බටහිර ඉන්දීය කොදෙව් ක්‍රිකට් කණ්ඩායම 1988 එංගලන්තයේ දි විව් රිචර්ඩ්'ස්ගේ නායකත්වය  යටතේ පළමු පෙළ  ක්‍රිකට් තරඟ 16ක් ක්‍රිඩා කරන ලදි.. The West Indies enjoyed tremendous success during the tour, while England endured a "disastrous summer" of continuous change.

England easily won the initial three-match One Day International (ODI) series, retaining the Texaco Trophy and raising expectations for a successful summer in the five-match Test series to follow.  However, the West Indies comfortably retained the Wisden Trophy by winning the Test series 4–0. This tour has become known in cricketing circles as the "summer of four captains" as England used four different captains in the five Test matches.

West Indian cricket team

By the summer of 1988, the West Indies had experienced nearly ten years as the best Test team in world cricket, including a streak of winning 10 of 11 Test series they played from 1980 to 1985–86 (the other was drawn).  However, the West Indies side that had enjoyed this considerable recent success was beginning to show signs of ageing. The experienced batsmen Viv Richards (the captain), Gordon Greenidge, Jeff Dujon, and Desmond Haynes were all coming to the end of their careers, and bowlers Michael Holding and Joel Garner had recently retired. As a result, the squad arrived with an unusually inexperienced group of pace bowlers.  Supporting Malcolm Marshall, a veteran of 53 Tests, were relative newcomers Courtney Walsh (20 Tests), Patrick Patterson (11), Winston Benjamin (4), Curtly Ambrose (3) and Ian Bishop (0).

The West Indies' most recent series had been a hard-fought 1–1 draw at home against Pakistan, but their previous two Test series against England had both resulted in 5–0 victories. The first of these, in England in 1984, was the first whitewash England had suffered since the 1920–21 season when England toured Australia, while the second occurred in the Caribbean in 1985–86. These two one-sided victories by the West Indies became known as "blackwashes".

English cricket team
By contrast, the English team had suffered a run of bad performances spanning several years, winning only seven of their previous 52 Tests.  The England side had most recently toured Australia, drawing the Bicentennial Test and losing the only One Day International played, and New Zealand, drawing all three Test matches and sharing the ODIs 2–2. Before this, they had endured a "hostile" and highly controversial tour of Pakistan, during which an argument between captain Mike Gatting and umpire Shakoor Rana had led to a diplomatic incident. The three match series was lost 1–0, but the "teasing, taunting ... bemusing" performance of leg-spinner Abdul Qadir, who took 30 wickets in three Tests, was unlikely to be repeated, given that the West Indies' only specialist spinner was Roger Harper, an off-break bowler.

Despite having lost 5–0 to the West Indies in each of the two most recent series, England had grounds for optimism leading up to the Test series: the West Indian team was ageing and lacked a leg-spinner; and the England team had home advantage.  England's morale was also surging following good performances in the shorter form of the game: the team had reached the World Cup Final the previous year, losing to Australia, and were expected to do well in One Day International cricket, even against the West Indies.

England's "summer of four captains"
As the series unfolded, England were dominated by the West Indians in "the crazy summer of 1988". Wisden was moved to comment "The morale and reputation of English cricket has seldom been as severely bruised as it was during the 1988 Cornhill Insurance Test series against West Indies".

The notability of there being four captains in just five Test matches can better be understood with context. The captain of a cricket team performs a vital role. Unlike many other team sports, the captain makes crucial decisions regarding on-field tactics, and may also have an important say in team selection. Traditionally, captains of international teams are not changed frequently – for example, between 1977 and 1988 (comprising 104 Test matches), only seven different men captained England, yet there were four captains in just a few weeks in the summer of 1988.

The many changes of captain over the summer reflected uncertainty in the English cricketing establishment as to how to respond to the drubbing the team was receiving from the West Indies; the selectors "did not seem to know where to turn, either for a new captain or for a settled team".

The England team had not suffered such uncertainty since the West Indies tour of England in 1966, where the selectors chose 23 different players and three different captains (Colin Cowdrey, M. J. K. Smith and Brian Close) and England lost the five-Test series 3–1. Notably, Peter May was on the Board of Selectors for the 1966 series, while he was chairman of the board of Selectors for the 1988 series.

Statistical summary
Before the Test series began, the West Indian cricket team played three One Day Internationals against England in May 1988.  All of the ODIs were won by England, largely thanks to disciplined, economical bowling by Gladstone Small, Phil DeFreitas and Derek Pringle throughout and good batting performances from Mike Gatting in the First (82*) and Third (40*) ODIs.  England retained the Texaco Trophy.

The ODIs were followed by five Test matches. The First Test was drawn, and the remaining four Tests were all won convincingly by the West Indies.

The West Indies played 11 first-class matches, in addition to the five Tests,
defeating Somerset in May and Kent in June. The other nine first-class matches, and the First Test, were all drawn:
Sussex,

Gloucestershire,
Worcestershire,

Lancashire,
Northamptonshire,

Leicestershire,
Glamorgan,

Nottinghamshire,
and Essex.  During the match against Gloucestershire at Bristol, immediately after the ODI series, Phil Simmons suffered a horrific injury, receiving a ball to the head from bowler David Lawrence.  Not wearing a helmet, the blow caused his heart to stop and he had to be taken to hospital where he underwent emergency brain surgery.  He missed the rest of the tour, but made a full recovery in time for the 1991 West Indies tour of England.

In addition to the One Day Internationals, there were four other non-first-class fixtures. West Indies beat Lavinia, Duchess of Norfolk's XI in a 40-over match, Hampshire in a 50-over match and a combined Oxford and Cambridge Universities team over three days; they also drew with Minor Counties in a two-day match.

Test matches in detail

First Test

Mike Gatting was the incumbent England captain for the First Test, at Trent Bridge.  The result was a draw, with Graham Gooch and David Gower helping England to save the game from a position of weakness, after conceding a sizeable first-innings lead to the West Indies.

England won the toss and declined from 125–0 to 245 all out, the last five wickets tumbling for just 22 runs. Malcolm Marshall and Curtly Ambrose took all ten wickets between them. The West Indies racked up 448–9 despite no batsman reaching a century. England had a chance to get back into the match, but from 334–7, the unheralded batting of Marshall (72) and Ambrose (43*) took the tourists into a position of dominance.

The West Indian surge for victory was frustrated by the weather, which periodically interrupted the match throughout, and by an obdurate partnership of 161 between Gooch (146) and Gower (88*).

Before the Second Test, Gatting was sacked for an alleged off-field indiscretion with a barmaid. The tabloid media made allegations of "shenanigans" in his room; he "admitted taking ... [her] into his room but denied anything untoward had happened". During the previous winter, Gatting had been involved in a notorious on-field altercation with umpire Shakoor Rana in Pakistan that snowballed into a diplomatic disaster with the third day of the second test in Faisalabad being abandoned and accusations of cheating.  His recently published autobiography Leading From The Front "...was banned in all shops on county grounds.  Gatting was good enough to lead Middlesex and England, but spectators couldn't buy his book at Lord's".  The new allegations may simply have been the last straw.

This proved to be Gatting's last match as captain. He had captained England in 23 Test matches since taking charge against India in 1986, but won only two.

Second Test

Gatting was replaced as England captain by his Middlesex colleague John Emburey.  Gatting was also dropped from the team, replaced by Yorkshire's Martyn Moxon.  Phil DeFreitas was also replaced, by Gladstone Small, but the tourists were unchanged.

England began the Second Test with an inspired fiery burst of fast bowling by Graham Dilley, who took four of the first five wickets to fall to reduce the West Indies to 54–5. At lunch on the first day, Dilley had figures of 4–35, and "he would have taken five had Pringle at first slip caught Logie when he was 10".

The missed chance was to prove costly.  The pattern established in the first Test recurred, as England let the West Indies recover, with Gus Logie and Jeff Dujon scoring 81 and 53 as the team passed 200.

In England's first innings, the West Indian pace attack found little resistance after they had dismissed Gooch and Gower.  Marshall was again to the fore, with six wickets, and West Indies secured a precious first-innings lead of 44 runs.

The touring batsmen then enjoyed the Lord's conditions, reaching 397 in their second innings, with sizeable contributions from Greenidge (103), Richards (72), Dujon (52) and Logie again, this time with an unbeaten 95, a match performance that secured him the award of Man of the match.

England never seriously threatened to reach the victory target of 442 runs, which would have comfortably broken the world record for a fourth-innings run chase. Allan Lamb added to his reputation for mastering fast bowling with a defiant 113, but it was sizeable contributions from the tail and extras that took England to a respectable total of 307 – but a bad defeat by 134 runs.

Third Test

The third Test changed the pattern of the summer. England were "unable to cope for any length of time with the West Indian fast bowlers" and never gave even a sign of competing in a one-sided affair.

The England team had a different look, with four changes to the team. Essex 36-year-old off-spinner John Childs made his debut, the oldest England debutant for 40 years. Childs joined the recalled Gatting and DeFreitas, and newcomer David Capel.  Small and Paul Jarvis were both left out due to injury, and Derek Pringle was dropped, but the most media attention focused on Chris Broad, who was also dropped, "ostensibly for his consistent failure to make runs in home Tests, but there was always a suspicion that he was being disciplined for the incident at Lord's when he was spotted by a television camera mouthing his disappointment at an lbw decision".

For West Indies, Desmond Haynes was unfit, ending a run of 72 consecutive caps. He was replaced by the spinner Roger Harper, and Patrick Patterson was replaced by Winston Benjamin.

No batsman scored more than 33 in England's first innings, as the four quick bowlers shared cheap wickets.  In reply, West Indies piled up 384–7, again without a century, in a team effort down to and including man-of-the-match Marshall, who scored 43* batting at number eight.

Needing 249 to make West Indies bat again, England were dismissed for just 93, Marshall finishing with magnificent figures of 15.4–5–22–7, the best of his Test career.  Extras were the third highest scorer, with 12.

With such a huge margin of victory and such a poor performance, England (and Emburey) were strongly criticised. After being bowled out for just 93 runs, and a personally very unsuccessful match (no wickets as a bowler, and scoring just 1 and 8 runs as a batsman), Emburey was sacked as England captain and dropped from the team.

Fourth Test

The England selectors surprised the cricket public with their new appointment as captain, selecting a player who many believed owed his appointment more to his father than his own ability. Chris Cowdrey was the son of Colin Cowdrey, an England captain in the 1960s and later given a knighthood and then life peerage for his services to the sport; Chris Cowdrey was also godson of the chairman of selectors, Peter May. Cowdrey was a successful captain of Kent in county cricket, but had played just five Tests previously, during the 1984–85 tour to India, captained by David Gower. He became only the second son to follow his father as captain of the England cricket team, after George Mann in the 1940s followed Frank Mann in the 1920s.

The England side was thoroughly shaken-up following the debacle in the Third Test at Old Trafford. The selectors tried to turn things around with seven new faces in the team, the most extensive change of an England XI during a Test series since seven players were changed for the 1921 Ashes Tests against Australia at Lord's and Headingley (when only JWHT Douglas, Ciss Parkin, Lionel Tennyson and Frank Woolley were retained, and Tennyson replaced Douglas as captain). As well as Cowdrey replacing Emburey, the selectors also dropped Paul Downton, Martyn Moxon, Mike Gatting, David Capel, Phil Defreitas and John Childs in favour of Derek Pringle, Neil Foster, Bill Athey, and Jack Richards, with Tim Curtis and Robin Smith making their Test debuts.  For the West Indies, both Greenidge and Richardson sat the match out, injured: Haynes returned, and a debut was handed to Keith Arthurton. Jeff Dujon was promoted up the batting order as a makeshift opener.

Apart from Pringle, who played in the First and Second Tests, none of the six new selections had played in the series so far, but the match followed the old pattern, as the England batting again failed twice against the hostile West Indies pace attack.  The side fell to a relatively facile defeat against a West Indies team whose own batsmen failed to dominate; they had no need.  Curtly Ambrose secured his first man-of-the-match award for taking seven wickets at a cost of 98 runs.

An all-rounder with a moderate first class record (averaging 32 with the bat and 40 with the ball), Cowdrey's debut as captain in the Fourth Test at Headingley was a disaster. He scored 0 and 5 and took no wickets, as England were crushed by 10 wickets, West Indies again winning at a canter. Worse for Cowdrey, he suffered a minor injury in a county match and was persuaded to step aside for the Fifth Test. He never played for England again.

Fifth Test

In desperation, the England selectors turned to 35-year-old Graham Gooch, stalwart opening batsman, as their fourth captain of the series, for the Fifth Test at The Oval.  England also replaced Cowdrey with DeFreitas, dropped Gower for Matthew Maynard, and replaced the injured Allan Lamb with Rob Bailey, a recall and two Test debuts respectively. The tourists replaced the youngster Keith Arthurton with Greenidge, who had recovered from an injury.

England won the toss and the new captain received the first ball, but Gooch was soon out with the score on only 12. Some solid top-order play followed, with Curtis (30), Bailey (43) and Smith (57) all making starts but getting out when well set.  From 120–3, England lost their remaining wickets for 85, but that is perhaps less surprising than the fact that off-spinner Roger Harper took three of them. A lion-hearted response by the England bowlers, led by Neil Foster (5–64), gave England a chance of a rare win, as the West Indies were dismissed for 183, giving the England team their first first-innings lead of the series, 22 runs ahead.

In England's second innings, Gooch played a lone hand. With the exception of Foster (34), promoted as nightwatchman at the end of day two, no-one else passed 15. When Gooch was last man out for 84 on the third day, England had compiled 202. The England bowlers managed to restrain the West Indian batsmen, Childs notably bowling 40 overs for just 79 runs, but, with more than 2 days left to play, there was little pressure on the West Indies, and they strolled to victory in 91 overs, losing just two wickets, with more than a day to spare.

Aftermath
Gooch had enjoyed a successful series against West Indies as a batsman, and remained in charge for England's next match, against Sri Lanka at Lord's later in 1988, in which he achieved his first victory as captain. England did not tour that winter, and David Gower returned to the captaincy for the 6-match Ashes series at home against Australia in the summer of 1989. England lost 4–0, bringing Gower's long captaincy career to a close.

Gooch took over again as England captain for the tour to West Indies in the winter of 1989–90, winning one Test and drawing another before injury forced him out of the team. He was replaced temporarily as captain by Allan Lamb, who lost both of his matches in charge. Gooch went on to captain England the following summer, remaining in that position almost exclusively until 1993 and bringing England a degree of success that they had not experienced for almost a decade. For much of this period, he was also rated as one of the world's leading batsmen.

The West Indies team's next opposition was Australia where the team enjoyed a 3–1 Test series win on foreign soil. "The West Indians made a slow start to their tour, losing twice to Western Australia before running into form ... So effectively, at times irresistibly, did Vivian Richards's West Indian side play in the first three Test matches in Australia that by the New Year they had already retained the Frank Worrell Trophy."

The West Indies went on to record further Test series victories in the next two years, defeating India 3–0 in a four-Test series in the Caribbean in 1988–89, and narrowly beating England once again in the Caribbean in 1989–90. However, the team's long period of pre-eminence was coming to an end. Their 2–1 home defeat by Australia in 1994–95 saw the West Indies relinquish the mantle as the World's best Test cricket side to their visitors, and by the time that the International Cricket Council launched the official Test rankings in 2001, the West Indies were rated as the sixth best team in the world.

Squads
The following players represented England in at least one Test or One-day International during the 1988 tour:

The following players represented West Indies on the 1988 tour of England:

Key: *=Captain, †=Wicket-keeper

References

1988
1988 in English cricket
1988 in cricket
International cricket competitions from 1985–86 to 1988

බටහිර ඉන්දීය කොදෙව් ක්‍රිකට් කණ්ඩායම -1988 එංගලන්ත සංචාරය


Mathematically Correct was a U.S.-based website created by educators, parents, mathematicians, and scientists who were concerned about the direction of reform mathematics curricula based on NCTM standards. Created in 1997, it was a frequently cited website in the so-called Math wars, and was actively updated until 2003.

History
Although Mathematically Correct had a national scope, much of its focus was on advocating against mathematics curricula prevalent in California in the mid-1990s. When California reversed course and adopted more traditional mathematics texts (2001 - 2002), Mathematically Correct changed its focus to reviewing the new text books. Convinced that the choices were adequate, the website went largely dormant.

Mathematically Correct maintained a large section of critical articles and reviews for a number of math programs. Most of the program opposed by Mathematically Correct had been developed from research projects funded by the National Science Foundation. Most of these programs also claimed to have been based on the 1989 Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics published by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Mathematically Correct's main point of contention was that, in reform textbooks, traditional methods and concepts have been omitted or replaced by new terminology and procedures. As a result, in the case of the high-school program Core-Plus Mathematics Project, for example, some reports suggest that students may be unprepared for college level courses upon completion of the program.  Other programs given poor ratings include programs aimed at elementary school students, such as Dale Seymour Publications (TERC) Investigations in Numbers, Data, and Space and Everyday Learning Everyday Mathematics.

After Mathematically Correct's review of the programs, many have undergone revisions and are now with different publishers. Other programs, such as Mathland have been terminated.

Reviews by the site
Publications with poor reviews from Mathematically Correct include:
 Addison-Wesley Secondary Math: An Integrated Approach: Focus on Algebra
 Core-Plus Mathematics Project
 Investigations in Numbers, Data, and Space
 Mathland
 NCTM's 1989 Standards produced by the professional association for teachers of mathematics. The Standards encouraged increased emphasis on problem solving and decreased attention to algorithms learned by rote. It was perceived by some critics to recommend elimination of standard algorithms.
Curricula not judged deficient by Mathematically Correct include:
 Singapore math – Math textbooks used in Singapore
 Saxon math – A program created by a retired Air Force officer who had been highly critical of mathematics teaching reforms from the late 1960s to 1990s.

State tests that were judged deficient by Mathematically Correct are:
 CLAS – A defunct California test, based on NCTM standards and California mathematics standards replaces in 2002
 WASL – Washington State standards

References

External links
 MathematicallyCorrect.com which is "devoted to the concerns raised by parents and scientists about the invasion of our schools by the New-New Math and the need to restore basic skills to math education".
 MathematicallySane.com "Promoting the rational reform in mathematics education" (a website critical of anti-reformers such as Mathematically Correct)

Traditional mathematics
Mathematics education
Mathematics education reform

Mathematically Correct


Gornomariysky District (; , Kurykmarij kundem; , Kyryk mary kymdem) is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the fourteen in the Mari El Republic, Russia. It is located in the west of the republic and is the only district on the right bank of the Volga River. It borders with Yurinsky District in the north, Kilemarsky District and the Chuvash Republic in the south, and with Nizhny Novgorod Oblast in the west. The area of the district is . Its administrative center is the town of Kozmodemyansk (which is not administratively a part of the district). As of the 2010 Census, the total population of the district was 25,869.

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Gornomariysky District is one of the fourteen in the republic. It is divided into 10 rural okrugs, comprising 241 rural localities. The town of Kozmodemyansk serves as its administrative center, despite being incorporated separately as a town of republic significance—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.

As a municipal division, the district is incorporated as Gornomariysky Municipal District. Its ten rural okrugs are incorporated as ten rural settlements within the municipal district. The town of republic significance of Kozmodemyansk is incorporated separately from the district as Kozmodemyansk Urban Okrug, but serves as the administrative center of the municipal district as well.

Demographics
The district is a home of Hill Mari people, and the Hill Mari language is spoken there.

See also
Mari Depression

References

Notes

Sources

External links
Official website of Gornomariysky District
Pictures of Gornomariysky District

Districts of Mari El

Gornomariysky District


Haplogroup J1, more fully Y DNA haplogroup J-M267, is a Y chromosome haplogroup found in the Middle East. This means it is found in a group of descendants from a single common ancestor in the father's line. It carries a mutation on the Y chromosome known as M267. This type of mutation is called a SNP, or a single nucleotide polymorphism, a change at one position in a gene's DNA.

Y chromosomes are passed down from father to son without changing, so an SNP like this shows common ancestry.

The origin of this mutation was between 4,000 and 24,000 years ago.

This mutation followed a previous mutation, which created the haplogroup known as haplogroup J-P209 or simply haplogroup J, and so this makes the Y chromosome the "child" of the older version of the Y chromosome. Haplogroup J arose from a mutation which occurred about 31,700 years ago in Southwest Asia.

References

Chromosomes
DNA

J1 (Y-DNA)


Patrice Warrener is a French light artist, mostly known for his Chromolithe Polychromatic Illumination System. Warrener has made more than 60 chromolithe installations over the last fifteen years, lighting up buildings in close to a dozen different nations. Warrener's work has influenced the rising numbers of Light Festivals in many cities of World Heritage status around the world.

Trained as a printer, Patrice made his mark in the world of light shows: first, with the French co-operative Open Light, and then with his collaboration with the English musician, and electronic music pioneer, Tim Blake, with whom he introduced Laser Lighting effects in their Crystal Machine shows in the early 1970s.

In 2016 Warrener illuminated the front of Westminster Abbey in London with coloured light projected onto statues as part of the Lumiere festival.

Chromolithe
Chromolithe installations have been made for cathedrals and churches, historic public buildings, modern art museums, and even banks.

The chromolithe process starts with data collection, using a specially-built photographic chamber, months of meticulous art work on computer screens, and finally re-projecting the image, printed to 24x24 cm photographic plates, back onto the building from a series of custom-built 6000Kva Xenon projectors, discreetly placed, so as to make the light source appear invisible.

Some of the cathedrals and intricate sculptured Gothic buildings that have been chromolithed, were originally painted. Thus, Warrener's work can be seen as a restoration of heritage buildings.

Gallery

References

External links
Chromolithe web site
Chromolithe at Lyon on YouTube
Chromolithe in Kobe
Chromolithe at Bradford Festival, 2006

French artists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people

Patrice Warrener


The Battle of Aachen was a major battle of Second World War. It was fought by American and German forces in and around Aachen, Germany, between 2–21 October 1944. The city was part of the Siegfried Line, the main defence line on Germany's western border. The Allies had hoped to capture it quickly and move into the Ruhr area.

Most of Aachen's civilian population was moved out before the battle began. Much of the city was destroyed and both sides had heavy losses. It was one of the largest urban battles fought by U.S. forces in World War II.

It was the first city in Germany to be captured by the Allies. The battle ended with a German surrender, but their defense slowed down Allied plans to advance into Germany.

Background
By September 1944 the Western Allies had reached Germany's western border. It was protected by the Siegfried Line. On 17 September, British, American, and Polish forces launched Operation Market Garden.

This was an attempt to get around the Siegfried Line by crossing the Lower Rhine River in the Netherlands.  The failure of this plan, and a supply problem caused by the long distances, stopped the Allied movement toward Berlin.

German dead and wounded in France had been high. Field Marshal Walter Model said his 74 divisions had the strength of just 25. The Western Allies' supply problems gave the Germans time to rebuild their strength. In September, new troops were sent to the Siegfried Line. The total was 230,000 soldiers, including 100,000 new soldiers.

At the start of the month the Germans had had about 100 tanks in the West; by the end they had 500. As men and equipment were moved into the Siegfried Line they were able to establish a depth of .

The Allied force, under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower, wanted to capture the Ruhr. It was Germany's main industrial area.

General George S. Patton's Third Army was ordered to occupy the French region of Lorraine. General Courtney Hodges's First Army was ordered to attack near Aachen.

Hodges had at first hoped to go around the city. He thought it was only defended by a small group of troops which would surrender once they were cut off.

The beautiful, old city Aachen was not an important military target, as it did not do much war production. Its population of around 165,000 had not been bombed by the Allies.

It was an important symbol to the Nazi regime and the German people. It was the first German city threatened by an enemy during the Second World War. It was also the historic capital of Charlemagne, founder of the "First Reich". The city was very important to the Germans.

The city's defenders fought on home ground for the first time; one German officer said, "Suddenly we were no longer the Nazis, we were German soldiers."

Aachen was protected by the Siegfried Line, a system of pillboxes, forts, and bunkers protected by anti-tank obstacles and barbed wire. In several areas, German defenses were over  deep. It was the strongest defence ever built.

Learning from their experiences on the Eastern Front, the Germans put their defences in the center of towns. They used narrow streets to make it hard for enemy armored vehicles to move around
.

Even though the troops defending Aachen and the Ruhr were of low quality, the fortifications protecting Aachen and the Ruhr were a major problem for the
American forces. Getting through Aachen was seen as important, because the land beyond Aachen was flat, and easy for the motorized Allied armies to travel on.

Fighting around Aachen began in the second week of September. The city was defended by the 116th Panzer Division, under the command of General Gerhard von Schwerin.

The closeness of Allied forces had caused the majority of the city's government officials to leave before the citizens were moved out. (For this, Hitler had all Nazi officials who had fled sent to the Eastern front as privates.) von Schwerin wanted to surrender the city to Allied forces. However, on 13 September, before he could surrender, he was ordered to launch a counterattack against American forces southwest of Aachen. He attacked with his panzergrenadier forces.

The German general's attempt to surrender the city made Adolf Hitler, ordered the general's arrest. He was replaced by General Gerhard Wilck. The United States' VII Corps continued to try to get past German defenses, despite the fighting on 12–13 September.

Between 14–16 September the US 1st Infantry Division advanced against strong defenses and attacks. Eventually, they had a circle around half the city.

This slow advance stopped in late September, due to the supply problem, and the sending of fuel and ammunition for Operation Market Garden in the Netherlands.

Comparison of forces

German defenders in Aachen

In October, Aachen's defense was assigned to General Friedrich Köchling's LXXXI Corps. These forces, along with the attached 506th Tank Battalion and 108th Tank Brigade, had 20,000 men and 11 tanks.  Köchling was also promised a new 116th Panzer Division and the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division, with 24,000 troops.

The 183rd Volksgrenadier Division and 49th Infantry Division defended the northern approaches. The 12th Infantry Division was positioned to the south.

On 7 October, the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler Panzer Division were sent to defend Aachen.

Although new troops continued to arrive, the 12th Infantry Division had lost half its combat strength between 16–23 September, and the 49th and 275th Infantry Divisions had had to be given time to rest.

While German infantry divisions had a strength of 15,000–17,000 soldiers at the start of World War II, this had been reduced to a size of 12,500. By November 1944, the average strength of a division was 8,761 men.

To cope with the troop shortages, the Volksgrenadier divisions were created in 1944. Their average total strength was just over 10,000 men per division. Although about a quarter of these were experienced veterans, two-quarters were new soldiers and sick people while the rest were from the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine.

These divisions often received the newest small-arms, but they lacked artillery and motorization. The 183rd Volksgrenadier Division had not had time to train as a unit.  The 246th Volksgrenadier Division was in a similar situation. Many of its troops had fewer than ten days of infantry training. All of these weaknesses of the troops were made up for by the strong fortifications surrounding Aachen.

American forces
The task of capturing Aachen was given to General Charles H. Corlett's XIX Corps' 30th Infantry Division and Joseph Collins' VII Corps' 1st Infantry Division.

General Leland Hobbs' 30th Infantry Division would be assisted by the 2nd Armored Division, which would try to go the 30th Division's hole in the Siegfried Line. Their sides were protected by the 29th Infantry Division.

In the south, 1st Infantry Division was supported by the 9th Infantry Division and the 3rd Armored Division.  These divisions took in a large number of new men.

By 1 October over 70% of the men of General Clarence Huebner's 1st Infantry Division were new troops. The last two weeks of September were spent giving these men training in fighting and weapons training.

The plan called for both infantry divisions to avoid street fighting in Aachen. The plan was for the two divisions to encircle the city. Then a small force would capture it while most of the US forces moved east.

Although American units were usually able to get new troops quickly, the replacements rarely had enough training. Many junior officers were lacked tactical and leadership abilities.  Some tank drivers had never even driven a car before. Some tank commanders had to teach their men how to load and fire their tank guns in the field before missions.

The US system meant that new troops reaching the front lines were not properly trained for combat.  Sometimes half of a unit's replacements would become dead or wounded within the first few days of combat.

These losses required more troops to be brought into the fighting. A battalion of the US 28th Infantry Division was sent against Aachen to help the US 1st Infantry Division during 18–21 October.

These forces were supported by the Ninth Air Force, which knew where 75% of the pillboxes were. They planned an opening bombing using 360 bombers and 72 fighters. New aircraft would be used for a second attack, which included napalm.

With the Germans having few anti-aircraft guns and severely limited support from the Luftwaffe, Allied forces controlled the skies over Aachen.

Battle

For six days before the American attack allied artillery bombed German defenses around Aachen.  Although bombing German LXXXI Corps to stop all movements of troops and supplies, it did not harm the pillboxes and strongpoints.

The opening air bombing on 2 October also did little damage to German defences. The 450 aircraft did not hit any German pillbox.  Their targets had been hidden by thick smoke from the Allied artillery.  After the aircraft finished their bombing, the artillery fired 18,696 shells.

Advance from the north: 2–8 October
The 30th Infantry Division moved forward on 2 October. They used artillery to destroy German pillboxes. It took thirty minutes to capture a pillbox. Heavy fighting had not been expected, and one group lost 87 troops in an hour; another lost 93 out of 120 soldiers to a German artillery strike.

The attackers were slowly able to cross the Wurm River. They attacked German pillboxes with flamethrowers and explosives. By the afternoon of 2 October, the 30th Infantry Division had got past German defenses and reached the town of Palenberg.

Here, US soldiers had to fight to get to each house. (Private Harold G. Kiner was awarded the Medal of Honor for throwing himself on a German grenade saving the lives of two soldiers).

Fighting in the town of Rimburg was terrible. American armour could not cross the Wurm River, and it could not support infantrymen who were attacking the Germans. The 30th Infantry Division destroyed 50 German pillboxes on the first day.

The division's advance was helped by the 29th Infantry Division's attacks. The Germans thought that the 29th Division's attacks were the main attack.

On the night of 2 October, the German 902nd Assault Gun Battalion was ordered to attack the 30th Infantry Division. Allied artillery made the German attack not start on time. The German attack failed.

American armor could help with the advance on 3 October. The US  attacks were stopped by German attacks. Rimburg was captured on the second day. Fighting had also begun in the town of Übach. American tanks tried to attack the town. However, they could not move due to German artillery fire.

American artillery fire stopped the Germans from recapturing it.  By the end of the day the 30th Infantry Division had around 300 dead and wounded.

German forces continued their attacks on Übach. This stopped American troops from advancing.  On 4 October the Allies had only captured Hoverdor and Beggendorf. The Americans lost 1,800 soldiers in the past three days. On 5 October, the 119th Regiment of the 30th Infantry Division captured Merkstein-Herbach.

The next day the Germans attacked Übach, but the attack was not a success.  The American had many more tanks.  The Germans did not have extra troops. General Koechling did get a Tiger tank group to defend Aachen from the north.

The Germans attacked on 8 October with an infantry regiment, the 1st Assault Battalion, the 108th Panzer Brigade, and 40 armored vehicles. The left side of the attack cut off an American platoon. The Germans had many losses and the Americans were getting closer.

Advance from the south: 8–11 October

In the south, the 1st Infantry Division attacked on 8 October. They wanted to capture the town of Verlautenheide.  A big artillery attack helped them to capture the town.

By 10 October, the 1st Infantry Division was in its planned position, where it could join with the 30th Infantry Division. The Germans attacked but they ended up with over 40 dead and 35 prisoners.  Despite repeated German attacks, the 1st Infantry Division was able to capture the high land around the city.

On 10 October, the US threatened to bomb the city if it didn't surrender.  The German commander refused to surrender.  American artillery fired  5,000 shells and the city was bombed American aircraft.

Link up: 11–16 October
American dead and wounded were increasing. This was caused by German attacks and the danger of attacking pillboxes. The   Germans in the town of Bardenberg made pillboxes to defend themselves. American attackers pulled back and shelled the town with artillery.

On 12 October, the Germans attacked the American 30th Infantry Division. The Americans defended themselves with artillery fire and anti-tank defenses.

At the village of Birk, there was a fight between German tanks and a single American Sherman tank. Then the 2nd Armored Division arrived and the Germans were pushed out of the town.

The 30th Infantry Division had to defend itself over all the land they held.  They were ordered to move south to join with the 1st Infantry Division. Two infantry battalions from the 29th were sent to join the 30th.

The same day (12 October), two German infantry regiments attempted to recapture. Both regiments were almost completely destroyed.  Between 11–13 October Allied aircraft bombed Aachen.

On 15 October, the Germans again attacked the 1st Infantry Division. Although a number of heavy tanks managed to break through American lines, most of German forces were destroyed by artillery and airplanes.

On the next day, the Germans attacked with the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division. They had heavy losses and they had to stop the attack.

The 30th Infantry Division and parts of the 29th Infantry and 2nd Armored divisions moved southwards between 13–16 October. They could not get through German defenses and join up with allied forces to the south.

The Germans attacked with artillery. German tanks were hidden in houses.  General Hobbs, commander of the 30th Infantry Division, tried to get around the German defenses. He attacked with two infantry battalions.  The attack was a success. The 30th and 1st Infantry Divisions joined up on 16 October.

The fighting had caused American XIX Corps over 400 dead and 2,000 wounded, with 72% from the 30th Infantry Division.  The Germans had 630 of their soldiers killed and 4,400 wounded; another 600 were killed in the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division's attack on the US 1st Infantry Division on 16 October.

Fight for the city: 13–21 October

The 1st Infantry Division had only a single regiment to capture the city. They attacked with machine guns and flamethrowers. Only by a few tanks and one howitzer were used in the attack.

The city was defended by 5,000 German troops, including navy, air force and city police.  Most of these soldiers lacked experience and training. They were supported by a few tanks and assault guns.  However, Aachen's defenders could use the narrow streets to defend the city.

The 26th Infantry's attack on 13 October was stopped by Germans firing from sewers and cellars. Sherman tanks could not move around in the narrow streets. The 26th Infantry Regiment used howitzers to destroy German fortifications.  Sherman tanks were attacked by German anti-tank guns.

American tanks and other armored vehicles would shoot buildings to kill any defenders hiding inside.  German infantry moved through sewers to attack Americans.

The Germans fought very hard. They attacked the Americans and used armor to stop American movement.

On 18 October, the 3rd Battalion of the 26th Infantry Regiment prepared to attack the Hotel Quellenhof. This was one of the last areas held by the Germans in the city.  American tanks and other guns fired at the hotel.  That night, 300 new soldiers of the 1st SS Battalion moved into the hotel. They stopped several attacks on the building.

A violent German attack managed to get past American infantry companies outside of the hotel. The Germans were then stopped by American mortar fire.

The Americans shelled German positions with  guns. As well, a battalion of the 110th Infantry Regiment was used to fill gaps in the city. The new battalion was told on 19–20 October to attack the city.

On 21 October, soldiers of the 26th Infantry Regiment captured central Aachen. The Germans in the Hotel Quellenhof surrendered, ending the battle for the city.

References

Bibliography

1944 in Germany
Aachen
Aachen
Aachen
Aachen
October 1944 events

Battle of Aachen


Marvin Glenn Shields (December 30, 1939 – June 10, 1965) was the first and only United States Navy Seabee to be awarded the Medal of Honor. He was also the first sailor to receive the Medal of Honor for heroism above and beyond the call of duty in the Vietnam War.

Biography
Marvin G. Shields was born December 30, 1939, in Port Townsend, Washington. He lived near Port Townsend on Discovery Bay in Gardiner, Washington. He graduated from Port Townsend High School in 1958 and had moved to Hyder, Alaska, where he worked at Mineral Basin Mining Company, a gold mining project started by Port Townsend company.

U.S. Navy

Seabees
He joined the Navy on January 8, 1962, to be a Navy Seabee. He was assigned to the Naval Air Station at Glynco, Georgia for apprenticeship training in May which he completed in May 1963. In September, he was assigned to take Construction Mechanic training at the Naval Construction Training Center at Port Hueneme, California which he completed that month. Afterwards, he was assigned to Alpha Company, Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 11 (NMCB-11). On November 18, he deployed to Okinawa and was assigned there until September 1964. On November 1, he was assigned to Seabee Team 1104, Naval Construction Battalion 11, and completed Seabee team training at Port Hueneme on January 22, 1965. The Seabee team consisted of nine Seabees including one officer.

Shields and Seabee Team 1104 deployed to Saigon, Republic of Vietnam arriving on February 1, 1965. On March 28, Seabee Team 1104 was assigned to construct a U.S. Army Special Forces Camp at Ben Soi, completing their construction work on June 3. Seabee Team 1104 was next assigned to a newly established Army Special Forces Camp at Dong Xoai about 55 miles northwest of Saigon arriving on June 4, to assist in repair and construction of the compound which included an adjacent compound with the district headquarters building. An 11-man Army Special Forces ("Green Berets") team ("A" Team 542) was in charge of the northern compound of Green Berets, Seabees, and 200 Montagnards. The adjacent compound was occupied by over 200 South Vietnamese Army soldiers.

Battle of Dong Xoai
On the night of June 9, 1965, the unfinished Army Special Forces Camp at Dong Xoai was mortared and attacked by the 272nd Vietcong Regiment (estimated over 2,000 uniformed Vietcong), and the Special Forces compound was captured the next morning. After being wounded by mortar fire, Shields fought with Special Forces soldiers against the enemy carrying up needed ammunition to the firing line positions. Although wounded again by shrapnel and shot in the jaw on June 10, he helped a soldier and a Seabee carry the badly wounded Special Forces captain in charge of the camp to a safer position in the compound. After four more hours of fighting, and greatly weakened, Shields volunteered to help Special Forces Second Lieutenant Charles Q. Williams who now was the acting commander since the Special Forces commander was one of the first badly wounded in the battle, destroy a Vietcong machine gun outside the perimeter which was threatening to kill everyone now in the adjacent district headquarters building which was now under the lieutenant's command and its occupants holding off the Vietcong attackers from all sides. The lieutenant armed with a 3.5 rocket launcher which was loaded by Shields, destroyed the machine gun, and on the way back to the building Williams was wounded for the 4th time and Shields for the third time, shot in both legs. Shields was air-evacuated afterwards from Dong Xoai with five other Seabees by the direction of the lieutenant to Saigon on June 10 and died during the evacuation.

Two Seabees of Team 1104, Shields and SW2 William C. Hoover lost their lives and seven of his Seabee team were wounded in the first two days of the Battle of Dong Xoai (June 9–13). Three Army Special Forces soldiers were also killed, plus several members of other American military units and many members of South Vietnamese military units which partook in the battle were killed and wounded.

Burial

Shields was buried with a Marine Corps honor guard at Gardiner Cemetery, Gardiner, Washington on June 19, 1965. His name is listed on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial on Panel 02E, Row 007.

Medal of Honor
Shields was posthumously presented the Medal of Honor at a ceremony at the White House on September 13, 1966. His wife received the award from President Lyndon B. Johnson in the presence of his father, mother, daughter, and brother. Special Forces Lieutenant Williams was also present during the ceremony and had himself received the Medal of Honor on July 5, 1966, for his heroic actions during the 14-hour siege of the Special Forces Camp at Dong Xoai. All twenty of the Seabees and Special Forces soldiers were personally awarded for their actions at Dong Xoai.

Shields' other military decorations and awards include: the Purple Heart Medal with two Gold Stars, Navy Unit Commendation, Navy Good Conduct Medal, National Defense Service Medal, Vietnam Service Medal with two campaign stars, RVN Gallantry Cross with Palm, RVN Military Merit Medal, RVN Gallantry Cross Unit Citation with palm and frame, RVN Civil Actions Unit Citation with palm and frame, and RVN Campaign Medal with 1960- device,

Medal of Honor citation

Shield's Medal of Honor Citation reads:

The President of the United States takes pride in presenting the MEDAL OF HONOR posthumously to

for service as set forth in the following

CITATION:

For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving with United States Navy Seabee Team 1104 at Dong Xoai, Republic of Vietnam, on 10 June 1965. Although wounded when the compound of Detachment A-342, 5th Special Forces Group (Airborne), 1st Special Forces, came under intense fire from an estimated reinforced Viet Cong regiment employing machine gun, heavy weapons and small arms, Shields continued to resupply his fellow Americans with needed ammunition and to return the enemy fire for a period of approximately three hours, at which time the Viet Cong launched a massive attack at close range with flame throwers, hand grenades and small-arms fire. Wounded a second time during this attack, Shields nevertheless assisted in carrying a more critically wounded man to safety, and then resumed firing at the enemy for four more hours. When the Commander asked for a volunteer to accompany him in an attempt to knock out an enemy machine gun emplacement which was endangering the lives of all personnel in the compound because of the accuracy of its fire, Shields unhesitatingly volunteered for this extremely hazardous mission. Proceeding toward their objective with a 3.5-inch rocket launcher, they succeeded in destroying the enemy machine gun emplacement, thus undoubtedly saving the lives of many of their fellow servicemen in the compound. Shields was mortally wounded by hostile fire while returning to his defensive position. His heroic initiative and great personal valor in the face of intense enemy fire sustain and enhance the finest tradition of the United States Naval Service.

See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Vietnam War

References

1939 births
1965 deaths
People from Port Townsend, Washington
United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients
Seabees
Vietnam War recipients of the Medal of Honor
United States Navy personnel killed in the Vietnam War
United States Navy non-commissioned officers

Marvin Glenn Shields


Lebensraum means "Living Space" in German. It is especially associated with Nazi Germany and Hitler's desire to expand the country. This belief led to the Invasion of Poland (1939) and Germany's conquering of the Sudentenland. On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany launched Operaton Barbarossa, an invasion of the Soviet Union. One of the goals for the operation was achieving Lebensraum.

Nazi Germany
The Holocaust

Lebensraum


Gaspar Henaine (6 January 1927 – 30 September 2011), more commonly known by his pseudonym Capulina, was a Mexican comedian, actor, singer, film producer, and screenwriter. He is best known for partnering with Marco Antonio Campos as the double act Viruta and Capulina and for his subsequent solo career. He was later given the  nickname "El Rey del Humorismo Blanco" (The King of White Humor), due to his clean, innocent style of comedy.

Early life
Capulina was born in Chignahuapan, Puebla, the son of Antonio Henaine Helú, a Lebanese businessman, and Concepción Pérez de León (c. 1893 – 27 February 1983), who was also born in Chignahuapan. He and his family later moved to Mexico City. At age 10, he made his acting debut with a small part in Fernando de Fuentes' Allá en el rancho grande (1936). He studied acting and later won the "best dramatic child actor" award bestowed by the academy he attended. He started his musical career as one of the vocalists of the quartet Los Excéntricos del Ritmo. Later, in 1946, he formed part of the trio Los Trincas. The trio was hugely successful and toured Mexico and some cities of the United States.

Career

Viruta and Capulina

Capulina became famous across Latin America alongside his longtime professional partner, Marco Antonio Campos, as Viruta and Capulina. In 1951, they started filming together. The two comedians made 26 films. At first they imitated the comedy style of Laurel and Hardy, thanks to their physical resemblance to them. With time they developed their own characteristic comedy style. The main difference with Laurel and Hardy is that Viruta, the thin character, was also the intelligent and aggressive one, while Capulina, the portly character, was the fool and cowardly one.

In the peak of their popularity they had a television program called Cómicos y canciones, where they alternated with other comedians and singers. Some of their sketches were written by a then unknown Roberto Gomez Bolaños who later gained legendary fame as comedian Chespirito.

Many rumors surfaced when the two co-workers stopped making films together; some suggested that Viruta felt underpaid, but Capulina attributed the separation to a feud between the two caused by lack of film jobs towards the end of their working relationship. Although he admitted that both he and Viruta felt some animosity against each other during their last six films together, Capulina also felt deep sorrow when Viruta died. A sufferer of three previous heart attacks, Viruta died after his fourth heart attack.

Later career
Capulina made a total of 84 movies, 58 of them after separating from Viruta. He also has recorded 12 music albums. One of his most famous films was Santo contra Capulina (1969), where he co-starred with Mexican wrestling legend El Santo.

Most of the films where he starred shared the same theme, to generate an adventure based on Capulina getting in trouble due to a specific issue, added with his position as an incompetent and foolish person. For example, in El mundo de los aviones (1969), Capulina is a pilot that always fails to land his plane correctly, hitting some wall and encrusting a partner in the process. He is involved in an international fraud and he teams with his airline partners to prevent the robbery, not without several funny problems.

He went from being the same character in different situations and who confronts different kind of enemies like robbers, gangs, spies, and also vampires, monsters, and mummies, with the aid of adventurers, wrestlers (like El Santo) or unexpected powers.

The character of Capulina gained huge popularity and a very successful comic book series -with stories by comic artist Oscar González Guerrero and art by his son Oscar Gonzalez Loyo- was published in the seventies and early eighties.

Capulina's last film was Mi compadre Capulina (1989). He also made a television series, Las aventuras de Capulina (1989), where he struggled in different adventures with the help of wrestler Tinieblas and sidekick Alushe.

His telenovela debut in El diario de Daniela (1996) was also his last appearance.

Capulina was also a theatrical actor and stand-up comedian. He toured with his act until 1997, when he retired, claiming that he was feeling too old to go on.

Death
Henaine died of complications with pneumonia and a gastric ulcer on September 30, 2011.

Selected filmography

References

External links

1927 births
2011 deaths
Mexican male comedians
Mexican male film actors
Mexican male stage actors
Mexican male television actors
Mexican male singers
Male actors from Puebla
Singers from Puebla
Mexican people of Lebanese descent
20th-century Mexican male actors

Gaspar Henaine


The term  (Latin for 'before Christ [was] born'), usually abbreviated to a. Chr. n., a.Ch.n., a.C.n., A.C.N., or ACN, denotes the years before the birth of Jesus Christ. It is a Latin equivalent to the English "BC" ("before Christ"). The phrase ante Christum natum is also seen shortened to ante Christum ("before Christ"), similarly abbreviated to a. Chr., A. C.  or AC. A related phrase, p. Chr. n., p. Ch. n., or post Christum natum complements a. Ch. n. and is equivalent to  (AD).

In English, these phrases are rare and AC, ACN, and ante Christum natum are not in the Chicago Manual of Style (14th edition), the American Heritage Dictionary (3rd edition), or P. Kenneth Seidelmann's Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac (1992, University Science Books).  In other European languages, such as Italian ("a.c." or "a.C." for avanti Cristo), a vernacular version is the standard  term.

The Anglo-Saxon historian Bede used the Latin phrase  ("before the time of the Incarnation of the Lord") in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People) (Book 1, Chapter 2) of 731 PCN, and thereby became the first author to describe a year as being before Christ. Both Dionysius Exiguus and Saint Bede, who was familiar with the work of the former, regarded Anno Domini 1 as beginning on the date of the Incarnation of Jesus Christ, yet "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ's conception, i. e., the Annunciation on March 25".

See also
 Chronology of Jesus
 Common Era
 List of ecclesiastical abbreviations
 Nativity of Jesus

References

Sources

Calendar eras
Latin religious words and phrases
Nativity of Jesus

Ante Christum natum


Basin is a chanson de geste about Charlemagne's childhood.  While the Old French epic poem has been lost, the story has come down to us via a 13th-century Norse prose version in the Karlamagnús saga.

Plot
At the death of his father, an angel warns the young Charlemagne to take to the Ardennes and join up with the notorious thief Basin.  During their adventures, Charlemagne learns of a plot to kill him and, in the end, the traitors are discovered, Charlemagne is crowned and Basin the thief is rewarded.

Historical sources
The traitors in the story (Rainfroi and Helpri) are most likely based on Chilperic and Ragenfrid who were defeated by Charles Martel in 717 CE.  It is unknown if the author was acquainted with an 11th-century version of these events called Passio Agilolfi.

Influence
The names of the traitors in Basin were passed on to two other chansons de geste about Charlemagne's youth:  and . In these chansons Rainfroi and Heudri are the illegitimate sons of King Pepin the Short and the false Queen Aliste and therefore the half-brothers of Prince Charlemagne.

A twelfth century Dutch epic with a similar plot survives as Karel ende Elegast.

References
U. T. Holmes, Jr.  A History of Old French Literature from the Origins to 1300.  New York: F.S. Crofts, 1938. p.85.

Chansons de geste
French poems
Cultural depictions of Charlemagne

Basin (chanson de geste)


Bhopal Division is an administrative geographical unit of Madhya Pradesh state of central India. Bhopal is the administrative headquarters of the division.  The division consists of districts of Bhopal,  Raisen, Rajgarh, Sehore, and Vidisha.

Before they were merged into Madhya Pradesh in 1956, Bhopal, Sehore, and Raisen districts were part of the former Bhopal State, and Vidisha was part of the former Madhya Bharat state.

References

External links

Divisions of Madhya Pradesh

Bhopal division


Dustbin Baby is a children's novel by Jacqueline Wilson. It focuses on April, a fourteen-year-old girl who was abandoned by her mother in a dustbin when she was only a few minutes old. After a blazing row with her foster mother, she goes in search of her past. The book was adapted into a television film in 2008 by the BBC.

Plot summary
When she was a few minutes old, April was abandoned by her mother in a dustbin behind a local pizza restaurant. She was discovered by a young waiter there and named "April" by the hospital as she was found on April Fool's Day. She was fostered by Patricia Williams, but only lived with her a short time before being adopted. April's first stop on her fourteenth birthday is Pat's house. She finds that she remembers little of it and Pat remembers little of her. However she does befriend one of Patricia's new foster children - Tanya - a character seen before along with Pat in another of Jacqueline Wilson's books: Bad Girls.

April then visits the graveside of her adoptive mother: Janet Johnson. Janet committed suicide a few years after adopting April, while battling depression stemming from her husband's affairs and the break-up of her marriage.

April subsequently tells readers of the time she was bullied mercilessly in a foster home run by "Big Mo" and "Little Pete" by another resident, Pearl, until April took drastic action against the bullying by pushing Pearl down the stairs, causing Pearl grievous bodily injury and, consequently, April's removal from the home.

She was then sent to a residential care home called "Sunnybank Children's Home". Here, April is befriended by a much older girl called Gina. But, sooner or later, Gina calls upon April to "help" her friends in a series of burglaries after dark. When April later comes across Sunnybank, it redirects her to Gina, who is mother to a young son called Benjamin and does conferences there to steer the children to behave themselves.

After leaving Sunnybank April was taken to Fairleigh, a residential school for problem girls. Here April stayed for five years and formed a close bond with her history teacher Miss Marion Bean. After discovering April's sad life in her file Marion begins to bond with April and refers her to be moved to a mainstream school. Here April makes new friends - Hannah and Cathy - and Marion, with the help of social worker Elaine (which could be a reference to Tracy Beaker's social worker), decides to foster her.

The story ends with April finding and meeting the pizza boy, Frankie, who discovered her in the dustbin the day she was born, and resolving the fight she had with Marion at the start of the story.

Television adaptation

Dustbin Baby was dramatised by the BBC and Kindle Entertainment in 2008. It was directed by Juliet May and the screenplay was written by Helen Blakeman. Juliet Stevenson stars as Marion and Dakota Blue Richards as April. It was aired on BBC1 on Sunday 21 December 2008 at 3:25pm until 4:55pm. During its initial run on BBC One, Dustbin Baby was watched by 2.3 million viewers, giving it a 15.4% share of the audience.Both Wilson and critics responded positively to the film, with Wilson saying she thought it was the best film adaptation of any of her works. It was released on DVD on 12 January 2009. The film was nominated for several awards and even secured many of them.

References

2001 British novels
Novels by Jacqueline Wilson
Child abandonment
British children's novels
British novels adapted into films
Novels about child abuse
2001 children's books
Doubleday (publisher) books

Dustbin Baby


NXIVM Corp. v. The Ross Institute, 364 F.3d 471 (2d Cir. 2004), was a United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit decision that held that the defendant's critical analysis of material obtained in bad faith, i.e., in violation of a non-disclosure agreement, was fair use since the secondary use was transformative as criticism and was not a potential replacement for the original on the market, regardless of how the material was obtained.

NXIVM, (pronounced NEX-ee-um) was a sex trafficking cult that claimed to offer a life-improvement seminar called the "Executive Success Program" (ESP). At the time of the court case, NXIVM's status as a sex trafficking cult was not widely known to the public, and would not be until key leaders were indicted in 2018. NXIVM sued the Ross Institute and several individuals for posting quotations from a NXIVM training manual on Ross Institute's website in the context of two written critiques of the manual and NXIVM's training program. NXIVM's lawyers attempted to argue that the fair use doctrine did not apply since Ross had obtained copies of the manuscript in bad faith, i.e., he obtained them from a former ESP participant who had signed a non-disclosure agreement. Both the district court and the appeals court ruled in Ross's favor. An appeals judge stated, "Certainly, no critic should need an author's permission to make such criticism, regardless of how he came by the original; nor should publication be inhibited by a publisher's anxiety or uncertainty about an author's ethics if his secondary work is transformative."

Facts and procedural history
NXIVM was a sex trafficking organization that posed as a multi-level marketing company that offered a life-improvement seminar called the "Executive Success" program (ESP). ESP claimed to train participants in a method NXIVM claimed would improve communication and decision-making. As part of the ESP seminar, NXIVM provided a training manual to paying participants who signed non-disclosure agreements that they would not discuss or release the manual to non-participants.

As executive director of the nonprofit organization the Ross Institute, Rick Ross maintained two websites to provide information to the public about cults and other controversial groups that had complaints made against them for allegedly using deception and undue influence to manipulate participants. Ross received the NXIVM manual through a former ESP participant and commissioned reports from two mental health professionals who analyzed and critiqued the manual, quoting sections of it to support their analysis. The reports, which referred to the program as "expensive brainwashing," were made available to the public on Ross's websites. About 17 of 500 pages were republished on Ross's websites in the context of the critiques.

In 2003, NXIVM filed a federal trade-secrets lawsuit against the Ross Institute, Rick Ross, the authors of the reports, and the former ESP participant who provided the manual to them, alleging copyright infringement for their use of quotations from NXIVM's "secret" manual in the online critical reports of the manual and training program, arguing that the fair use doctrine should not apply since the manual had been obtained through the violation of a nondisclosure agreement, constituting bad faith.

Finding that the reports were likely protected by the fair use doctrine, the district court denied NXIVM's motion seeking a preliminary injunction directing Ross to remove the material from his websites. NXIVM appealed the decision to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.

Issue
The issue before the Court was whether a fair use defense was available where the materials used were obtained in bad faith.

Opinion of the court
The court noted that defendants' misconduct in obtaining unauthorized material is one of several relevant factors in a fair use defense as set forth by the Supreme Court in Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises, but that obtaining the manuscript in bad faith does not preclude a fair use defense.

The court weighed the four fair use factors to determine if Ross's use was fair, and made the following findings:

  The purpose and character of the use was transformative as criticism and favored the defendants even if the defendants' bad faith in obtaining the manual favored the plaintiffs.
 The nature of the copyrighted work was unpublished and favored the plaintiffs.
 The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole did not favor the plaintiffs as (1) it was reasonable for the defendants to quote liberally from the manual in order to critically comment on it and (2) there was no identifiable "heart" of the manual.
 The market inquiry heavily favored the defendants because, "as a general matter, criticisms of a seminar or organization cannot substitute for the seminar or organization itself or hijack its market."

The court ruled in favor of the defendants and affirmed the denial of the preliminary injunction, stating,
If criticisms on defendants' websites kill the demand for plaintiffs' service, that is the price that, under the First Amendment, must be paid in the open marketplace for ideas...Certainly, no critic should need an author's permission to make such criticism, regardless of how he came by the original; nor should publication be inhibited by a publisher's anxiety or uncertainty about an author's ethics if his secondary work is transformative.

See also
 Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.

References

External links

 Summary and related court documents at Citizen Media Law Project
"A Forensic Psychiatrist Evaluates ESP", NXIVM report on Cult Education Institute's website (formerly The Ross Institute)

United States copyright case law
Fair use case law
NXIVM
2004 in United States case law

NXIVM Corp. v. Ross Institute


Star Trek Generations: Beyond the Nexus is a Star Trek video game released for the Nintendo Game Boy and Game Gear in 1994. It was developed and released by Absolute Entertainment, who back in 1993 released "Star Trek: The Next Generation - The Advanced Holodeck Tutorial". The space combat was adapted for the new game and further gameplay modes were added. The new game was developed for the film Star Trek Generations.

Plot
The game loosely followed the plot of the then-recently released Star Trek Generations motion picture. Notable departures included an additional battle against Tholian forces, a Romulan ambush involving both space and ground combat at Amargosa Station, and a different resolution to the capture of Geordi La Forge.

Gameplay
The game combines three different styles of play with minor differences from level to level. Spaceflight is done in a primitive pseudo-3D environment. Players steer their ship from a first-person point of view, moving between markers or using phasers and later photon torpedoes to attack enemy vessels. On-foot levels are played from a top-down perspective and involve either phaser combat or labyrinth-like pathfinding. The remaining levels consist of simple puzzles such as symbol matching.

Differences between platforms
The Game Boy and Game Gear versions of the game are identical, save for their colour palette: while the GB version is limited to monochrome graphics (or a limited palette when played through a Super Game Boy adapter), the Game Gear version features full colour visuals.

Reception
GamePro panned the Game Boy version, saying that the mediocre controls make the opening combat sequence so frustratingly difficult that most players will give up before seeing the bulk of the game. They also criticized the graphics.

References

External links

1994 video games
Absolute Entertainment games
Game Boy games
Game Gear games
Beyond The Nexus
Video games scored by Mark Van Hecke
Video games developed in the United States
Single-player video games

Star Trek Generations: Beyond the Nexus


John Collis Nesbit (12 July 1818 – 30 March 1862) was an English agricultural chemist.

Family life and education
Nesbit was born on 12 July 1818 at Bradford, Yorkshire, the son of Anthony Nesbit, a teacher, and land surveyor.  Nesbit was educated at home and demonstrated an interest in the sciences and studied under John Dalton in Manchester.

Adult life
Nesbit helped introduce the natural sciences into his father's school in Kennington, in 1841. Later, he took over the school and turned it into a chemical and agricultural college.

Nesbit started a consulting practice that undertook the commercial analysis of superphosphates and other artificial manures for farmers and manufacturers.

He became a Fellow of the Geological Society of London and the Chemical Society in 1845.

Nesbit discovered important phosphate deposits in the Ardennes in 1855, and wrote about guano fertilizers (The History and Properties of Natural Guanos, 1860) and other naturally occurring phosphates.

His son was Alfred Antony Nesbit (1854–1894), analytical chemist, and his daughter was Edith Nesbit, writer of popular children's books & co-founder of the Fabian Society.

Nesbit died at the home of a friend in Barnes, 30 March 1862, and was interred in the catacombs at West Norwood Cemetery.

Sources
Nesbit, John Collis (1818–1862), R. B. Prosser, rev. E. L. Scott, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography

1818 births
1862 deaths
Scientists from Bradford
19th-century British chemists
Burials at West Norwood Cemetery

John Collis Nesbit


Aristide Cavaillé-Coll (born in Montpellier, 4 February 1811; died in Paris, 13 October 1899) was a French organ-builder. He invented many new mechanical devices and his organs changed the way that composers could write for the instrument. César Franck, Alexandre Guilmant, and Charles-Marie Widor, in particular, were strongly influenced by the new type of organ that he was building.

Cavaillé-Coll grouped the stops of the organ into different families, so that the result was similar to the families of instruments in an orchestra.  He made the lowest of the manuals (keyboards) the most important one.  It was called the "Great" (French: "Grande Orgue").  The other manuals - there were usually two others, but sometimes three - could be "coupled" to the Great.  He made changes to the English swell box, improved its operation, and divided the windchests on which the pipes were resting.  This made it possible to have louder reed stops because of the higher wind pressure.

Other websites
 Association Aristide Cavaille-Coll

1811 births
1899 deaths
Organ builders
French businesspeople
People from Montpellier

Aristide Cavaillé-Coll


Rudolf Egelhofer, in some sources also Eglhofer (13 April 1896, in Schwabing – 3 May 1919, in Munich) was a German sailor, member of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and in April 1919 the City Commandant and "Red Army" commander of the Munich Council Republic.

Life
Rudolf Egelhofer was born in apparently barren conditions in the family of sign painter Friedrich Egelhofer and his wife Maria. He early on joined the Imperial German Navy, but apparently still young Rudolf had a disregard for authority. Already in 1913, as a 17-year-old ship's boy, he absenteed for the first time from his unit without permission, as evidenced by police files. Egelhofer also served in World War I as Marine infantry on the Western Front in Flanders.

In 1918 he was involved in the Kiel Mutiny that triggered the November Revolution. There he was apparently arrested and allegedly sentenced to death. On 15 February 1919, he returned to his hometown together with 600 other armed sailors from Wilhelmshaven. There, under Kurt Eisner's (USPD) leadership the Wittelsbach Monarchy had been overthrown on 7 November, and the Freestate Bavaria had been proclaimed as a republic with Eisner as prime minister of an SPD/USPD government.

On 10 January Egelhofer rose at a Spartakist protest meeting in the Bavarian Foreign Ministry building and told the Council of Ministers, that a gathering of 5000 workers demanded the proclamation of a Council Republic, removal of the city commander Oskar Dürr (1877-1959, SPD politician and Tsar of Russia's vice consul in Munich), diplomatic relations with the Soviets in Russia and the establishment of a Red Army.

After Eisner's murder on 21 February 1919 the situation worsened. Egelhofer was directly involved in the revolutionary soldiers' council movement and joined the KPD. He was considered courageous, energetic and apparently also had a certain talent for speaking in public. The author Oskar Maria Graf wrote in his book Wir sind Gefangene about the first Red Army parade in Munich's Ludwigstrasse: "From an open window spoke E(n)gelhofer, the army commander. Determined and unaffected, in a sailor's uniform, he stood there, sometimes raising his fist. Whoever heard him, had to believe him."
Egelhofer became active as military leader for the first time in the successful rejection of the attempted coup on 13 April known as the Palm Sunday Putsch against the Munich Council Republic, which only had been in existence for a week since 7 April. Revolutionary troops under his leadership stormed the Munich Central Station, held by supporters of the SPD exile government, who had fled to Bamberg. The coup failed, and the same day Egelhofer was appointed city commander by the Munich Council, now dominated by KPD members as Eugen Leviné and Max Levien. Shortly after he was appointed leader of Munich's "Red Army" consisting of soldiers and workers.

He was replaced by the pacifist author Ernst Toller. The task, to within a few days organize the defense of Munich with an estimated 20,000 barely trained, poorly armed and highly motivated soldiers and workers against the approaching superiority of the "white" troops – Reichswehr army units and right-wing Nationalist Freikorps – which were called in by the Bamberg SPD leadership under Johannes Hoffmann, was not salvageable for the young seaman.

In the first days of May, the government troops overran the city. Sustained resistance only existed in a few places. Egelhofer was unable to enforce the idea of gathering relatives of the "Bourgeoisie" in the Theresienwiese and shooting them when the "whites" invaded the city. However, he gave written consent to the shooting of ten hostages, mainly from the Thule Society environment, in the Munich Luitpold Gymnasium. The "Munich Hostage Murder" became the only documented evidence of the later claimed "red terror" during the council's reign.

Massive terror was however, exercised in the following years by the victorious "white" troops in Munich. Hundreds were shot dead or murdered. In total, more than 2,200 supporters of the Council Republic were condemned to death or imprisonment by tribunals. The 23-year-old Egelhofer as one of the most prominent representatives of the Communist council rule was discovered and arrested on 1 May 1919 in his hiding place in an apartment on Maximilianstraße. After severe maltreatment he was shot dead without trial on 3 May at the Munich Residenz city palace, where he was being held.

Commemorations

In East Germany, an Osa-class missile boat (1964), a Tarantul-class missile boat (1985, today USNS Hiddensee) and the NCO (noncommissioned officer) school I, later training center 6 of the land forces of the National People's Army in Haide near Weißwasser were named after Rudolf Egelhofer. There was a Rudolf Egelhofer Oberschule in Rostock, a Rudolf Egelhofer road exists to this day in Strausberg. In Munich, apparently nothing is named after Egelhofer. Since October 2016, a commemorative plaque has been erected on the grave in the Munich Nordfriedhof. Also commemorative coins and porcelain plates with Egelhofer exists.

References

 Friedrich Hitzer: Der Mord im Hofbräuhaus. Unbekanntes und Vergessenes aus der Baierischen Räterepublik. Röderberg. Frankfurt am Main 1981. .
 Bernhard Grau: Rote Armee, 1919. In: Historisches Lexikon Bayerns. 23. December 2009, retrieved 25 July 2012.

1919 deaths
1896 births
Communist Party of Germany members
People of the German Revolution of 1918–1919
German communists
German revolutionaries
Council communists
Imperial German Navy personnel of World War I
Bavarian Soviet Republic
People executed by the Weimar Republic
People executed by Germany by firing squad
Executed communists
Executed German mass murderers
Executed revolutionaries
Extrajudicial killings
War criminals

Rudolf Egelhofer


The Evangelical Indigenous Mission in Madagascar (Misiona Evanjelika Teratany eto Madagasikara)  is an Evangelical and Reformed denomination in Madagascar. The founder of the church was Pastor Rakatobe Adriamaro who was associated with the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society. The founding date is in 1955. In 2004 it had 105,000 members and 450 parishes served by 210 ordained clergy. There are 28 regional Synods and a General Assembly.

References

Reformed denominations in Africa
1955 establishments in Madagascar


Executive Order 11246, signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson on September 24, 1965, established requirements for non-discriminatory practices in hiring and employment on the part of U.S. government contractors. It "prohibits federal contractors and federally assisted construction contractors and subcontractors, who do over $10,000 in Government business in one year from discriminating in employment decisions on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin." It also requires contractors to "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, color, religion, sex or national origin." The phrase affirmative action had appeared previously in Executive Order 10925 in 1961.

Background
It followed up Executive Order 10479, signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on August 13, 1953, which established the anti-discrimination Committee on Government Contracts, which was itself based on a similar Executive Order 8802, issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1941. Eisenhower's executive order has been amended and updated by at least six executive orders. It differed significantly from the requirements of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which required organizations only to document their practices once there was a preliminary finding of wrongdoing. The executive order required the businesses that were covered to maintain and furnish documentation of hiring and employment practices upon request.

The executive order also required contractors with 51 or more employees and contracts of $50,000 or more to implement affirmative action plans to increase the participation of minorities and women in the workplace if a workforce analysis demonstrates their under-representation, meaning that there are fewer minorities and women than would be expected given the numbers of minorities and women qualified to hold the positions available. Federal regulations require affirmative action plans to include an equal opportunity policy statement, an analysis of the current work force, identification of under-represented areas, the establishment of reasonable, flexible goals and timetables for increasing employment opportunities, specific action-oriented programs to address problem areas, support for community action programs, and the establishment of an internal audit and reporting system.

It assigned the responsibility for enforcing parts of the non-discrimination in contracts with private industry to the Department of Labor. Detailed regulations for compliance with the Order were not issued until 1969, when the Nixon administration made affirmative action part of its civil rights strategy.

In 1971, a three-judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit affirmed the validity of Executive Order 11246 in a case brought by the Contractors Association of Eastern Pennsylvania in January 1970 that challenged the Nixon administration's implementation, known as the Philadelphia Plan. In April 1971, the court rejected numerous challenges to the order, including claims that it was beyond the president's constitutional authority, was inconsistent with Titles VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and was inconsistent with the National Labor Relations Act. The Supreme Court of the United States declined to hear the case, Contractors Association of Eastern Pennsylvania v. Secretary of Labor, in October.

In 1986, the Reagan administration was opposed to the affirmative action requirements of the executive order and contemplated modifying it to prohibit employers from using "quotas, goals, or other numerical objectives, or any scheme[,] device, or technique that discriminates against, or grants any preference to, any person on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin." The contemplated change was never issued because it faced bipartisan opposition in Congress that threatened to counteract it by enacting Executive Order 11246 into law by a veto-proof majority.

Amendments
On October 13, 1967 Executive Order 11375 amended Executive Order 11246 adding the category "sex" to the anti-discrimination provisions.

On July 21, 2014, Executive Order 13672 amended Executive Order 11246 and Executive Order 11478 to change "sexual orientation" to "sexual orientation, gender identity".

See also
Executive order (United States)

References

External links

 Text of Executive Order No. 11246
Executive Order 11246 from the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration website.

1965 in American law
History of civil rights in the United States
Executive Orders of Lyndon B. Johnson
History of affirmative action in the United States
Civil rights movement

Executive Order 11246


Terry Daly (born 7 July 1953 in Dublin, Ireland) is a former Irish association football player who played as a midfielder.

Daly was part of the Athlone Town side that played AC Milan in the 1975–76 UEFA Cup and was a key member of that team. Having finished in 2nd place the previous season, Athlone earned a place in the 1975-76 UEFA Cup, the first time they had ever qualified for European competition. Their first-round game was against Norwegian side Vålerenga who they beat 4–2 on aggregate with Daly playing in both games. In the second-round, Athlone were drawn against Italian giants AC Milan drawing 0–0 in the first leg at St. Mel's Park setting a record attendance of 9,000 before losing the second leg at the San Siro 3–0. Daly would start both games for Athlone. During the summer of 1977, he was part of the roster of the North American Soccer League (NASL) team the St Louis Stars, wearing the number 7 shirt. In that era, with footballers often struggling to make ends meet, it was fairly commonplace for English and Irish-based players to spend the summer months playing in North America to earn extra cash. Daly played one season with the Stars in the 1977 NASL season, making 19 appearances and registering two goals and one assist. The Stars would finish second in the Northern Division before losing to the Rochester Lancers in the playoffs.

He departed Athlone for Dundalk in the summer of 1979, making his debut in a 1–0 win over Northern Irish side Glenavon on 2 August in the Tyler Cup. He was at Oriel Park for just one season, moving on to county rivals Drogheda United the following summer where he also spent one season.

Daly was on the move again one year later when he signed for Shelbourne ahead of the 1981–82 season and after three years with the Reds he joined Home Farm in the summer of 1984. Two more years followed with Farm before Daly rounded off his League of Ireland career with one final season at Drogheda United in 1986–87.

Honours
Dundalk
LFA President's Cup: 1979–80

References

Republic of Ireland men's association footballers
Republic of Ireland expatriate men's association footballers
North American Soccer League (1968–1984) players
St. Louis Stars (soccer) players
Shelbourne F.C. players
Athlone Town A.F.C. players
Home Farm F.C. players
Dundalk F.C. players
Drogheda United F.C. players
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States
Irish expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Men's association football forwards
1953 births
Living people
Association footballers from County Dublin

Terry Daly


First Presbyterian Church of Atlanta is a congregation of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) located in the Midtown section of Atlanta, Georgia. First Presbyterian Church was founded in 1848, and it was Atlanta's first Presbyterian house of worship. The original church building on Marietta Street was vacated in April 1916 and the property was sold to the U.S. government for the construction of the headquarters of the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta.  The current church building on Peachtree Street was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2020.

The church, which hosts a congregation of 2,000 members, is located across 16th Street from the High Museum of Art.

First Presbyterian Church of Atlanta's History
When the church was founded on January 8, 1848 there were only nineteen Presbyterians worshiping at the log building known as the male academy. "This church was incorporated in February, 1854." "The name under which it was first incorporated was the 'First Presbyterian Church of Atlanta,' and it was the only Presbyterian church in the city." The founding pastor of First Presbyterian Church was Dr. John S. Wilson.  In 1915 the church completed a Sunday School building at the new location where the first service was held on December 5, 1915.  The new sanctuary, which was designed by Walter T. Downing (1865-1918), was completed in 1919. The first stained glass windows, some by Tiffany, were installed then and over the next few years.

First Presbyterian Sunday morning worship service was broadcast on local WSB (AM) radio.  The only time the service on the radio was suspended was September 3, 1939, when the United Kingdom declared war on Germany and brought the world to the brink of World War II.  In 1973, the church received its first black member since the days of slavery.  Now the church is led by Dr. Tony Sundermeier who became pastor in 2014.

Purpose
"It is our purpose as a congregation of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.),
to be and become
a community of grace
a people of praise
a loving congregation
rooted in tradition, open to the Spirit
disciples who proclaim and serve
the Lord Jesus Christ
in all we say and do
to the glory of God
for the salvation of humankind
for the healing and hope of the city, and
for the reconciliation and peace of the world."

Organ

After finishing the church in 1919 the first organ was constructed by Henry Pilcher's Sons in 1919 with 4 manuals. In 1920 the Echo- and Solo-sections were added, and the organ had 48 stops. In 1969 organ builder M. P. Möller (Hagerstown/MD) built a completely new organ, using some stops from the Pilcher's organ from 1919. In 1992 the instrument was restored and enlarged. In 2018 the instrument again was cleaned and restored and newly enlarged by German organ builder Klais (Bonn) and US organ builder A. E. Schlueter. The Instrument has 112 ranks (6.397 pipes) on 10 divisions, with a control system by Syndyne.

Main Organ (Chancel)

Gallery Organ

 Couplers
 8'-Couplers: CH/GT, POS/GT, CH/SW, POS/SW, CH/SOLO, POS/SOLO, GT/CH, GT/POS, SW/CH, SW/POS, SW/GT, SOLO/CH, SOLO/POS, SOLO/GT, SOLO/SW; GT(Gal)/CH, GT(Gal)/POS, GT(Gal)/GT, GT(Gal)/SW, GT(Gal)/SOLO, SW(Gal)/CH, SW(Gal)/POS, SW(Gal)/GT, SW(Gal)/SW, SW(Gal)/SOLO, ECHO(Gal)/GT, ECHO(Gal)/CH, ECHO(Gal)/POS, ECHO(Gal)/SW, ECHO(Gal)/SOLO; CH/Ped, POS/Ped, GT/Ped, SW/Ped, SOLO/Ped; GT(Gal)/Ped, SW(Gal)/Ped, ECHO(Gal)/Ped
 16'-Couplers: CH/GT, POS/GT, SW/CH, SW/POS, SW/GT, SOLO/CH, SOLO/POS, SOLO/GT; GT(Gal)/GT, SW(Gal)/GT, ECHO(Gal)/GT; GT(Gal)/GT(Gal), SW(Gal)/SW(Gal), ECHO(Gal)/ECHO(Gal)
 4'-Couplers: CH/GT, POS/GT, SW/CH, SW/POS, SW/GT, SOLO/CH, SOLO/POS, SOLO/GT; GT(Gal)/GT, SW(Gal)/GT, ECHO(Gal)/GT; GT(Gal)/GT(Gal), SW(Gal)/SW(Gal), ECHO(Gal)/ECHO(Gal); CH/Ped, POS/Ped, GT/Ped, SW/Ped, SOLO/Ped; GT(Gal)/Ped, SW(Gal)/Ped, ECHO(Gal)/Ped
 ORCHESTRAL-Couplers: ORCH/I, ORCH/II, ORCH/III, ORCH/IV, ORCH/PED
 Effect stops: Zimbelstern, Tower Bells
 Special Features
 Full record playback on Touch Screen
 Programmable Crescendo, 4 different per user
 Up to 50 users with 100 levels of memory each
 2 blank pistons that allow programming non standard coupling at any pitch
 Sostenuto
 All Swells to Swell
 Registerfessel
 Pedal Divide (Settable Divide, default C13)
 French Manual Transfer

References

External links
First Presbyterian Church of Atlanta web site

Presbyterian churches in Atlanta
Midtown Atlanta
National Register of Historic Places in Fulton County, Georgia

First Presbyterian Church of Atlanta


The posterior sternoclavicular ligament is a band of fibers, covering the posterior surface of the sternoclavicular joint.  It is attached above to the upper and back part of the sternal end of the clavicle, and, passing obliquely downward and medialward, is fixed below to the back of the upper part of the manubrium sterni.

It is in relation, in front, with the articular disk and synovial membranes; behind, with the Sternohyoideus and Sternothyreoideus.

References

Ligaments of the upper limb

Posterior sternoclavicular ligament


Chipperfield is a village and civil parish in the Dacorum district of Hertfordshire, England, approximately five miles southwest of Hemel Hempstead and five miles north of Watford. It stands on a chalk plateau at the edge of the Chiltern Hills, between 130 and 160 metres above sea level.

The village green is at the centre of Chipperfield on the edge of the 117 acre Chipperfield Common. The rural parish includes the hamlet of Tower Hill.

History
Prehistoric activity in the area is testified by the presence of two tumuli on the common. Besides being burial mounds these may have designated the boundary of lands worked by Bronze Age communities in the Gade and Chess valleys.

For centuries Chipperfield was an outlying settlement of Kings Langley consisting only of scattered houses. The first documentary evidence of the name is found in 1316, when Edward II bequeathed 'the Manor House of Langley the closes adjoining together with the vesture of Chepervillewode for Fewel and other Necessaries' to the Dominican Black Friars.

The name is probably derived from the Anglo-Saxon ceapere meaning a trader together with feld meaning field. This suggests that there was some form of market or trading of goods here in early times.

The Manor House, on the east side of the common, is a late medieval hall house but was extensively rebuilt by Thomas Gulston, before 1591. It is a Grade II* listed building.

By the 1830s Chipperfield was large enough to warrant the building of both Anglican and Baptist churches and became a separate ecclesiastical parish in 1848.

For a number of years the Lords of the Manor were the Blackwell family who were benefactors to the village. Two of the family's sons were killed during World War One. Second Lieutenant Charles Blackwell (4th battalion, Royal Fusiliers) was wounded at the Second Battle of Ypres and died in France in July 1915. Lieutenant William Gordon Blackwell (8th battalion, Royal Fusiliers), the younger of the two brothers, was killed in action during the Battle of the Somme on 5 October 1916. As a memorial the Blackwell family gave the village the village club, which remained a club until recently. It has now been renamed Blackwells and is both a bar and cafe open to the public next to the common.

The names of 38 local men who died in World War One are inscribed on the War Memorial on the village green and repeated on a memorial plaque inside the church. An additional name appears on a war grave in the churchyard. There are also the names of 10 men who died in World War Two.

In 1936 Chipperfield Common was gifted to the local authority to be maintained in consultation with the people of Chipperfield.

Since the end of World War II the village has dramatically expanded with housing estates built during the 1940s and an extensive council estate to the east of Croft Lane built in the 1960s.

In 1963 Chipperfield was split off from Kings Langley and Chipperfield Parish Council was created.

In 1959 the actor and comedian Peter Sellers purchased the Manor House on the east side of the common. He lived there until 1962 attracting many famous stars and film moguls to visit him in the village.

The former U.S. President Jimmy Carter can trace his family roots to John Carter of Jeffery's Farm, situated to the south east of the village.

Description

Perhaps the most significant feature is the common, comprising 47.5 ha (117 acres) of secondary growth woodland to the south of the village. The common is criss-crossed by way-marked paths and contains eight veteran Spanish sweet chestnut trees (Castanea sativa), one having a girth of about 21 feet. They are estimated to date back to the 1600s and believed to be descended from specimens brought from Spain in the Middle Ages. Tradition has it they were planted "for the delight of Isabel of Castile". Isabel of Castile (1355–1392) was the first Duchess of York, the wife of Edmund Langley who lived in the nearby Royal Palace of Kings Langley. The common has several ponds, notably the Apostles Pond, which has twelve lime trees surrounding it and was once a monastery fishpond.

The village cricket club has a green and pavilion on the northern edge of the common. Two Brewers Inn stands adjacent to the common. It was founded by Robert Waller as an ale house in 1799, originally the middle one of a row of three cottages. It eventually took over its neighbours to make a long frontage on the green. A modern hotel extension has been built to the rear. The pub acquired fame as the training quarters for many notable 19th-century prize-fighters such as Jem Mace, Thomas Sayers and Bob Fitzsimmons who sparred in the Club Room and took their runs round the nearby Chipperfield Common. Facilities in the village include two more pubs, a shop, post office, Kia and Land Rover dealerships, a delicatessen, an Indian restaurant and two garden centres.

Chipperfield has three churches: Church of England, Catholic and Baptist. It also has a primary school, St Pauls C of E, with strong ties to the church, which is located adjacent to the school.

Next to the school are the cafe-bar (formerly village club) Blackwell's, and the tennis courts owned by Chipperfield Tennis Club.

Every year, a pantomime is held in the Village Hall, which is organised by the Chipperfield Theatre Group.

There is a lively range of musical activity in the village centred mainly on St Paul's Church, which boasts a fine three manual organ. The choir mounts several choral evensong services each year and a remarkable diversity of concerts, some with orchestra. The Festival of Lessons and Carols at Christmas is accompanied by organ and orchestra and attracts a packed church. Chipperfield Choral Society rehearses in the Village Hall and maintains a popular following at its concerts both at St Paul's and elsewhere, locally. The Cricket Club periodically hosts Jazz concerts.

Chipperfield Corinthians FC football team play in the top division of the Herts County Senior League, with a reserve team in the Herts County Reserve and Development West League.

In order to preserve its rural feeling the village has very little street lighting.

References

External links

Chipperfield Village website - contains a vast amount of information about the village and photos of the notable landmarks and views
Chipperfield News - Village History
Chipperfield Theatre Group
The village cricket club
St Pauls Chipperfield Church
Chipperfield Conservation Area Description - Dacorum Borough Council

Villages in Hertfordshire
Dacorum
Civil parishes in Hertfordshire

Chipperfield


Hellingly is a small village in East Sussex, England. Hellingly School has about 209 students.

There is a very small park in Hellingly.

Hellingly  has a church called St Peter and St Paul. Children from  Hellingly use the church for harvest festivals and Christmas carol services.

Villages in East Sussex
Civil parishes in East Sussex

Hellingly