The Duchy of Aquitaine (, ; , ) was a historical fiefdom in western, central, and southern areas of present-day France to the south of the river Loire, although its extent, as well as its name, fluctuated greatly over the centuries, at times comprising much of what is now southwestern France (Gascony) and central France.

It originated in the 7th century as a duchy of Francia, ultimately a recreation of the Roman provinces of . As a duchy, it broke up after the conquest of the independent Aquitanian duchy of Waiofar, going on to become a sub-kingdom within the Carolingian Empire. It was then absorbed by West Francia after the 843 partition of Verdun and soon reappeared as a duchy under it. In 1153, an enlarged Aquitaine pledged loyalty to the Angevin kings of England. As a result, a rivalry emerged between the French monarchs and the Angevins over control of the latter's territorial possessions in France. By the mid-13th century, only Gascony remained in Angevin hands. The Hundred Years' War finally saw the kingdom of France gain full control over Aquitaine in the 1450s, with much of its territory directly incorporated into the French royal domain itself.

History

Early history

Gallia Aquitania fell under Visigothic rule in the 5th century. It was conquered by the Franks under Clovis I in 507, as a result of the Battle of Vouillé. During the 6th and early 7th century, it was under direct rule of Frankish kings, divided between the realms of Childebert II and Guntram in the Treaty of Andelot of 587. Under Chlothar II, Aquitaine was again integral part of Francia, but after Chlothar's death in 629, his heir Dagobert I granted a subkingdom in southern Aquitaine to his younger brother Charibert II. This subkingdom, consisting of Gascony and the southern fringe of Aquitaine proper, is conventionally known as "Aquitaine" and forms the historical basis for the later duchy.
Charibert campaigned successfully against the Basques, but after his death in 632, they revolted again, in 635 subdued by an army sent by Dagobert (who was at the same time forced to deal with a rebellion in Brittany).

The duchy of Aquitaine as a quasi-independent realm within the Frankish empire established itself during the second half of the 7th century, certainly by 700 under Odo the Great. The first duke is on record under the name of Felix, and as having ruled from about 660. As his successor, Lupus held loose ties with the Frankish kings, ruling autonomously (princeps). Odo succeeded Lupus in 700 and signed a peace treaty with Charles Martel. He inflicted on the Moors a crushing defeat at the Battle of Toulouse in 721.
However, Charles Martel coveted the southern realm, crossed the Loire in 731 and looted much of Aquitaine. Odo engaged the Franks in battle, but lost and came out weakened. Soon after this battle, in 732, the Moors raided Vasconia and Aquitaine as far north as Poitiers and defeated Odo twice near Bordeaux. Odo saw no option but to invoke the aid of Charles Martel and pledge allegiance to the Frankish prince.

Odo was succeeded by his son Hunald, who reverted to former independence, so defying the Frankish Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel's authority. The Carolingian leader attacked Hunald twice in 735 and 736, but was unable to totally subdue the duke and an army put together by counts of key Aquitanian towns, e.g. Bourges, Limoges, etc. Eventually, Hunald retired to a monastery, leaving both the kingdom and the continuing conflict to Waifer, or Guaifer. Following the full occupation of Septimania in 759, Pepin turned now his attention to Aquitaine, initiating a cyclical military campaign that lasted for eight years, i.e. the War of Aquitaine. Waifer strenuously carried on an unequal struggle with the Carolingian Franks, but his assassination in 768 marked the demise of Aquitaine's relative independence. Aquitaine underwent during these years intensive destruction of urban, economic, military and intellectual centres. Pepin's forces destroyed up to 36 monasteries.

As a successor state to the Roman province of Gallia Aquitania and the Visigothic Kingdom (418–721), Aquitania (Aquitaine) and Languedoc (Toulouse) inherited the Visigothic Law and Roman Law which had combined to allow women more rights than their contemporaries in other parts of Europe. Particularly with the Liber Judiciorum, which was codified in 642 and 643 and expanded in the Code of Recceswinth in 653, women could inherit land and title and manage it independently from their husbands or male relations, dispose of their property in legal wills if they had no heirs, and women could represent themselves and bear witness in court by age 14 and arrange for their own marriages by age 20. As a consequence, male-preference primogeniture was the practiced succession law for the nobility.

Carolingian kingdom of Aquitaine

The autonomous and troublesome duchy of Aquitaine was conquered by the Franks in 769, after a series of revolts against their suzerainty. In order to avoid a new demonstration of Aquitain particularism, Charlemagne decided to organize the land within his kingdom.

After the Carolingian conquest, the duchy ceased to exist as such, whose powers were taken over by the counts (dukes) of Toulouse, main seat of the Carolingian government in the Midi, represented by Chorso and, after being deposed, by Charlemagne's trustee William (of Gellone), a close relative of his. In 781, he made his third son Louis, then three years of age, king of Aquitaine. The Carolingian Kingdom of Aquitaine subordinated to the Carolingian king or (later) emperor based in Francia (Austrasia, Neustria). It included not only Aquitaine proper, but also Gothia, Vasconia (Gascony) and the Carolingian possessions in Spain as well. In 806, Charlemagne planned to divide his empire between his sons. Louis received Provence and Burgundy as additions to his kingdom.

When Louis succeeded Charlemagne as emperor in 814, he granted Aquitaine to his son Pepin I, after whose death in 838 the nobility of Aquitaine chose his son Pepin II of Aquitaine (d. 865) as their king. The emperor Louis I, however, opposed this arrangement and gave the kingdom to his youngest son Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles the Bald. Confusion and conflict resulted, eventually falling in favor of Charles; although from 845 to 852 Pepin II was in possession of the kingdom, at Eastertide 848 in Limoges, the magnates and prelates of Aquitaine formally elected Charles as their king. Later, at Orléans, he was anointed and crowned by Wenilo, archbishop of Sens. In 852, Pepin II was imprisoned by Charles the Bald, who soon afterwards pronounced his own son Charles as the ruler of Aquitaine. On the death of the younger Charles in 866, his brother Louis the Stammerer succeeded to the kingdom, and when, in 877, Louis became king of the Franks, Aquitaine was fully absorbed into the Frankish crown.

By a treaty made in 845 between Charles the Bald and Pepin II, the kingdom had been diminished by the loss of Poitou, Saintonge and Angoumois in the northwest of the region, which had been given to Rainulf I, count of Poitiers. The title of Duke of Aquitaine, already revived, was now borne by Rainulf, although it was also claimed by the counts of Toulouse. The new duchy of Aquitaine, including the three districts already mentioned, remained in the hands of Ramulf's successors, despite disagreement with their Frankish overlords, until 893 when Count Rainulf II was poisoned by order of King Charles III, or Charles the Simple. Charles then bestowed the duchy upon William the Pious, count of Auvergne, the founder of the abbey of Cluny, who was succeeded in 918 by his nephew, Count William II, who died in 926.

A succession of dukes followed, one of whom, William IV, fought against Hugh Capet, king of France, and another of whom, William V, called the Great, was able to strengthen and extend his authority considerably, although he yielded the proffered Lombard crown rather than fight Conrad II for it. William's duchy almost reached the limits of the old Roman Gallia Aquitania but did not stretch south of the Garonne, a district which was in the possession of the Gascons. William died in 1030. Odo or Eudes (d. 1039) joined Gascony to Aquitaine.

Angevin Empire
The Ramnulfids had become the dominant power in southwestern France by the end of the 11th century. By marriage rather than conquest, their possessions passed into the "Angevin Empire" under the English crown by 1153.

William IX, Duke of Aquitaine (d. 1127), who succeeded to the dukedom in 1087, gained fame as a crusader and a troubadour. His granddaughter, Eleanor of Aquitaine, succeeded the duchy at the age of 15 as the eldest daughter and heir of William X (d. 1137) — as his son did not live past childhood. She married Louis, heir to the French throne, three months after her father's death due to the quick-thinking of Louis's father, Louis VI of France, who did not want to leave a territory such as Aquitaine governed by a child of fifteen. When Louis VI died, and Eleanor's new husband became King Louis VII, the Duchy of Aquitaine officially came under the rule of the French Crown, and for fifteen years, Louis VII had territory that rivaled that of the English crown and the Counts of Toulouse. The marriage was later annulled on the grounds of consanguinity by a bishop on 21 March 1152, and she kept her lands and title as Duchess of Aquitaine in her own right. On 18 May 1152, she married Henry, Duke of Normandy, the son of Empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, and a claimant to the English throne. When he defeated his mother's cousin, King Stephen, in 1153 and became King of England as Henry II, Aquitaine merged with the English crown.

Having suppressed a revolt in his new possession, Henry gave it to his son Richard. When Richard died in 1199, it reverted to Eleanor, and on her death in 1204, it was inherited by her son John and absorbed into the English crown permanently. The duchy henceforward followed the fortunes of the other English possessions in France, such as Normandy and Anjou, ultimately leading to the Hundred Years' War between England and France.

Aquitaine as it came to the English kings stretched from the Loire to the Pyrenees, but its range was limited to the southeast by the extensive lands of the counts of Toulouse. The name Guienne, a corruption of Aquitaine, seems to have come into use about the 10th century, and the subsequent history of Aquitaine is merged in that of Gascony and Guienne.

Hundred Years' War

In 1337, King Philip VI of France reclaimed the fief of Aquitaine (essentially corresponding to Gascony) from Eleanor's descendant, Edward III of England. Edward in turn claimed the entire Kingdom of France as the only grandson of King Philip IV of France. This triggered the Hundred Years' War, in which both the Plantagenets and the House of Valois claimed supremacy over Aquitaine. In 1360, both sides signed the Treaty of Brétigny, in which Edward renounced his claim to the French crown but remained sovereign Lord of Aquitaine (rather than merely duke). However, when the treaty was broken in 1369, both these English claims and the war resumed. In 1362, Edward III, as Lord of Aquitaine, made his eldest son Edward the Black Prince, Prince of Aquitaine. In 1390, King Richard II, son of Edward the Black Prince, appointed his uncle John of Gaunt as Duke of Aquitaine. That title passed on to John's descendants although they belonged to the crown because John of Gaunt's son, Henry IV, managed to successfully usurp the crown from Richard II, therefore 'inheriting' the title Lord of Aquitaine from his father, which was passed down to his descendants as they became Kings. His son, Henry V of England, ruled over Aquitaine as King of England and Lord of Aquitaine from 1413 to 1422. He invaded France and emerged victorious at the siege of Harfleur and the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. He succeeded in obtaining the French crown for his family by the Treaty of Troyes in 1420. Henry V died in 1422, and his son Henry VI inherited the French throne at the age of less than a year; his reign saw the gradual loss of English control of France.

The Valois kings of France, claiming supremacy over Aquitaine, granted the title of duke to their heirs, the Dauphins, during 1345 and 1415: John II (1345–50), Charles VII (1392?–1401), and Louis (1401–1415). French victory was complete with the Battle of Castillon of 1453. England and France nominally remained at war for another 20 years, but England was in no position to continue its campaign, due to its escalating internal conflicts. The Hundred Years' War was formally concluded with the Treaty of Picquigny of 1475. With the end of the Hundred Years' War, Aquitaine returned under direct rule of the king of France and remained in the possession of the king. Only occasionally was the title of "duke of Aquitaine" granted to another member of the dynasty, and then as a purely nominal distinction.

Geography and subdivisions

Over the course of its existence, the duchy incorporated the Duchy of Gascony and, until 1271, the County of Toulouse, which now falls in the region of Occitanie. Most of the rest of the post-1271 duchy now forms the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine, though parts fall into the three neighbouring regions of Pays de la Loire, Centre-Val de Loire and Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes.

The county of Aquitaine as it stood in the High Middle Ages, then, was bordering the Pyrenees to the south (Navarre, Aragon and Barcelona, formerly the Marcha Hispanica) and the county of Toulouse and the kingdom of Burgundy (Arelat to the east. To the north, it bordered on Bretagne, Anjou, Blois and Bourbonnais, all of which had passed to the kingdom of France by the 13th century.

Aquitaine proper
County of Poitou
County of La Marche
County of Angoulême
County of Périgord
County of Auvergne (passed to the royal domain in 1271)
County of Velay
County of Saintonge
Lordship of Déols
Lordship of Issoudun
Viscounty of Limousin
Duchy of Gascony, personal union with Aquitaine from the 7th to the 9th century (Felix of Aquitaine) and again from 1053.
County of Agenais
County of Toulouse (quasi-independent from 778, reverted to the royal domain in 1271)
County of Quercy
County of Rouergue
County of Rodez
County of Gevaudan
Viscounty of Albi
Marquisat of Gothia

See also
Duke of Aquitaine
History of Aquitaine

References

Bibliography

Lewis, Archibald R. "The Dukes in the Regnum Francorum, A.D. 550-751." Speculum, Vol. 51, No. 3. (July 1976), pp. 381–410.
 Emile Mabille, (1870) Le Royaume D'Aquitaine Et Ses Marches Sous Les Carlovingiens
 Jean Penant, (2009) Occitanie, l'épopée des origines

Former monarchies of Europe
History of Aquitaine

Duchy of Aquitaine


The 2008 United States presidential election in Nebraska occurred on November 4, 2008. It was part of the United States´ general election that year. The Republican candidates were Arizona Senator John McCain and his running mate, Governor Sarah Palin of Alaska. The Democratic candidates were Illinois Senator Barack Obama, and his running mate, Delaware Senator Joe Biden. Although McCain won the statewide vote by a margin of 14.93%, Obama was given 1 electoral vote (McCain got 4). That made Obama the first Democrat to win an electoral vote in Nebraska since 1964.

The McCain won the popular vote statewide. However (as is the case in Maine), in Nebraska, two electoral votes are given to the winner of the statewide popular vote. The remaining electoral votes (in the case of Nebraska, which has five electoral votes, this means three) are distributed: one is appointed to the winner of each congressional district. In this case, Obama narrowly won the votes of Nebraska's 2nd Congressional District, and therefore, received an electoral vote.

United States presidential elections
2000s in Nebraska
2008 elections in the United States


7 Squadron was a unit of the South African Air Force which served in the Second World War as well as in South Africa between 1951 and 1992. During the war, the squadron was used as a fighter squadron deployed to the Western Desert as well as in the Aegean, Italy and Ceylon. The squadron was inactive from the end of the war until 1951 when it re-activated as a citizen force training squadron, a role it retained during two periods of active service until 1992, when it was disbanded for the last time.

History
7 Squadron was formed as a South African Air Force unit on 12 January 1942 at Zwartkop Air Station equipped with Harvard and Mohawk aircraft, with Douglas Loftus as commanding officer. It was re-equipped with Hurricane Mk Is in April 1942 and was then moved to Egypt. By the time the war in Africa had been concluded, the squadron was equipped with Spitfire Mk Vs in July 1943 and was tasked with convoy escort and fighter-interception sorties.

On 10 September 1943 six pilots and a DC-3 Dakota with ground staff were ordered to Cyprus to set up an advanced base to provide air cover for the planned invasion of the Dodecanese Islands. It transpired that the initial intention was that the squadron, consisting of six Spitfire Mk Vs, was to be the total air cover contingent for the planned invasion.  However, by 13 September the squadron was joined by two more of the squadron's Spitfires all operating from the island of Kos. They were later joined by 74 Squadron RAF but by then the Luftwaffe attacks on Kos had severely damaged the primitive airfields and after intense aerial fighting, there was only one serviceable Spitfire left in the squadron by 1 October. On 3 October German landings commenced and the grounded SAAF personnel were compelled to escape by whatever means possible – some crossed to Turkey in small boats and others were evacuated back to Egypt with the retreating allied ground forces. By the time of re-assembly in Egypt, the squadron had lost six officers killed and 15 other ranks missing for the cost of 12 enemy aircraft having been shot down. The squadron remained in Egypt for a few months, and then in April 1944, equipped with Spitfire Mk lXs, rejoined No. 7 Wing in Italy.

After the surrender of German forces in Italy, the squadron was sent to the Far East, but the war in the East ended before the squadron could be deployed. It then returned to Ceylon and thereafter back to South Africa. It was disbanded on 10 September 1945.

The squadron was reformed at Ysterplaat Air Station in August 1951 and was equipped with Harvards and was again disbanded in 1959. It was re-formed once more at Youngsfield in the Cape on 1 August 1961 and later moved to Ysterplaat in 1969. The squadron received Impala Mk Is in 1977 as a citizen force unit and was moved to Cape Town International Airport in 1978. It was again moved to AFB Langebaanweg and to AFB Pietersburg. The squadron was disbanded in December 1992.

Aircraft

See also
List of World War II aces from South Africa

Notes
Footnotes

Citations

Squadrons of the South African Air Force
Military units and formations established in 1942
Military units and formations disestablished in 1992

7 Squadron SAAF


is a Japanese actress from the city of Ōita.

Biography

Yūko graduated from high school in the city of Ōita. She placed first in the 1976 Miss Salad Girl contest (the runner-up was Yūko Natori). She landed a part in a Kanebo cosmetics commercial and joined Toho Entertainment. Her sister Nobuko is also in acting.

Yūko made her film debut in 1976 in Hoshi to Arashi and in 1979 appeared in Ah! Nomugi Toge. She was cast in the 1983 Toho adaptation of the novel The Makioka Sisters. In 1991 the Japan Academy recognized her as the Outstanding Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role for portraying Noriko Kai in the 1989 Toho film Hana no Furu Gogo (or Afternoon when Flowers Fell). She played Aguri (later Yōzei-in), the wife of Asano Naganori, in the 1994 Chūshingura Shijū-shichinin no Shikaku.

She appeared on television in 1977 as the female lead in Bakumatsu Miraijin on NHK. Her 1984 portrayal of Otsū, the love interest of Miyamoto Musashi in NHK's 45-part prime-time series based on the Eiji Yoshikawa novel, was a major high point of her career. She also took the female lead in the 1993 Taiga drama Homura Tatsu opposite Ken Watanabe. In 2004 NHK cast her as the leading lady in Jīji: Mago to ita Natsu with Toshiyuki Nishida.

Meanwhile, she appeared on privately owned networks in many prominent roles. On Tokyo Broadcasting System, Yūko played characters in series in 1980, '81, and '82, including the female lead in Totsuzen no Ashita. Asahi TV cast her in the lead role in two 90 minute specials in the Onyado Kawasemi jidaigeki series (1988–89); Yasuko Sawaguchi, Reiko Takashima and others have played the same character. Nippon Television gave her the lead in the 1990 Ikenai Joshikō Monogatari and second billing in Omoide-zukuri in the following year. She returned to Asahi and jidaigeki in the title role in two series with the title Tōyama no Kin-san vs. Onna Nezumi opposite Hiroki Matsukata (1997 and 1998). A decade later, the network paired the two again, and Yūko portrayed Kikyō, the leading lady, in Surōnin Tsukikage Hyōgo.

A versatile actress, Kotegawa has appeared in many other formats. She is a frequent guest star, playing contemporary and period roles. She has taken the part of the criminal in shows such as Keibuho Furuhata Ninzaburō. Yūko has also appeared in several two-hour dramas. In one of these, in the G.I. Samurai (Sengoku Jietai) franchise, she portrayed Nene, the wife of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. She has done voice acting, taking the part of Yolda in Origin: Spirits of the Past. Yūko counts Subaru, Tiger Corporation, and Lion among her commercial clients.

Filmography

Films
 Imperial Navy (1981), Yōko Hongō
 The Makioka Sisters (1983), Taeko Makioka
 Hana no Furu Gogo (1989), Noriko Kai
 Kozure Ōkami: Sono Chiisaki Te ni (1993)
 47 Ronin (1994), Yōzen-in
 Onmyōji 2 (2003)
 The Homeless Student (2008)

Television
 Sekigahara (1981), Natsu
 Miyamoto Musashi (1984–85), Otsū
 Furuhata Ninzaburō (1994), Ari Sasayama
 Sengoku Jieitai: Sekigahara no Tatakai (2006), Kōdai-in
 GeGeGe no Nyōbō (2010), Miyako Iida

Awards

Sources

This article incorporates material from 古手川祐子 (Kotegawa Yūko) in the Japanese Wikipedia, retrieved on March 9, 2008.

External links
日本アカデミー賞公式サイト (Nihon Academy-shō Kōshiki Site) History page

古手川祐子 at JMDB
A-Team Official Website

1959 births
Japanese actresses
Living people
People from Ōita (city)

Yūko Kotegawa


Ingeman Arbnor (born January 25, 1949) is a Swedish economist, Professor at the Lund University, Lund, known for his international bestseller Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge written with Björn Bjerke.

Biography
Ingeman Arbnor was born in Sweden in 1949, and studied Economics at the Lund University. A few years, later Arbnor was appointed to his first professorial position at the Lund University. Björn Bjerke supervised the final phase of Arbnor's doctoral work and a deep professional relation developed, resulting in their becoming coauthors. It is out of this relationship that "Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge" was born and developed. His dissertation containing what is now considered classic methodological reorientations.

Arbnor further worked as an entrepreneur in the field of establishing a running business training and development centers in cooperation with multinational corporations in Sweden. Among other business accomplishments, he has started a trading house, a Venture Competence Invest, and an academy for venture management education.

Since the 1990s, he has been a member of the expert group to the Swedish Association of Graduates in Business Administration and Economics.

Work
Arbnor's research interest is in the fields of organizational studies, management, research methodology and multimedia as the ultimate approach to allocating competence for the learning society.

Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge
The book Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge (1997) wants to give the reader a foundation for handling questions about knowledge creation and for doing research efficiently and effectively in different situations and for various clients and employers. It describes and compares three different methodological approaches for gaining business knowledge:
 the analytical approach,
 the systems approach,
 and the actor's approach.

The Analytic Approach is the positivist approach, the Systems Approach favors the development of explanatory models and the Actors Approach is more commonly known as "structuration theory," which derives from the work of Anthony Giddens, Central Problems in Social Theory from 1979 and The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration from 1984.

It then examines the consequences of using each approach in various practical and theoretical situations. Techniques discussed include historical studies, case studies, dialogues, language development, collecting data, measurement, controlling reliability, and validation. Arbnor & Bjerke further argue that qualitative research methods must be consistent with the epistemological presumptions of the researcher, the theory and the research problem.

Publications
Arbnor has written some 14 books, mostly in Swedish. A selection:
 1977. Phenomenology as a Guide to Research, in: L. Bennigson (ed.), Management Studies. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
 1997. Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge. With Björn Bjerke. California : Sage Publications. (Third Edition 2009).

References

External links
 Homepage Ingeman Arbnor (in both English and Swedish).
 Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge

1949 births
Living people
Lund University alumni
People from Kristianstad Municipality
Swedish business theorists
Swedish economists
Business speakers

Ingeman Arbnor


Osip Solomonovich Minor (; ; 8December  1861 – 24 September 1932) was a Russian revolutionary and member of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party.

Minor was born in Minsk (now in Belarus, then part of Minsk Governorate, Russian Empire). His father was Rabbi Solomon Minor, and many of his ancestors had been rabbis as well.

Revolutionary politics
Minor became involved in revolutionary politics while studying at the University of Moscow. He joined the party of 'People's Will' in the early 1880s. In 1883 he was arrested for the first time, and again in 1885. In 1887 he received a sentence of ten years hard labour in Siberia. On 22 March 1889 he participated in a prisoners' uprising in Yakutsk and was condemned to death by hanging, but the sentence was commuted to hard labour for life.

In 1896 he was released but forbidden to live in European Russia. That restriction was eased in 1898; he was merely forbidden to live in St. Petersburg or Moscow.

Vilna revolutionary movement
Around 1900 he settled in Vilna (now Vilnius in Lithuania). He became active in the revolutionary movement in Vilna, but gravitated toward Narodnik circles rather than to the Marxist Bund because they seemed to him to be more revolutionary. He was affiliated with the mainly Jewish Socialist-Revolutionary Workers' Party for the Political Liberation of Russia, organised by Mark Natanson.

PSR
In 1901, Minor travelled abroad and assisted in the unification of various Socialist-Revolutionary groups in the Socialist-Revolutionary Party (PSR). He returned to Russia and worked for the PSR in various capacities and participated in the Revolution of 1905. In 1909, Evno Azev, head of the PSR's 'Combat Organisation' and an agent of the Okhrana (secret police), betrayed Minor and had him arrested again, but by 1913 Minor had escaped from Siberia and was in Geneva, Switzerland, working with the organisation of Russian Socialis-Revolutionries Abroad. He seems to have returned to Russia but was captured. He was freed by the February Revolution of 1917.

World War I
During the First World War Minor took a Defencist position, which put him at odds with the PSR leader Viktor Chernov and with his old associate Natanson.

In 1917 Minor became president of the Moscow City Duma. He opposed the Bolshevik October Revolution and supported attempts to set up an anti-Bolshevik democratic government.

Later years
Minor left Russia in 1919. He settled in Paris, remained active in the community of Russian exiles and edited the journal Volia Rossii (Russian Will), together with V. M. Zenzinov and V. I. Lebedev.

In 1921 he was one of the authors of an exposé of the Kronstadt rebellion and its suppression by the Bolsheviks, The Truth about Kronstadt. Minor also served as chairman of the Society for Assistance to Exiles and Political Prisoners in Russia. Among his close friends was Ilya Fondaminsky ('Bunakov'), a veteran SR who later converted from Judaism to Orthodox Christianity and was murdered in the Auschwitz concentration camp in 1942. He wrote his memoirs, Eto Bylo Davno (It was Long Ago), covering the pre-war period; they were published posthumously in 1933.

References
Minor, O.S., Eto bylo davno: Vospominaniia soldata revoliutsii. Paris, 1933.
Sotsialisticheskiy Vestnik, 19 (1932), 16
Chernov, V.M., 'Yidishe Tuer in der Partey Sotsial Revolutsionern' New York, 1948, pp. 246–58.
Slutsky, Y., 'Minor, Osip S.', in: Jewish Virtual Library. Online at: https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0014_0_13949.html.
Hildermeier, M., Die Sozialrevolutionäre Partei Russlands. Cologne, 1979.
Slonim, M., 'Reminiscences on the Revolution .' In: Cahiers du Monde russe et soviétique. (1977) Vol. 18 No. 18-4.

1861 births
1932 deaths
Politicians from Minsk
People from Minsky Uyezd
Belarusian Jews
Narodniks
Narodnaya Volya
Socialist Revolutionary Party politicians
People of the Russian Revolution
Jewish socialists
Revolutionaries from the Russian Empire

Osip Minor


Laurence "Larry" Spitters is an American industrialist and investor who co-founded Memorex.

Spitters began his career as an investment banker with Blyth & Co. in 1954 and worked on Wall Street before transferring to Blyth's office in San Francisco, California. During his tenure at Blyth he was a member of the underwriting and investment banking department and was engaged in the origination, underwriting, and syndication of issues of corporate securities for public distribution, private placement of securities with institutional investors, and evaluation of companies involved in merger and acquisition transactions.

In 1958, he joined Ampex Corporation in Redwood City, California, a firm whose financing he had assisted while previously employed at Blyth & Co. As Assistant to the Vice President and Treasurer at Ampex, he spearheaded Ampex's initial public offering (IPO) in 1959. In addition, he led Ampex's study to merge with Orr Industries, a magnetic tape manufacturing affiliate. In 1960, he was made Ampex's Assistant Treasurer where he worked closely with the firm's founder Alexander M. Poniatoff, particularly in the company's merger with Telemater Magnetics, Inc., a Los Angeles-based manufacturer of magnetic cores, buffers, and memories for data processing and computer systems.

Memorex

In 1961, Laurence (Larry) Spitters founded Memorex Corporation in Santa Clara, California, along with three engineers from Ampex (Arnold T. Challman, Donald F. Eldridge, W. Lawrence Noon) in order to enter the precision magnetic tape market. Memorex was the first company to manufacture chromium dioxide cassettes in substantial volume. In addition, Memorex entered the computer systems business by first establishing its presence as a supplier of products that were plug compatible to IBM mainframe systems and then using its established sales and service capabilities to offer complete computer systems.

Memorex's disk drive division, led by Alan Shugart, produced the Memorex 650 in 1972, the first read-write floppy disk drive. The Memorex 650 had a capacity of 175kB, with 50 tracks, 8 sectors per track, and 448 bytes per sector. While Memorex successfully competed in the IBM plug-compatible disk storage and communications products market, a series of extremely aggressive pricing and product actions by IBM attacked Memorex's equipment businesses and resulted in lengthy antitrust litigation against IBM.

A consumer products division established in 1970 made Memorex a household name with the "Is it live or is it Memorex?" advertising campaign from the Leo Burnett agency which featured jazz singer Ella Fitzgerald and a shattering wineglass (now in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution).  During the 1970s, Memorex produced cassette tapes which were marketed vigorously through heavy television advertising.

Spitters resigned as Memorex's President, Chief Executive Officer, and as a Director of the Company effective April 26, 1974, the date of the Annual Meeting.

Honors
Spitters received an honorary degree from Santa Clara University and a Distinguished Alumni Award from Western Michigan University. He served on the Santa Clara University Board of Trustees, and on the Board of Directors of ALZA Corp., The Children's Health Council, and The Embarcadero Publishing Company, publisher of the Palo Alto Weekly.<ref>'Palo Alto Weekly – Special Commemorative Edition – 20th Anniversary (1999), http://www.paloaltoonline/weekly</ref>

Degrees:
 M.B.A., Harvard Business School
 J.D., University of Michigan Law School
 B.A., Western Michigan University

Spitters has been a financial contributor to American Conservatory Theater.

References

 Corporate Histories Collection'', Computer History Museum, 1401 N. Shoreline Blvd. Mountain View, CA 94043

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Harvard Business School alumni
University of Michigan Law School alumni
Western Michigan University alumni
American businesspeople
Silicon Valley people
People from the San Francisco Bay Area

fr:Memorex
it:Memorex

Laurence Spitters


The Hessenlager or Hessian Camp is a former military encampment established by Hessian-Darmstadt troops during the French occupation near Göhren on the German island of Rügen.

Location
The camp was located south of Göhren in the vicinity of the south beach immediately west of the road from Göhren to Lobbe. Somewhat further east is the Baltic Sea. The camp was constructed in 1812. Today only remnants of the earthworks have survived; they have been designated as a heritage site and run parallel to the road. The former encampment is commemorated at the highest point of the earthworks by a rock with the inscription Hessisches Lager im Jahre 1812 ("Hessian Camp in 1812"). In addition, an information board has been set up. Diagonally opposite is the museum ship, Luise.

History
The tented camp on the shores of the Baltic Sea was erected by two companies of Hesse-Darmstadt troops in a wood. The troops belonged to those states in the Confederation of the Rhine that were allied to Napoleonic France. Strategically, the camp had the aim of preventing the landing of British troops on Rügen. There was an encampment laid out for 100 men and a dugout, which was covered with straw and branches. In the centre, an oblong space was created, which was laid out with walkways and grass banks and was described as clean. In addition, a large earth pyramid was built, but there is no trace of it today. The purpose of the pyramid is unclear. It may have served as a signal station or lookout. According to local oral tradition, the discipline of these troops was much better than that of English, Bavarian, Berg and French troops who, at that time, were also periodically stationed in the Mönchgut region. Behind the camp, tradesmen supplied provisions to the soldiers from their stalls.

The area where the camp was erected had previously been known as Slötel (="key").

Literature
 Ingrid Schmidt: Hünengrab und Opferstein : Bodendenkmale auf der Insel Rügen. Hinstorff, Rostock, 2001, , page 95 ff.

Göhren, Rügen
Napoleonic Wars
Heritage sites in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
Rügen
Mönchgut

Hessenlager


Blanquette de Limoux is the name given to a number of sparkling wines from the Languedoc, in France.

Sparkling Wine
Blanquette de Limoux is probably the oldest known sparkling wine in France.

According to a text at a local abbey, Livy praised the wines from Limoux, which were not sparkling wines at the time..

Benedictine Monks
Benedictine monks of the abbey of Saint Hilaire found out how to make sparkling wine from white wine.

Dom Pérignon
Dom Pérignon brought back the method of making sparkling wines to his abbey in Champagne, at the end of the 16th century.

He started to experiment with it in the vineyards of the abbey.

References

French wines

Blanquette de Limoux


Frithjof Harold Bergmann (24 December 1930 – 23 May 2021) was a German professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan, where he taught courses on existentialism, continental philosophy, Hegel, and Marx. He was known for the concept of New Work.

Life and work
Frithjof Bergmann first moved to the US as a student, where he lived and worked throughout his life. He entered the doctoral program in philosophy at Princeton University and studied under Walter Kaufmann, receiving his Ph.D. in 1959 with a dissertation entitled "Harmony and Reason: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hegel." In addition, Professor Bergmann was a Nietzsche scholar; his publications include "Nietzsche's Critique of Morality" (published in Reading Nietzsche, Oxford University Press, 1988). He spent most of his academic career at the University of Michigan, where he was a professor and visible political activist. He taught also at The University of California, Berkeley, Stanford University and The University of California, Santa Cruz. Among his more notable PhD students at the University of Michigan were Robert C. Solomon and Anthony Weston. He is credited as one of the creators of the teach-in, the first of which was held on the Michigan campus in March 1965.

Frithjof Bergmann's interests included continental philosophyespecially Hegel, Nietzsche, Sartre and existentialism generallyand also social and political philosophy, philosophical anthropology, and philosophy of culture. His article The Experience of Values (reprinted in Revisions: Changing Perspectives in Moral Philosophy by University of Notre Dame Press, 1983) is used in universities throughout the world. His book On Being Free (1977) was issued in a paperback edition in 1978. In this book, Bergmann argues against the standard views of freedom as the lack of external obstacles or as an irrational, unencumbered act that rejects all order. Both of these leave us with nothing substantial for a self at alland thus, he suggests, constitute virtually a reductio ad absurdum of modern ideals of education, society, and the family. Instead, he argues that the primary prerequisite of freedom is a self possessed of something that wants to be acted out. An act is free, he argues, if the agent identifies with the elements from which it flows. The real problems of education, society, etc. are those of coming to a true understanding of one's self and of building a society with which a self can identify.

In the years between 1976 and 1979 he undertook trips to the former countries of the Eastern Bloc and began to question capitalism and communism. In this time, he introduces his concept of New Work. In 1984, Bergmann founded an organization called the Center for New Work in Flint, Michigan. Together with others he formulated a novel proposal that became known as the "6 months--6 months proposal."

New Work
The concept of New Work describes the new way of working of today's society in the global and digital age. The term was coined by Bergmann and is based on his research on the notion of freedom and the assumption that the previous work system was outdated.

Philosophy
Bergmann's concept starts with a critical assessment of the American understanding of liberty. He does not consider liberty the option to choose between two or more, more or less better or worse options (liberty to choose); his understanding of liberty is the option to do something that is really, really important (decide what you want to do because you believe in it).

The core values of the concept of New Work are autonomy, freedom and participation in the community. New Work should offer new ways of creativity and personal development, thus contributing something really important to the job market. In this way, real "freedom of action" is possible. The main idea of New Work is to create space for creativity and self-fulfillment (or: The Pursuit of Happiness). Since he considers the job system to be obsolete, mankind has the option to get rid of wage labor.

Structure
The early capitalistic system of wage labour should slowly be transformed into New Work. This New Work should consist of three parts:
 A third gainful employment
 A third High-Tech-Self-Providing ('self-sufficiency') and smart consumption
 A third of work that you really, really want.

Gainful employment
Since the quantity of available gainful labor (traditional work to be done) - in the context of the industrial society - will become less due to automation in all economic domains, advocates of New Work suggest reduced gainful employment for everyone. The time released by this reduction of gainful employment should in return create the financial basis to create things that can neither be produced through do-it-yourself work (active work?) nor by neighbour-based networks.

High tech self providing and smart consumption
Satisfying the needs of mankind will be supported by high tech self-providing using the newest technology. In the near future, so-called Fabbers - automated all-in-one devices - could produce goods autonomously.

Bergmann considers 'Smart Consumption' that people should contemplate and decide what they really need. According to Bergmann, many products and things are irrelevant, since they consume more time when using them than they save. One example could be the garlic press: very often the time cleaning the device consumes more time than the 'time saved' by using the press compared to manual pressing/cutting.

By self-supply and smart consumption, people can maintain a good standard of living even though only one-third of the entire capacity is used for wage labor.

Work that you really, really want
This is the most important component of New Work. The idea is: work as such is endless and it is a lot more than what is and can be provided by the wage labor system. According to Bergmann, every human being can find work that is aligned with the own values, desires, dreams, hope, and skills.

Since Bergmann denies a revolutionary process to overcome the wage labor system, change can only happen slowly and this change can only be achieved through people that closely analyze their real, real desires and pursue those desires. By doing so, they become more and more independent from the wage labor system.

In so-called 'centers for new work' the idea is that people collaborate and with the support of mentors, they try to identify what kind of work they really, really want to do. This process is of course complex, demanding and time-consuming. Bergmann uses the term 'Selbstunkenntnis'. By the process of trying to identify what a person really, really wants to do, a general movement could begin that changes one's life so that people feel 'more alive'.

Pushing the concept further
The psychologist Markus Väth developed Bergmann's theory further: based on Bergmann's paper 'New Work, New Culture', Väth illustrates four pillars on which a successful implementation of New Work could be based:
 a conscious way of life ("Life Blending") in combination with a re-evaluation of the importance of work for one's life
 a systematic model of competencies that are relevant to work in a highly complex, dynamic world
 a change model for organizations that enable a paradigm shift in culture and organizations
 an intensive debate about the role of work in society and a corresponding mandate from the political world ("New Work Deal")

Books
 On Being Free. University of Notre Dame, November 1977;
 Menschen, Märkte, Lebenswelten. Differenzierung und Integration in den Systemen der Wohnungslosenhilfe. VSH Verlag Soziale Hilfe, 1999;
 Neue Arbeit, Neue Kultur. Aus dem Amerikanischen übersetzt von Stephan Schuhmacher - Arbor Verlag, 2004;
 New Work New Culture: Work We Want and a Culture that Strengthens Us. Zero Books, 2019;
 Frithjof Bergmann: Die Freiheit leben. - Arbor Verlag, Freiamt, 2005;
 Frithjof Bergmann/Stella Friedmann: Neue Arbeit kompakt: Vision einer selbstbestimmten Gesellschaft. Arbor Verlag, Freiamt 2007;

References

Further reading
 Markus Väth: Arbeit - die schönste Nebensache der Welt. Wie New Work unsere Arbeitswelt revolutioniert. GABAL, Offenbach, 2016; .

External links
University of Michigan Biography
An interview with Bergmann
"Political Idealism and Frithjof Bergmann's 'New Work'"
New Work, New Culture: An Interview With Frithjof Bergmann, by Sarah van Gelder
 A 2020 that we could attain  (Article from Frithjof Bergmann; PDF; 188 kB)
 NANK | Neue Arbeit - Neue Kultur. Offizielle Webseite im deutschen Sprachraum
 NANK | Neue Arbeit - Neue Kultur. Interaktive Videodatenbank von Frithjof Bergmann
 Podcasts mit Bergmann auf der Website des Kepler Salon

1930 births
Living people
20th-century German philosophers
University of Michigan faculty
German male writers
Hegel scholars
Existentialists

Frithjof Bergmann


Thomas Cogan (8 February 1736 – 2 February 1818) was an English Nonconformist physician, a founder of the Royal Humane Society and philosophical writer.

Life

Thomas Cogan was born at Rothwell, Northamptonshire on 8 February 1736, the half-brother of Eliezer Cogan. For two or three years he was placed in the dissenting academy at Kibworth Beauchamp, run by John Aikin, but was removed at the age of fourteen, and spent the next two years with his father. He was then sent to the Mile End academy, where John Conder was the divinity tutor, but was transferred at his own request to a similar institution at Homerton. Doubts as to the truth of the doctrines of Calvinism prevented him from joining the dissenting ministry.

In 1759 he was in the Netherlands, where he found that the Rev. Benjamin Sowden, the English minister of the presbyterian church at Rotterdam, supported by the English and Dutch governments with two pastors, required a substitute; Cogan applied for and obtained the place. He continued to seek for a pastorate over a dissenting congregation in England, and about 1762 he was selected as the minister of a chapel at Southampton, where he soon publicly renounced Calvinism and adopted the doctrines of Unitarianism. A quarrel with his congregation followed, and Cogan became the junior minister of the English church at the Hague. He was introduced to Mr. Graen or Groen, originally a silversmith at Amsterdam, and afterwards a banker, and was wooed and won, as the story goes, by the banker's only daughter, a beauty and an heiress. It was a condition of the marriage that Cogan should enter the profession of medicine, and he accordingly matriculated at Leyden University on 16 October 1765, and took his degree of M.D. in 1767. He practised for a few years at Amsterdam, Leyden, and Rotterdam.

He returned to London and settled in Paternoster Row, where he soon obtained a lucrative practice, especially in midwifery. By 1780 he was once more in the Netherlands, having resigned his connection to Dr. John Sims, for many years the leading accoucheur in London, and retired to follow his studies in moral philosophy. They rented the mansion of Zuylestein, where they dwelt until the invasion by the French republicans in 1795. After a time at Colchester they settled at Bath, Somerset. Cogan rented a farm at South Wraxall, near Bradford-on-Avon and studied agriculture; when he left Bath he took farms at Clapton and at Woodford, and at the time of his death he was the tenant of a farm near Southampton. Mrs. Cogan died at Bath in 1810 and was buried at Widcombe; Cogan later moved to London. The last years of his life were mainly passed in his lodgings in London or at his brother's house at Higham Hill. He died there on 2 February 1818. On 9 February he was buried at Hackney.

Royal Humane Society
A society for the preservation of life from accidents in water was instituted at Amsterdam in 1767, and became known to Cogan. On his return to England he found that Dr. William Hawes had a similar project, and the two doctors co-operated. Each of them brought 15 friends to a meeting at the Chapter Coffee-house in St. Paul's Churchyard in the summer of 1774, when the Royal Humane Society was formed. Cogan translated from the original Dutch in 1773 the Memoirs of the Society instituted at Amsterdam in favour of Drowned Persons, 1767–71, and prepared the first six annual reports of the English society. His interest in this charitable work lasted throughout his life. He started a branch at Bath in 1805, and left the mother-foundation in his will the sum of £100. One of the five gold medals minted for the society is inscribed to the memory of Cogan, and in its annual report for 1814 is a portrait of him, with a eulogy of his talents as an author and the co-founder.

Works

Cogan's thesis for his medical degree at Leyden was delivered there on 20 February 1767, and printed in the same year. It was entitled Specimen Medicum inaugurale de animi pathematum vi et modo agendi in inducendis et curandis morbis.  His next publication was an anonymous account of John Buncle, junior, gentleman, 1776, which purported to be a memoir of the youngest son of Thomas Amory's whimsical creation of John Buncle, by his seventh wife, Miss Dunk. In 1793 he published, without his name, two volumes entitled The Rhine; or, a Journey from Utrech to Francfort, described in a series of letters in 1791 and 1792; it was republished in 1794 with his name on the title-page, and there was a Dutch translation published at Haarlem in 1800. This translation of Cogan's work into Dutch was balanced by his translating into English from that language in 1794 the work of Peter Camper, On the Connexion between the Science of Anatomy and the Arts of Drawing, Painting, Statuary.

He also wrote elaborate treatises on the passions. The first of them bore the name of A Philosophical Treatise on the Passions, 1800, 2nd edit. 1802. Then succeeded an Ethical Treatise on the Passions, in two parts, the first of which appeared in 1807 and the second in 1810. Two volumes of Theological Disquisitions on Religion as affecting the Passions and on the Characteristic Excellencies of Christianity followed in 1812 and 1813 respectively, and the whole five treatises were published in a set in 1813. Last of all came in 1817 a bundle of Ethical Questions, or Speculations on the principal subjects of Controversy in Moral Philosophy. His plan was "to trace the moral history of man in his pursuits, power, and motives of action." A long analysis of Cogan's writings is in Jared Sparks's Collection of Essays and Tracts in Theology (1824), which also contains (pp. 237–362) a reprint of his Letters to William Wilberforce on the doctrine of Hereditary Depravity, by a Layman (pseud. i.e. T. Cogan), in which he denounced the view supported by William Wilberforce in his Practical View of the prevailing Religious Systems of Professed Christians, and argued for the happiness of all mankind. These letters originally appeared in 1799, and were printed in cheap editions for Unitarian book societies. A fragment of his Disquisition on the Characteristic Excellencies of Christianity was appended in 1822 to a discourse by Lant Carpenter.
NOTE* The above statement about the 2 volumes of "The Rhine a Journey from Utrecht to Francfort", etc. 1793. I believe was not published at stated above in 1793 as the advertisement leaf in the 1794 1st edition dated january 1794 states clearly his reason for NOT publishing it anonymously as it might be taken for a work by a "fabulist" or tale teller and NOT a true travelogue. I doubt very much the statement above to be correct all 6 copies held in The British Library are dated 1794, bar two electronic/virtual copies which are taken from the one source.

References

External links

1736 births
1818 deaths
18th-century English medical doctors
18th-century English male writers
19th-century English medical doctors
19th-century English male writers
English Dissenters
People from Rothwell, Northamptonshire

Thomas Cogan


Telly Inc (formerly Twitvid Inc) is a Kuwait based company that operates a video discovery platform and offers video streaming services in the Middle East and North Africa. The platform also features Bollywood films and locally produced content, TV shows and exclusive Original contents as well as Kuwaiti Short Films on their website.

History
Telly Inc, formerly Twitvid Inc, was founded in 2009 in the United States. The company primarily serves Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Iraq, and Yemen with local presence and offices in Kuwait & Dubai.

After its launch in 2012, Telly Plus made social recommendations for videos that a visitor's social contacts may have been watching. Telly claims to have had about 115 million views in February and has raised a cumulative of $20 million from different investors such as DFJ, Lumia Capital and Azure Capital with a majority stakes by Cinemagics in Kuwait, one of the leading production companies in the region, in a move to revolutionize and change the behavior of audience in the GCC region. With the knowledge that no one had yet cracked the video-on-demand market in the middle east, Telly Plus and Icflix became the main competitors when they entered a fragmented market affected by piracy and little investment yet with 14.5 million hours of videos are watched per day. Telly soon signed deals with Sony Pictures Television, Samsung mobile and Miramax as well as independent content owners for more than 1,000 television shows and films.

In 2013, Telly acquired Sha-Sha (شاشا), which was dubbed as the Netflix of the middle east, to serve video streaming to the Arab world. Later, Telly teamed up with Telfaz 11, Saudi Arabia's primary Internet television network, to cater this customer base for a first window before the show hits YouTube.

Services
The company has signed up with major studios like Sony Pictures for series like Breaking Bad and films like The Social Network and There Will Be Blood. Telly has been reported to leverage the trend of smart TVs and smartphones in emerging markets, an approach that has also been cited for Netflix. Telly has hence been mainly serving these two types of customers that prefer to stream videos online. This service has specifically been cited to be enabled in Panasonic Smart TVs as a pre-loaded service to market to middle east with Hollywood and Arabic movies and TV shows.

Telly mainly generates revenue mainly from subscription based services as opposed to advertising to avoid losing customers to interruptions caused by the adverts, however, their business model is considered to be facing a competition by video piracy.

In June 2015, co-produced with Cinemagics A Song in her eyes starred by Haya Abdul Salam & Fouwad Ali. This is the first move towards original production and programming for Telly. According to Bloomberg L.P., Telly Partnered with Kuwait TV, KTV. In 2016, Telly expanded into television production, and produced its 1st Original Online series exclusively for Telly Plus Subscribers, The name of the series was "After the End", which was executed by Cinemagic.

External links

See also
 Comparison between OTT and IPTV
 Digital television

References

Companies of Kuwait
Kuwaiti brands
Video on demand services

Telly Inc.


Hafiz () or Hafez may refer to:

 Hafiz (Quran), a term used by Muslims for people who have completely memorized the Qur'an
Al-Ḥafīẓ, one of the names of God in Islam, meaning "the Ever-Preserving/ Guardian/ All-Watching/ Protector"

People
 Hafiz (name), including a list of people with the name
 Hafez, a 14th-century Persian mystic and poet. Sometimes credited as "Hafiz" or "Hafiz of Shiraz"
 Hafiz, starring role played by actor Ronald Colman in Kismet (1944 film)
Abdel Halim Hafez, Egyptian singer
Hafiz Abdulrahman, Sudanese flutist
Hafiz Shirazi, Persian 14th-century poet

Places
 Hafez, Iran, a village in East Azerbaijan Province, Iran
 Tomb of Hafez, one of two memorial structures in Shiraz, Iran, erected in memory of the Persian poet Hafez

Others
 Muhafiz (disambiguation)
 Hifazat (disambiguation)
 Hafez (opera), 2013 Persian-language opera by Behzad Abdi
 Hafiz (horse), French Thoroughbred racehorse
 Hafís (drift ice), work for choir and orchestra by Jón Leifs
 Al-Hafez, Salafi Islamist channel from Egypt.
 Hafez Awards, an annual awards ceremony which is held honoring cinematic achievements in Iranian cinema
 Khuda Hafiz, a parting phrase

Hafiz


Heartland Airlines is a defunct airline that planned to fly out of Dayton International Airport in Dayton, Ohio, United States. While the airline existed for three years, no flights ever took place and no planes were ever purchased.

History

The airline was created in 1998 by David Lightle of Tipp City, Ohio. Plans were to cater to business travelers, offering amenities such as plush leather seating and dinner served on real china. The airline would travel to other business centers in the Midwest region. Heartland announced they would cease operations on February 9, 2001, however, after failing to raise enough funds from investors.

Funding problems
The first round of fundraising started in 1999, and collected $6 million in about one year. A second round of funding began shortly thereafter, with the goal of $55 million. This proved problematic for Heartland, though, which was only able to raise $35 million from local investors. Last-minute efforts to raise enough capital included securing a $10 million loan from the Ohio state legislature, but all measures failed.  With no way to continue operations, Heartland Airlines returned all $35 million to their investors.

See also
 List of defunct airlines of the United States

References

Airlines established in 1998
Airlines disestablished in 2001
Defunct companies based in Dayton, Ohio

Heartland Airlines


Ian Buchan (c.1920–1965) was manager of Everton Football Club from 1956 to 1958.  There had been a brief period after the departure of the previous manager, Cliff Britton when Everton was run by a committee. The reason for Buchan's appointment was a mystery. He was only given the title 'chief coach' so there must have been reservations already and he never gained the confidence of the board.  He had been a Scottish amateur international and was likeable but was out of his depth as a manager of a major team with an ambitious chairman (John Moores).  There were two poor seasons and Buchan was sacked after six straight defeats.  He was replaced by Johnny Carey. He returned to Scotland and was killed in a car crash in 1965 at the age of 45.

References
Everton – School of Science by James Corbett Pan Books 2003

1965 deaths
Scottish football managers
Everton F.C. managers
Road incident deaths in Scotland
Year of birth uncertain

Ian Buchan


The Rise and Fall of Freedom of Contract (1979) is a legal-historical text on the changes in the concept of freedom of contract by English Professor Patrick Atiyah. It was published by the Oxford University Press, and a paperback edition was released in 1985.

Summary
The central theme is that the notion of a contract based on consent (or a "meeting of minds") was almost entirely absent before 1800 in the law. Instead it was based on reliance or the receipt of a benefit. You could revoke a promise, and the concept of an executory contract was unknown. Moreover, courts were more concerned with the fairness of an exchange, and not concerned merely to uphold promises or the parties' will. Damages reflected that, only being for the value of exchange, not the loss of a bargain.

Then, after 1800, the concept of contractual freedom "rose". Promises and the "intentions" of parties "became the paradigm of contract theory". Atiyah argues that it began with the notion of freedom of property, summed up in the phrase of Sir Edward Coke in Semayne's case that every man's home is his castle. Following that was the transition from a property to a contract based society.

After 1900, however, freedom of contract had had its heyday. Atiyah illustrates how the growth of consumer protection, rent and employment legislation has moved contract back into smaller confines, based on general notions of fairness.

Contents
1 Introduction
Part I The Beginnings of Freedom of Contract: The Story to 1770
2 The Condition of England in 1770
3 The Intellectual Background in 1770–I
4 The Intellectual Background in 1770–II
5 The Legal Background in 1770
6 Contract Law and Theory in 1770–I
7 Contract Law and Theory in 1770–II
Part II The Age of Freedom of Contract, 1770–1870
8 The Condition of England, 1770–1870
9 The Role of Government, 1770–1870
10 The Role of the Individual, 1770–1870
11 The Intellectual Background, 1770–1870–I
12 The Intellectual Background, 1770–1870–II
13 The Legal Background, 1770–1870
14 Freedom of Contract in the Courts, 1770–1870–I
15 Freedom of Contract in the Courts, 1770–1870–II
16 Freedom of Contract in Parliament, 1770–1870
Part III The Decline and Fall of Freedom of Contract, 1870–1970
17 The Condition of England, 1870–1970
18 The Intellectual Background, 1870–1970–I
19 The Intellectual Background, 1870–1970–II
20 The Legal Background, 1870–1970
21 The Decline of Freedom of Contract, 1870–1970
22 The Wheel Come Full Circle

See also
Atiyah's Accidents, Compensation and the Law (1970), now (2006) and updated by Peter Cane
Just price

Notes

References
JH Baker, Book Review (1980) 43 Modern Law Review 467, who makes a number of criticisms about the historical robustness of Atiyah's thesis, particularly that important questions of fact used to be left to juries, giving a misleading appearance of earlier contract cases.

Contract law
1979 non-fiction books
Books about legal history


"Down Down Down" is the debut single by English singer-songwriter Charlie Simpson, from his debut studio album Young Pilgrim (2011). It was released on 11 April 2011 as a digital download in the United Kingdom. The song peaked to the number 65 on the UK Singles Chart and number 9 on the UK Indie Chart.

Music video
A music video to accompany the release of "Down Down Down" was first released onto YouTube on 15 April 2011 at a total length of three minutes and twenty-three seconds. There is a storyline in the video and Charlie worked with the same people with next video for single 'Parachutes'.

Track listing

Chart performance

Release history

References

2011 singles
Charlie Simpson songs
Songs written by Charlie Simpson
2011 songs

Down Down Down


Rubble is a 20-volume collection of compilation albums featuring mostly late-1960s British psychedelic rock compiled by Bam-Caruso Records, St Albans, Herts, England by Phil Lloyd-Smee.

The first volume was created in 1984, and the series was completed in 2002 (and later, the New Rubble series has begun).  Rubble is one of the first series of compilation albums of psychedelic rock, freakbeat, rhythm and blues, garage rock and beat music of the mid to late 1960s in the United Kingdom. It predated similar compilation series, such as the  English Freakbeat series, which AIP Records started in 1988.

The name "Rubble" is influenced by the title of the seminal Nuggets double LP, and resembles the titles of several similar compilation series, such as the Pebbles series, Boulders series and Rough Diamonds series. Most of the bands on these albums were not commercially successful, such as the Glass Menagerie, The Onyx, Wonderland and Wild Silk. However, the albums also include a few better-known bands, such as Tomorrow, The Poets, The Pretty Things, The Spencer Davis Group and The Crazy World of Arthur Brown.

Discography
There are 20 volumes in the Rubble series:

The Psychedelic Snarl
Pop-Sike Pipe-Dreams
Nightmares in Wonderland
The 49-Minute Technicolor Dream
The Electric Crayon Set
The Clouds Have Groovy Faces
Pictures In the Sky (Rubble)
All the Colors of Darkness
Plastic Wilderness
Professor Jordan's Magic Sound Show
Adventures In the Mist
Staircase to Nowhere
Freak Beat Fantoms
The Magic Rocking Horse
5000 Seconds Over Toyland
Glass Orchid Aftermath
A Trip In a Painted World
Rainbow Thyme Wynders
Eiderdown Mindfog
Thrice Upon a Time (Nothing Is Real)

References

External links
http://www.marmalade-skies.co.uk/rubble.htm
http://www.myspace.com/rubbleonrandomrotation

Compilation album series
Psychedelic rock albums by British artists
Psychedelic rock compilation albums
1980s compilation albums
1990s compilation albums
2000s compilation albums

Rubble series


Magnus Caris (born 15 November 1968) is a Swedish former professional darts player who competed in British Darts Organisation (BDO) and Professional Darts Corporation (PDC) events.

BDO career
Caris made seven BDO World Darts Championship appearances, his first coming in 1988, losing in the first round to Rick Ney of the United States. In 1990, he reached the quarter-finals, beating Antero Rantala and Brian Cairns before losing to Eric Bristow.

He is famous for his semi final match in the 1994 BDO World Darts Championship against crowd favourite Bobby George. He defeated Wayne Weening, Leo Laurens and Martin Adams to set up a match with George who was struggling with a very bad back following his quarter final win over Kevin Kenny. Caris lost the first 2 sets against George, but then won the next 4 sets and went 2 legs up in the seventh set. In the third leg of the seventh set, Caris had one dart at double 18 to win the match with a 141 checkout. Following this, George won 9 legs in a row and prevailed 5–4 in sets.

Caris also played in the Winmau World Masters five times, with his best performance coming in 1992, reaching the semi-finals with wins over John Lowe, Bristow and Martin Adams before losing to Mike Gregory. Caris returned to televised darts at the 2009 World Masters, losing to defending champion Martin Adams in the last 16.

PDC career

At the end of 2009, Caris competed in the 2010 PDC World Championship. He whitewashed Spain's Francisco Ruiz in the preliminary round before losing to Colin Lloyd in the first round.

In December 2010, Caris competed for Sweden in the inaugural PDC World Cup of Darts alongside Par Riihonen. Sweden beat Slovenia by 6 legs to 2 in the first round, but were defeated 6–4 by United States in the second round.

At the end of 2010, Caris qualified again for the 2011 PDC World Championship. He beat Austria's Dietmar Burger in the preliminary round 4–3, surviving several match darts against him, before losing to Mervyn King in the first round.

At the start of 2011, Caris competed in the PDC qualifying school and earned his 2011 PDC tour card by getting the semi-final on the second day of qualifying.

Caris qualified for the 2011 UK Open and beat Kevin McDine in the first round.  In the second round he was drawn against Peter Hudson and took a 3–0 lead before Hudson hit back to force a deciding leg, which Hudson won with a ten-darter. Caris also missed eight match darts including a bullseye for a 164 finish in the sixth leg.

Caris qualified for the 2011 Grand Slam of Darts after reaching the final of the Wildcard qualifier. He finished 3rd in his group with one victory and two defeats.

At the 2012 World Championship he let a 2–0 lead slip against Steve Beaton in the first round. Caris had three darts to wrap up a straight sets victory, but seemingly let the boisterous crowd get to him, and eventually lost the match, 2–3.
He represented Sweden with Dennis Nilsson once again in the 2012 PDC World Cup of Darts and together they were beaten 1–3 by Belgium in the second round, having defeated Japan in round 1. In June, Caris earned a place in the European Tour Event 2 in Berlin by defeating Roger Palmen and Christian Gödl in the European Qualifier. In the first round he lost to Terry Jenkins 3–6. He also qualified for the third European Tour Event with a win over Mareno Michels, but was then beaten by James Wade 3–6 in the first round in Düsseldorf. At the European Championship, Caris lost in the first round to Phil Taylor 3–6 with an average of 90.

Caris finished 2012 sixth on the European Order of Merit which qualified him for the 2013 World Championship, as he took the second of four spots that were available for the highest non-qualified players. He played Robert Thornton in the first round and lost 0–3 in sets, winning just a single leg during the match. He was ranked world number 44 after the tournament. Caris played in his third World Cup of Darts and second with Par Riihonen in February 2013, but they finished bottom of Group C, losing to Canada 4–5 and Scotland 2–5.

Caris produced a very good run in the fourth UK Open Qualifier of the year by reaching the quarter-finals, beating Simon Whitlock and Andy Smith, before losing to Jamie Caven. He lost 5–1 to Kirk Shepherd in the second round of the UK Open itself. He won two events on the Scandinavian Pro Tour during the year to finish third on their Order of Merit.

In March 2014, Caris reached the semi-finals of the fourth Players Championship, only the second time he has done so in his PDC career. He beat Nigel Heydon, Peter Hudson, Justin Pipe, Adam Hunt and Stephen Bunting, before losing 6–4 to Ian White. In the World Cup of Darts, Caris and his playing partner Peter Sajwani lost both their singles games in the second round against Scotland's Peter Wright and Robert Thornton to exit the tournament. Caris lost in the final of the European Championship Qualifier 6–4 to Robert Wagner.

Caris claimed a new two-year PDC Tour Card in January 2015 by coming through the fourth day of Q School. He began the year brightly by reaching the quarter-finals of the first Players Championship event, losing 6–5 to James Wade. Caris lost in two finals on the Scandinavian Pro Tour, but won the first Russian event with a 6–3 victory over Per Laursen. He also took the SDC qualifier for the European Championship, where he was eliminated 6–2 by Simon Whitlock in the opening round.

Caris lost in the final of two Scandinavian Tour events in the early part of 2016. He reached the third round of the UK Open for the first time and lost 9–4 to John Henderson. Caris and Daniel Larsson were defeated 5–2 by Denmark in the first round of the World Cup. He won the final Scandinavian Tour event of the year by seeing off Cor Dekker 6–4. In the first round of the 2017 World Championship, Caris missed one set dart to level his first round match with Adrian Lewis at 1–1 and was beaten 3–0.

At the 2017 Gibraltar Darts Trophy, Caris overcame Dyson Parody 6–1, Jelle Klaasen 6–3 and Benito van de Pas 6–2 to reach his first European Tour quarter-final and he was beaten 6–3 by Mensur Suljović.

He announced his intention to retire from professional darts after the 2019 World Cup of Darts.

On 08/06/19 he played his final match as a professional darts player at the 2019 World Cup of Darts where he lost his match 4–0 to Gary Anderson. His partner then went on to lose meaning his team lost 2–0 to Team Scotland, Peter Wright and Gary Anderson. Following this match he officially retired from darts.

World Championship results

BDO
 1988: First round (lost to Rick Ney 1–3)
 1989: Second round (lost to Mike Gregory 0–3)
 1990: Quarter-finals (lost to Eric Bristow 1–4)
 1991: First round (lost to Dennis Priestley 0–3)
 1992: First round (lost to Phil Taylor 1–3)
 1994: Semi-finals (lost to Bobby George 4–5)
 1995: First round (lost to Kevin Painter 2–3)

PDC
 2010: First round (lost to Colin Lloyd 1–3)
 2011: First round (lost to Mervyn King 0–3)
 2012: First round (lost to Steve Beaton 2–3)
 2013: First round (lost to Robert Thornton 0–3)
 2017: First round (lost to Adrian Lewis 0–3)

Performance timeline

References

External links

Swedish darts players
1968 births
Living people
British Darts Organisation players
Professional Darts Corporation former tour card holders
Sportspeople from Stockholm
PDC World Cup of Darts Swedish team

Magnus Caris


The Government of the Republic of Kenya (GoK) is the national government of the Republic of Kenya, a federal republic located in East Africa, composed of  47 Counties, each county with its own semi-autonomous governments, including the national capital of Nairobi, where the national government is primarily based.

The national government is composed of three distinct branches: The Legislature (Parliament), the Executive and the Judiciary. Each arm is independent of the other and their individual roles are set by the Constitution of Kenya while their powers and duties are further defined by acts of Parliament.

Naming
The full name of the country is the "Republic of Kenya". Its official Swahili name is "Jamhuri ya Kenya". No other names appear in the Constitution, and these are the names that appear on the country's currency, in treaties, and in legal cases to which the nation is a party.

Other terms such as "GoK", "GK" and "Serikali" are often used officially and informally to distinguish the national government from the county governments.

History
The Kenyan government is based on the principle of federalism, in which power is shared between the national government and the county governments. The country was initially a unitary state whose central government delegated power through devolution since gaining independence from the United Kingdom in 1963 until the country held a referendum in 2010 to amend the Constitution, among which amendments was the devolving of certain powers and duties of the national government to the semi-autonomous governments of the newly-created counties.

The country was initially led by a Prime Minister, but upon the country becoming a full republic in 1964, the Prime Minister's title was changed to President of Kenya.

The current structure of government allows power to be held on two levels: The national level and the county level.

The country is a representative democracy legislatively, and a direct democracy in the election of its president, who is leader of the Executive branch of government.

Legislative branch
The Legislative branch is known as the Parliament of Kenya, and is established under Chapter Eight of the Constitution. It is bicameral, comprising the National Assembly and the Senate. The Legislature is primarily mandated with legislation within the country and is organised as follows:

Makeup of Parliament

The National Assembly
The National Assembly is made up of 349 elected members (known as Member of Parliament or MP), consisting of 290 members elected from constituencies within the counties, 47 women elected at county-level, 12 nominated representatives and the Speaker, who is an ex-officio member. Each of the 290 members represents the constituency from where they were elected. The members of Parliament serve five-year terms..

In order to be elected as a member of the National Assembly, an individual must be registered as a voter, satisfies  any requirements prescribed by the Constitution or by an act of Parliament and is nominated by a political party, or is an independent candidate.

All members are elected or nominated, including the Speaker, who is elected from persons qualified to be elected as members of Parliament but are not members.

Senate
In contrast, the Senate is made up of 47 Senators representing each of the 47 counties, 16 women nominated by political parties according to the parties' proportions in the Senate, one man and woman to represent the youth, one man and women to represent persons with disabilities, and the Speaker, who is also an ex-officio member like the National Assembly's Speaker.

Separate powers
The National Assembly and Senate each have particular powers. The National Assembly mainly deals with legislation affecting the country at the national level as well as exercising oversight over the national government while the Senate mainly deals with legislation concerning counties as well as exercising oversight over the county governments. However, both Houses' approval is required in any matter so determined by an act of Parliament, such as presidential appointments to the Executive and Judiciary, military officers and ambassadors.

County Assembly
The 47 counties also have a legislative branch within their governments known as the County Assembly, made up of elected Members of the County Assembly (MCA) as per the number of wards within the county and nominated members. The county assembly is responsible for legislation at the county level in furtherance of the counties' functions and powers as stated in the Constitution.

Executive branch
The executive branch is established by Chapter Nine of the Constitution, which vests the country's executive authority in the President of Kenya. The president is both the country's head of state (performing ceremonial functions) and the head of government (the chief executive).

President
The President is the head of state and government, as in most republics. The President is also the Commander-in-chief of the Kenya Defence Forces.

The President is the head of the country's Cabinet, which consists of the President, the Deputy President, the Attorney-General and Cabinet Secretaries nominated and appointed by the President with the approval of the National Assembly.

The National Assembly with at least a third of all the members, may set in motion an act to impeach the President. The National Assembly may do so on the grounds of gross violation of the Constitution or any other law, where there is reasons to believing that the President has committed a crime under national or international law or for gross misconduct.

If the motion to impeach passes in the National Assembly the act to impeach moves to the Senate and if at least two-thirds of all the members of the Senate vote to uphold any impeachment charge, the President shall cease to hold office.

Deputy President

The Deputy President is the second-highest executive office in the republic. The position before the 2013 general election was known as the Vice-President of Kenya. There have been 12 deputy presidents since independence.

The incumbent is Rigathi Gachagua who as William Ruto is part of the Kenya Kwanza. The first person to hold the position was Jaramogi Oginga Odinga. The 8th person to hold the office, Michael Kijana Wamalwa was the first and only person to pass away while in office. George Saitoti has held the position twice on separate occasions.

The Deputy President's functions are to be the main assistant to the President and shall deputise for the President in the execution of the President's functions. He must be qualified to become president in order to take the office as he is first in line in the order of  presidential succession.

The Deputy President as the president is limited to two terms in office.

The coat of arms of Kenya

The Government is run by the Ministries of Kenya. The constitution limits the number of Ministries to a minimum of 14 and maximum of 22. The headings of the ministries are known as Cabinet Secretaries who are all nominated by the President. The President has power to assign and dismiss a Cabinet Secretary.

A Cabinet Secretary cannot be an MP and their deputies are known as Principal Secretaries.

All civil servants e.g. teachers in public schools or diplomats fall under one of the ministries in the Cabinet.

The Judiciary

The Judiciary is charged with applying and upholding the law. This is done through a legal system consisting of courts.

The Court System

The Judiciary is led by the Chief Justice. The Chief Justice sits at the Supreme Court whose court decisions are binding to all courts. The current Chief Justice is Chief Justice Martha Koome who is the fifteenth person to hold the office.

The courts are divided into two levels: Superior Courts and Subordinate Courts. Superior Courts are the higher courts and are presided over by Judges. These are the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, the High Court which hears almost every type of case., the Environment and Land Court and the Industrial Court.

The subordinate courts consist of the Magistrates courts, the Kadhi courts, the Courts Martial and any other court or local tribunal as may be established by an Act of Parliament, other than the currently established courts.

All Judges, including the Chief Justice and the Deputy Chief Justice, are selected by the Judicial Service Commission  but are officially appointed by the President. However, the persons selected to be the Chief Justice and Deputy Chief Justice must first be vetted by Parliament before being appointed by the President. All other Judges do not need Parliamentary vetting and approval. Magistrates who preside over the subordinate courts are selected and appointed by the Judicial Service Commission without the involvement of the President or Parliament.

Elections and voting

Elections in Kenya that predate 1992 were not multiparty elections. On independence, Kenya voted for Kenyatta as President. However, over the next few years Kenya slowly transitioned from being a democracy to being a one-party state. Kenyatta's regime greatly oversaw the gradual limitation of the democratic system. Kenyatta died in 1978; his vice President Moi took over and in 1982 the country was officially made a one-party state with every other party being outlawed. This was met by resistance over the next decade or so. In 1992 Kenya's first multiparty elections were held.

Ever since then elections have been held every 5 years. In 2013 the general election paved the way for semi-autonomy of the 47 counties of Kenya. Uhuru Kenyatta, the fourth president won and his coalition the Jubilee Alliance controlled the majority in both houses of Parliament, i.e. the National Assembly and the Senate.

The incumbent president William Ruto won the 2022 general elections and his coalition Kenya Kwanza now controls the majority in both houses of Parliament, i.e. the National Assembly and the Senate.

The state allows universal suffrage based on the aspiration for fair representation and equality. The only people not allowed to vote are people convicted of an election offence during the preceding five years. Elections in Kenya are overseen by the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission.

County governments

The Counties of Kenya have devolved functions of the former central government. Each county has its own Governor who is directly elected and thereafter becomes the  highest elected official in the county. Each county has its own County Assembly with MCAs (Members of the County Assembly ) as representatives.

The powers of the County are provided in Articles 191 and 192, and in the Fourth Schedule of the Constitution of Kenya and the County Governments Act of 2012.

Functions and duties not assigned by the Constitution automatically become the National governments responsibility.

As opposed to other devolved governments around the world, only the national government may impose income tax, value-added tax, customs duties and other duties on import and export goods and excise tax.

The counties are individually allowed to impose property rates, entertainment taxes and any other tax that it is authorised to impose by an Act of Parliament.

See also
 President
 The Cabinet
 The Judiciary
 The Supreme Court

 Law
 The Constitution

 Counties
 Counties

References

External links

 myGov , the official GoK portal.
 OpenData Kenya, Government Stats | Open Data Initiative
 The Presidency, The Presidency | GoK

1963 establishments in Kenya

Government of Kenya