Yogo sapphires are blue sapphires, a colored variety of corundum, found in Montana, primarily in Yogo Gulch (part of the Little Belt Mountains) in Judith Basin County, Montana. Yogo sapphires are typically cornflower blue, a result of trace amounts of iron and titanium. They have high uniform clarity and maintain their brilliance under artificial light. Because Yogo sapphires occur within a vertically dipping resistive igneous dike, mining efforts have been sporadic and rarely profitable. It is estimated that at least 28 million carats () of Yogo sapphires are still in the ground. Jewelry containing Yogo sapphires was given to First Ladies Florence Harding and Bess Truman; in addition, many gems were sold in Europe, though promoters' claims that Yogo sapphires are in the crown jewels of England or the engagement ring of Princess Diana are dubious. Today, several Yogo sapphires are part of the Smithsonian Institution's gem collection.

Yogo sapphires were not initially recognized or valued.  Gold was discovered at Yogo Creek in 1866, and though "blue pebbles" were noticed alongside gold in the stream alluvium by 1878, it was not until 1894 that the "blue pebbles" were recognized as sapphires. Sapphire mining began in 1895 after a local rancher named Jake Hoover sent a cigar box of gems he had collected to an assay office, which in turn sent them to Tiffany's in New York, where an appraiser pronounced them "the finest precious gemstones ever found in the United States". Hoover then purchased the original mother lode from a sheepherder, later selling it to other investors.  This became the highly profitable "English Mine", which flourished from 1899 until the 1920s. A second operation, the "American Mine", was owned by a series of investors in the western section of the Yogo dike, but was less profitable and bought out by the syndicate that owned the English Mine. In 1984, a third set of claims, known as the Vortex mine, opened.

The term "Yogo sapphire" is the preferred wording for gems found in the Yogo Gulch, whereas "Montana sapphire" generally refers to gems found in other Montana locations. More gem-quality sapphires are produced in Montana than anywhere else in North America. Sapphires were first discovered in Montana in 1865, in alluvium along the Missouri River. Finds in other locations in the western half of the state occurred in 1889, 1892, and 1894. The Rock Creek location, near Phillipsburg, is the most productive site in Montana, and its gems inspired the name of the nearby Sapphire Mountains. In 1969, the sapphire was co-designated along with the agate as Montana's state gemstones.

In the early 1980s, Intergem Limited, which controlled most of the Yogo sapphire mining at the time, rocked the gem world by marketing Yogo sapphires as the world's only guaranteed "untreated" sapphire, exposing a practice of the time wherein 95 percent of all the world's sapphires were heat-treated to enhance their natural color. Although Intergem went out of business, the gems it mined appeared on the market through the 1990s because the company had paid its salesmen in sapphires during its financial demise. Citibank had obtained a large stock of Yogo sapphires as a result of Intergem's collapse, and after keeping them in a vault for nearly a decade, sold its collection in 1994 to a Montana jeweler. Mining activity today is largely confined to hobby miners in the area; the major mines are currently inactive.

Location

Yogo sapphires are mined in Montana at Yogo Gulch (), which is in Judith Basin County, Montana,  southwest of Utica,  west-southwest of Lewistown, and east of Great Falls. The site was in Fergus County when Yogo sapphires were discovered, but in 1920, because of the re-designation of county boundaries, Judith Basin County was carved out from parts of western Fergus County and eastern Cascade County.

Yogo Gulch and the corresponding natural features of Yogo Peak (), Yogo Creek, and the Yogo dike, where the gems are mined, are all in the Little Belt Mountains within Judith Basin County. The Gulch is located along the lower reaches of Yogo Creek and west of the Judith River.  The west end of the Yogo dike outcrops just southwest of Yogo Creek, about  north of Yogo Creek's confluence with the Middle Fork of the Judith River; from there it runs east-northeast and ends about  from the Judith River. Yogo Creek starts just south of Yogo Peak, which is about  west of the Judith River. From there the creek flows southeast into the Middle Fork of the Judith River. The Judith River then flows northeast from the Little Belts toward Utica. East of the Judith River is Pig-Eye Basin, where Jake Hoover, credited as the person who discovered Yogo sapphires, owned a ranch.

Etymology
Because Yogo Gulch lies in a region historically inhabited by the Piegan Blackfeet people, promoters of Yogo sapphires claim that yogo may mean "romance" or "blue sky" in the Blackfoot language, although there is little evidence to support this claim. Other meanings for yogo have been suggested, including "Going over the hill". The meaning of the word "Yogo" had been lost by 1878, when placer gold was found in Yogo Creek. Thus, its true meaning is uncertain.

Mineralogy and geology

Sapphires are a color variety of corundum, a crystalline form of aluminium oxide (). Corundum is one of the hardest minerals, rating 9 on the Mohs scale. Corundum gems of most colors are called sapphires, except for red ones, which are called rubies. The term "Yogo sapphire" refers only to sapphires from the Yogo Gulch.  The cornflower blue color of the Yogo results from trace amounts of iron and titanium. Yogo sapphires are unique in that they are free of cavities and inclusions, have high uniform clarity, lack color zoning, and do not need heat treating because their cornflower blue coloring is uniform and deep. Unlike Asian sapphires, they maintain their brilliance in artificial light. Yogo sapphires present an advantage to gemcutters: since they are found as primary constituent minerals within an igneous bedrock rather than in sedimentary alluvial deposits where most other sapphires are located, they retain a perfect or near perfect crystalline shape, making cutting much easier, as does their lack of inclusions, color zoning, or cloudiness. Yogo sapphires also exhibit a triangular pattern on the basal plane of the flattened crystals, with thin rhombohedral crystal faces, a feature absent in sapphires from other parts of Montana.

Yogo sapphires tend to be beautiful, small, and very expensive. The United States Geological Survey and many gem experts have stated that Yogo sapphires are "among the world's finest sapphires." The roughs tend to be small and flat, so cut Yogo gems heavier than  are rare. Only about 10 percent of cut pieces are over . The largest recorded Yogo rough, found in 1910, weighed  and was cut into an  gem. The largest cut Yogo is . Because of the rarity of large rough Yogo sapphires, Yogo gem prices begin rising sharply when they are over , and skyrocket when they are over .

Montana sapphires in general come in a variety of colors, but Yogo sapphires are almost always blue. About two percent of Yogo sapphires are purple, due to trace amounts of chromium. A very small number of rubies have been found at Yogo Gulch.

Yogo sapphires were first discovered in alluvial streambed sediments during gold mining operations in Yogo Gulch downstream from the Yogo dike, but were later traced to their source within igneous bedrock.  Worldwide, other than the Yogo Gulch deposit and one small site in the Kashmir region, most other corundum is mined from the sand and gravel created by the weathering of metamorphic rock. Alluvial sapphires are found in the Far East, Australia, and in three other Montana locations—the upper Missouri River, Rock Creek, and Dry Cottonwood Creek. The location of most Yogo sapphires within igneous rock rather than from alluvial placer deposits requires difficult hard rock mining.  Coupled with American labor costs, this makes their extraction fairly expensive. At least  are estimated to still be in the ground. The Yogo dike is "the only known igneous rock from which sapphire is mined".

The sapphire bearing Yogo dike is a dark gray to green intrusive rock known as a lamprophyre. The lamprophyre is an unusual igneous rock that contains a low content of silica. The rock has a porphyritic texture with large crystals of orthopyroxene and phlogopite set in a fine grained matrix. The phlogopite crystals have been used to determine the age of the dike and its crystallization temperature (900 °C (1,650 °F)). The dike also contains fragments of other rock types. These xenoliths include pieces of limestone, clastic sedimentary rocks, and gneiss. In some locations, due to the abundance of xenoliths, the dike has the appearance of a limestone breccia in an igneous matrix. One gneiss fragment found as a xenolith contains corundum. The Yogo sapphires themselves are rimmed with a reaction layer of spinel and are etched, indicating that the sapphires were not in chemical equilibrium with their host, the lamprophyre magma. This suggests the sapphire crystals may have originated in an earlier rock, such as a corundum-bearing gneiss, later assimilated by the lamprophyre magma at depth. Earlier investigators had assumed that the sapphire had crystallized from the magma with the necessary high aluminium content provided by assimilation of clay rich shales of the Proterozoic Belt Supergroup sediments which are known to be present at depth in the region.

The Yogo dike is a narrow subvertical sheet-like igneous body. It varies from  thick and extends for , striking at an azimuth of 255°. The dike is broken into three offset en echelon segments, and dates to 48.6 mya using Ar dating on phlogopite. The dike intrudes Mississippian age (360 to 325 mya) limestone and other sedimentary rocks of the Madison and Big Snowy Groups.

There has been considerable debate over the years as to the depth of the Yogo dike and how many ounces of rough sapphires per ton it contains. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Delmer L. Brown, a geological engineer and gemologist, conducted the most thorough scientific exploration up to that time, concluding that the dike was at least  deep and that the concentration of rough sapphires was not constant throughout the deposit. Brown found that the dike had intruded into a pre-existing fault that had been a conduit for groundwater circulation. The overlying shale, the Kibbey Formation, was deposited on an unconformity, an ancient Mississippian-age karst erosion surface, and was not intruded by the dike. This groundwater action produced collapsed zones which were intruded by the dike to form breccia zones. Recent erosion in the area removed the overlying shales and again exposed the limestone to groundwater action which produced collapse breccias which include fragments of the dike rock. He determined that the erosion of the dike in the current erosion cycle was minimal.

Brown also showed that the unique characteristics of the Yogo sapphires are related to their geological history. Most sapphires are formed under low pressure and temperature over geologically short periods of time, and this is why most non-Yogo sapphires have imperfections and inconsistent coloring. Yogo sapphires show crystalline formation under very high temperatures and pressures corresponding to a great depth, over geologically long periods of time.  Brown also showed that distribution of gem rough through the dike was not consistent, so using an average "ounces per ton" was misleading. For example, the section which, despite several ownership and name changes over the years, is generally known as the "American Mine," was developed in an area dominated by post-dike breccia with significantly lower ounces per ton than the English Mine.

Montana sapphires

"Yogo sapphire" is the preferred term for gems found in the Yogo Gulch, whereas "Montana sapphire" generally refers to gems found in other Montana locations.  More gem-quality sapphires are produced in Montana than anywhere else in North America. Montana sapphires come in a variety of colors, though rubies are rare.

The first sapphires found in the United States were discovered on May 5, 1865, along the Missouri River, about  east of Helena, in Lewis and Clark County, by Ed "Sapphire" Collins. Collins sent the sapphires to Tiffany's in New York City, and to Amsterdam for evaluation; however, those sapphires were of poor coloring and low overall quality, garnering little notice and giving Montana sapphires a poor reputation.  Corundum was also found at Dry Cottonwood Creek near Butte in 1889, Rock Creek near Philipsburg in 1892, and Quartz Gulch near Bozeman in 1894. By 1890, the English-owned Sapphire and Ruby Mining Company had bought several thousand acres of land where Montana sapphires were found, but the venture failed after a few years because of fraudulent practices by the owners.

Sapphires from these three sites are routinely heat-treated to enhance color. While millions of carats of sapphires have been mined from the Missouri River deposits, there has been little commercial activity there since the 1990s because of the high cost of recovery and environmental concerns. Production at Dry Cottonwood Creek has been sporadic and low-yielding. The Rock Creek area, also known as Gem Mountain, continues to be the most productive site in Montana, even more so than Yogo Gulch, producing over  of sapphires since its inception in 1906. Other than Yogo, Montana sapphire mines have been less successful because they have few blue sapphires and non-blue sapphires have low profit margins.

These gems inspired the names of features: the mountains near Rock Creek are known as the Sapphire Mountains. Garnets are also found at some Montana sapphire sites, inspiring the name of the Garnet Range, which lies to the north of the Sapphire Mountains. In 1969, the sapphire and agate were jointly declared Montana's two official state gemstones.

History

Mining of Yogo sapphires was exceptionally difficult and remains sporadic today. Even so, Yogo sapphire mining turned out to be more valuable than several gold strikes.  The Yogo area also produced small amounts of silver, copper, and iron.

Yogo Gulch lies in a region originally inhabited by the Piegan Blackfeet people. Gold was first discovered at Yogo Creek in 1866, but the small numbers of early prospectors were driven off by local Native Americans. During a Gold Rush in 1878, about a thousand miners came to Yogo Creek, which was one of the gold-bearing streams in Montana not yet actively mined.  "Blue pebbles" were noted along with small quantities of gold. The mining camp at Yogo City only flourished for roughly three years, and eventually the population dwindled to only a few people.

Yogo City was briefly known as Hoover City, after Jake Hoover. Hoover was part of a partnership that had been placer mining for gold and is credited as the discoverer of Yogo Sapphires. For several years, he also owned a ranch in nearby Pig-Eye Basin. He later prospected for gold in Alaska and was a deep-sea fishing guide in Seattle before eventually returning to the Judith Basin.  Western painter C.M. Russell arrived in the area in 1880 as a young cowhand and was hired by Hoover. Russell stated that he learned most of his frontier skills from Hoover, and the two men remained lifelong friends. Millie Ringold, a former slave born in 1845, settled in Fort Benton, Montana after having worked as a nurse and servant for an army general. When gold was discovered at Yogo Creek, Ringold sold her boarding house in Fort Benton and left for the Yogo gold fields, setting up a hotel, restaurant, and saloon in Yogo City where she sang and played music. Ringold later cooked for the English mine, but also worked her own gold claims, even after gold mining was on the decline. She was known as a superb cook and ultimately died in Yogo City in 1906, the last resident of the community.  The nearby town of Utica was featured in Russell's 1907 painting A Quiet Day In Utica, which was originally known as Tinning a Dog. Hoover, Ringold, store owner Charles Lehman, and Russell himself are all depicted in the painting, placed between the hitching post and door of the general store.

Discovery

In 1894, the "blue pebbles" were recognized as sapphires.  One story credits a local school teacher for recognizing the blue pebbles as sapphires. A variation is that the teacher lived in Maine, but was a friend of a local miner, who had mailed her a small box with some gold and a few "blue pebbles" in it. Another story credits a miner named S.S. Hobson for surmising that the blue stones might be sapphires, and his guess was confirmed by a jeweler in Helena.  Ultimately, in 1895, Jake Hoover sent a cigar box containing those he had collected while mining gold to an assay office, which in turn sent them via regular, uninsured mail to Tiffany's in New York City for appraisal by Dr. George Frederick Kunz, the leading American gemologist of the time. Impressed by their quality and color, Kunz pronounced them "the finest precious gemstones ever found in the United States". Tiffany's sent Hoover a check for $3,750 (approximately $ as of ), along with a letter that described the blue pebbles as "sapphires of unusual quality".

Early mining
Yogo sapphires were ultimately traced from the alluvium to their source. In February 1896, a sheepherder named Jim Ettien found the sapphire mother lode: the Yogo dike.  Ettien was prospecting for gold, and found sapphires after washing gravel he found in a fissure within a limestone outcrop. Ettien staked two claims. The vein turned out to be  long and several other miners promptly staked claims along it. Ettien sold his claims to Hoover; Hoover in turn sold his interest in eight original mining stakes, known as the "New Mine Sapphire Syndicate", to his two partners for $5,000 (approximately $ as of ). This site was  from Yogo City. In 1899, Johnson, Walker and Tolhurst, Ltd. of London purchased the New Mine Sapphire Syndicate for $100,000 (approximately $ million as of ). At that point, the operation became unofficially known as the "English Mine".

On July 4, 1896, two other Americans, John Burke and Pat Sweeney, staked six mining claims on the western portion of the Yogo dike—areas Hoover had deemed unfit for mining. These claims were collectively known as the "Fourth of July Claim", and became known as the "American Mine". In 1904, the mine was bought by the American Gem Syndicate, and it sold in 1907 to the American Sapphire Company.

One of the Englishmen who came to the area was Charles Gadsden of Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire. By 1902, Gadsden was promoted to resident supervisor of the English Mine, and he quickly turned its focus from gold to sapphires. Gadsden's security measures were very tight, as weight-for-weight, rough sapphires were and continue to be  worth much more than gold. The English Mine flourished until the 1920s, but floods on July 26, 1923, so severely damaged the mines that they never fully recovered. Between the aftermath of flooding and hard economic times, the English Mine finally failed in 1929. It had recovered more than  of rough sapphires that produced  of finished gems valued at $25 million in 1929 dollars (approximately $ million as of ). A series of other firms mined sapphires there, but with marginal success. For much of the 1930s and 1940s Gadsden worked the mine alone and used his own money to pay its property taxes.  He remained caretaker of the mines until shortly before his death on March 11, 1954.

The American Mine operations were less profitable than those of the English Mine. While the English Mine used superior mining and management techniques on a richer lode, the American Mine suffered from insufficient space and lack of water for ore weathering. Roughs from the English Mine were shipped to London and sold in Europe, often with claims they were sapphires from the Far East, while the American Mine had difficulty marketing its gems within the United States. The American Sapphire Company, which used local gemcutters from Great Falls, went bankrupt in 1909; a new firm, the Yogo American Sapphire Company, bought the American Mine, but was bankrupt by 1913. Gadsden and his wife had convinced the New Mine Sapphire Syndicate to buy out the Yogo American Sapphire Company in 1914, and in doing so, the English syndicate gained control of all known Yogo deposits.  They quickly recouped the purchase price by washing the tailings left behind by previous operators of the American Mine.

1940s–1970s

Montana sapphires were heavily mined during  for industrial abrasive and cutting purposes. As the Yogo mines were still owned by the English, the United States government could not control those operations, so the mines were little affected by the war, even though industrial sapphires were critical to the war effort. The Yogo Sapphire Mining Corporation of Billings, Montana, was the next company to try to run the English Mine. They made an initial offer in 1946, and reached a deal by 1949, but the purchase was not complete until 1956 because of legal issues. The sale was finally completed for $65,000 cash and some stock considerations because the company's capital was exhausted, similar to previous Yogo ventures. The Yogo Sapphire Mining Corporation then changed its name to be the same as the former English firm's name: New Mine Sapphire Syndicate. It became informally known as the "American Syndicate" to distinguish it from the previous "English Syndicate". Production was poor and mining ceased in September 1959. From 1959 to 1963, the mine itself was left unattended and unsecured, resulting in hobbyists, picnickers, and rockhounds' coming from all over the US and Canada to gather loose rough sapphires. The American Syndicate took action to stop this in 1963, with fences and threats of prosecution. The American Syndicate then tried leasing the mine to several operators. One of these was Siskon, Inc. of Nevada, which lost a significant amount of money. They sued, and in May 1965 the Montana Supreme Court ruled in Siskon's favor. Siskon bought the mine at a sheriff's sale and in turn leased it to a group headed by Arnold Baron, who had a background in gemcutting and jewelry. Baron organized German and Thai gemcutters and had success in marketing Yogo sapphires in America—the first such success in 50 years. However, owing to the difficulty in mining the hard rock site, he did not exercise his option to buy the mine, and Siskon sold it in August 1968 to Herman Yaras of Oxnard, California, for $585,000.

In 1969, Yaras' Sapphire Village, Inc. created the Sapphire Village, a nearby homesite development offering buyers limited mining rights to gather their own sapphires with hand tools. Having done no significant mining or marketing, Sapphire Village, Inc. sold in 1973 to one of its investors, Chikara Kunisaki, a celery farmer from Oxnard, California. Kunisaki renamed the business Sapphire International Corporation and attempted to create a commercial mining operation. He built a modern  tunnel at the site of the old American Mine, named the "Kunisaki Tunnel". But operation costs were so high that Sapphire International Corporation shut down in late 1976. This was the last actual attempt to mine the American Mine section of the Yogo dike, and today, only the locked portal to the tunnel still exists.

In January 1977, Victor di Suvero and his firm Sapphire-Yogo Mines became the next owner to tackle the Yogo dike. Di Suvero was a native-born Italian who grew up in Tientsin, China, and had been successful with a jade mine in California. Di Suvero's expertise was in marketing: he formed a company called Sapphire Trading to cut and market the Yogo sapphires. He had novel marketing ideas but was not knowledgeable about the mining side of the business. Unable to make payments, his venture folded in late 1979.

By 1980, only four American owners had been successful at Yogo Gulch, all early in its mining history. The English syndicate had been the most profitable of any venture, and even that venture was short-lived.  At least thirteen American-owned Yogo mining efforts had failed. Besides inherent difficulties with financing and the challenges of hard rock mining, the American owners generally did not understand how to effectively market the gems.

1980s and beyond
Kunisaki put his mine up for sale, asking $6 million to recoup his expenses. Even though mine profits had been poor over the decades, prices of precious gems were very high at the time due to the worldwide oil crises of the 1970s and early 1980s. Four individuals or groups seriously considered Kunisaki's offer. Relying heavily upon Delmer Brown's expertise, Harry C. Bullock and J. R. Edington formed the limited partnership American Yogo Sapphire Limited, becoming the 14th American company to work the Yogo dike. Bullock and Brown had Yogo mine experience, as they had worked with di Suvero. Bullock's plan included mining, cutting, making jewelry, and marketing—the whole spectrum of the business. They paid the $6 million asked by Kunisaki and then raised another $7.2 million in funding by October 1981. Brown located quality gemcutters in Thailand, and set up the American Yogo Sapphire Company there. Brown also set up a thorough, computerized security system that tracked gems from the mine to the gemcutters. Bigger roughs were sent to American cutters, specialty cuts were done in Germany, a few cuts were done in Hong Kong, and the vast majority were done in Thailand. American Yogo Sapphire Limited secured a $5 million line of credit with Citibank. Desiring a more modern name, American Yogo Sapphire Limited changed its name to Intergem Limited in early 1982. Intergem marketed the Yogo as the "Royal American Sapphire." Their first line of jewelry appeared in mid-1982, first marketed regionally in the American west and later at the national level. Intergem also developed a system of authorized dealers, and found success in its first four years, with sales over $3 million in 1984 alone.

Intergem rocked the gem trade by marketing the Yogo as the world's only guaranteed untreated sapphire. By 1982, the practice of routinely heat treating gems had become a major issue in the industry. At the time, 95 percent of all the world's sapphires were being heated to enhance their natural color. Thai traders had even purchased large quantities of naturally colorless Sri Lankan sapphires, known as geuda, and heated them to turn them into a marketable range of blue colors. Intergem's marketing of guaranteed untreated Yogo sapphires set them against many in the gem industry. In 1985 there was a movement in Pennsylvania to require disclosure that a gem had been treated. Intergem's strategy resulted in large numbers of gem professionals visiting Yogo Gulch.

Intergem began planning to dig even deeper into the Yogo dike, which held more known reserves than all the world's other known sapphire deposits combined, albeit deep underground rather than near the surface in the manner of the other known deposits.  They also set up a washing plant and maintenance sheds at the site of the former American mine. Intergem had made a $1.5 million down payment and agreed to make semi-annual payments to Kunisaki's Sapphire International Corporation, which had been renamed to Roncor. Intergem also had loan and interest payments on the $7.2 million loan to make to Citibank. While the company's sales were steadily increasing, their profits were still too low and in May 1985 they missed a $250,000 payment to Roncor. Simultaneously, their collateral of gems, held by Citibank, declined because the value of their collateral was declining; as a result, Citibank called in its loan. Intergem had over $1 million in sales lined up for the 1985 Christmas season, but could only fill a tiny portion because they did not have enough operating capital to manufacture the Yogo jewelry. In mid-1986, Roncor regained full ownership even though Intergem had sold loose gems and jewelry worth millions of dollars.

Various companies attempted to lease the mine from Roncor, but in the meantime, two local couples, Lanny and Joy Perry and Chuck and Marie Ridgeway, discovered a new site at Yogo Gulch in January 1984 by following a trail to an unused section of the dike that had previously been deemed unsuitable. They began mining the site and named it the "Vortex Mine", forming a company named Vortex Mining. The mine shaft was  deep and contained two Yogo ore-bearing veins. The portion of the dike they had mined was an extension of the main dike. The Vortex Mine, renamed Yogo Creek Mining, was successful for years but eventually declined and closed in 2004.

In 1992, Roncor found an  rough. AMAX Exploration, operating as the Yogo Sapphire Project, signed a 22-month lease with Roncor in March 1993 and had some success in the middle and eastern portions of the dike; it decided not to continue after the end of its lease due to the cost of underground mining, depletion of easily accessible Yogo sapphires, and the relatively small size of Yogo sapphires then easily accessible. During this time, additional dikes were found in the area using geophysical magnetometer surveys. Low-grade sapphire rough was found in the Eastern Flats Dike, a parallel dike some 500 feet northeast of the main dike. Pacific Cascade Sapphires, a Canadian company, had a mining lease with Roncor in 2000 and 2001 but ran out of funds and their option expired. By this time, most of the easily accessible Yogo sapphires had been mined and miners had to dig deeper, further increasing costs.

In 1995, Intergem's stock of gems began to reappear on the market because the company had paid its salesmen in sapphires during its financial demise. After Intergem collapsed, many of its salesmen continued to sell Yogo sapphires, especially after AMAX ceased operations. Citibank also had obtained a large stock of Yogo sapphires, reputedly worth $3.5 million (approximately $ as of ), as a result of Intergem's collapse:  of rough,  of cut gems, and 2,000 pieces of jewelry, all of which sat in the bank's vaults until 1991 when Sofus Michelsen, director of the Center for Gemstone Evaluation and creator of the Michelsen Gemstone Index, became interested. In 1992, he and Jim Adair, a Missoula, Montana, jeweler who is the world's largest retailer of Yogo sapphires, got together, and by October 1994 Adair had purchased Citibank's four sealed bags of Yogo material. However, only one of the bags was truly valuable. Adair and Michelsen designed custom cutting techniques for Yogo sapphires.

A new owner, Michael Duane Roberts, bought the Vortex Mine in 2008. Its operations were designed to be environmentally friendly, using methods such as recycling all water and not using other chemicals. Roberts died in a mining accident in 2012. , there was also mining activity by individual hobby miners on small parcels at Sapphire Village, but the Roncor mines remained inactive.  In 2017, Vortex Mines was sold to Don Baide who plans to continue operations.

Notable specimens

Several Yogo sapphires are kept at the Smithsonian Institution. The earliest donations were noted in the museum's annual report on June 30, 1899, when the institution reported that Dr. L. T. Chamberlain gave them two cut Yogo sapphires and 21 other sapphires for their Dr. Isaac Lea gem and mineral collection. The record-setting  cut Yogo is also held by the Smithsonian. In 2006, gemologist Robert Kane of Fine Gems International in Helena, donated 333 Montana sapphires, weighing a total of , to the Smithsonian's Gem and Mineral Collection, along with 98.48 grams of 18K yellow gold for the creation of a piece of jewelry. A representative of the Smithsonian asked Paula Crevoshay, a jewelry designer from Albuquerque, New Mexico, to create a piece of finished jewelry from these gems. Crevoshay felt that a butterfly motif would best represent America's natural beauty, honor her mother's love of butterflies, and display the wide range of colors found in Montana sapphires. Crevoshay named the brooch "Conchita" in honor of her mother; it is also referred to as the "Sapphire Butterfly Brooch", "Conchita Sapphire Butterfly", and the "Montana Butterfly Brooch". Two of the sapphires used are cabochon cut and the rest are brilliant cut. The majority are from the Rock Creek deposit. The largest one, however, is a blue Yogo used for the butterfly's head. Other sapphires used included yellow, purple, pink, and orange gems. Crevoshay completed the brooch in 2007; she and Kane presented the finished brooch to Smithsonian curator Jeffrey Post on May 7, 2007, in Washington, DC.

In the earliest years of Yogo sapphire mining, before Yogo sapphires achieved their own reputation, Oriental sapphires were sold in Montana with claims they were Yogo sapphires, while in Europe, Yogo sapphires were sold as Oriental sapphires. However, Yogo sapphires became notable in their own right. Paulding Farnham (1859–1927) used Yogo sapphires in several jewelry pieces he designed for the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris, where Yogo sapphires received a silver medal among all gems for color and clarity. An entry of uncut loose Yogo sapphires also won a bronze medal at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, Missouri. Farnham was the creator of the most elaborate piece of jewelry ever made with Yogo sapphires, the life-size Tiffany Iris Brooch, a brooch ornament, which contains 120 Yogo sapphires set in platinum, and sold on March 17, 1900, for $6,906.84. In 1923, First Lady Florence Harding was given an "all Montana" ring made from a Yogo sapphire and Montana gold. In 1952, Gadsden gave cut Yogo sapphires to President Harry Truman, his wife Bess, and their daughter Margaret. Many Yogo sapphires were also sold in Europe, as some Yogo mining was conducted by British interests. Yogo sapphires may have been in the personal collections of some members of the British royal family in the 1910s, but promotional claims that Yogo sapphires are in any of the crown jewels of England cannot be conclusively proven or disproven. Claims that the gem in the engagement ring of Lady Diana Spencer and Kate Middleton is a Yogo are dubious; the gem is thought to be of Sri Lankan origin. The story that the gem is a Yogo can be traced to a 1984 Los Angeles Times article that described the ring as a  sapphire, and quoted Intergem president Dennis Brown's claim that the gem may have come from a British-owned Yogo mine.

See also

 Bismarck Sapphire Necklace
 Hall Sapphire and Diamond Necklace
 Logan sapphire

Notes

Footnotes

References

External links

 Birth of a Yogo sapphire (photo sequence showing cutting of 7.73 rough to a 2.62 carat finished gem)
 Development of Montana Sapphire Industry
 New Mine Sapphire Syndicate Records, 1889-1967 (University of Montana Archives)

Aluminium minerals
Dielectrics
Corundum gemstones
Geology of Montana
Optical materials
Oxide minerals
Superhard materials
Transparent materials
Trigonal minerals
Minerals in space group 167

Yogo sapphire


The University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, also known as the ULPGC (Spanish Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria) is a Spanish university located in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, the capital city of Gran Canaria island. It is the university with the most students in the Canary Islands. It consists of five campuses: four in Gran Canaria (Tafira, Obelisco, San Cristóbal and Montaña Cardones) and one in the island of Lanzarote, with Tafira being the largest. The University was created in 1989 after many years of petitions from the people of Gran Canaria. The university was incorporated through the University Reorganization Act of 1989. ULPGC was created as the aggregation of the teaching centres of former "Universidad Politécnica de Canarias", focused on engineering (industrial, civil, electronics and computer), and the centres from neighbouring Universidad de La Laguna that were located in Las Palmas province.

This University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has an important university community of foreign students, being the first university in the Canary Islands and among the first in Spain to receive Erasmus students.

The University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, in the academic year 2019/2020, has 1,648 teachers and researchers, 143 research staff in projects, 109 research staff in training, 40 honorary doctors and 837 members and a total of 20,356 students.

Academic programs
The university offers 41 bachelor's degrees, 25 Master's degrees, and 13 PhD programs to over 22,006 students.

The fields offered to cover all the five areas of knowledge, Sciences, Arts and Humanities, Health Sciences, Social and Law Sciences, and Architecture and Engineering.

The university has a Moodle-based virtual campus giving service to all traditional classroom-based teaching and specially to 5 fully on-line grade titles and 4 post-graduate programs. According to a popular Spanish newspaper (El País), the ULPGC uses their online platform in an outstanding way.

According to a popular newspaper ranking, the ULPGC placed 34th out of the 48 public universities in Spain (El Mundo newspaper study). In Spain, public universities overtake private ones. Also, the ULPG is in the position 804th of the world ranking.

Teaching and research staff

The university conducts research in several fields, especially in biomedicine, electronics and computer sciences, and marine sciences. Since 1989, research groups at ULPGC have been awarded approximately 2000 research grants (competitive funding from the Spanish government and from international sources, mainly EU Science programs, a living testament to its academic achievement). As a result, the university has produced more than 3000 articles in peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed journals, as well as a number of books and magazine articles.

University Institutes and Excellence in research
ULPGC Research Institutes
 University Institute of Cybernetic Science and Technology
 University Institute of Applied Microelectronics
 University Institute for Animal Health and Food Security
 Institute of Intelligent Systems and Numerical Applications in Engineering (IUSIANI)
 University Institute for Technological Development and Innovation in Communication (IDeTIC)
 University Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Development (TIDES)
 University Institute of Oceanography and Global Change  (IOCAG)
 University Institute of Text Analysis and Applications (IATEXT)
 University Institute in Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS)
 University Institute of Aquaculture and Sustainable Marine Ecosystems (IU-ECOAQUA)
 University Institute for Environmental Studies and Natural Resources (i-UNAT)

The university institutes are the highest body of research management at the university. ULPGC highlights international research in various fields such as marine science, health, energy, economy and tourism, water and ICT around the sea, as evidenced by the granting of the mention of Campus of Excellence "Tricontinental Atlantic Campus" by the Government of Spain.

The Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Economic Development -Tides-http://tides.es leading the tourism research at the ULPGC has contributed to rank the ULPGC among the top 4 in Europe and top 30 in the world universities in tourism research scientific productivity. ULPGC is the 5th university in Europe and the 1st in Spain in Hospitality research scientific productivity. In tourism research, ULPGC highlights in this ranking in some specific research topics: "Destination Marketing and Management", 2nd in the World (sharing the position with 4 more universities); and "Image and Branding", 4th in the World

Conferences
ULPGC is the main host and co-host of several international conferences. Mainly:
 International Conference on Computer-Aided Systems Theory
 Nature and Tourism International Conference

In 2005, this university hosted the MoodleMoot Spain conferences. Many universities have followed the example of the ULPGC in online education.

In 2009, the ULPGC has been the co-host for the GUADEC and Akademy 2009 conferences, joining these two leading software conferences in the same place for the first time.

ULPGC store
A store was opened at the university on November 25, 2014. It is located between the "Las Casitas" cafeteria and the Student Information Service (SIE). The building has two floors and the different items that can be purchased with its own and commercially registered brand are displayed: ULPGC (University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria).

References

External links

1989 establishments in Spain
Universities and colleges in Spain
Las Palmas
Universities and colleges established in 1989
Education in the Canary Islands
Organisations based in the Canary Islands
Public universities


Sengunthar is a caste from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. They are also known as Kaikolar and use Mudaliar as title. They are present throughout the state of Tamil Nadu and also in some parts of Andhra and Kerala apart from the Tamizh Eezham. The considerable proportion of this community is engaged in the occupation of cloth merchants and weaving. They are included in the Central list of Other Backward Community. Senguntha Mudaliars have their historical connection with the Medieval and Later Chola Army Battalion.

Hinduism
Tamil culture
Castes in Tamil Nadu

Sengunthar


Malvern is a town in Worcestershire, England. It is an old Victorian town which was built around its famous water. It has a population of 28,749. It is home to the famous Malvern Hills, and was the birthplace of the composer Sir Edward Elgar.

Other websites
Malvern Gazette Local Malvern weekly newspaper
Malvern Hills District Council
Worcestershire County Council
Malvern Museum
Biking in Malvern
Malvern Linux Users Group
Malvern Fringe Festival

Towns in Worcestershire

Malvern, Worcestershire


La Calandria is a comedy of the Italian Renaissance in five acts written by Cardinal Bernardo Dovizi da Bibbiena in 1513. The plot is based on Plautus' Menaechmi and one of the central character's, Calandro, was borrowed from Giovanni Boccaccio's, Decameron. It premiered in 1513 at the Court of Urbino.

Characters

 Fessenio - servant to Lidio. Rescued Lidio as a child when their city was sacked by the Turks.
 Polinico - a tutor to Lidio. Appears in the first scene of the play.
 Lidio - an adolescent. 18 years old. Separated from his twin sister, Santilla, at age 6. In love with Fulvia, a married woman.
 Calandro - Husband to Fulvia. Often described by other characters in the play as stupid.
 Samia - handmaiden to Fulivia. She acts as the messenger for all of Fulvia's wishes.
 Ruffo - a necromancer
 Santilla- Disguised as a boy ever since she was 6 years old. Twin sister to Lidio whose identity she has taken.
 Fannio - servant to Santilla. Rescued Santilla as a child when their city was sacked by the Turks.
 Fulvia - the wife of Calandro. Desperately in love with Lidio.
 A whore
 A porter
 A customs officer

Prologues and Argumento
La Calandria consists of two prologues and a argumento.

Bibbienna was to produce the play himself but in January, a month before the play was performed, he was summoned to Florence by Cardinal de Medici to meet with the Spanish Viceroy. Thus, is fell to Castiglione to prepare and produce the play.  Although Bibbiena promised to write a prologue, it only arrived a day before the production, leaving no time for the actor to learn the new prologue. Castiglione wrote one instead that the actor had already learned. Depending on translation, publisher, and edition the play will either have one of the prologues or both.

Prologue by Castiglione
The first prologue was written by Castiglione and introduces this new comedy, the audience is about to be performed. The speaker states that it will be performed in prose not verse. The title of the play is named after Calandro, a great fool we are soon to meet. The explanation for the prose instead of verse is that the play deals with common every day issues. The subject matter is material the audience would be familiar with so the language used should be the language the audience uses on a daily basis. Furthermore, the speaker assures that the play will not be performed in Latin since it must be played for large and numerous audiences who are not all equally educated and the author would like to please the most people.

Prologue by Bibbiena
The second prologue was written by Bibbiena. The speaker describes being woken from a dream by Ser Giuliano. He begins to describe the dream to his audience in which he had found a magical ring that if he held it in his mouth he became invisible. When deciding what he could do with his invisibility he entertains the thought of sneaking into the coffers of rich men and rob them until they were left with nothing. However, he decides to travel through Florence and spy on the women as they wake and prepare for the evening's festivities. He tells the story of different houses he visits. Throughout the speech he makes the majority of them are husband and wife scenes/ He observes the trickery of husbands sneaking off to have affairs, of mistresses deceiving their husbands. Every scene is domestic in nature and deals with deceit in some manner.

Argumento
The argumento is a summary of the play that the audience is about to witness. Demetrius, a citizen of Modon, has a set of twins/ A boy named Lidio and a girl named Santilla. When they are six their father is killed when the Turks invade Modon. The twins are separated. The servant, Fannio, disguises Santilla as her twin brother for protection. They are taken prisoner, and sold to a man named Perillo who resides in Florence. A servant, Fessenio, rescue the boy Lidio and they travel to Tuscany. As Lidio grows older and begins to search for his missing twin sister, his travels take him to Rome, where he falls in love with a married woman named Fulvia. To get closer to her without detection Lidio takes on his sister's identity and sneaks into Fulvia's home as Santilla. Meanwhile, Fannio and Santilla (still disguised as a boy) become part of Perillo's household so fully that Perillo decides to arrange a marriage between his own daughter and Santilla. The argumento assures the audience after several misunderstands the twins will recognize one another. It introduces the setting as Rome and the play begins.

La Calandria and the Court
At the time La Calandria was written the court held the majority of political power in society. So for theater this meant that it only existed in a space secured by the court. The courts designated the space set aside for these pleasures and entertainments that theatre provided. Presenting La Calandria, the prince gained even more political power through public entertainments sponsored by him.

Staging
We have detailed information on the staging of La Calandria within the court of Urbino because of a letter written by Baldassare Castiglione (who served as the organizer of the entertainment) to Ludovico Canossa.

In the letter, the area that the audience occupied was referred to as a moat in front of walls and towers. Beyond this area, was the front of the stage, an open space (which would act as the street in the play), which stood before houses of the city. The perspectival stage set would create an illusion of a city with streets, palaces, churches and towers. It was to be an idealized Rome. In his letter, Castiglione refers to two walls which were to simulate embankments that traversed the hall. One wall is identified as the stage front and acted the city wall. The two flanking towers held the musicians.

Designers in Urbino, to create a wall that had to be seen through by the audience, the wall was turned into a frame that opened up to reveal the city beyond.

"The scene was laid in a very in the city, with streets, palaces, churches, and towers, all in relief, and looking as if they were real, the effect being completed by admirable paintings in scientific perspective. Among other objects there was an octagon temple in low relief, so well finished that, even if all the workmen in the duchy of Urbino had been employed, it seemed hardly possible to think that all this had been done in four months!" - Letter from Castiglione to Canossa on the performance of La Calandria.

Performance history
La Calandria was first performed on February 6, 1513, in Urbino during carnival. This was also two weeks before death of Pope Julius II and the ascent of the Medici's to power on the papal throne. It was presented in the Urbino throne room and prepared by Castiglione, the duke of Novellara. Castiglione is also responsible for the prologue of the script. Scenes were created by a student of Raphael (a close friend of Dovizi), Girolamo Genga. The play proved to be a success and would be continued to be performed on several occasions. The Vatican produced it in December 1514 and January 1515; in Mantua in 1520 and in 1532; in Venice in 1521 and 1522; in Lyon in 1548; and in Munich in 1569.

Themes

Love
The power of love, what love does to one's mind, what one will do for love are all topics repeatedly discussed between characters. Fulvia is overwhelmed by her passions for Lidio and his love for her. However, his love is overwhelmed by his fear of being discovered in the affair.

Symmetry and Doubling
This theme comes not from just the subject matter of the play but rather the action on stage. Symmetry in the script emphasizes the importance of the theme. The switching of clothes with the changes in identity and sex. Lidio, primarily dresses as a man, and only on occasion does he wear women's clothing. Santilla on the other hand primarily dresses in drag as a man and very little does she get to wear female clothing. The twins appear together on stage four times exactly. This is exactly the number of times necessary to exhaust all possible combinations of drag: once both dressed as men, once both dressed as women and two others with their genders swapped including one in which they are dressed as their true sex. However, at the end the twins must reconcile that they can no longer disguise themselves and continue with their duplicitous lifestyles. Only when they abandon their exchangeable identities and return to separate, different beings can the play end. In the twin's recognition of one another and their appearance in clothing of their true sex is their maturation and entry into adulthood and marriage.

Inspiration from Plautus

Twins
Bibbiena used the plot of Menaechmi as the basis for his plot. Sources assume that Bibbiena changed the genders of the twins from two males to a male and female to remove aspects of homosexuality. This allowed him to end his play with the correct social and engendered behavior of the time.

The Lock-Out
This is to say a scene in which the twin or lover is locked out of his house, a twist that is seen throughout Italian theatre and late in plays such as Shakespeare's Comedy of Errors. This motif creates comic tension, enhanced by the presence of two pairs of twins and increases the errors.

Production history
The opera, Calandro, is a three-act German opera based on Bibbiena's Calandria. It was first performed in 1726. It is composed by Giovanni Alberto Ristori to a libretto by Stefano Benedetto Pallavicino.

See also
 Bernardo Dovizi
 Baldassare Castiglione
 Count of Urbino
 Italian Renaissance

References

Italian plays
1513 plays
Plays based on works by Plautus
Plays based on works by Giovanni Boccaccio
Works based on Menaechmi
Renaissance plays

La Calandria (play)


Sierra Leonean Americans are an ethnic group of  Americans of full or partial Sierra Leonean ancestry. This includes Sierra Leone Creoles whose ancestors  were African American Black Loyalists freed after fighting on the side of the British during the American Revolutionary War. Some African Americans trace their roots to indigenous enslaved Sierra Leoneans exported to the United States between the 18th and early 19th century. In particular, the Gullah people of partial Sierra Leonean ancestry, fled their owners and settled in parts of South Carolina, Georgia, and the Sea Islands, where they still retain their cultural heritage. The first wave of Sierra Leoneans to the United States, after the slavery period, was after the Sierra Leone Civil War in the 1990s and early 2000s.
According to the American Community Survey, there are 34,161 Sierra Leonean immigrants living in the United States.

History

Slavery

The first people from present Sierra Leone who emigrated to the United States were slaves imported in this country between the 18th and 19th centuries. The first slaves from Sierra Leone arrived to the United States are some of the Gullah ancestries, or (in Georgia) Geechee, which were sent from  Africa or since the Caribbean, particularly Barbados, to serve as free labor for the cultivation of rice, whose area of cultivation was the southeast coast of the modern United States. Indeed, many slavers employed slaves from the West African coasts because their great ability to work in the rice plantations. The Sierra Leonean slaves belonged to peoples such as the Mendes, Temnes, Vai, Loko, Fula, Sherbro and Limba people and many of them were Muslims (as is the case of the Fulbes). Slaves from Sierra Leone made up 24% of the slaves arriving imported to these place. Most of the slaves of Sierra Leone were imported to southeast, mainly to South Carolina (where arrived the 70% of those slaves. The slavers of modern-day Sierra Leona arrived in South Carolina were  more of 18,300 people, settling in places as the Saint Helena Island) and Georgia (where arrived the 15% them. They were more of 3,900 slaves from this region, becoming in the most of the slaves of the colony), followed, over long distances, mainly by Virginia, Maryland and Florida (those places had in total more of 11% on total of slaves from Sierra Leone in the present U.S., having between 900 and 1,000 of those slaves depending on the American state). Many of these slaves hailed from Bunce Island in the Sierra Leone River.

Moreover, between 1776 and 1785, during the American Revolution, many Gullah of Sierra Leoneans origin fled from the United States and emigrated to Nova Scotia, Canada, after the abolition of slavery in this country.
Subsequently, in 1787 the British helped 400 freed slaves from the United States, Nova Scotia (many of them were Gullah), and Great Britain to return to Sierra Leone, where they  founded the colony  Freetown in 1792. The descendants of the settlers are the Sierra Leone Creole people.

In 1841, a group of slaves that traveled on the ship La Amistad, whose destination was the island of Cuba, made an uprising against the merchants who drove the ship and seized of it. Most of the slaves were Mende people, but also had people of other tribes such as the Temne. The Amistad arrived to the American coasts and the U.S. Supreme Court freed them from slavery. Most of those slaves returned to Africa. Only some of them remained in the United States, acquiring the American citizenship. Slavery was finally abolished after of 1865, after the American Civil War.

Recent immigration
They did not emigrate to the United States again until the 1970s, when a new group of Sierra Leoneans, mostly students, arrived to study at American universities. Some received "legal residence status" (or married an American), enabling them to live permanently in the United Stats. Many became doctors, lawyers and accountants.

The number of Sierra Leoneans who emigrated to the United States grew throughout the 80's due to the majority poverty and political problems suffered by the Sierra Leonean population. Many of them were students although they also worked to help their families or sent them money if they lived in Sierra Leone and encouraged them to emigrate. In addition, although some of the Sierra Leoneans who completed their studies returned to Sierra Leone, other Sierra Leoneans decided to stay in the US and obtain legal residency status.

The 1990 American Census showed that 4,627 people linked your origins with Sierra Leone, many of them American citizens. Between 1990 and 1996 another many Sierra Leoneans  migrated to the US, mostly fleeing the civil war. Many of them arrived to the country with visitor, as well as with student visas. During this period, more of 7,150 Sierra Leoneans with a legal status emigrated to the United States. After 1996, many Sierra Leoneans legally  emigrate to the US thanks they had a refugee status and relatives residing in the US. By 1999, about 2,500 Sierra Leoneans had emigrate to the US annually, according to The United Nations High Commission for Refugees. The recent refugees tend to have lower education than earlier migrants, who have University degrees.

Demography

Currently, 80% of African Americans who are descendants of slaves have some ancestors that came from Bunce Island in Sierra Leonne.
Most Sierra Leonean immigrants reside in the Baltimore- Washington, D.C., metropolitan area. Other Sierra Leonean communities are settled in suburbs of Alexandria, Fairfax, Arlington, Falls Church, and Woodbridge in  Virginia, and in  Landover, Lanham, Cheverly, Silver Spring, and Bethesda in Maryland. There are also Sierra Leonean communities in the Boston and Los Angeles metropolitan areas, and in New Jersey, Florida, Pennsylvania,  New York, Texas, Oregon and Ohio.

Most Sierra Leoneans are Muslims and practitioners of native cultures, but there are also many Christians. Sierra Leonean Americans communicate in  English, either as a first or second language, due to the British colonial history.  However, Krio is the lingua franca and primary language of communication among diverse groups of Sierra Leoneans living abroad although a few still speak tribal  languages reflecting their unique heritage. Many Sierra Leonean residents in the USA work in two or three jobs to reach enough salary to help their families in their country, whilst some others have university degrees. Indeed, while some Sierra Leoneans arrived in the United States to pursue university studies, some are already holders of degrees from British universities or from Fourah Bay College in Freetown. Many Sierra Leoneans residing in the USA incorporate their children to secret organizations of Sierra Leonean origin, which teach them the cultures own of their tribes. Sierra Leonean Americans have also been helped by many former Peace Corps volunteers who worked in Sierra Leone. In the US, many Sierra Leoneans have established relationships (and have even intermarried) with people from other cultures and nationalities, especially with other African  immigrants.

Gullah and Geechee people

The Gullah, or (in Georgia) Geechee, are descendants of slaves that were sent from  Africa or since the Caribbean, particularly Barbados, to serve as free labor for the cultivation of rice, whose area of cultivation was the southeast coast of the modern United States, and that still live in Sea Islands and the coastal areas of South Carolina and Georgia. Slaves from Sierra Leone made up 24% of the slaves arriving in this place. Many slavers employed slaves from the West African coasts because their great ability to work in the rice plantations. Indeed, most of the slaves that were imported to southeast coast of the United States came from the West African's rice-growing region, established mainly in Sierra Leone, through the Bunce Island.

So although the ancestors of the Gullah come from many places on the coast of West Africa, many of the elements that are part of their material culture, food (rice) and crops (indigo) are the same as those held by Sierra Leoneans. Thus, the Gullah have the same types and capacities of textiles, fishing, foodways, folktales, vernacular architecture, music, basket making, net making, language, belief systems, pottery and woodcarving that the Sierra Leoneans. So, Dr. Hair, a British historian, said the "startling" fact that all texts in African Gullah dialect are written in languages spoken in Sierra Leone. Most African texts gathered by historian Turner are belonging to the  Mende language. But Dr. Cabello also said that an "unusually large proportion" of the four thousand African names and personal loans in the Gullah language come from Sierra Leone. He estimated that twenty-five percent of African names and twenty percent of African vocabulary words came from the  Sierra Leonean languages, principally Mende and Vai(one of the Gullah words of origin not Sierra leonean is the same term "Gullah", that may derive from Angola).

The Gullah/Geechee people speak a language based mainly on Sierra Leonean Krio, a creole deriving from English, indigenous West African languages, and other European languages. The Gullah language also has varying degrees of influences from African languages such as Ewe, Mandinka, Igbo, Twi, Yoruba, and Mende.

Organizations
Although Sierra Leoneans in United States belong to a variety of ethnic and religious groups have been created organizations to help Sierra Leonean community entire. So, the Chicagoland Association of Sierra Leoneans, formed in 1996, is a nonprofit organization to unite Sierra Leoneans in a community, socialize newcomers, and help to Sierra Leoneans living in Chicago and abroad.  Also in 1975 it created one organization named Tegloma ("let's progress" in Mende) in Washington DC, the largest nonprofit, nonpolitical Sierra Leonean organization in the world,  and it help Sierra Leoneans in te world and promoting Mende culture, the culture of the second largest ethnic group in Sierra Leone. There is an organization created in New York on behalf of health care providers that represent nursing. In 2008 the Sierra Leone Nurses Association (SLNA) was started in New York, in honor of the original SLNA started originally in Sierra Leone in 1961. Following the first chapter in the USA started in 2007 in California. And worldwide chapters since. There is a union organization called Union of Sierra Leone organizations in New York (USLO) in 2010.

Notable people

 Franklyn Ajaye
 Apha Saidu Bangura
 Shaka Bangura
 Ishmael Beah
 Namina Forna
 Sallieu Bundu
 Joseph Cinqué
 Will Claye
 Sarah Culberson
 Michaela DePrince
 Delphine Fawundu
 Bill Hamid
 Nikyatu Jusu
 Leeroy Wilfred Kabs-Kanu
 Abdul Kallon
 Hafsatu Kamara
 Kei Kamara
 Memsor Kamarake
 Augustine Kposowa
 Michael Lahoud
 Adetokumboh M'Cormack
 Victor Mansaray
 Sahr Ngaujah
 Mohamed Sanu
 Ansu Sesay
 Israel Sesay
 Jacob Stroyer
 Jeneba Tarmoh
 Abdul Thompson Conteh
 Frances Tiafoe
 Nate Tongovula
 Thomas DeSaille Tucker
 Desiree Venn Frederic
 Abiodun Williams
 Gibril Wilson
 Tejan Koroma

See also

 Sierra Leone – United States relations
 Sierra Leone Creole people
 Sierra Leoneans in the United Kingdom

References

External links
  "The Gullah: Rice, Slavery, and the Sierra Leone - American Connection" by Joseph A. Opala,  United States Information Service, Freetown, 1987.
 Genetic Genealogy.
 Amistads
 El conflicto in Sierr Leona desde 1991 (in Spanish: The conflict in Sierra Leone since 1991).
 Background Note: Sierra Leone

West Africans in the United States

Sierra Leonean Americans


Alfonso Gesualdo di Conza (20 October 1540 – 14 February 1603) was an Italian Cardinal starting in 1561. He was from Calitri, not far from Naples.  His attendance at the papal conclave of 1565-1566 at the age of only 25 makes him one of the youngest Cardinals ever to participate in a papal election.

He was Archbishop of Conza in 1564, Bishop of Albano in 1583, Bishop of Frascati in 1587, Bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina in 1589, Bishop of Ostia in 1591, and Archbishop of Naples in 1596.

He was a patron of Sant'Andrea della Valle in Rome, the mother church of the Theatine Order. The composer Carlo Gesualdo was his nephew.

Episcopal succession

Notes

External links
Biography
Catholic Hierarchy page
 Biography
 Biography

1540 births
1603 deaths
Cardinal-nephews
16th-century Italian cardinals
Cardinal-bishops of Albano
Cardinal-bishops of Frascati
Cardinal-bishops of Ostia
Cardinal-bishops of Porto
Deans of the College of Cardinals
Archbishops of Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi-Conza-Nusco-Bisaccia
Clergy from Campania
people from Calitri

Alfonso Gesualdo


Just Friends is a 2005 American Christmas romantic comedy film directed by Roger Kumble, written by Adam 'Tex' Davis and starring Ryan Reynolds, Amy Smart, Anna Faris, Chris Klein and Christopher Marquette. The plot focuses on a formerly obese high school student (Reynolds) who attempts to free himself from the friend zone after reconnecting with his best friend (Smart), with whom he is in love, while visiting his hometown for Christmas.

The film revolves around humorous observation of strictly platonic relationships as "just friends" or "just as best friends". It was shot in Regina and Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan. Just Friends was released on November 23, 2005 and grossed over $50 million.

Plot
In 1995, Chris Brander, an obese high school senior, is secretly in love with his classmate and best friend Jamie Palamino. Confessing his feelings by writing in her yearbook, he attends their graduation party. As he returns Jamie's yearbook, it is swapped by her ex-boyfriend, Tim, who reads the declaration aloud to everyone, humiliating Chris. After kissing him on the cheek, Jamie admits she does not reciprocate his affections. He leaves the party in tears, announcing he will never return and vowing to be more successful than everyone else.

Ten years later, a womanizing Chris has lost weight and lives in Los Angeles as a highly successful record producer and vice president of the company. Before Christmas, company CEO KC, asks him to accompany emerging, self-obsessed pop singer Samantha James to Paris so she signs with their label, and Chris reluctantly complies. She wants a relationship with him but he has no interest after their only date previously led to his hospitalization. On the way to Paris, Samantha accidentally sets her private jet on fire, causing an emergency landing in New Jersey, near Chris' hometown.

Chris takes Samantha to his mother's for the night and re-engages with his teenage past, including his unresolved feelings for Jamie. She meets his mother and 18-year-old brother Mike, a huge fan of Samantha who is infatuated with her. At the local bar, Chris encounters some old classmates, including his other best friend Clark and his wife Darla.

He also sees Jamie, working as a bartender to pay for graduate school for teaching. Chris asks Mike to keep Samantha busy during his date with Jamie, but realizing their platonic friendship is important to him hampers his plan for them to have sex. During a friendly ice skating "day date", Chris is taken away in an ambulance after injuring himself during a hockey game with Jamie and a trio of kids (who dislike him). At the scene, Jamie is reunited with Dusty Dinkleman, a paramedic and former high school classmate also in love with her.

The next night, Chris goes to Jamie's Christmas party to express his feelings for her, but Dusty is already there, charming everyone on guitar. Back at Chris's, Samantha ambushes Mike, demanding he reveal Chris's location. He refuses until she gives him a kiss. In a rage, she drives to Jamie's, crashing through her fence and destroying the Christmas decorations. Chris returns home in embarrassment, and Jamie follows. She tells him she is not mad and they end up spending the night catching up and reminiscing. However, due to Chris's continuing lack of assertion, they end up just sleeping and nothing happens.

The next day, Jamie speaks with Darla about the night before, while Chris goes to Clark for advice. Jamie admits that while they are "just friends", she tried to show Chris she is interested in more. Clark tells Chris that "the timing wasn't right" and their history hinders him. Outside the office, Chris and Clark catch Dusty singing to a nurse and then kissing her. Dusty reveals his plans to have sex with Jamie and humiliate her in a way he felt she humiliated him in high school when he was attracted to her.

Chris tries to warn Jamie, but instead attacks Dusty in front of her. She refuses to listen when he tries to explain. Consequently, he gets drunk and goes to Jamie's bar, finding her there with Dusty. When she gently declines Dusty's sexual advances, he storms out. Chris and Jamie get into another fight, where he blames her for keeping him in the "friend zone" and says she will never amount to anything. Jamie punches Chris and he is tossed out.

Upon returning to Los Angeles and rejecting Samantha's continued advances when she sees him again, Chris realizes that Jamie is his one and only true love. He returns to New Jersey, declares his love to her and they kiss, while the three kids (from the hockey game earlier) watch in disgust. One of the boys hands the girl a cookie, which she gives to the other. She calls the boy who gave her a cookie her friend, which he replies with "the bestest" before realizing he has been put in the friend zone.

Cast

 Ryan Reynolds as Chris Brander
 Amy Smart as Jamie Palamino
 Anna Faris as Samantha James
 Chris Klein as Dusty "Dusty Lee" Dinkleman
 Christopher Marquette as Mike Brander
 Julie Hagerty as Carol Brander
 Stephen Root as KC
 Fred Ewanuick as Clark
 Amy Matysio as Darla
 Barry Flatman as Mr. Palamino
 Maria Arcé as Athena
 Ty Olsson as Tim
 Todd Lewis as Kyle
 Ashley Scott as Janice
 Trenna Keating as Nancy
 JJ Elliott as Movie Goer
 Tina Cerato as Movie Goer
 Amanda Park as Dental Assistant

Alanis Morissette, then Reynolds' fiancée, made a cameo appearance as "herself" as a former client of his character. This came about when the casting director said "we need an Alanis Morissette type" and Reynolds said he knew someone who would fit. This scene was deleted, however, and is only available on the DVD.

Production
The film was shot in Los Angeles and parts of Regina and Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan.

Music

A soundtrack was released November 22, 2005 on New Line Records.

Track listing
 Ben Lee – "Catch My Disease"
 Fountains of Wayne – "Hackensack"
 Rogue Wave – "Eyes"
 Anna Faris (as Samantha James) – "Forgiveness"
 Brendan Benson – "Cold Hands (Warm Heart)"
 Robbers on High Street – "Big Winter"
 The Sights – "Waiting on a Friend"
 Reed Foehl – "When It Comes Around"
 The Lemonheads – "Into Your Arms"
 'Just Friends' Holiday Players – "Christmas, Christmas"
 "Dusty 'Lee' Dinkleman" – "Jamie Smiles"
 Anna Faris (as Samantha James) – "Love from Afar"
 Jeff Cardoni – "Just Friends Score Medley"
 All-4-One – "I Swear"
 Carly Simon – "Coming Around Again"

Original songs performed in the film
 "Forgiveness", performed multiple times by Anna Faris.
 "Jamie Smiles", performed multiple times by Chris Klein
 "Love from Afar", performed by Anna Faris and Renee Sandstrom
 "Just a Guy", performed by Anna Faris (only on the Alternate Ending)

Most songs in the film were written by Adam Schiff, except "When Jamie Smiles", which was written by H. Scott Salinas.

The orchestral score was written by Jeff Cardoni, and orchestrated by Stephen Coleman and Tony Blondal.

Reception

Box office
Just Friends grossed $32.6 million domestically, and $18.3 million in other territories, for a box office total of $50.9 million.

In the United States the film grossed $9.2 million in its opening weekend, finishing 6th at the box office.

Critical response
Just Friends received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of  based on  reviews with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, "There are moments of mirth in this overly broad comedy, but mostly, Just Friends is just not that funny." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 47 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.

See also
 List of Christmas films

References

External links

2005 films
2005 romantic comedy films
2000s Christmas films
2000s Christmas comedy films
2000s coming-of-age comedy films
American romantic comedy films
American Christmas comedy films
American coming-of-age comedy films
Films directed by Roger Kumble
Films set in New Jersey
Films shot in Saskatchewan
Films about siblings
Films about families
Films set in the 1990s
Films set in 1995
Films set in the 2000s
Films set in 2005
New Line Cinema films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films

Just Friends


In mathematics, the upper topology on a partially ordered set X is the coarsest topology in which the closure of a singleton   is the order section  for each  If  is a partial order, the upper topology is the least order consistent topology in which all open sets are up-sets.  However, not all up-sets must necessarily be open sets. The lower topology induced by the preorder is defined similarly in terms of the down-sets. The preorder inducing the upper topology is its specialization preorder, but the specialization preorder of the lower topology is opposite to the inducing preorder.

The real upper topology is most naturally defined on the upper-extended real line  by the system  of open sets. Similarly, the real lower topology  is naturally defined on the lower real line  A real function on a topological space is upper semi-continuous if and only if it is lower-continuous, i.e. is continuous with respect to the lower topology on the lower-extended line  Similarly, a function into the upper real line is lower semi-continuous if and only if it is upper-continuous, i.e. is continuous with respect to the upper topology on

See also

References

General topology
Order theory

Upper topology


Area code 205 is an area code for Alabama. It was one of the first area codes created in 1947. It initially covered the entire state, but after it was split by 334 (first area code to not have a 0 and 1 as the middle digit) in 1995 and 256 in 1998, it now covers the western and central part of the state, typically in the cities of Birmingham and Tuscaloosa. It was overlaid by area code 659 in 2019.

Alabama

Area code 205


The Chick Is in the Mail is an anthology of fantasy stories, edited by Esther Friesner with the assistance of Martin H. Greenberg, with a cover by Larry Elmore. It consists of works featuring female protagonists by (mostly) female authors. It was first published in paperback by Baen Books in October 2000; a hardcover edition was issued the same year. It was the fourth of a number of similarly themed anthologies edited by Friesner.

The book collects 15 short stories and novelettes and one poem by various fantasy authors, with an introduction by Friesner and a section of notes about the authors.

Contents
 "Introduction" (Esther Friesner)
 "To His Iron-Clad Mistress" (poem) (Kent Patterson)
 "Sweet Charity" (Elizabeth Moon)
 "The Catcher in the Rhine" (Harry Turtledove)
 "With the Knight Male (Apologies to Rudyard Kipling)" (Charles Sheffield)
 "Patterns in the Chain" (Steven Piziks)
 "Arms and the Woman" (Nancy Kress)
 "Fun with Hieroglyphics" (Margaret Ball)
 "Troll by Jury" (Esther Friesner)
 "Looking for Rhonda Honda" (William Sanders)
 "The Case of Prince Charming" (Robin Wayne Bailey)
 "Incognito, Ergo Sum" (Karen Everson)
 "Chain of Command" (Leslie What and Nina Kiriki Hoffman)
 "The Thief & The Roller Derby Queen: An Essay on the Importance of Formal Education" (Eric Flint)
 "The Right Bitch" (Doranna Durgin)
 "Foxy Boxer Gal Fights Giant Monster King!" (Pierce Askegren)
 "Hallah Iron-Thighs and the Change of Life" (K. D. Wentworth)
 "About the Authors" (uncredited)

References

External links

2000 anthologies
Fantasy anthologies

The Chick Is in the Mail


Shante Carver (born February 12, 1971) is a former American football defensive end in the National Football League (NFL) for the Dallas Cowboys. He also was a member of the Memphis Maniax and Dallas Desperados. He played college football at Arizona State University.

Early years
Carver attended Lincoln High School, where he played football (defensive end / tight end) and basketball (center), receiving All-state honors as a senior in both sports.

As a senior, he tallied 33 tackles, 5 sacks and 20 receptions for 452 yards. In basketball, he posted 21 and 24 rebounds in consecutive games. The Stockton Record named him its Male Athlete of the year and he also received the California Grid-Hoops player of the year award.

College career
Carver accepted a football scholarship from Arizona State University. As a redshirt freshman, he was named a starter at defensive end and became one of the best pass rushers in the nation. He registered 48 tackles (11 for loss), 10 sacks (school record for freshman), 14 quarterback pressures and 4 passes defensed.

As a sophomore, he was dismissed from the school, for academic reasons, and he lost his mother to a terrible car crash as well as his grandmother (natural causes) all in a couple of months. Carver overcame all the setbacks and personal loss and was later admitted back into Arizona State University as a student athlete. He collected 39 tackles (16 for loss), 11 sacks, 20 quarterback pressures and 6 passes defensed.

As a junior, he tallied 59 tackles (13 for loss), 10 sacks, 27 quarterback pressures, 2 passes defensed, 2 forced fumbles and one fumble recovery.

Carver had a dominant senior season in which the defensive unit was nicknamed "Shante's Inferno". He led the team in tackles (79), tackles for loss (17), sacks (10.0) and quarterback pressures (25). He also had 4 passes defensed and 3 fumble recoveries.

He was a four-year starter, that recorded double-figure sacks in each of his collegiate seasons, had 20-or-more quarterback pressures and was named the team defensive MVP, in all but his freshman year. He was a two-time All-American and All-Pac-10 and a finalist for the Outland Trophy. His athletic ability also allowed him to walk-on to the basketball team during the 1992–93 season, playing in 9 contests, while averaging 0.4 points and 0.8 rebounds per game.

Carver finished his college career with 225 tackles, 41 sacks (school record), 86 quarterback pressures (school record), 57 tackles for loss, 16 passes defensed, 2 forced fumbles, 4 fumble recoveries and 5 blocked kicks. Most of his school records were broken by Terrell Suggs in 2002.

In 2012, he was inducted into the Arizona State University Sports Hall of Fame.

Professional career

Dallas Cowboys
Looking for a successor to replace Charles Haley and Tony Tolbert in the 1994 NFL Draft, the Dallas Cowboys tried to trade up to acquire Willie McGinest. After being unable to make the transaction, they traded their first (#28-William Floyd) and second-round (#62-Tyronne Drakeford) selections to the San Francisco 49ers, in exchange for a first (#23) and a seventh round (#217-Rob Holmberg) draft choice, in order to move up and take Carver in the first round.

As a rookie, he played in 10 games because of injuries, finishing with 5 tackles (one for loss). He also made news after suffering an automobile accident, abandoning his truck and reporting it as stolen.

In 1995, he did not have a good regular season, making 21 tackles (one for loss), 2.5 sacks, 3 quarterback pressures and one pass defensed. While Haley was injured, he started the season finale and 2 playoff games. He also contributed as a backup in Super Bowl XXX, with a then career-high 5 tackles.

In 1996, the Cowboys drafted Kavika Pittman to have a replacement ready in case his lack of production continued. Carver was suspended six games for repeated violations of the league's anti-drug policy. He started the final 7 games of the regular season and both playoff contests in place of an injured Haley, while registering 33 tackles (one for loss), 3 sacks, 8 quarterback pressures, one pass defensed and one forced fumble.

In 1997, he finished with 47 tackles (ninth on the team) 6 sacks (led the team), 9 quarterback pressures (second on the team), 3 tackles for loss and 3 passes defensed. The Cowboys did not re-sign him at the end of the season, finishing his career with 26 starts in four seasons, 11.5 sacks and 2 forced fumbles.

B.C. Lions (CFL)
On May 26, 2000, he signed with the B.C. Lions of the Canadian Football League. He was released on June 29.

Memphis Maniax (XFL)
In 2001, he was selected by the Memphis Maniax in the 23rd round (179th overall) of the XFL Draft, for the league's lone season. After recording 32 tackles 4 sacks and 1 interception, he was recognized as one of the best defensive players and was named to the All-XFL team. He also is remembered for delivering a particularly spectacular sack on Orlando Rage quarterback Jeff Brohm.

Dallas Desperados (AFL)
On November 26, 2001, Carver signed with the Dallas Desperados who were owned by Jerry Jones (who also owned the Dallas Cowboys), after the XFL folded. He earned AFL All-Rookie honors after registering 16 tackles, 2.5 sacks and 2 interceptions. He played for the team three years, retiring at the end of the 2004 season.

Personal life
Carver was a football assistant coach at Scottsdale Community College from 2005 to 2007. In 2009, he was named he head coach for the semi pro football team Westside Monsoon in the Arizona Football League. In 2011, he coached the defensive line at Moon Valley High School.

References

External links
 Memphis Maniax profile

1971 births
Living people
American football defensive ends
American men's basketball players
Arizona State Sun Devils football players
Arizona State Sun Devils men's basketball players
Dallas Cowboys players
Dallas Desperados players
Memphis Maniax players
Scottsdale Fighting Artichokes football coaches
High school football coaches in Arizona
All-American college football players
Players of Canadian football from Stockton, California
Players of American football from Stockton, California
Centers (basketball)
Basketball players from Stockton, California

Shante Carver


Jón Leifs (born Jón Þorleifsson on 1 May 1899 – 30 July 1968) was an Icelandic composer, pianist, and conductor.

Life
Jón Leifs was born Jón Þorleifsson, at the farm Sólheimar, then in the Húnavatnssýsla, northwestern Iceland. He left for Germany in 1916 to study at the Leipzig Conservatory. He graduated in 1921 having studied piano with Robert Teichmüller, but decided not to embark on a career as a pianist, devoting his time instead to conducting and composing. During this period he also studied composition with Ferruccio Busoni, who urged him to "follow his own path in composition".

In the 1920s Jón Leifs conducted a number of symphony orchestras in Germany, Czechoslovakia, Norway and Denmark, thus becoming the only internationally successful Icelandic conductor to date, although he failed to obtain a fixed position. During a tour of Norway, the Faroe Islands and Iceland with the Hamburger Philharmoniker, he gave the very first symphonic concerts in Iceland in the summer of 1926 (a total of 13 concerts with different programmes). During this period, he was also very active as a writer on music and musical interpretation, both in German and Icelandic. Between 1925 and 1928, he travelled through Iceland on three occasions to record folk songs among the population in his home county Húnavatnssýsla in Northern Iceland. His observations on this were published in both Icelandic and German periodicals.

Beginning with piano arrangements of Icelandic folk songs, Jón Leifs started an active career as a composer in the 1920s. From the 1930s he concentrated his efforts on the composition of large orchestral works, some of which were not performed until after his death. Most of his output is inspired by Icelandic natural phenomena. In the piece Hekla he depicts the eruption of the volcano Hekla which he witnessed. Dettifoss (Op. 57) was inspired by Dettifoss, Europe's second most powerful waterfall. In the Saga Symphony he musically portrays five characters from the classic Icelandic sagas.

In 1935 Jón Leifs was appointed Musical Director of the Icelandic National Broadcasting Service. However, having found it difficult to implement his vision for the radio service, he resigned from the post in 1937 and returned to Germany.

Jón Leifs married the pianist Annie Riethof soon after graduating from the Leipzig Conservatory. They had two daughters, Snót and Líf, and made their home first in Wernigerode. Since Riethof was Jewish, the family lived under constant threat of Nazi persecution. In 1944, the couple managed to obtain permission to leave Germany and moved to Sweden with their daughters. However, by this time their marriage was showing signs of strain and they divorced in 1946. Jón Leifs later married, and divorced, a Swedish woman, Thea Andersson. His third wife, who survived him, was Þorbjörg Jóhannsdóttir Leifs (1919–2008). She and Jón had one son, Leifur (b. 1957).

In 1945 Jón Leifs moved back to Iceland (leaving his family in Sweden), and became a fierce proponent of music education and of artists' rights. This included working for the ratification by Iceland of the Berne Convention, which happened in 1947, and setting up the Performing Rights Society of Iceland (STEF) in 1948.

In 1947 tragedy struck. Jón Leifs' younger daughter Líf drowned in a swimming accident off the coast of Sweden in 1947, aged only eighteen. Overcome with grief, he composed four works dedicated to her memory, including Requiem Op. 33b for mixed choir, perhaps his most celebrated piece. The other works are Torrek Op. 33a, for solo voice and piano, Erfiljóð (In memoriam) Op. 35 for male choir, and the string quartet Vita et mors Op. 36.

Jón Leifs composed his last work, Consolation, Intermezzo for string orchestra, as he had only weeks to live. He died of lung cancer in Reykjavík in 1968.

Jón Leifs and his first wife are the subjects of the film Tears of Stone (Tár úr steini) (1995) by Icelandic director Hilmar Oddsson. A square in Bergholz-Rehbrücke (Nuthetal, Germany), where he lived with his family from the 1930s until 1944, is named after him.

Works

 Vökudraumur (Reverie) for solo piano (1913)
 Torrek – Intermezzo, Op. 1 No. 2 (piano piece) (1919)
 Trilogia piccola, Op. 1 (1922–24)
 Four Pieces for solo piano, Op. 2 (1921)
 Studies for solo violin, Op. 3 (1924)
 3 Songs, Op. 4 (1924)
 Organ Prelude, Op. 5, No. 1 (1924)
 Kyrie, chorus, Op. 5, No. 2 (1924)
 Loftr-Suite, Op. 6a (1925)
 Íslensk þjóðlög (Icelandic Folk Songs) for solo piano (1925)
 Organ Concerto, Op. 7 (1930)
 Variations on a Theme by Beethoven, Op. 8 (1930)
 Iceland Overture, Op. 9 (1926)

 Overture to Loftr, Op. 10 (1927)
 Íslensk rímnadanslög (Icelandic Folk Dances), Op. 11 (1929–30)
 3 Church Songs (Hymns) for voice and piano/organ, Op. 12a (1929)
 Iceland Cantata, Op. 13 (1930)
 2 Songs for voice and piano, Op. 14a (1929–30)
 Ný rímnadanslög (New Icelandic Dances), Op. 14b (1931)
 Íslendingaljóð (Poems of Icelanders) for male chorus, Op. 15a (1931)
 Sjavarvísur (Ocean Verses) for male chorus, Op. 15b (1931)
 3 Organ Preludes, Op. 16 (1931)
 Íslenskir söngdansar (Icelandic Dance-Songs) for chorus and instruments ad lib, Op. 17a (c. 1931)
 2 Songs for voice and piano, Op. 18a (1931)
 2 Songs of the Edda (Love Verses from the Edda) for tenor and piano, Op. 18b (1931–32)
 Nocturne for harp, Op. 19a (c. 1934)
 2 Icelandic Folk Songs for voice and piano, Op. 19b (1934)
 Edda, Part 1 "The Creation of the World", Op. 20 (1932–37)
 Mors et Vita, Op. 21 (1st String Quartet) (1939)
 Guðrúnarkviða, Op. 22 (1940)
 3 Songs for voice and piano, Op. 23 (1941)
 3 Saga Songs (3 Songs from Icelandic Sagas) for tenor and piano, Op. 24 (1941)
 Songs from the Saga Symphony for tenor and piano, Op. 25 (1941)
 Sögusinfónía (Saga Symphony), Op. 26 (1941–42)
 3 ættjarðarsöngvar (3 Patriotic Songs) for male chorus, Op. 27 (1927–43)
 3 söngvar eftir Jónas Hallgrímsson (3 Verses by Jónas Hallgrímsson) for chorus, Op. 28 (1943)
 Íslendingaljóð (Poems of Icelanders) for male chorus, Op. 29 (1943)
 Íslendingaljóð (Poems of Icelanders) for chorus, Op. 30 (1943)
 3 Ancient Songs for voice and piano, Op. 31 (1944)
 3 alþýðusöngvar (3 Folksongs) for chorus, Op. 32 (1945)
 Torrek, Op. 33a (1947)
 Requiem, Op. 33b (1947)
 Baldr, Op.34 (1943–47), A Choreographic Drama in Two Acts
 Erfiljóð (Elegies), Op. 35 (1948)
 Vita et Mors, Op. 36 (2nd String Quartet) (1948–51)
 Fjallasöngvar (Mountain Verses) for mezzo-soprano, baritone, male chorus, timpani, percussion and double bass, Op. 37 (1948)
 Þorgerðarlög (Songs of Thorgerdur) for male chorus, flute, viola and cello, Op. 38 (1948)
 2 söngvar (2 Songs) for male chorus, Op. 39 (1948–61)
 Réminiscence du nord, Op. 40 (1952)
 Landfall – Overture, Op. 41 (1955)
 Edda, Part 2, "Líf guðanna" (The Lives of the Gods), oratorio for soli, chorus and orchestra, Op. 42 (1951–66)
 Baptism Invocation for baritone and organ, Op. 43 (1957)
 Trois peintures abstraites, Op. 44 (Þrjú óhlutræn málverk) (1955)
 Memorial Songs on the Death of Jónas Hallgrímsson for mezzo-soprano/baritone and piano, Op. 45 (1958)
 Vorvísa (Spring Song), Op. 46 (1958)
 Turmglockenspiel über Themen aus Beethovens Neunter Symphonie for carillon (1958)
 Das Leben muss trotz allem Stets weiter gehen for carillon (1958)
 Es ist ein Ros entsprungen for folksong, chorus (arr. 1958)
 Stand, House of Stone for tenor and piano, Op. 47a (1958)
 Jónas Hallgrímsson in memoriam, Op. 48 (1961)
 Boy's Song, "Strákalag", Op. 49 (1961)
 Quintet, Op. 50 for flute/piccolo, clarinet, bassoon, viola and cello (1961)
 Geysir, Op. 51 (1961)
 Hekla, Op. 52 (1961) for orchestra and percussion
 Elegy, Op. 53 (1961)
 Víkingasvar (Viking's Answer), Op. 54 (1962), Intermezzo for wind ensemble, percussion, violas and double basses
 Fine I, Op. 55 (1963) (Farewell to earthly life)
 Fine II, Op. 56 (1963) (Farewell to earthly life)
 Dettifoss, Op. 57 (1964)

 Scherzo concreto, Op.58 (1964)
 Nótt (Night), Op. 59 (1964)
 Darraðarljóði, Op. 60 (1964)
 Helga kviða Hundingsbana, Op.61 (1964)
 Grógaldr, Op. 62 (1965)
 Hafís (Drift Ice), Op. 63 (1965)
 El Greco, Op. 64 (3rd String Quartet) (1965)
 Heilsuheimt (Health Regained) for chorus (arr. 1965) [orig. work of Ludwig van Beethoven, Op. 132, No. 2]
 Edda, Part 3 "Ragnarok" (The Twilight of the Gods), oratorio for soli, choruses and orchestra, op. 65 (1966–68, incomplete)
 Hughreysting (Consolation), Intermezzo for string orchestra, Op. 66 (1968)

Recordings
The Iceland Symphony Orchestra with En Shao (cond.) has performed Hekla Op.52 and Dettifoss, Op. 57.

References

Bibliography

Árni Heimir Ingólfsson. 2019. Jón Leifs and the Musical Invention of Iceland . Indiana University Press.

1899 births
1968 deaths
Jon Leifs
Jon Leifs
Deaths from lung cancer
Deaths from cancer in Iceland
20th-century Icelandic people
Icelandic expatriates in Germany
Jon Leifs
Jon Leifs
20th-century conductors (music)
20th-century composers
Jon Leifs
20th-century male musicians

Jón Leifs


Final Cut Server was Apple's server-based backend for managing Final Cut Studio files (in particular Final Cut Pro) and workflow automation, based on Proximity's artbox package. Final Cut Server can catalogue any file type and allows for the addition of custom metadata to make those files searchable. Final Cut Server runs on Apple hardware, but the server is accessed through a Java client that runs on PCs and Macs. In addition to Java, Final Cut Server makes heavy use of the QuickTime framework and requires its installation when used with PC clients.

Release and Versions
Final Cut Server was released for purchase on April 8, 2008.

On July 23, 2009 Final Cut Server was upgraded from v1.1.1 to v1.5.  The release corresponded to the release of a new version of Final Cut Studio.  The upgrade changed the pricing structure by eliminating the original 10-client license and reducing the cost of the unlimited client to $999.  Upgrades from v1.1.1 to v1.5 for both the unlimited license and the older 10-client license were $299.  With the purchase of the upgrade, the 10-client license was converted into an unlimited client license. Notable features upgraded in version 1.5 include the addition of global searches accessible to your workgroup, integration of Active Directory permission sets, improved search engine performance, and an expanded line of proxy settings.

On June 21, 2011, Apple announced the end-of-life of the Final Cut Server product, in favor of Final Cut Pro X.

External links
http://www.apple.com/finalcutserver/
 Press release
Documentation
Krypted.com Final Cut Server Tutorials

Apple Inc. software

Final Cut Server


Ted Barris  (born July 12, 1949 in Toronto, Ontario) is a Canadian writer, journalist, professor and broadcaster. He writes a weekly column, "The Barris Beat", and is a regular contributor to The Globe and Mail and the National Post. His non-fiction works focus on Canada's military heritage.  Barris has authored 18 books.

Early years
Barris was born in Toronto in 1949; his father, Alex Barris was a well-known Canadian author and broadcaster, and inspired his son's career in writing and broadcasting.  In grade school, he wanted to become a writer with his first research for a term paper, "The Causes of the War of 1812", leading to his elementary school teacher (Mike Malott) encouraging him. Barris became interested in history and historical writing, a genre that would dominate his later writing career.

Writing career
While attending high school, Barris began his writing career. He contributed stories on school activities to the neighbourhood weekly, the Agincourt Mirror, and earned spending money. Barris graduated from Ryerson Polytechnical Institute's three-year Radio and Television Arts program  in 1971.

Throughout his time at Ryerson Polytechnical Institute, Barris had a part-time job at CJRT-FM, hosting the weekend all-night show. He also occasionally appeared on CBC Radio as a news reader. During this period, he began to explore documentary subjects, co-writing and co-producing half a dozen programs for CBC Radio's weekend youth program, "Action Set".

Concentrating on a career in writing and broadcasting, in the 1970s, Barris wrote freelance music reviews for The Globe and Mail and other industry magazines, including Wingit, Pop and Grapevine. He also wrote for Canadian Composer, RPM Magazine, Rolling Stone (San Francisco), Film News and Country Sky. Barris considered a staff position with Warner Bros. Records but chose to work at the University of Saskatchewan, writing, directing and editing educational TV. A short documentary film he wrote and directed on noise pollution won the White Owl Conservation Award (Montreal) in 1973.

After returning to Ryerson Polytechnical Institute, Barris graduated in 1976 with a degree in the Bachelor of Applied Arts program. While in Saskatchewan, he completed the research that led to his first book, Fire Canoe: Prairie Steamboat Days Revisited, as well as to his decision to concentrate on a freelance career.

For the next two decades, Barris travelled throughout Canada on various assignments, alternately working for CBC Radio and National Public Radio, as well as appearing on television programs as host and broadcaster, while continuing his career in Canadian historical non-fiction. While residing in Alberta, Barris continued writing based on local subjects before beginning a number of books on military subjects, an area of speciality that now is the focus of his work.

Barris is a retired professor of journalism. He taught at Toronto's Centennial College. He resides in Uxbridge, Ontario.

Awards
 2015 – Certificate of Honor from Stalag Luft III Prisoners of War Association
 2014 – Libris Award (Best Non-Fiction) (shared with Chris Hadfield)
 2006 – Bear Hackle Award, by the 78th Fraser Highlanders (Canadian) Regiment
 1993 – Canada 125 Medal "For service to Canada and community."
 2022 – Order of Canada (Member)

Selected bibliography
Dam Busters: Canadian Airmen and The Secret Raid Against Nazi Germany (2018)
Fire Canoe: Prairie Steamboat Days Revisited 2nd Edition (1977)
The Great Escape: A Canadian Story (2013)
Victory at Vimy: Canada Comes of Age, April 9–12, 1917 (2007)
Juno: Canadians at D-Day June 6, 1944 (2004)
Deadlock in Korea : Canadians at War, 1950–1953 (1998)
Playing Overtime: A Celebration of Oldtimers Hockey (1995)
Days of Victory: Canadians Remember, 1939–1945 (1995)
Behind the Glory: Canada's Role in the Allied Air War (1992)

References

External links
 Author's website
 "Voices of war", The Globe and Mail

1949 births
CBC Radio hosts
Living people
People from Uxbridge, Ontario
Toronto Metropolitan University alumni
Writers from Toronto
Members of the Order of Canada

Ted Barris


The Kaziranga Elephant Festival is a yearly elephant festival held in the Kaziranga National Park of Assam for the conservation and protection of Asiatic elephant. The festival is jointly organised by the Forest Department and Tourism Department of Assam with an objective to highlight and find ways to resolve the increasing man-elephant conflict. Hundreds of domestic Asiatic elephants, decorated from head to toe, participate in the program. They take part in parade, races, football and dance earning praises from the spectators.

See also
Mela Shikar
Kaziranga National Park

References

Festivals in Assam
Elephants in Indian culture
Festivals established in 2002
2002 establishments in Assam
Elephant festivals

Kaziranga Elephant Festival