythmic play of the clappers is thought to attract the lebang out of their hiding places allowing the women to catch them. The dance is accompanied by musical instruments like the flute, khamb, the percussion instrument known as a pung, and the sarinda. Women adorn themselves with silver chains, rings, and bangles; and a;so ear and nose rings made of bronze.

Lebangs
Following Garia, there is a lull in agricultural activity as the Tripuris await the monsoon. During this time, hordes of colorful insects called lebangs descend on the hill slopes in search of the freshly sown seeds. The dancers depict how bamboo clappers are used to catch them. The Tripuris believe that the number of lebangs caught indicate how good the harvest will be.

Mamita
Mamita dance is performed at the Mamita Festival, the harvest festival of the Tripuri people.

Mosak sumani
The Mosak sulmani dance is a traditional Indian dance. It originated in Tripura as a hunting ritual. It mimics the act of hunting through elaborate gestures.

Owa dance
The dance is one of the traditional dances of the Marma clans of Tripura, who will also perform the Sangrai dance. The Marmas, also known as Mogs, are Buddhists; and the Owa -Cho -labre is one of their main Buddhist festivals. The Mogs celebrate the Owa festival on the full moon day of Ashwin in the Bengali calendar. They attend the Buddhist temple, and laterwards launch paper boats or toy boats in the river.

Sangrai
The Sangrai dance is a traditional Indian dance performed by the Marma community on the occasion of the Sangrai festival during the month of April (Chaitra in the Bengali calendar year). The Marmas are one of the 19 tribes in Tripura. This dance originated in Tripura. On 26 January 2018, on India's Republic day, Rajpath witnessed for the first time a traditional dance of the Mog tribe of Tripura, the land of plentiful myths and legends.

References

External links
 Lebang Boomani dance on YouTube

Dances of Tripura


Alex S. Jones (born November 19, 1946) is an American journalist who was director of the Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy at Harvard's John F. Kennedy School of Government from July 1, 2000 until June 2015. He won a Pulitzer Prize for journalism in 1987.

Early years and career
Jones covered the newspaper industry for The New York Times from 1983 until 1992. His prize-winning story "The Fall of the House of Bingham" concerned events that ended in 1986 with the sale of Louisville, Kentucky media—two newspapers and three broadcast stations—after 15 years of management by Barry Bingham, Jr. The following year Jones won the annual Pulitzer Prize for Specialized Reporting (predecessor of the Pulitzer Prize for Beat Reporting), recognizing that work as "a skillful and sensitive report of a powerful newspaper family's bickering and how it led to the sale of a famed media empire."

He and his wife Susan E. Tifft (1951–2010) wrote long books about two newspaper dynasties, beginning with the Binghams in 1991 and focusing on Barry Bingham, Sr., The Patriarch: The Rise and Fall of the Bingham Dynasty (Summit Books, 574pp). A review in the Los Angeles Times called it "the best kind of family history—one so packed with archival fact and telling anecdote that a reader can be excused for believing that at times he or she understands the Binghams far better than they seem to have understood themselves." Jones and Tifft followed The Dynasty with a 1999 book about the history of Adolph S. Ochs and his descendants, The Trust: The Private and Powerful Family Behind the New York Times (Little, Brown, 870pp). The book was a finalist for the National Book Critics Circle Award and selected by Time magazine as one of the five best nonfiction books of that year.

Jones's third book, Losing the News: The Future of the News That Feeds Democracy (Oxford, 2009, 234pp) explored the changing U.S. media landscape and its implications for American democracy. Writing for the Nieman Reports, Jones asserted that despite market pressures, "authentic journalistic objectivity" must remain at the center of the future of news reporting. Writing for The New York Times, Sir Harold Evans, former editor of the Sunday Times of London, called Jones a "bringer of light in the encircling gloom."

From 1995 until 1997 Jones was host of NPR's On the Media, and from 1996 until 2003 he was executive editor and host of PBS's Media Matters. Jones was a Nieman Fellow in 1982, and currently sits on the organization's advisory board. He also sits on the boards of the International Center for Journalists, the Sigma Delta Chi Foundation  and other journalism-related boards.

He and his late wife were named Honorary Doctors of Humane Letters by Washington and Lee University, his alma mater. In 2011, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and in 2014 inducted into the Tennessee Journalism Hall of Fame.

Personal life

Jones' family owned The Greeneville Sun in Greeneville, Tennessee until selling that and the family's other media properties in 2016. The newspaper was the flagship of the Jones Media Inc., a group of small-town dailies, weeklies and monthlies in Tennessee and North Carolina, and he served on the company's board.

In 1964 he graduated from Episcopal High School in Alexandria, Virginia, and serves on the school's Board of Trustees. He graduated from Washington and Lee University in 1968 and served aboard USS Kearsarge and USS Coral Sea as a naval officer.

In 1985 Jones was married to Susan Elizabeth Tifft, a Time magazine journalist from 1982 to 1991. In 1998 they became jointly Patterson Professor of the Practice of Journalism at the Duke University Sanford School of Public Policy. She was diagnosed with cancer in 2007 and died in her Cambridge, Massachusetts home on April 1, 2010. They had no children.

References

External links

American male journalists
Harvard Kennedy School faculty
Pulitzer Prize for Beat Reporting winners
The New York Times writers
Nieman Fellows
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Washington and Lee University alumni
The New York Times Pulitzer Prize winners
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
1946 births

Alex S. Jones


David John Watkin, FRIBA FSA (7 April 1941 – 30 August 2018) was a British architectural historian. He was an emeritus fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge, and professor emeritus of History of Architecture in the Department of History of Art at the University of Cambridge. He also taught at the Prince of Wales's Institute of Architecture.

Watkin's main research interest was neoclassical architecture, particularly from the 18th century to the present day, and he published widely on that topic. He also published on general topics including A History of Western Architecture (4th ed. 2005) and English Architecture: A Concise History (2nd ed. 2001), as well as more specialised monographs on architects. He was an honorary fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects. He was vice-chairman of the Georgian Group, and was a member of the Historic Buildings Council and its successor bodies in English Heritage from 1980 to 1995.

Biography
He was born in Salisbury, the son of Thomas Watkin, a director of a builders' merchants, and his wife Vera. He was brought up in Farnham, and educated at Farnham Grammar School.  He entered Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he was an exhibitioner, and in Part I of the Tripos read English.

Watkin then took a first in Part II of the Fine Arts Tripos. He went on to write a Ph.D. under Nikolaus Pevsner on Thomas Hope, which was published in 1968 as Thomas Hope and the Neo-Classical Idea, 1769–1831.

Watkin spent his career at Cambridge. He was Librarian of the Fine Arts Faculty from 1967 to 1972, University Lecturer in the History of Art between 1972 and 1993, and Reader in the History of Architecture between 1993 and 2001. He was head of the Department of History of Art from 1989 to 1992 and from 2006 to 2007.

From 1970 to 2008, he was a fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he belonged to a circle of right-wing intellectuals centred on the historian Maurice Cowling.

Views
In a lecture of 1968, Watkin began to develop a critique of modernism, in an attack on Pevsner, his research supervisor. His views came to wider attention with his book Morality and Architecture: The Development of a Theme in Architectural History and Theory from the Gothic Revival to the Modern Movement (1977); it was re-published in expanded form as Morality and Architecture Revisited (2001). A polemical work, it identified a context for Pevsner of French and British authors using deterministic arguments. Pevsner was defended in a review of Morality and Architecture by Reyner Banham, another pupil, who called it "offensive".

Relying on The Poverty of Historicism by Karl Popper, Watkin argued that use of the Zeitgeist concept in architectural history was fallacious. He traced back culprits to Augustus Pugin.

Among the contemporary architects Watkin championed were John Simpson and Quinlan Terry, as well as theorist Leon Krier. In his book on Terry, Radical Classicism: The Architecture of Quinlan Terry (2006) Watkin was forthright: "The modernism with which Quinlan Terry has had to battle is, like the Taliban, a puritanical religion."

Works
David Watkin, The Architecture of John Simpson: The Timeless Language of Classicism. Rizzoli, New York, 2016. .
David Watkin, The Practice of Classical Architecture: The Architecture of Quinlan and Francis Terry, 2005–2015. Rizzoli, New York, 2015. .
David Watkin, The Roman Forum, Profile Books, London, 2009.
David Watkin, Carl Laubin: The Poetry of Art And Architecture. Philip Wilson Publishers, London, 2007.
David Watkin, Radical Classicism: The Architecture of Quinlan Terry. Rizzoli, New York, 2006.
Christopher Hartop, Philippa Glanville, Diana Scarisbrick, Charles Truman, David Watkin, and Matthew Winterbottom, Royal Goldsmiths: The Art of Rundell & Bridge. John Adamson, Cambridge, 2006.
David Watkin, A History of Western Architecture, various editions and publishers, 1st edn 1986, 7th edn, revised by Owen Hopkins, 2023
David Watkin, The Architect King: George III and the Culture of the Enlightenment. Royal Collection, London. 2004.
David Watkin and Robin Middleton, Architecture of the Nineteenth Century. Phaidon Inc Ltd, London, 2003.
David Watkin, Morality and Architecture Revisited, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2001.
David Watkin, English Architecture: A Concise History, W. W. Norton and Co. Inc., New York, 2001.
David Watkin (Ed). Sir John Soane: The Royal Academy Lectures, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000.
David Watkin (Ed), Sir John Soane: Enlightenment Thought and the Royal Academy Lectures (Cambridge Studies in the History of Architecture) Cambridge University Press, 1996.
David Watkin, The Royal Interiors of Regency England. Rizzoli, New York, 1985.
David Watkin, Morality and Architecture: The Development of a Theme in Architectural History and Theory from the Gothic Revival to the Modern Movement. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, (1984/original 1977).
David Watkin, The English Vision. John Murray, London, 1982.
David Watkin, Athenian Stuart: Pioneer of the Greek Revival. Harper Collins, New York, 1982.
David Watkin, The Rise of Architectural History, Eastview Editions, London, Reprint edition, 1980.
David Watkin, English Architecture, 'The World of Art Library' series, Thames & Hudson, London, 1979.

References

1941 births
2018 deaths
Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge
English architectural historians
English architecture writers
Fellows of Peterhouse, Cambridge
Fellows of the Royal Institute of British Architects
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
People from Salisbury

David Watkin (architectural historian)


Point Reyes (, meaning "Point of the Kings") is a prominent cape and popular Northern California tourist destination on the Pacific coast. Located in Marin County, it is approximately  west-northwest of San Francisco. The term is often applied to the Point Reyes Peninsula, the region bounded by Tomales Bay on the northeast and Bolinas Lagoon on the southeast. The majority of the peninsula as well as the headlands are protected as part of Point Reyes National Seashore.

Overview
The cape protects Drakes Bay on its southern side. The headland is largely drained by Drakes Estero.  Drakes Bay and Drake's Estero are named after English seafarer Sir Francis Drake who possibly hauled his ship, the Golden Hinde, up onto the beach for repairs in June 1579. Inverness Ridge runs along the peninsula's northwest-southeast spine, with forested peaks around .  West of the ridge, the land flattens out and the vegetation turns to scrub.  The Mount Vision fire in 1995 burned part of Inverness Ridge, as well as the Woodward fire in 2020.

Point Reyes lends its name to the town of Point Reyes Station.

The point may once have been known as Lobes Lighthouse by the sailors of clipper ships on the meat trade. (Lobes are ridges of slide material commonly referred to in the literature from erosion events and the point is of that shape out to sea.)

History

The Coast Miwok
The contemporary inhabitants of the Point Reyes area at the time of European arrival were the Coast Miwok. They left evidence of well over a hundred encampments on the peninsula, with a population estimated to have been nearly 3,000. Seasonal hunters and gatherers, they were nourished by fish, clams, mussels, and crab, in addition to the deer, elk, bear, mud hen, geese, and small game they hunted with spears and bows. The Coast Miwok utilized a variety of different plants growing at Point Reyes. Acorns served as a staple, as they could be stored in dry granaries to provide sustenance when food was less plentiful.

Although the Coast Miwok periodically interacted with European explorers, they continued their habitation until late in the 18th century when the Spanish built Mission San Rafael and missionaries began journeying to Point Reyes to recruit them to move to the mission. While attempting to convert them, these missionaries  introduced diseases that brought many deaths, fewer births, and significantly increasing infant mortality rates.

In 1992, Coast Miwok descendants established the Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria, and in December 2000, legislation passed granting the tribe federal recognition. The tribe has almost 500 members, who engage in a revival of traditional customs and ceremonies, often held in Kule Loklo, "Valley of the Bear", a replica Miwok village in Point Reyes National Seashore.

Early Spanish exploration

On November 13, 1542, Spanish explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo sighted and named "Cabo de Pinos" (Point Reyes), but missed the entrance to San Francisco Bay, a lapse that mariners would repeat for the next two centuries and more, due to the fog that characterizes the area. The Spanish explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno named the land  ("Kings' Point") when his ship, the Capitana, anchored in Drakes Bay on the Day of the Three Kings (Epiphany, or the end of the 12 Days of Christmas) on January 6, 1603.

Sir Francis Drake

Although early explorers and Spanish trading galleons journeying between the Philippines and Acapulco passed by Point Reyes, some even anchoring briefly, it is the landing by Sir Francis Drake that dominates discussion of this era of Point Reyes early history. Some experts believe that he landed somewhere near the area on June 17, 1579, and proclaimed it Nova Albion (New England) during his circumnavigation. The National Historic Landmark designation has the landing as Drake's Cove at Point Reyes National Seashore. Drake's chaplain's observations about the areas inhabitants suggest the landing occurred near a Coast Miwok settlement. These notes describe the genial welcome Drake and his men received, complete with ceremony and gifts, as well as the landscape and wildlife, and included commentary about fog which frequently obscures the peninsula during the summer months.

The wreck of San Agustin

Rumors of Drake's discovery of a safe harbor on the California coast intrigued the Spanish. Their trade between the Philippines and Mexico was booming, and they were constantly seeking safe harbors along their route. Many believe that Drake's discovery of such a harbor inspired the Spanish to order Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeno, a Portuguese captain trading for Spain, to survey the California coast on his journey to Mexico from the Philippines in 1595. Commanding San Agustin, a Manila galleon laden with a luxury cargo of Chinese silks, spices, and Ming porcelain bound for Acapulco, Cermeno endured both the first of hundreds of documented shipwrecks at Point Reyes, as well as one of the most amazing journeys to safety. Among the crew were Filipino mariners.

Struggling with a decrepit, heavily laden ship and a tired crew, Cermeno explored the California coast, eventually anchoring near the Point Reyes inlet now called Drakes Estero. Within a few days, a November storm beached the ship where it listed and was relentlessly pounded by the furious surf. It soon broke apart, killing several men and dumping the precious cargo, some of which was eventually collected and used by the local Coast Miwok inhabitants.

Cermeno salvaged a small, open launch, likened to a large canoe, and loaded it with the 70 surviving crew members to begin the long journey home. After a grueling two-month voyage, remembered as a remarkable feat of seamanship, Cermeno and all crew arrived safely in Acapulco in January 1596. Despite his amazing journey, Cermeno received no celebratory welcome, for he had not only lost his ship and cargo, but had also failed to locate the safe harbor he was ordered to find.

Portolá's inland expedition and the establishment of missions
Despite reports of a lovely land populated by friendly tribes, Spain neglected California until the second half of the 18th century. By that time, trade had become an important source of income, and it was becoming clear that the nation controlling California's harbors would reap incredible profits. When England, France, and Russia began to covet California's coast, the King of Spain knew it was time to fortify it. To identify sites for presidios and missions, an overland expedition of 67 men and 100 pack mules left San Diego in 1769. Led by Gaspar de Portolá, the governor of Baja California, they began walking to the largest known harbor, Monterey Bay. Portolá expected more of a harbor than what they found at Monterey, and decided they must not have reached it yet. Pushing on north along the coast, they instead discovered San Francisco Bay. Prior to that, from a high point on the coast south of Pacifica, they saw and recognized (from the description of Manila Galleon pilot Cabrera Bueno) Point Reyes and the Farallon Islands. The expedition was blocked from going farther north toward Point Reyes by the Golden Gate and San Francisco Bay, since they had no boats.

Beginning with Portolá's expedition, Spain began establishing presidios and missions. By 1817, Mission San Rafael was established and padres began journeying to Point Reyes, intent on enticing the Coast Miwok to the mission. Although they were successful in convincing many to settle at the mission, it was soon clear that the Coast Miwoks were not thriving. Serious outbreaks of smallpox and pneumonia killed many. Those who survived sickened from a wide variety of other illnesses, such as colds and measles. Birth rates dropped, and mortality rates increased at an alarming rate. Since the missions depended upon healthy workers for their prosperity, these illnesses foretold their demise.

Mexico gained independence from Spain and possession of California in 1821.  Most mission land was subdivided and into large land grants used mainly for cattle ranching. Being mostly unsuitable for cattle, Point Reyes itself and Drake's Bay became part of Rancho Punta de los Reyes Sobrante (Sobrante means "leftover") in 1843. This was only a few years before cession of California to the United States, which led to decades of confusion and boundary battles.

Rancho Tomales y Baulines
When the Spanish missions in California were dismantled, virtually all of Point Reyes was given to Rafael Garcia, a corporal in the Mexican Army, who was awarded two leagues () in March 1836.  Named Rancho Tomales y Baulines, it is believed to have included the entire Olema Valley from Tomales Bay to Bolinas Lagoon, although its borders were never clearly defined. Garcia's failure to survey and confirm boundaries, as required by Mexican law,  set the stage for confusion and lengthy court battles when the rancho was dissolved.

Unlike many rancheros, Garcia obeyed the law by actually living there. He built a wood and thatch home near what is now the National Seashore's Bear Valley Headquarters and soon had a home for his family as well as a headquarters for his extensive ranching operation which consisted of approximately 3,000 cattle, 400 horses, and large herds of sheep and hogs.

When Mexico lost California to the United States, Garcia continued to prosper. Soon after the American takeover, the 1849 Gold Rush brought floods of prospectors. Where his wild cattle had been valued only for hides and tallow, he could now sell them to feed hungry gold-seekers, netting as much as $35 each. Unfortunately for Garcia, these gold-rich years ended quickly: in 1851, the United States passed a law requiring rancheros to prove legal ownership of their land grants. While the Garcias continued ranching, their land began to disappear until, after 15 years of litigation, multiple court appearances, and high legal fees, Garcia had sold all but  of his grant at bargain prices.

Confused boundaries
Although Garcia believed he owned virtually all of Point Reyes, another Point Reyes land grant was awarded the same year, 1836. It was given to an Irishman, James Berry, who had become a Mexican citizen and colonel in the army. This land grant was also in the Olema Valley, and, to add to the boundary confusion, he soon left the area and hired Garcia to oversee it. A mere two years later, Berry sold nearly  of it to a sea captain, Joseph Snook, an act clearly prohibited by Mexican law and grounds for forfeiture of the entire grant. Although Berry understandably wanted to keep the sale secret, Snook wanted legal title. He discovered that the only way he could obtain legal title of the land he had illegally purchased was to formally denounce Berry's ownership on the grounds that he had never occupied it. He was successful and gained legal title to the land he had illegally purchased, stocked it with 56 head of cattle, and, like Berry, hired Garcia to oversee it. Three months after he won legal title, he illegally sold it.

And so began a confusing series of sales and transfers that no one seemed to be able to untangle. Finally, in 1844, the rancheros themselves asked the Mexican government to investigate titles and clarify ownership. Little was clarified, and it was not until the United States took possession of California and required rancheros to conduct surveys and make court appearances to retain their land that the confusing pattern of sales and trades were untangled. Most rancheros were eventually able to prove ownership. Unfortunately, by this time, they had run out of cash and were forced to sell to pay the survey and daunting legal fees. Entrepreneurial Americans were delighted to capitalize on the opportunity. With cash in hand, they purchased these huge Mexican land grants, often paying less than $2 per acre, thus beginning Point Reyes's next chapter as a dairying empire.

The Shafter Family
Settlement patterns at Point Reyes were forever changed when the Shafters acquired it. Brothers Oscar Schafer and James Schafer established large-scale successful dairy operations. 13 of the 31 dairies they established still operate today.

Oscar was the first to arrive. A Vermont lawyer intent upon making his fortune and returning home as soon as possible, he left his family to journey to booming San Francisco. His separation from them became intolerable when his two youngest children died while he was away. Still not willing to give up the promise of wealth, he convinced his wife to come, bringing their surviving daughter. They thrived, and Oscar fathered four more California-born daughters. Oscar soon convinced his younger brother, James, also a lawyer, to join him. They became known as San Francisco's foremost authorities on title litigation. Using their title expertise, they began acquiring Point Reyes land. When Oscar's oldest daughter married Charles Webb Howard, also a lawyer, the trio partnered to transform windswept Point Reyes into prosperous dairies.

Determined to supply booming San Francisco with its butter, by 1857, the partners began fencing significant expanses of land (eventually resulting in 40 miles of fencing), building homes and barns, and stocking the dairies with the pure-bred bulls and rams, some costing over $1,400. By 1868, they had 3,500 cows on 17 dairies and were producing over 700,000 pounds of butter a year. All their dairies were operated by renters. When the most industrious of these renters tried to buy the dairy they worked, they failed. Many eventually left, establishing some of California's other major dairies.

Despite their boundless optimism about the promise of Point Reyes, they were plagued by financial worries. After they passed, their children tried to hold on to the dairies, trying unsuccessfully to stop their decline despite aging ranches, sickening herds, and often unhappy tenants. Finally, in 1937, an era ended when the last of the Shafter Empire was sold, ushering in a new parade of owners.

The towns of Point Reyes
Four towns can be found on Point Reyes: Bolinas, Olema, Inverness, and Point Reyes Station. During Spanish and Mexican War, Bolinas' remote lagoon was used by American, British, and Russian smugglers intent on avoiding tariffs and regulations. Later, when the Gold Rush of 1849 generated a huge market for lumber, Bolinas became the port for nearby timber operations and, briefly, quarrying limestone. By the late 1960s, Bolinas had become home to a large community of hippies, many of whom had left San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury for a less populated paradise. In 1971, they succeeded in scrapping a master plan calling for a population of 28,000 by imposing a moratorium on new homes and defeating efforts to widen its access highway. Instead, a plan was approved that made agriculture, fishing, and small business the town's economic base. Bolinas soon gained renown for its unusual structures and recreational drug use.

As soon as the Shafter dairies began to thrive, it became evident that Point Reyes needed a centrally located town for supplies, services, and entertainment. In 1857, a hotel and saloon were built and the young town was named "Olema", meaning "coyote" in the Coast Miwok dialect.  Within three years, it had emerged as the region's commercial center with a post office, grocery store, saloon, butcher, livery stable, and two hotels. By 1867, a wagon road from San Rafael was built and a stage coach arrived twice a week. Druids Hall was completed in 1885. While this Olema chapter of the United Ancient Order of Druids adhered to principles of mutual support, intellectual growth, and social consciousness, it also served as a temperance society.

The Shafters lobbied hard for a railroad to serve Point Reyes. When it was finally built, it bypassed Olema, terminating, instead, two miles away. When the first train arrived early in 1875, Point Reyes Station was a cow pasture. By 1880, it had a hotel, saloon, blacksmith shop, livery stable, butcher shop, and school. Its post office was completed in 1882, and its first store opened in 1883. When the railroad era ended, growth was slow. It was not until after World War II that a medical center and a shopping center, including a drugstore, dentist, coffee shop, and library, had been completed. The train station became the local post office, while the former engine house was converted into a community center. In the 1970s, hippies established cottage industries in abandoned houses and shops. At the same time, the Coast Guard bought 30 acres of land formerly used as cattle pens, and built military housing. Continuing as the region's supply and service center, it is a popular destination with  shops,  restaurants, and an annual music festival.

20th century

As developers and loggers submitted plans, a 1956 National Park Service (NPS) study of possible seashore parks recommended acquisition of the peninsula. By 1958, a report was published recommending immediate NPS acquisition of 35,000 acres. Controversy raged, with environmentalists applauding the proposal and the ranchers opposing it. A compromise was crafted which allowed the ranchers to lease their land and continue dairying while coexisting with tourists and park activities. On September 13, 1962, President John F. Kennedy signed the bill authorizing the acquisition of 53,000 acres and allocating $13 million. Eventually 18,000 acres purchased by the NPS were leased back to ranchers.

In cooperation with the NPS, volunteers have restored and maintain a historic coastal radiotelegraph marine station, KSM (ex-KPH), at Point Reyes.  It remains one of the few commercial Morse code stations operating in the world, and is the only one in the U.S.

During the Cold War, submarines repaired at Mare Island Naval Shipyard were tested in the shallow waters off Point Reyes following shipyard repairs. Navy safety personnel used a small monitoring and communications hut on the peninsula for monitoring submarines during these sea trials.

In April and May 1979, part of John Carpenter's The Fog was shot at the Point Reyes Lighthouse and the small town of Inverness.

As of 2015, Drakes Bay Oyster Company (DBOC) has ceased operations, and most infrastructure has been removed from the site. The closure comes as a result of their lease ending.

Ecology

Beginning in the 18th century, northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) were hunted extensively almost to extinction by the end of the 19th century. They were prized for oil that could be made from their blubber, and the population may have fallen as low as 20. In 1874 American whaleman Charles Melville Scammon recorded in Marine Mammals of the Northwestern Coast of America, that "the elephant seal...known to the Old Californians as Elefante marino had a geographical distribution from Cape Lazaro (about 1/4 of the way up the Baja peninsula) in the south to Point Reyes in the north". They were thought to be extinct in 1884 until a remnant population of eight individuals was discovered on Guadalupe Island in 1892 by a Smithsonian expedition, who promptly killed seven of the eight for their collections. The elephant seals managed to survive, and were finally protected by the Mexican government in 1922. Subsequently, the U.S. protection was strengthened after passage of the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, and numbers have now recovered to over 100,000. The first breeding pair was discovered on a sheltered beach below Point Reyes' Chimney Rock in 1981 and has multiplied at a remarkable 16% per year to the present population of 1,500 to 2,000 individuals each winter.

California's native tule elk (Cervus canadensis nannodes) were hunted until only a handful of animals remained in California's southern Central Valley. Joseph Warren Revere, the grandson of Revolutionary War patriot Paul Revere, wrote in his book Naval Duty in California that he counted 400 elk in a single herd on Pt. Reyes in the 1840's. Stephen J. Richardson, son of Marin County pioneer Captain William A. Richardson, wrote "I think the largest herd in the world roamed over the deep grasslands of Point Reyes...I fully believe there were a thousand elk in one herd." Although they had been completely extirpated from Point Reyes, in 1978, ten elk were reintroduced to Point Reyes from the San Luis National Wildlife Refuge near Los Banos. By 2009, the population climbed to over 440 elk at Tomales Point's 2,600 acres of coastal scrub and grasslands. In 1999, 100 elk from Tomales Point were moved to the Limantour wilderness area of the Seashore and above Drakes Beach to Ranch A, as that ranch's long-term lease expired and was not renewed. The drought in 2012–2015 was also a threat to the elk confined north of the fence on Tomales Point, with nearly half the elk there dying from lack of water. In 2012 there were 540 elk, then only 357 in 2013, and by 2014 only 286. In August and September 2020, drought and wildfires again threaten the Tomales Point elk, leading some conservationists to illegally bring water to the elk north of the fence. Half of the ten Point Reyes dairy cattle herds were infected with paratuberculosis (aka Johne's Disease) along with exotic deer in a 1977 study. Tule elk became infected within two years of their reintroduction to the peninsula with this disease, which was brought to North America with Eurasian cattle. Another nonnative, bacterial disease, brucellosis, can induce abortions in pregnant cattle, elk, and bison, and was also brought to North America by importation of Eurasian cattle. Pt. Reyes cattle have also infected the tule elk population.

Non-native axis deer and fallow deer (originally from India and Asia Minor, respectively) used to inhabit Point Reyes, where they competed with native black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus). A doctor bought the axis and fallow deer from the San Francisco Zoo in 1948 for his 5,000-acre hunting club, which later became part of the national seashore. In 2006, the park embarked on a plan to eradicate the non-native deer via contraception and culling, which succeeded despite controversy, over a twenty year program.

Vegetation native to Point Reyes includes bishop pine, Douglas-fir, coyote brush, monkeyflower, poison oak, California blackberry, salal and coast redwood, among others. Nearly 490 different species of birds have been observed in the park and on adjacent waters.

Geology

The entire Point Reyes Peninsula is a piece of the Salinian Block transported northward by the San Andreas Fault. Its core is granite, unlike the terrain east of Tomales Bay.  The granite rocks that form the peninsula were once continuous with the Tehachapi Mountains, which is located  south of here. In the 1906 earthquake, Point Reyes moved north .

Point Reyes is bounded to the east by the San Andreas Fault, which runs directly under Tomales Bay, and is structurally dominated by the Point Reyes Syncline. The Point Reyes Peninsula is on the Pacific Plate, while the rest of Marin County land is on the North American Plate. The peninsula is a member of the Salinian Block, a segment of the southernmost Sierra Nevada range transported north from Southern California by movement along the San Andreas fault. Simply speaking, the peninsula consists of three major members: the Salinian Cretaceous crystalline basement, the overlying Pliocene sedimentary rocks, and the late Pleistocene marine terrace deposits of the southern peninsula.

Climate
The U.S. Weather Bureau (now the National Weather Service) maintained a cooperative weather station in the Point Reyes lighthouse from 1914 to 1943, though temperatures were only tracked through 1926. Based on those records, average January temperatures ranged from  and average September temperatures ranged from . The highest temperature recorded was  on October 3, 1917, and the lowest temperature recorded was  on January 19, 1922. Annual precipitation averaged . The wettest year on record was 1941 with  and the driest year was 1923 was . The most precipitation in one month was  in December 1916. The maximum 24-hour precipitation was  on December 15, 1929.  Automated weather observations are now taken at the lighthouse.  Weather observations are also taken in nearby Point Reyes Station and published in local newspapers, including the San Francisco Chronicle.

Fog
It can get very foggy and windy during certain parts of the year at the lighthouse, and to be effective, the lighthouse had to be situated below the characteristic high fog. When foggy, visibility is so slim that one cannot even view the lighthouse from the top of the approximately 300 steps necessary to walk down to reach it.

The lighthouse serves a great purpose in such a foggy area, as there is no beach to wash up on; it is on a rocky cliff.  Day or night, the light may be the only thing visible to ships.

Recreation
The peninsula is a popular recreational destination for the nearby San Francisco Bay Area, especially for hiking on its many trails and sea kayaking the shores of Tomales Bay and the coast. There are close to  of trails, including the popular Bear Valley Trail, which starts from the Visitor Center. Point Reyes National Seashore offers some of the finest birdwatching in the United States. It is also one of the best places to watch northern elephant seals in the winter months. More than  of habitat harbor an incredible variety of bird life. There are also popular oyster farms on and near the peninsula.

References

External links

 Point Reyes National Seashore, National Park Service

Landforms of Marin County, California
Headlands of California
Landforms of the San Francisco Bay Area
Peninsulas of California
West Marin
Point Reyes National Seashore

Point Reyes


Brine shrimp are  small shrimp that live in salt water.  Brine shrimp are Artemia, a genus of aquatic crustacea which has changed little (externally) since the Triassic period. They can often be found in saltwater ponds and marshes, and cannot live very long in fresh water. Artemia avoid most types of predators, such as fish, because they live in waters of very high salinity: (25 parts per thousand). The optimum for Artemia is 100 to 150 parts per thousand. The shrimp grow to be about one centimeter long. Females tend to be larger than males.

Brine shrimp circulatory and respiratory systems work together to remove extra salt from their body and distribute oxygen. They breathe through gills on their feet. The oxygen taken in is carried through the bloodstream. The heart pumps the blood around the body. Brine shrimp have a protein called hemoglobin in their blood. This helps the oxygen to be more efficiently transported to cells around the body. They need hemoglobin because oxygen levels can be very low in salty water. Then, the gills pump the excess salt, water, and carbon dioxide out of the body. Additional salt is pumped out through exocrine glands.

The brine shrimp's body has a head, thorax, and abdomen. A hard exoskeleton covers the entire body. Inside this exoskeleton, which is made of chitin, is where the brine shrimp's muscles are located. Their muscles are attached internally. They move by beating their tails and by the continuous movement of the legs along their body.

Reproduction
Males differ from females by having the second antennae enlarged, and modified into clasping organs used in mating.

Adult female brine shrimp ovulate about every 140 hours. In favourable conditions, the female brine shrimp can produce eggs that almost immediately hatch. But in extreme conditions, such as low oxygen level or salinity above 150‰, female brine shrimp produce eggs inside cysts. They are metabolically inactive and can remain in total stasis for two years in dry oxygen-free conditions, even at temperatures below freezing. While in cysts, brine shrimp eggs survive temperatures of liquid air () and a small percentage survive above boiling temperature () for up to two hours.
Once placed in normal briny (salt) water, the eggs hatch within a few hours. The nauplius larvae are less than 0.4 mm in length when they first hatch. Brine shrimp have a biological life cycle of one year

References

Other websites
 "Brine Shrimp."  Great Salt Lake Ecosystem Program. State of Utah, n.d. 18 April 2012.
 Carolina Biological Supply Company

Branchiopods

Brine shrimp


Marmais (; died 924) was a Bulgarian military commander, nobleman and komita (duke) of a western Bulgarian region (Sredets or Macedonia) during the reign of Emperor Simeon I (893–927). He was a descendant of an ancient Bulgar family. He participated actively in the Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 913–927 but he is better known for his interference and campaigns against the Principality of Serbia.

In 917 the Serb prince Petar Gojniković, who was an ally of the Bulgarian Emperor openly changed sides and supported the Byzantines. This danger from the rear played a significant role for the delay of the advance towards Constantinople after the striking victory at Anchialus. In the fall of that year Simeon sent a punitive expedition force against the Serbs, led by Theodore Sigritsa and Marmais. They convinced Petar Gojniković to meet them, captured him and sent him to Preslav. They appointed Peter's cousin Pavle Branović the succeeding ruler of Serbia, but three years later Pavle also betrayed his alliance with Bulgaria. Marmais changed him with Zaharije Pribisavljević but he also started hostile actions against Bulgaria in 924. Marmais and Sigritsa lead a small army against Zaharije but they were ambushed and defeated, and their heads were later sent to the Byzantines.

The death of Marmais caused a major campaign against the Serbian principality which was defeated and annexed.

Honours
Marmais Point on Trinity Peninsula, Antarctica is named after him.

Sources

Божилов, Ив. Цар Симеон Велики, с. 126,142

Medieval Bulgarian nobility
9th-century births
924 deaths
9th-century Bulgarian people
10th-century Bulgarian people
Bulgarian people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars
People of the Bulgarian–Serbian Wars
Medieval Bulgarian military personnel
Bulgarian military personnel killed in action
10th century in Serbia

Marmais


The Mackinaw boat is a loose, non-standardized term for a light, open sailboat or rowboat used in the interior of North America during the fur trading era.  Within this term two different Mackinaw boats evolved: one for use on the upper Great Lakes, and the other for use on the upper Missouri River and its principal tributaries.

Ancestors
The common origin of all Mackinaw boats was the Native American canoe.  With its lightness, speed, cargo capacity, and double-ended flexibility, the canoe delighted fur traders of European origin.  However, the Indian canoe design was not stable with a mast and sail.  By contrast the Mackinaw boat, or generically "fish boat," held its own with superior sailing qualities in the more open water of the Great Lakes.  It could be used, being used for long line, bottom net, and pond-net fishing operations.

Development
The addition of a retractable centerboard made it possible to raise a small mast and sail over a canoe-shaped hull.  This breakthrough probably took place some time in the late 17th century or early 18th century at the Straits of Mackinac, hence the name, Mackinaw boat.

With the help of a sail and a favorable wind, a Mackinaw boat could cover an equivalent distance with much greater ease than by rowing with paddles.  The Mackinaw boat quickly became a favorite on the upper Great Lakes.  By the time of the dominance of the American Fur Company in 1815-1836, the Mackinaw boat was almost the commodity vessel in this region. The bateau was another common freight vessel design of the era, similar to the Mackinaw.

The fur company's men so liked the Mackinaw boat that when asked to build, paddle, and pole light cargo boats up the Missouri River to the company's new trading region in Dakota Territory and Montana Territory, they called the boats mackinaws, even though it was comparatively difficult to move a boat up the Missouri River by sail power.  The Missouri River mackinaw may have borne some similarities to the river pirogue developed by French colonists in Louisiana Territory and adapted by the Americans as early as the time of Lewis and Clark.

Mackinaws were seen on the Missouri River as far west as Fort Benton, Montana, the head of navigation.

Fishing boat
With the decline of the fur trade in the Upper Great Lakes in the late 1830s, the Mackinaw boats became traditional fishing boats. With its speed and cargo capacity, the boat was ideally suited for commercial fishing.  Prior to refrigeration, it was necessary to haul a catch of cleaned fish rapidly to a fishing station where the catch could be plunged into brine and preserved with salt.

A standard Mackinaw boat used in fishing was 18–24 feet (5.4-7.2m) long.  Like its canoe ancestor, the boat was flat-bottomed and could be hauled up onto a beach or pebbled shoreline.  The Mackinaw boat could be schooner-rigged, although there was no consistency on this point. The earliest incarnation of what has become The Burger Boat Company, then operating as "H. Burger Shipyard," began producing 20' to 30' versions of the Mackinaw boat out of Manitowoc, Wisconsin by the mid-1860's.

The Mackinaw boat was also used for light point-to-point transport and communication on Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, and, particularly, Lake Superior.  In this role, it served into the early 20th century.

The Mackinaw boat today
The Mackinaw boat hull's relative flexibility and efficient movement through the water became less important in the 20th century with the invention of the outboard motor and other powerboat innovations. Few new Mackinaw boats were built after the 1910s.  A gaff-rigged Mackinaw boat, the Edith Jane (built about 1909) is preserved inside a sealed shelter on the waterfront in St. Ignace, Michigan; it may be the final Mackinaw boat in existence that was built as a working vessel.  A few new Mackinaw boats began to be built after 1990 for explicit purposes of historical re-enactment and skills preservation.

External links
Park Service

References

Fishing ships of the United States
Fur trade
Sailboat types

Mackinaw boat


Dimension Records was a record label founded in 1962 in New York City by Don Kirshner and Al Nevins, owners of Aldon Music.  It concentrated on the girl group sound and showcased songs by Gerry Goffin and Carole King. Their composition "The Loco-Motion", sung by Little Eva, gave it its biggest hit.  Background vocals on that record were by the Cookies, who had their own hits on the label, including "Chains", which was later recorded by the Beatles. In the UK, Dimension was licensed to London Records.

When Aldon Music was sold to Columbia Pictures, Dimension Records was sold with it, whereupon another hit was Big Dee Irwin's "Swinging on a Star", featuring an uncredited Little Eva, on Colpix Records in the UK (1963).

The catalog was eventually acquired by Roulette Records, which was in turn acquired by Rhino Records which is now a unit of Warner Music Group.  Rhino controls the North American rights while Warner's Parlophone unit has the rights for the rest of the world.

See also
 List of record labels

References

External links
Dimension Album Discography

American record labels
Record labels established in 1962
Pop record labels

Dimension Records


John Alex "Eck" Rose (born June 1, 1940) is a former Kentucky politician, who served in the Kentucky State Senate from Winchester representing the 28th Senate District.  Rose was the last President Pro Tempore of the Kentucky Senate when the office was the Senate's highest after the Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky, before a 1992 constitutional amendment removed the Lieutenant Governor as the Senate's presiding officer and created the office of President of the Kentucky Senate.  In 1993 Rose became the first to hold that office, and he remained in that position until 1997.

Rose ran for Governor of Kentucky in 1995, finishing third in the five-way Democratic primary won by Paul E. Patton, who also won the general election that November.  Rose's ticket won 71,740 votes to Patton's 152,203 and Secretary of State Bob Babbage's 81,352.

Rose has four daughters.

References

Kentucky state senators
Living people
People from Winchester, Kentucky
Presidents of the Kentucky Senate
Politicians from Lexington, Kentucky
1940 births

John A. Rose


was an ancient Imperial capital of Japan during the 6th and 7th centuries. It was in Yamato Province, which is present-day Nara Prefecture.

Imperial Palaces

When Asuka was Japan's capital, new palaces were constructed for each new monarch.  Sometimes Imperial palaces were abandoned because of fires or bad omens.

According to tradition, Asuka was the site of Chikatsu-Asuka-Yatsuri Palace during the reign of Emperor Kenzo

Imperial capitals in Asuka in 593-640 were:
 Toyura Palace (Toyura-no-miya), 593–603
 Oharida Palace (Oharida-no-miya), 603–629
 Okamoto Palace (Oakmoto-no-miya), 630–636
 Tanaka Palace (Tanaka-no-miya), 636–639
 Umayasaka Palace (Umayasaka-no-miya), 640

In 640-642, the court briefly moved to Kōryō and the Kudara Palace (Kudara-no-miya); then the court returned to Asuka at the Itabuki Palace (Itabuki no miya), 643–645

In 645-654, the emperor and the government moved to an area within the current city limits of Osaka.  This was the Naniwa-Nagara no Toyosaki Palace (Naniwa-Nagara no Toyosaki-no-miya).

In Asuka, the Imperial capitals in 655-660 were:
 Itabuki Palace, 655–655
 Kawahara Palace (Kawahara-no-miya), 655–655
 Later Okamoto Palace (Nochi no Asuka-Okamoto-no-miya), 656–660

In 660-661, the court removed to Asakura in Fukuoka Prefecture at the Asakura no Tachibana no Hironiwa Palace (Asakure no Tachibana no Hironiwa-no-miya).

In 667-672, the emperor moved to the Ōmi Ōtsu Palace (Ōmi Ōtsu-no-miya) in Ōmi-kyō which is today called Ōtsu in Shiga Prefecture.

In Asuka, the Imperial capitals in 672-694 were:
 Shima Palace, 672
 Okamoto Palace, 672
 Kiyomihara Palace (Kiomihara-no-miya), 672–694

Asuka was abandoned when Empress Jitō moved the court and the capital to Fujiwara-kyō.

Related pages
 Capital of Japan

References

Former capitals of Japan

Asuka, Yamato


East Knapton is a village in the North Yorkshire, England. Until 1974 the village lay in the historic county boundaries of the East Riding of Yorkshire. From 1974 to 2023 it was a part of the Ryedale district.

Geography
It is just north of the A64 near the junction with the B1258. The York to Scarborough railway line is just north of the village and runs close to the power station. From 1845 until 1930, there was a railway station. The village is in the Rillington ward of Ryedale District Council which has a combined population of 1,734. On the other side of the A64 is Knapton Wood.

History
The village lies in the parish of West Heslerton which has the All Saints church. This is part of the Rillington group of churches.

Knapton Generating Station

This power station was opened in 1995 by Amy Glover, 8 years old. It has a 42 MWe General Electric LM6000 open cycle gas turbine with a thermal efficiency of 38%. The development was the subject of a public inquiry in 1992, formal consent was given by the Department of Trade and Industry and the Department of the Environment in March 1993. In August 2006, Scottish Power sold the power station to the RGS Energy Ltd, a subsidiary of UK Energy Systems Ltd (a holding company owned by US Energy Systems of Avon, Connecticut) for £15.5 million. The plant uses about 12,000 BTU per kWh of electricity, which is inefficient to more modern CCGT plants which use about 6,500 BTU per kWh of electricity.

Natural gas was discovered in Ryedale in 1970. The gas for the power station does not come from the National Transmission System but local gas fields found in Permian limestone and carboniferous sandstone at 5,000-foot depth. The Permian reservoir gas contains small quantities of hydrogen sulphide (less than 0.1% by weight). At the Knapton site the combined gas flow from the well sites passes to a separator where liquids are removed. It then passes to a sulphur removal facility before being sent to the gas turbine. The removed liquids are sent to a liquids injection well which returns them to the underground reservoir. The Knapton site also has a ground flare to burn waste gases.

In 2014 Third Energy announced a joint venture with Moorland Energy Limited (MEL) to develop the Ebberston Moor South development. Gas from the existing Ebberston Moor South well will be transported via a new 14-km pipeline to the Knapton Generating Station.

Knapton Generating Station was taken offline in 2019 and was subsequently dismantled. There are plans to install a 56 MWh battery on the site.

Ryedale gas fields
Gas is located in North Yorkshire as part of the Southern North Sea Gas Basin. The gas fields and power station were bought by UK Energy Systems Ltd for $70 million from Viking UK Gas Ltd (owned by Viking Petroleum of Houston) who owned the fields since December 2003 and this company is still based in East Knapton as part of the acquisition. The fields were previously (since 1999) owned 60% by Tullow Oil (who sold their stake for $8.3 million in October 2003) and 40% by Edinburgh Oil & Gas plc (who sold their stake for £3.2 million). The fields were bought by Kelt UK Ltd (owned by Kelt Energy plc and Edinburgh Oil & Gas plc) from Candecca Resources Ltd (owned by BP) in 1992.

At the start of the so-called North Yorkshire Power Project in the early 1990s, the gas fields were licensed by KeltPower who persuaded Scottish Power to build the power station as due to the gas being very local, no expensive compressors for gas pipelines would be needed. Scottish Power bought gas from the fields at a price in the power station contract that was much lower (almost half) than that which the price of gas subsequently became. Gas from each gas field is pumped to the power station at East Knapton via a six-inch pipe.

Kirby Misperton
This is at Kirby Misperton near the Flamingo Land Resort. The gas field was discovered in January 1985 and production started in March 1995. This site has three wells designated KM1 and KM3 (near Kirby Misperton) and KM2 (near Little Barugh). Gas is received from the Malton site and the combined gas flow is piped to the Marishes site.

Malton
It was discovered in January 1985 with production starting in September 1995. The site has two wells designated M1 and M4, both near Great Habton. Gas is piped to the Kirby Misperton site.

The Malton gas field was originally discovered in 1970.

Marishes
This is near High Marishes and Low Marishes near the confluence of the River Derwent and the River Rye, just north of East Knapton. This field was discovered in November 1988. Production started in April 1995. The site has one well designated MAR1.  Gas is received from the Kirby Misperton site and the combined gas flow is piped to the Knapton generating station site. The site is subject to flooding when river levels are high.

Pickering
This field was discovered in January 1992 with production starting in November 2001. Other gas fields around Pickering were initially developed by Home Oil of Calgary, Alberta, Canada in the 1970s. A natural gas processing facility was formerly (1969–74) located in Pickering to treat gas from the Lockton natural gas field under the North York Moors National Park.

References

External links

 US Energy Systems

Villages in North Yorkshire
Natural gas-fired power stations in England
Natural gas fields in the United Kingdom

East Knapton


On April 14, 1912, the Titanic collided with an iceberg, damaging the hull's plates below the waterline on the starboard side, causing the front compartments to flood. The ship then sank two hours and forty minutes later, with approximately 1,496 fatalities as a result of drowning or hypothermia. Since then, many conspiracy theories have been suggested regarding the disaster. These theories have been refuted by subject-matter experts.

Pack ice
Captain L. M. Collins, a former member of the Ice Pilotage Service, based a conclusion on three pieces of evidence and going off of his own experience of ice navigation and witness statements given at the two post-disaster enquiries, that what the Titanic hit was not an iceberg but low-lying pack ice. His book, called The Sinking of the Titanic: The Mystery Solved (2003) goes into further detail about the events.

There were no reports of haze the entire night of the sinking, but at 11.30 pm the two lookouts spotted what they believed to be haze on the horizon, extending approximately 20° on either side of the ship's bow. Collins believes that what they saw was not haze but a strip of pack ice,  ahead of the ship.
Each witness had a different description of the ice.  high by the lookouts,  high by Quartermaster Rowe on the deck, and only very low in the water by Fourth Officer Boxhall, on the starboard side near the darkened bridge. "An optical phenomenon that is well known to ice navigators" where the flat sea and extreme cold distort the appearance of objects near the waterline, making them appear to be the height of the ship's lights, about  above the surface near the bow, and  high alongside the superstructure explains what probably happened by the witnesses' descriptions.
The Titanic made a turn by rotating one-third of the way from the bow, which caused her rudder to hard over and crushed her starboard side into an iceberg. This would have caused the ship to flood, capsize, and sink within minutes, damaging the starboard side of the hull and potentially the superstructure.

Olympic exchange hypothesis
One of the controversial and elaborate theories surrounding the sinking of the Titanic was advanced by Robin Gardiner in his book Titanic: The Ship That Never Sank? (1998). Gardiner draws on several events and coincidences that occurred in the months, days, and hours leading up to the sinking of the Titanic, and concludes that the ship that sank was in fact Titanics sister ship , disguised as Titanic, as an insurance scam by its owners, the International Mercantile Marine Group, controlled by American financier J.P. Morgan that had acquired the White Star Line in 1902.

Researchers Bruce Beveridge and Steve Hall took issue with many of Gardiner's claims in their book Olympic and Titanic: The Truth Behind the Conspiracy (2004). Author Mark Chirnside has also raised serious questions about the switch theory. British historian Gareth Russell, for his part, calls the theory "so painfully ridiculous that one can only lament the thousands of trees which lost their lives to provide the paper on which it has been articulated." He notes that, "since the sister ships had significant interior architectural and design differences, switching them secretly in a week would be nearly impossible from a practical standpoint. A switch would also not be economically worthwhile, since the ship's owners could have simply damaged the ship while docked (for instance, by setting a fire) and collected the insurance money from that "accident," which "would have been far less severe, and infinitely less stupid, than sailing her out into the middle of the Atlantic with thousands of people, and their luggage, on board, and ramming her into an iceberg."

Deliberately sunk
Some conspiracy theorists believe that the Titanic was sunk on purpose to eliminate opposition to the creation of the Federal Reserve Bank. Some of the wealthiest men in the world were aboard the Titanic for her maiden voyage, several of whom, including John Jacob Astor IV, Benjamin Guggenheim, and Isidor Straus, were allegedly opposed to the creation of a U.S. central bank. No evidence of their opposition to Morgan's centralized banking ideas has been found –– Astor and Guggenheim never spoke publicly on the subject, while Straus spoke in favor of the concept. All three men died during the sinking. Conspiracy theorists suggest that J. P. Morgan, the 74 year-old financier who set up the eponymous banking firm, arranged to have the men board the ship and then sunk it to eliminate them. Morgan, nicknamed the "Napoleon of Wall Street", had helped create General Electric, U.S. Steel, and International Harvester, and was credited with almost single-handedly saving the U.S. banking system during the Panic of 1907. Morgan did have a hand in the creation of the Federal Reserve, and owned the International Mercantile Marine, which owned the White Star Line, and thus the Titanic.

Morgan, who had attended the Titanic launching in 1911, had booked a personal suite aboard the ship with his own private promenade deck and a bath equipped with specially designed cigar holders. He was reportedly booked on the ship's maiden voyage but instead cancelled the trip and remained at the French resort of Aix-les-Bains to enjoy his morning massages and sulfur baths. His allegedly last-minute cancellation has fuelled speculation among conspiracy theorists that he knew of the ship's fate. This theory has been refuted by Titanic experts George Behe, Don Lynch, and Ray Lepien who have each provided alternate, more widely-accepted theories as to why Morgan cancelled his trip.

Conspiracy theorist Stew Peters has advanced an antisemitic version of the theory, alleging the Rothschilds were behind both the Federal Reserve and the Titanic's sinking. Peters also claimed the OceanGate submarine was deliberately sabotaged in order to prevent its own passengers from discovering that the Titanic was sunk by a "controlled demolition" instead of an iceberg.

Closed watertight doors
Another theory involves Titanics watertight doors. This theory suggests that if these doors had been opened, the Titanic would have settled on an even keel and therefore, perhaps, remained afloat long enough for rescue ships to arrive. However, this theory has been rebutted for two reasons: first, the first four compartments were naturally watertight, thus it was impossible to lower the concentration of water in the bow significantly. Second, Bedford and Hacket have shown by calculations that any significant amount of water aft of boiler room No. 4 would have resulted in capsizing of the Titanic, which would have occurred about 30 minutes earlier than the actual time of sinking. Additionally, the lighting would have been lost about 70 minutes after the collision due to the flooding of the boiler rooms. Bedford and Hacket also analyzed the hypothetical case that there were no bulkheads at all. Then, the vessel would have capsized about 70 minutes before the actual time of sinking and lighting would have been lost about 40 minutes after the collision.

Later, in a 1998 documentary titled Titanic: Secrets Revealed, the Discovery Channel ran model simulations which also rebutted this theory. The simulations indicated that opening Titanics watertight doors would have caused the ship to capsize earlier than it actually sank by more than a half-hour, supporting the findings of Bedford and Hacket.

Expansion joints hypothesis

Titanic researchers continued to debate the causes and mechanics of the ships breakup. According to his book, A Night to Remember, Walter Lord described Titanic as assuming an "absolutely perpendicular" position shortly before its final plunge. This view remained largely unchallenged even after the wreck was discovered by Robert Ballard in 1985, which confirmed that Titanic had broken in two pieces at or near the surface; paintings by noted marine artist Ken Marschall and as imagined onscreen in James Cameron's film Titanic, both depicted the ship attaining a steep angle prior to the breakup. Most researchers acknowledged that Titanics aft expansion joint—designed to allow for flexing of the hull in a seaway—played little to no role in the ship's breakup, though debate continued as to whether the ship had broken from the top downwards or from the bottom upwards.

In 2005, a History Channel expedition to the wreck site scrutinized two large sections of Titanics keel, which constituted the portion of the ship's bottom from immediately below the site of the break. With assistance from naval architect Roger Long, the team analysed the wreckage and developed a new break-up scenario which was publicised in the television documentary Titanic's Final Moments: Missing Pieces in 2006. One hallmark of this new theory was the claim that Titanics angle at the time of the breakup was far less than had been commonly assumed—according to Long, no greater than 11°.

Long also suspected that Titanics breakup may have begun with the premature failure of the ship's aft expansion joint, and ultimately exacerbated the loss of life by causing Titanic to sink faster than anticipated. In 2006, the History Channel sponsored dives on Titanics newer sister ship, , which verified that the design of Britannics expansion joints was superior to that incorporated in the Titanic. To further explore Long's theory, the History Channel commissioned a new computer simulation by JMS Engineering. The simulation, whose results were featured in the 2007 documentary Titanic's Achilles Heel, partially refuted Long's suspicions by demonstrating that Titanics expansion joints were strong enough to deal with any and all stresses the ship could reasonably be expected to encounter in service and, during the sinking, actually outperformed their design specifications. But, most important is that the expansion joints were part of the superstructure, which was situated above the strength deck (B-deck) and therefore above the top of the structural hull girder. Thus, the expansion joints had no meaning for the support of the hull. They played no role in the breaking of the hull. They simply opened up and parted as the hull flexed or broke beneath them.

Brad Matsen's 2008 book Titanic's Last Secrets endorses the expansion joint theory.

One common oversight is the fact that the collapse of the first funnel at a relatively shallow angle occurred when the forward expansion joint, over which several funnels stays crossed, opened as the hull was beginning to stress. The opening of the joint stretched and snapped the stays. The forward momentum of the ship as she took a sudden lurch forwards and downwards sent the unsupported funnel toppling onto the starboard bridge wing.

One theory that would support the fracturing of the hull is that the Titanic partly grounded on the shelf of ice below the waterline as she collided with the iceberg, perhaps damaging the keel and underbelly. Later during the sinking, it was noticed that Boiler Room four flooded from below the floor grates rather than from over the top of the watertight bulkhead. This would be consistent with additional damage along the keel compromising the integrity of the hull.

Fire in coal bunker
A fire began in one of Titanic coal bunkers approximately 10 days prior to the ship's departure, and continued to burn for several days into the voyage. Fires occurred frequently on board steamships due to spontaneous combustion of the coal. The fires had to be extinguished with fire hoses, by moving the coal on top to another bunker and by removing the burning coal and feeding it into the furnace. This event has led some authors to theorize that the fire exacerbated the effects of the iceberg collision, by reducing the structural integrity of the hull and a critical bulkhead.

Senan Molony has suggested that attempts to extinguish the fire – by shoveling burning coals into the engine furnaces – may have been the primary reason for the Titanic steaming at full speed prior to the collision, despite ice warnings. Most experts disagree. Samuel Halpern has concluded that "the bunker fire would not have weakened the watertight bulkhead sufficiently to cause it to collapse." Also, it has been alternatively suggested that the coal bunker fire actually helped Titanic to last longer during the sinking and prevented the ship from rolling over to starboard after the impact, due to the subtle port list created by the moving of coal inside the ship prior to the encounter with the iceberg. Some of these foremost Titanic experts have published a detailed rebuttal of Molony's claims.

See also
Encyclopedia Titanica
Legends and myths regarding RMS Titanic

References

Bibliography

External links
 Was there a fire aboard Titanic?, CBC News
 Olympic & Titanic – An Analysis Of The Robin Gardiner Conspiracy Theory

 Science and technology-related conspiracy theories
Pseudohistory
Alternative theories
 Death conspiracy theories
Pseudoscience

Titanic conspiracy theories


Ian Roberts (born 30 November 1951) is a South African actor, playwright and singer. A native English speaker, he is also fluent in Afrikaans and Xhosa.

Early life
Roberts was born in Fort Beaufort in the Eastern Cape Province and grew up on his father's citrus farm near the town. He attended St. Andrew's Preparatory School and St. Andrew's College in Grahamstown. After completing high school he performed his compulsory national service in the South African Army, which he completed in 1971.

After a variety of different jobs and a course in photography at the Port Elizabeth Technical College from 1973 to 1975, Roberts enrolled at Rhodes University in 1976 for a Bachelor of Arts degree majoring in speech, drama and social anthropology.

Acting career
Roberts became a South African icon when he played the character of Boet in a long-running series of television advertisements for Castrol motor oil. This character (together with the other characters Swaer and Moegoe) has also been featured in M-Net's comedy series Kalahari Oasis as well as in his Radio Kalahari Orkes band.

In the Oscar-winning South African film, Tsotsi, Roberts played the role of a police captain.

He was married to South African actress Michelle Botes, but the couple divorced in 1999. They had two children.

Filmography

In addition to the above, Roberts has played the leading role in Afrikaans language television series such as Sloet Steenkamp in Arende ("Eagles") and Jack Degenaar in Arsenaal ("Arsenal"), as well as a supporting role in Kwelaman (1986). He has also written a number of scripts, such as Honeytown 1 and the musical Palang van Dwaal ("Palang from Dwaal").

References

External links

 Crawford College, Sandton official site

1952 births
Living people
South African people of British descent
White South African people
South African male television actors
Rhodes University alumni
Burmah-Castrol
Alumni of St. Andrew's College, Grahamstown
South African male film actors
People from Fort Beaufort

Ian Roberts (South African actor)


Ceilhes-et-Rocozels (; ) is a commune in the Hérault department in southern France.

Politics
In March 1995, a nonparty left-wing mayor was elected, Ahmed Abdelkader. He was re-elected in March 2001, but was removed from office in December 2005 after a judicial condemnation. Jacques Cambon, the grandson of a former mayor was appointed interim mayor and elected as the permanent mayor in March 2008.

Population

See also
Communes of the Hérault department

References

Communes of Hérault

Ceilhes-et-Rocozels


Armand Lanoux (24 October 1913 - 23 March 1983) was a French writer.

Biography
Lanoux was born in Paris. Early in life he had several jobs: he was a teacher, designer of candy boxes, bank employee, painter and journalist.

He became an editor for the literary Artheme Fayard (1950), editor of the magazine À la page (1964), chaired the Committee on French television in 1958-1959, and was appointed Secretary General of Radio and Television International University. He was a member of a 13 member panel that chose Dors Mon Amour as the French Eurovision entry in 1958, where it finished 1st out of 10. He was a member of the France-USSR Association. He participated in drafting the Code des Usages.

He wrote in many genres: the novel, non-fiction, chronicles, drama, poetry (Apollinaire 1953 Chapman prize).

From 1957 to 1964, he spent several months a year in Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat. In 1963, he earned accolades in winning the Prix Goncourt for his novel "When the tide goes out."

In 1970, he co-wrote with Marcel Cravenne Lys dans la vallée, directed by Marcel Cravenne, based on the novel by Honoré de Balzac. In 1980, he adapted the novel by Balzac La Peau de chagrin for television, directed by Michel Favart.

He died in Champs-sur-Marne, aged 69.

Awards
 Prix du roman populiste, for La Nef des fous
 Grand Prix du roman of Société des Gens de Lettres, Les Lézards dans l'horloge
 Prix Interallié, Le Commandant Watrin
 Prix Goncourt, Quand la mer se retire

Works
 La Canadienne assassinée (Colbert) 1943 :
 Le Pont de la folie (Colbert) 1946
 L'Affaire de l'impasse Ronsin 1947
 La Nef des fous (Amiot-Dumont/Julliard) 1948,
 L'Enfant en proie aux images (Labeyrie) 1949
 La Classe du matin (Fayard) 1949
 Cet âge trop tendre (Éditions Julliard) 1951
 Colporteur (Seghers), 1953 Prix Apollinaire
 Les Lézards dans l'horloge (Julliard), 1953
 Bonjour, Monsieur Zola (Amiot-Dumont/Hachette) 1954
 Le Photographe délirant (Seghers) 1956
 Le Commandant Watrin (Julliard), 1956
 Yododo (Fayard) 1957
 Le Rendez-vous de Bruges (Julliard) 1958
 Un jeune homme en habit 1958
 La Tulipe orageuse (Seghers) 1959
 La Tête tranchée : à quoi jouent les enfants du bourreau (Julliard) 1959
 1900, la bourgeoisie absolue (Hachette) 1961
 Quand la mer se retire (Julliard), 1963
 Le Berger des abeilles (Grasset) 1974
 La Corsetière prodigieuse'' (Jean-Pierre Kupczyk éditor) 1988

Writers from Paris
1913 births
1983 deaths
20th-century French novelists
French crime fiction writers
Prix Goncourt winners
Prix Interallié winners
Prix Guillaume Apollinaire winners
20th-century French male writers

Armand Lanoux