The Perpetual Union is a feature of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, which established the United States of America as a political entity and, under later constitutional law, means that U.S. states are not permitted to withdraw from the Union.

The Articles of Confederation detailed the rights, responsibilities, and powers of the newly independent United States of America. However, the Articles provided a far too-weak system of government and was superseded in 1789 by the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, a document written and approved at the 1787 Constitutional Convention.

Historical origins
The concept of a Union of the American States originated gradually during the 1770s as the struggle for independence unfolded. In his first inaugural address on March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln stated:

A significant step was taken on June 12, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress approved the drafting of the Articles of Confederation, following a similar approval to draft the Declaration of Independence on June 11. The purpose of the former document was not only to define the relationship among the new states but also to stipulate the permanent nature of the new union. Accordingly, Article XIII states that the Union "shall be perpetual". While the process to ratify the Articles began in 1777, the Union only became a legal entity in 1781 when all states had ratified the agreement. The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for ratification by the sovereign States on November 15, 1777, which occurred during the period from July 1778 to March 1781.

The 13th ratification by Maryland was delayed for several years due to conflict of interest with some other states, including the western land claims of Virginia. After Virginia passed a law on January 2, 1781, relinquishing the claims, the path forward was cleared. On February 2, 1781, the Maryland state legislature in Annapolis passed the Act to ratify and on March 1, 1781, the Maryland delegates to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia formally signed the agreement. Maryland's final ratification of the Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union established the requisite unanimous consent for the legal creation of the United States of America.

Significance
From the start the Union has carried with it importance in national affairs. There was a sense of urgency in completing the legal Union during the American Revolutionary War. Maryland's ratification act stated, "[I]t hath been said that the common enemy is encouraged by this State not acceding to the Confederation, to hope that the union of the sister states may be dissolved" The nature of the Union was hotly debated during a period lasting from the 1830s through its climax during the American Civil War. During the war, the remaining U.S. states that were not joining the breakaway Confederates were called "the Union".

Constitutional basis

When the United States Constitution replaced the Articles, nothing in it expressly stated that the Union is perpetual. Even after the Civil War, which had been fought by the U.S. to prevent eleven of the southern slave states from leaving the Union, some still questioned whether any such inviolability survived after the U.S. Constitution replaced the Articles. This uncertainty also stems from the fact that the Constitution was not ratified unanimously before going into effect, as required by the Articles (two states, North Carolina and Rhode Island, had not ratified when George Washington was sworn in as the first U.S. president). The United States Supreme Court ruled on the issue in the 1869 Texas v. White case. In that case, the court ruled that the drafters intended the perpetuity of the Union to survive:

During the ratification of the Constitution, ratifications by New York, Virginia and Rhode Island included language that reserved the right of those states to exit the U.S. federal system if they felt "harmed" by the arrangement. In Virginia's ratification the reservation is stated thus; "…the People of Virginia declare and make known that the powers granted under the Constitution being derived from the People of the United States may be resumed by them whensoever the same shall be perverted to their injury or oppression …"

However, in a 1788 letter to Alexander Hamilton, James Madison disapproved of the language, and stated in regards to it that:

Hamilton and John Jay agreed with Madison's view, reserving "a right to withdraw [was] inconsistent with the Constitution, and was no ratification." The New York convention ultimately ratified the Constitution without including the "right to withdraw" language proposed by the anti-federalists. Gouverneur Morris, often called the "Penman of the Constitution," by contrast argued during the War of 1812 that States could secede under certain conditions.

In his first inaugural address, George Washington referred to an "indissoluble union", and in his farewell address to the country, telling Americans that they should maintain "the security of their union and the advancement of their happiness." In his farewell address, Washington stated that the union of states was "your union and brotherly affection may be perpetual", and in urging Americans to maintain it, stated that "you should properly estimate the immense value of your national Union to your collective and individual happiness." Patrick Henry, shortly before his death, urged Americans not to "split into factions which must destroy that union upon which our existence hangs."

Conservative Constitutional scholar Kevin Gutzman took a contrarian approach, arguing that in the 1700s some treaties were purported to be "perpetual" but could still be abrogated by either side, and thus that "perpetual" only meant that there was no built-in sunset provision.  For example, the Treaty of Paris called for a "perpetual peace" between Great Britain and the United States, but the two nations warred again in the War of 1812. Gutzman's position received criticism for ignoring historical evidence surrounding the drafting of the constitution, and for being overly defensive of the Confederacy.

More recently in 2006, Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia stated, "If there was any constitutional issue resolved by the Civil War, it is that there is no right to secede."

Similar principles
The concept of a perpetual union appeared earlier in European political thought. In 1532, Francis I of France signed the Treaty of Perpetual Union (fr. Traité d'Union Perpétuelle), which pledged the freedom and privileges of the Duchy of Brittany within the Kingdom of France.  In 1713, Charles de Saint-Pierre presented a plan "A project for settling an everlasting peace in Europe," where in it is stated in Article 1:

By itself the word perpetual appears much earlier in the history of political thought. In January 44 B.C., Denarii coins were struck with the image of Julius Caesar and the Latin inscription "Caesar Dic(tator in) Perpetuo".

The contrast can be seen in the superficially similar corollary in the Union of Scotland and England, set out in section 1 of the Act of Union 1707 . The section states "that the Two Kingdoms of Scotland and England shall upon the first day of May next ensuing the date hereof and forever after be United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain" The Act of Union 1801, uniting Great Britain and Ireland was set out in similar terms, but the Irish Free State, later the Republic of Ireland did leave the Union in 1922. The doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom prevented the creation of a 'greater law' to entrench the Act of Union, a legal doctrine confirmed in the aftermath of Brexit in re Jim Allister when Northern Ireland Unionist politicians attempted to judicially review the Northern Ireland Protocol as breaking the Act and the Treaty of Union. The court concluded that while the Protocol did repeal provisions of the Act by implication, Parliament was entirely free to do so as even the Act of Union had no special entrenched status.

See also

 Confederation Period
 United Colonies
 History of the United States (1776–1789)
 Founding Fathers of the United States

References

External links

 Text version of the Articles of Confederation
 Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union
 Articles of Confederation and related resources, Library of Congress
 Today in History: November 15, Library of Congress
 United States Constitution Online—The Articles of Confederation
 Free Download of Articles of Confederation Audio
 Mobile friendly version of the Articles of Confederation

1781 in the United States
Federalism in the United States
Legal history of the United States

Perpetual Union


Francis Joseph Tripucka (December 8, 1927 – September 12, 2013) was an American football quarterback who played professionally for 15 seasons. He spent four seasons in the National Football League (NFL), eight in the Canadian Football League (CFL), and four in American Football League (AFL). Tripucka achieved his greatest success as the inaugural quarterback for the AFL's Denver Broncos, who he was a member of from 1960 to 1963. During Denver's inaugural year, Tripucka became the first NFL / AFL quarterback to throw for 3,000 yards in a season, earning him All-Star honors. He was inducted to the Broncos Ring of Fame in 1986.

College career
The 6–2, 172-pound Tripucka was a three-time letter-winner at Notre Dame. His first two seasons, he played backup quarterback to Heisman Trophy winner Johnny Lujack on unbeaten Notre Dame squads in 1946 and 1947. As a freshman backup in 1945, he completed his only pass for 19 yards, and carried twice for eight yards. In 1946, as a sophomore, he hit one of his five throws for 19 yards in relief on the national championship squad. He took approximately 1/4 of Frank Leahy's 1947 squad's pass attempts, connecting on 25 of 44 throws for 422 yards, three TDs, and one interception and a remarkable passer rating of 155.3, and helping the Irish to a second consecutive national championship. With Lujack's graduation, Tripucka became the undisputed starter his senior year. He completed 53 of 91 for 660 yards and a school-record 11 touchdowns, en route to a 9-0-1 record and the Irish's 3rd consecutive season without a loss. A tie against USC in the final game bumped them down to No. 2 behind undefeated Michigan. He played in the college All-Star Game that year.

Professional career

Tripucka went on to become a first-round selection (ninth overall pick) by the Philadelphia Eagles in the 1949 NFL Draft, but was traded during the preseason to the Detroit Lions. He had four starts his rookie season, compiling a mediocre 9 touchdowns to 14 interceptions; he was also used as a punter 28 times. In 1950, he played for the Chicago Cardinals, where he had four passing touchdowns and a rushing touchdown in relief of Jim Hardy, including a 65 and an 81-yard touchdown pass in game 5 against Washington. In 1951, he had just 29 attempts in 1 start for the Cardinals, and only 12 attempts in six games in 1952 before being traded to the Dallas Texans mid-season. There, he started all six games, but had just 3 touchdowns to 17 interceptions, and a 1–5 record. The Dallas Texans folded after one season, so Tripucka accepted a large contract for the time with the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Canadian Football League (CFL).

Tripucka then took a seven-year run in the CFL. He joined the Saskatchewan Roughriders and their new coach Frank Filchock as the starting quarterback in 1953. He played there through 1958, when he was traded to the Ottawa Rough Riders but struggled and was released.  He was back in Saskatchewan before the end of the 1959 season as a coach. Non-Canadians playing Canadian professional football were known as imports, and each team was limited to 12. These spots were filled, so Coach Tripucka was ineligible to play. However, in the fourteenth game of the season, all three Roughrider quarterbacks were sidelined by injuries.  For the last two games, management decided to play Tripucka anyway, and forfeit in advance. The Roughriders lost the first of them on the scoreboard as well, 20-19 versus the Edmonton Eskimos. But in the last game of the season against Bud Grant's Winnipeg Blue Bombers, Tripucka had 17 completions in 29 passes and Ferdy Burket ran for five touchdowns. Officially, the final score was Saskatchewan 37, Winnipeg 30 for a Winnipeg "victory".

After getting fired by Saskatchewan, Tripucka came out of retirement with the American Football League (AFL) as the starting quarterback for the new Denver Broncos franchise. The Broncos had hired Filchock as their coach, and he initially brought Tripucka along as an assistant. He started all 14 games in Denver's inaugural 1960 season, and though he led the league in interceptions in 1960 with 34 (still a Broncos franchise record), he also led the league with 248 of 478 passes for 3,038 yards (the first 3000+ yard season by either an NFL or AFL quarterback), to go with 24 touchdowns, including the first TD pass in AFL history. He started 11 games in 1961, throwing for 1,690 yards, 10 touchdowns, and 21 interceptions. In 1962, he again led the league with 240 completions, 440 attempts, and 2,917 yards. This included a week 2 victory over Buffalo, in which Tripucka threw for a remarkable 447 yards, a franchise record that stood for 38 years. On the season, he totaled 17 touchdowns and 25 interceptions, and was selected for the AFL's All Star game for the only time in his career. In his last season, Tripucka had just 7 completions for 31 yards in two games. He returned to Saskatchewan in his final season to be the back up to Ron Lancaster and finished the season with 38 completions for 435 yards.

Tripucka retired in 1963 after 15 professional seasons. The Broncos subsequently retired his #18 jersey. In 1986, Tripucka was one of three players to be inducted into the Denver Broncos Ring of Fame. On March 9, 2012, Tripucka stated that he would allow #18 to be worn again by Peyton Manning if the Broncos were to sign him. On March 20, 2012, at a press conference announcing his signing by the Broncos, John Elway thanked Tripucka "for allowing the franchise to 'borrow' the number for Manning." On March 7, 2016, the #18 jersey returned to retirement when Manning announced that he was retiring after 18 professional seasons (4 seasons with the Broncos).

Personal life
Tripucka is the father of former Notre Dame and Detroit Pistons basketball star Kelly Tripucka, who also played for the Utah Jazz and the Charlotte Hornets. All six sons played Division I sports (his daughter Heather was also a very good athlete). The oldest boy, Tracy, played basketball at Lafayette College and then professionally in Switzerland. Mark was a quarterback at the University of Massachusetts. Todd also played basketball at Lafayette College and broke many of his older brother Tracy's records. T.K., the tallest of the Tripucka boys at 6'9", played basketball at Fordham University. He also played one season under his brother Tracy, who took over as the Fordham head coach. On one unique night, Fordham played Notre Dame at Madison Square Garden, so T.K. played against his Notre Dame freshman brother Kelly, with oldest brother Tracy coaching Fordham. Kelly was an All-American at Notre Dame and then had an excellent 10-year career in the NBA with the Detroit Pistons, Utah Jazz, and Charlotte Hornets. Kelly was a two-time NBA All-Star. Chris, the youngest of the family, played quarterback, wide receiver, and kicker at Boston College, all with Heisman Trophy winner Doug Flutie.

Tripucka is also the grandfather of current NFL punter Shane Tripucka (Chris' son) and  former NFL long snapper Travis Tripucka, and former professional lacrosse player Jake Tripucka (both Kelly's sons). Shane played for the Los Angeles Chargers in the 2018 NFL preseason, averaging 45.5 yards per punt. He played for the XFL LA Wildcats in 2020. Shane was also a First-team All-American and All-SEC punter at Texas A&M where he set several punting records.

Tripucka died of congestive heart failure on September 12, 2013, at his home in Woodland Park, New Jersey, aged 85.

Legacy
In 1997, Tripucka was inducted into the National Polish-American Sports Hall of Fame.

See also

 List of American Football League players

Notes

References

External links

1927 births
2013 deaths
American Football League All-Star players
American football quarterbacks
American people of Polish descent
Bloomfield High School (New Jersey) alumni
Canadian football quarterbacks
American players of Canadian football
Chicago Cardinals players
Dallas Texans (NFL) players
Denver Broncos (AFL) players
Detroit Lions players
National Football League players with retired numbers
Notre Dame Fighting Irish football players
Sportspeople from Bloomfield, New Jersey
People from Woodland Park, New Jersey
Philadelphia Eagles players
Players of American football from Passaic County, New Jersey
Players of Canadian football from New Jersey
Saskatchewan Roughriders players

Frank Tripucka


A guard dog, sometimes called an attack dog, is a dog that is trained to watch for and guard against people or animals who should not be there. Their main job is to keep their owner and the owner's property safe from danger. A guard dog is not the same as a "watchdog".  A watchdog will let its owner know that a stranger is coming by barking.  Guard dogs, however, may be trained to attack if their owner tells them to. A guard dog may also be trained to attack if a stranger comes too close. If trained properly, they will give a warning before attacking. A different type of guard dog is a livestock guard dog. Certain breeds of dogs are natural guardians of livestock. Their job is to stay with and guard a flock or herd against predators.

Types of guard dogs
 Personal protection dogs are highly trained dogs who protect individuals or families against any threats. Personal protection dogs are trained to go anywhere with their owners and in many different situations. At home a guard dog may keep trespassers from entering. They have better hearing than humans and are usually aware of what is happening sooner. They act as a kind of home alarm. A dog's bark lets the owner know someone is there and alerts the trespasser the dog knows he is there. A guard dog can also provide protection should the intruder keep coming. Larger dogs make for better personal protection dogs. Some of the favorite breeds are German Shepherds, Boxers and Akitas. They are very trainable and look very intimidating to strangers.

 Livestock guard dogs also called livestock protection dogs are bred and designed for protecting livestock from predators. In most cases their ability to guard their herd is instinctive. The dog bonds with the herd from an early age. They are not usually used to herd or move a herd. Their only job is to guard the herd. Many shepherds seem to match the color of the guardian dog to that of their sheep. The theory is that it makes them less threatening to the sheep and harder to identify by predators. This may explain why so many Livestock protection dogs are white.

 Property guard dogs are trained to watch over property when the owner is not there. They are selected for being both loyal and intelligent. They often perform their job without someone giving them commands.

 Military guard dogs, sometimes called war dogs, are dogs used for military purposes. The US military requries they be 20 inches (51 centimeters) tall at the shoulders and cannot be more than five years old. They cannot be afraid of loud noises including gunfire. They are used for a wide variety of purposes and receive specialized training. Similar to Police dogs they may be used to patrol an area and are used against criminals. They may be used to detect harmful objects such as bombs, mines, harmful gasses and ammunition. Military dogs are trained to watch out for enemies and attack them. The US military used 32 breeds at the start of World War II but by 1944 the list was shortened to five breeds. These were the Belgian Shepherd, German Shepherd, Doberman Pinscher, Collie and Giant Schnauzer.

Breeds of Guard Dogs
Different breeds of dogs are bred for different reasons, and are good at different things.
The most common breeds used as personal protection and property dogs are:

Livestock guard dogs include:

Notes

References

Other websites

 Dogs and Personal Security: An Introductory Guide
 Best Guard Dogs for Families

Working dogs

Guard dog


The Earth's mantle has two layers. There is a rigid upper layer and a softer layer. It is between the Earth's crust and the Earth's outer core.

The upper mantle

Past episodes of melting and volcanism at the outer levels of the mantle have produced a very thin crust of crystallized melt products near the surface, where we live. The gases evolved during the melting of Earth's mantle have a large effect on the composition and size of Earth's atmosphere.

Uppermost mantle
The top of the mantle is the  Moho at the base of the crust. The base of the crust varies from about 10 to 70 kilometers deep. Oceanic crust is generally less than 10 kilometers thick. "Standard" continental crust is around 35 kilometers thick, and the large crustal root under the Tibetan Plateau is about 70 kilometers thick.

A thin crust, the lower part of the lithosphere, surrounds the mantle and is about 5 to 75 km thick. There are two main zones in the upper mantle. The uppermost mantle plus overlying crust are relatively rigid and form the lithosphere, an irregular layer with a maximum thickness of perhaps 200 km, of which the uppermost mantle is 120 to 50 km thick.

Asthenosphere
Below the lithosphere the upper mantle becomes notably more plastic. It is called the asthenosphere, and is composed of flowing rock in the state of plasticity, about 200 km thick.

Lower mantle
The lower mantle is much thicker than the upper mantle. It is made of magma, under great pressure, and so is thicker (higher viscosity) and flows less easily. The lower mantles temperature has a max of about 4,000 °C (7,000 °F).

The chemical composition of the mantle is heavily biased towards three elements: oxygen 44.8% by weight; magnesium 22.8%; silicon 21.5%. Compounds are oxides: silica SiO2 46%; magnesium oxide MgO 37.8%.

Place with no crust
In 2007 a team of scientists on board the RRS James Cook went to an area of the Atlantic seafloor where the mantle has no crust covering. The anomaly is mid-way between the Cape Verde Islands and the Caribbean in the Atlantic Ocean, at or near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It is about three kilometres under the ocean surface and covers thousands of square kilometres.

Other such 'Oceanic Core Complexes' (OCCs) were found later. Many have active hydrothermal vents.

References

Other websites
 Information on the Mohole Project

Structure of the Earth

Earth's mantle


Eleftherios Handrinos (also spelled Chandrinos, ; 18 September 1937 – 27 July 1994) was a Hellenic Navy officer who retired with the rank of vice admiral. He is notable for his involvement in the first Turkish invasion of Cyprus, during which he commanded an LST vessel that caused confusion among Turkish commanders, leading to the loss of a Turkish destroyer due to friendly fire. He also served as a naval attaché in Ankara.

Early life and career
Handrinos was born in Komotini to parents who came from the island of Corfu. His parents were Konstantinos, a major general in the Greek Army who was serving in Thrace at the time, and Maria Handrinou (née Drazinou). At the age of fourteen, his family moved to Athens and in 1954 he entered the Hellenic Naval Academy, graduating as an ensign in June 1958. Following his graduation, he served on several navy ships and was trained on anti-submarine warfare in the United States. For a period of four years, he also served with the 353 Naval Collaboration Squadron (353 MNAS) flying with SHU-16B aircraft.

Cyprus 1974

Background
On 15 July 1974, a military coup d'état orchestrated by the right-wing military junta of Athens and the Cypriot National Guard deposed the Cypriot President Makarios. With the pretext of a peacekeeping operation, Turkey took military action and invaded Cyprus west of Kyrenia in the dawn of 20 July 1974.

Famagusta mission

In the summer of 1974, Handrinos had risen to the rank of Lieutenant commander. Since 1 August 1973, he had been commanding landing ship Lesvos (L-172, ex USS Boone County). On 12 July 1974, Lesvos was scheduled to depart from the small harbour of Kechries in Corinthia bound for Famagusta, carrying 450 replacement personnel and provisions for the permanent Hellenic Force in Cyprus (ELDYK). The estimated time for arrival in Famagusta was the early morning of July 17. The departure was delayed for 24 hours and the ship sailed on the late evening of July 13. En route to Cyprus, the ship picked up broadcasts by the radio station of Nicosia, from which Handrinos was informed about the coup that had been launched against President Makarios. On July 16, while the ship was off the coast of Limassol, the Hellenic Navy HQ ordered Handrinos to return to Greek waters by changing course towards Lindos in Rhodes. This was probably due to the Greek junta being unwilling to give the impression of reinforcing the Greek forces on Cyprus. As the situation in Cyprus became more stable and the coup seemed successful, Handrinos was ordered to sail again towards Cyprus. In the afternoon of July 19, only a few hours before the Turkish invasion, Lesvos dropped anchor in the port of Famagusta. After the disembarkation of the replacement troops, another 450 soldiers who were being discharged or relocated from ELDYK to Greece came aboard. The ship then departed at around 18:00 heading for Greece.

Shelling at Paphos
In the morning of July 20, Handrinos was informed by a radio broadcast about the ongoing Turkish invasion. Soon after, when Lesvos was approximately  from Paphos, Handrinos received an order to sail east and disembark in Limassol the troops he had picked up the day before. This order was later canceled, and the ship was ordered to sail to Paphos. In his official report, Handrinos notes that the return to Cyprus and the prospect of fighting against the invading Turkish forces was welcomed with enthusiasm by the troops onboard Lesvos.

At around 14:00, Lesvos anchored off the port of Paphos and the troops begun to be offloaded with small landing crafts. While the disembarkation was still in progress, Handrinos was asked by the local commander of the Cypriot National Guard to attack the fortified positions of Turkish and Turkish Cypriot forces in the nearby enclave of Mouttalos (). Without clear rules of engagement from Athens, Handrinos decided to bombard the enclave with the ship's twin 40 mm Bofors guns. Due to the lack of sufficient naval personnel onboard Lesvos, its guns were manned by ELDYK men who had received brief, on the spot training while at sea earlier that day. Over 900 shells were fired in a period of two hours, which exceeded the time required for disembarkation and resulted in the surrender of two heavily armed Turkish companies.

Handrinos was aware that his slow and lightly armed ship was an easy target for patrolling Turkish warships and jet fighters. Therefore, in the late afternoon of July 20 and immediately after the shelling, he departed Paphos to seek cover in the coming darkness. Knowing that the Turkish Air Force would search for his ship in the sea region between Cyprus and Rhodes, Handrinos executed an evasive maneuver by first steering his ship south towards Egypt, later heading west and turning north towards Crete only when he was more than  away from Cyprus. In this manner, Lesvos managed to remain undetected and safely reached Salamis naval base on July 23, after an intermediate stop at Sitia.

Aftermath

Despite not being a front line ship, Lesvos was the only vessel of the Hellenic Navy that fought during the Turkish invasion in Cyprus. A direct consequence of the Paphos bombardment was that it neutralized the Turkish stronghold and helped decisively to maintain the city in Greek hands. The troops which were disembarked at Paphos were transported by buses to the ELDYK barracks in Nicosia. They assumed active combat duties and fought gallantly during the second phase of the Turkish invasion in mid August 1974.

As a result of the shelling at Paphos, Turkish reports about an escorted Greek ship convoy carrying reinforcements started to float around. The confusion was further aggravated by radio conversations among National Guard units, who knowing that their communications were being monitored, intentionally mentioned that Greek Navy vessels were off Paphos. Based on these reports, in the morning of 21 July the Turkish naval command ordered three destroyers accompanying the landing force at Kyrenia to sail west and intercept the supposed Greek convoy. These were TCG Kocatepe (D 354), TCG Adatepe (D 353) and TCG Mareşal Fevzi Çakmak (D 351). Around noon, the destroyers were heading south towards Paphos but were unable to spot any ships. In the meantime, the Turkish air force had received reports who mistook the three Turkish destroyers as being Greek and had ordered their sinking. Thus, around 14:00, three Turkish air force squadrons (namely 181, 141 and 111 Filo) totaling 48 F-100D and F-104G aircraft armed with bombs and rockets, took off from three different airports in southern Turkey. The Turkish destroyers were spotted by the aircraft pilots at 15:00, who noticed that they were flying Turkish flags. Considering this to be a Greek deception, they started to fire their rockets and drop their bombs at the destroyers, which responded with anti-aircraft guns. Eventually, the ships managed to identify the attacking aircraft. Despite repeated attempts by the Turkish ships to convince the pilots about their nationality, the air attacks continued. The strikes resulted in Kocatepe being sunk and taking with her several dozens of sailors, Adatepe being extensively damaged and Çakmak suffering minor damage. At least one aircraft was also shot down by anti-aircraft fire.

Later life
As was the case with other Greek soldiers who saw military action in Cyprus, Handrinos received no honors or public recognition while he was alive. He was honored posthumously only in 2015. For several decades after the restoration of democracy, the rationale of the Greek state was that since Greece was not officially at war with Turkey in 1974, no combat operations involving Greeks could have taken place. In 1982, Handrinos was promoted to captain and in 1984 he was appointed as a military attaché in Ankara. In May 1986, while driving near Komotini en route from Athens to Ankara, Handrinos was seriously injured in a car accident. The cause of that accident was not determined, and Handrinos never fully recovered from it. He retired on 26 March 1992 and died on 27 July 1994.

See also
Military operations during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus
Cyprus dispute

Notes

References

External links
Λέσβος L-172 (1960-1990), from Hellenic Navy
Λέσβος (L 172) from hellasarmy.gr
Kocatepe wreck

1937 births
1994 deaths
20th-century Greek military personnel
Greek military personnel of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus
Hellenic Navy admirals
Military personnel from Corfu
Greek naval attachés
People from Komotini

Eleftherios Handrinos


Joseph Edward Klecko (born October 15, 1953) is an American former professional football player who was a defensive lineman in the National Football League (NFL), primarily with the New York Jets. He played college football for the Temple Owls and was a member of the Jets' famed "New York Sack Exchange".

Temple Owls
Before going to Temple, and playing under Hall of Fame college coach Wayne Hardin (the former Navy coach who coached two Heisman Trophy winners in Joe Bellino '60 and Roger Staubach '63), Klecko played semi-pro football for the Aston (Pennsylvania) Knights of the Seaboard Football League and kept his eligibility by playing under the assumed name "Jim Jones" from the fictional "Poland University." He also won two NCAA club boxing titles in the heavyweight division. Klecko played high school football at St. James Catholic High School for Boys in Chester, Pennsylvania.

Klecko led the Temple Owls in tackles his last three seasons (1974–1976), twice making the All-East team and receiving All-American mention as a junior and senior. He was the ECAC's Rookie of the Week on October 27, 1973, after Temple's 31–8 victory over the University of Delaware Blue Hens, in which he had five sacks and 15 tackles. He was inducted into the Temple University Sports Hall of Fame in 1987.

New York Jets
Klecko was drafted by the New York Jets in the sixth round (144th overall) of the 1977 NFL Draft. Despite eight sacks by Klecko, his team went only 3–11 his first season. However, when he and Abdul Salaam were joined by Mark Gastineau and Marty Lyons on the Jets' defensive line, they formed one of the top defensive lines in the NFL, known as the "New York Sack Exchange." The four combined for 66 sacks in 1981, including a league-leading 20.5 by Klecko, to lead the Jets to their first playoff game since 1969. Klecko was honored with his first All-Pro selection. In November 1981, Klecko, Gastineau, Salaam and Lyons were invited to ring the ceremonial opening bell at the New York Stock Exchange, which served as the inspiration for their nickname.

Klecko appeared in only two regular season games for the Jets in 1982, rupturing the patella tendon in his right knee in the second game of the season against the New England Patriots. The Jets made the playoffs in 1982, losing the AFC Championship game to the Miami Dolphins. Klecko made 2 more appearances with the Jets during their playoff victories over the Cincinnati Bengals and Oakland Raiders.

Klecko moved from defensive end to defensive tackle in 1983, and was named to the Pro Bowl at his new position in 1983 and 1984. The Jets switched to a 3–4 defensive alignment in 1985, forcing Klecko to learn a new position, nose tackle. He led the Jets with 96 tackles and five forced fumbles, and tied for second with 7.5 sacks to earn his second All-Pro selection, and become the second player, after Frank Gifford, in professional football history to be selected to the Pro Bowl at three different positions. Klecko spent the 1986-87 offseason recovering from knee surgery.  The knee hadn't fully healed by the start of the 1987 season, and he was limited to only seven games.  After the season, the Jets released Klecko. He played one more season with the Indianapolis Colts, who went 9–7 in 1988, including a 34–16 loss to the Jets. Following the season, Klecko retired due to chronic knee problems.

Hall of Fame credentials
Hall of Fame center Dwight Stephenson, in describing Klecko as a "great defensive lineman", considered him one of the two best interior linemen he had ever faced. Hall of Fame tackle Anthony Muñoz said about Klecko, "In my 13 seasons, Joe is right there at the top of the defensive ends I had to block, up there with Fred Dean, Lee Roy Selmon and Bruce Smith. Joe was the strongest guy I ever faced. He had perfect technique — hands in tight, great leverage. My second year, 1981, we went to Shea and beat the Jets, 31–30, but he was such an intense, smart player, I knew I was in a battle. He was the leader, the guy who kept that unit together."

Hall of Fame guard Joe DeLamielleure added that, "You can't think of his ten year period without him. I had to block Joe Greene and Merlin Olsen when I was playing and, believe me, Joe Klecko was equal to those two guys. If Joe Klecko had played one position for ten years, he'd have been considered one of the top two or three players at that position, whichever one it was. There's not another player who went to the Pro Bowl at three different positions. You take a defensive end and put him at nose tackle and he's just as good there, that's a great player. We need to get Joe Klecko in the Hall of Fame."

On December 26, 2004, during a halftime ceremony, the Jets honored Klecko by retiring his #73 jersey. Klecko became just the third New York Jet to have his number retired, joining Hall of Fame quarterback Joe Namath and Hall of Fame wide receiver Don Maynard.

On August 16, 2010, during halftime of the New York Giants–Jets preseason game at the New Meadowlands Stadium, Klecko was inducted as a member of the inaugural class into the Jets' Ring of Honor.

In 2016, the Professional Football Researchers Association named Klecko to the PFRA Hall of Very Good Class of 2016.

On August 17, 2022, Klecko was announced as one of the three finalists nominated by the senior committee for induction in the 2023 Pro Football Hall of Fame class.
On February 9, 2023, Klecko was announced as a Class of 2023 inductee to the National Football League's Pro Football Hall of Fame.

Personal life
Klecko and his wife, Debbie, currently reside in Colts Neck, New Jersey, and have five children, one of whom, Dan, was an NFL defensive tackle for the New England Patriots, Indianapolis Colts, and Philadelphia Eagles.

In 1993, Klecko was sentenced to three months in prison for perjury in an insurance fraud case.

In 2005, Klecko was involved in a fatal car accident, in which he accidentally struck and killed a pedestrian on the Major Deegan Expressway in Bronx, New York. Klecko was not charged or ticketed. Klecko was uninjured in the accident.

Klecko sells metal stairs in the Tri-State Area, and serves as a representative for various construction companies. He had small roles in four Burt Reynolds films: Cannonball Run, Heat, Smokey and the Bandit and Smokey and the Bandit II. He also appeared on EWTN Life On The Rock show. He is a member of Catholic Athletes for Christ and speaks on the subject of manhood and faith. Klecko was a guest on Blessed2Play hosted by Ron Meyer where he talked about his Catholic faith and career in the NFL.

In September 2010, SportsNet New York announced that Klecko would be the newest analyst on the New York Jets' post-game show.

References

1953 births
Living people
Players of American football from Chester, Pennsylvania
American people of Polish descent
American Conference Pro Bowl players
American football defensive ends
American football defensive tackles
Indianapolis Colts players
National Football League players with retired numbers
New York Jets players
Temple Owls football players
Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees

Joe Klecko


On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers (German: Über die Religion: Reden an die Gebildeten unter ihren Verächtern) is a book written by the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834).  Originally published in 1799, two further editions were released in Schleiermacher's lifetime in 1806 and 1821.

Schleiermacher wrote On Religion while teaching and preaching in Berlin. The Enlightenment had invigorated scientific and historical research, overshadowing theology in the university. In this work, Schleiermacher defends religion against the skepticism of a modern audience.

Composition
Since the early age of 15, Schleiermacher had been personally grappling with the most significant issues of Christology, particularly his own doubt in regard to the problem of atonement. He entered a Moravian seminary in Barby, Saxony in 1785, only to lead to his eventual expulsion for engaging in heretical philosophic discourse. He left for the University of Halle and completed his first theological examination some five years later. Following his graduation, Schleiermacher took up a teaching post in Berlin in 1793 and joined the Charity Hospital in 1796 as a regular preacher.

Intellectual climate of Berlin
Schleiermacher was writing around the time the Enlightenment was in full swing and arguably when the first major transition into modernity was simultaneously occurring. With the fall of the late Middle Ages and a vigorous discourse taking hold of Western European intellectuals, the fields of art and natural philosophy were flourishing. However, the discourse of theologians, arguably the primary and only discourse of intellectuals for centuries, had taken to its own now minor corner in the universities. This backdrop is evident in the first line of Schleiermacher's text, "It may be an unexpected and even a  marvelous undertaking, that any one should still venture to demand from the very class that have raised themselves above the vulgar, and are saturated with the wisdom of the centuries, attention for a subject so entirely neglected by them. ... Now especially the life of cultivated people is far from anything that might have even a resemblance to religion."

Contents
On Religion is divided into five major sections: the Defense (Apologie), the Nature of Religion (Über das Wesen der Religion), the Cultivation of Religion (Über die Bildung zur Religion), Association in Religion (Über das Gesellige in der Religion, oder über Kirche und Priesterthum), and the Religions (Über die Religionen).

Defense (Apologie)
The Defense (Apologie) characterizes the four following speeches by Schleiermacher laying out of his anthropology of religion. He states, "[T]here are two points of view from which everything taking place in man or proceeding from him may be regarded. Considered from the centre outwards, that is according to its inner quality, it is an expression of human nature, based in one of its necessary modes of acting or impulses ... [R]egarded from the outside, according to the definite attitude and form it assumes in particular cases, it is a product of time and history."

Legacy
Schleiermacher is perhaps best known outside of Germany for being the "father of modern Protestant theology", focusing his attention not on the institutional values of Christianity but on the nature of religious experience from the perspective of the individual and human nature itself, a product most of the prevalence of German Romanticism. The phrase "cultured despisers" has also seen reuse in scholarship since the authorship of On Religion in the late nineteenth century.

Citations

Bibliography
 Mackintosh, Hugh Ross, Types of Modern Theology: Schleiermacher to Barth, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons
 Schleiermacher, Friedrich, On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers, trans. John Oman, New York: Harper & Brothers (1958)

External links

1799 books
Philosophy of religion literature
Modern philosophical literature

On Religion


A strike action (or simply a strike) is when many workers stop working in protest.  Strikes are usually done by a labor union to get better pay, hours, or working conditions.  They became important during the Industrial Revolution, when many worked in factories and mines. In many countries, it is against the law to strike.  In other countries, people who strike are protected under certain conditions.

Strikes generally take the form of a picket line.  The workers walk in front of where they work, chanting and holding signs.  Workers on strike usually do not stop people from crossing the picket line.  However, some people will not cross a picket line to buy something from the company.  This is a way of showing solidarity (or support) for the union.  Most unions will also not cross a picket line and do business with companies on strike.  For example, members of the Teamsters, a truck driving union, will not deliver to a business that is on strike.

History
The first known strike was in the 12th century B.C., in Egypt.  Workers under Ramses III stopped working on the Necropolis until they were treated better.  The word gets its name from modern times: in 1768, sailors in London "struck" or removed the sails of trade ships at port.

In 1917, the Mexican Constitution was the first to make sure that workers had the right to strike.

Types of strikes

Wildcat strike
A wildcat strike is a strike that is not approved by the labor union.  Wildcat strikes are not always protected like union-approved strikes are.

Sympathy strike
A sympathy strike is a strike that is done to support another group of workers on strike.

Slowdown strike
A slowdown strike is when the workers are still working, but very slowly.  It is usually done when workers are not allowed to have a full strike.

Green ban
A green ban is a strike that is done to get the company to adopt more environmentally friendly practices.

Strikes in the law
Despite, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ensure the right to strike, many countries do not allow workers to strike at all, but some allow it under certain conditions.

United States
In the United States, people who work for the Federal Government are not allowed to strike.  Some states, like New York, do not allow people who work for the state government (including teachers) to strike.  Railroad and airline workers are not allowed to strike, except under certain conditions.

Strike breaking
When a strike is called, a government may try to stop it by calling in the police or the military.  The threat of force is sometimes enough to get the workers to stop.  This happened in the Seattle General Strike of 1919, when over three thousand marines, sailors, and police officers were called into the city by the mayor of Seattle and the Attorney General of Washington.

The owners of a company may also decide to hire new workers.  This may cost less than giving into the demands of the workers.  This is another way of breaking the strike.  These workers, called "scabs" by strikers, are often yelled at as they pass through the picket line.  Many unions say that workers who helped break a strike by crossing the picket line are not allowed to be in the union.  If the company is a union shop (meaning that only union workers can work there) this means that helping break a strike could get a worker fired from that company forever.

References

Labor

Strike action


Azeglio Vicini  (; 20 March 1933 – 30 January 2018) was an Italian football coach and player, who also served as the President of the Technical Sector of the Italian Football Federation (FIGC).

One of Italy's most important coaches during the eighties, he coached the Italy under-21 side, reaching the semi-final of the 1984 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, and final of the 1986 UEFA European Under-21 Championship; he later coached the Italy national side, reaching the semi-finals of UEFA Euro 1988, and leading the team to another semi-final, and eventually a third-place finish, in the 1990 FIFA World Cup, in Italy.

Playing career
A defensive midfielder, Vicini started playing football with his hometown side Cesena. He began his professional career with Lanerossi Vicenza, helping the team to Serie A promotion the following season, after winning the 1954–55 Serie B title, and subsequently making his Serie A debut on 25 September 1955 in a 2–0 home defeat to Inter. He later moved to Sampdoria, playing with the club for 7 seasons in the top division, before moving to Serie B club Brescia. He made his club debut on 15 September 1963, in a 4–0 away defeat to Varese, narrowly missing out on Serie A promotion during his first season with the club. The following season, he won the Serie B title with the club, finally achieving Serie A promotion after 17 years. After suffering relegation, the team immediately won back Serie A promotion the following season. Vicini ended his playing career during the 1967–68 season, when he became the club's manager midway through the season, although he was ultimately unable to save the club from relegation, despite impressing with his performances.

Managerial career
After starting his professional coaching career with his former club Brescia from 1967–68, he was named the head coach of the Italian Under-23 side in his 30s, between 1975–76, participating in the 1976 UEFA European Under-23 Championship, where Italy were eliminated in the group stages. He was later named the head coach of the Italy national under-21 football team, a position which he occupied between 1977 and 1986. With the Under-21 side, he reached the quarter-finals of the UEFA European Under-21 Championships in 1978, 1980, and 1982, and the semi-finals in 1984; he won the "Seminatore d'Oro" award, for the best coach in Italian football in 1986, after the team reached the final of the 1986 UEFA European Under-21 Championship.

He subsequently managed the senior Italian team from 1986 to 1991. He led Italy to the semi-finals of the UEFA Euro 1988, where they were eliminated by USSR. Two years later, he led Italy to the semi-finals of the 1990 FIFA World Cup, which was held on home soil, where they eventually finished in third-place, defeating England 2–1 in the bronze medal match. Italy won six out of seven matches throughout the tournament, scoring ten goals and only conceding two, with their only draw coming in their penalty-shootout defeat to defending champions Argentina in the semi-finals, following a 1–1 draw after extra-time. However, after the team failed to qualify for the 1992 UEFA European Football Championship, he was replaced as Italy's head coach by former Milan manager Arrigo Sacchi. In 1991, he was awarded the "Panchina d'Oro" Award for his career; he later managed his hometown team Cesena from 1992–93, and Udinese from 1993–94, before retiring. He later took up the position as head of the technical sector of the FIGC; he was replaced by Roberto Baggio in 2010. Vicini was awarded the Premio Malatesta Novello by his hometown of Cesena in 2008.

Style of management
During his time as Italy's manager, Vicini came to be known for introducing younger talented players to the team, and for implementing a more attractive, offensive-minded possession based system, which he successfully used to great effect, guiding Italy to two consecutive semi-finals at Euro 1988 and the 1990 World Cup; as such, he came to be known as one of Italy's most beloved managers. Under Vicini, the Italy national team's more attacking style of play was combined with a solid back-line and elements of the Italian zona mista approach (or "Gioco all'Italiana"), which was a cross between zonal marking and man-marking systems, such as catenaccio. Despite their more aggressive and modern attacking approach under Vicini, Italy were still pragmatic, conceding little defensively, while still creating more going forward.

Personal life and death
Vicini was married and had three children. Vicini died in Brescia on 30 January 2018, at the age of 84.

Honours

Player
Vicenza
Serie B: 1954–55

Brescia
Serie B: 1964–65

Manager
Italy
UEFA European Under-21 Championship runner-up: 1986
FIFA World Cup third place: 1990

Individual
Seminatore d'oro: 1986
Panchina d'oro alla carriera: 1991
Premio Malatesta Novello – Comune di Cesena: 2008
Italian Football Hall of Fame: 2017

Orders
 2nd Class / Grand Officer: Grande Ufficiale Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana: 1991

References

1933 births
2018 deaths
Italian men's footballers
LR Vicenza players
UC Sampdoria players
Brescia Calcio players
Italian football managers
Brescia Calcio managers
Italy national football team managers
UEFA Euro 1988 managers
1990 FIFA World Cup managers
AC Cesena managers
Udinese Calcio managers
Footballers from Cesena
Men's association football midfielders
Grand Officers of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Footballers from the Province of Forlì-Cesena

Azeglio Vicini


Principles of Biology is a college level biology electronic textbook published by Nature Publishing in 2011. The book is not a digitally reformatted version of a paper book. The book, the first in a projected series, is Nature Publishing's first foray into textbook publishing.

Format
Principles is composed of 200 modules, which can be customized by the instructor. The modules combine text, images, simulations, interactive exercises, self-tests, and formal tests. The book draws on the science journal Nature's archive of research papers. It was created by a group of more than 100 scientists, instructors, scientific illustrators, interaction designers, and faculty reviewers. It is available in formats for computers, tablets, and smartphones. No traditional paper edition is available. The book is purchased on a one-time payment subscription basis, with the purchase covering all future updates or supplements.

Reception
The book has been adopted for use at California State University. One favorable reviewer described the text as "post-Gutenberg", referring to the Printing Revolution that occurred upon the development of the movable type printing press by Johannes Gutenberg ca 1439. The book, and its umbrella textbook publishing division, has been described as potentially breaking down the traditional textbook publishing business model. The work has been compared with other publishers' electronic textbook experiments, including Wolfram Research.

References

External links
Principles of Biology at the Nature Publishing Group website
Principles of Biology at the Principles of Science (beta) textbook series website

2011 non-fiction books
Biology textbooks
2011 in biology

Principles of Biology


Armand Lunel (9 June 1892 – 3 November 1977) was a French writer of Provençal Jewish background.

Biography

Lunel was born in Aix-en-Provence, France, to a family that belonged to a Jewish subculture that had roots in the area for at least five centuries. After coming of age in the region, Lunel taught law and philosophy in Monaco.

Lunel wrote extensively about the Jews of Provence. Though often referred to as the last known speaker of Judeo-Provençal, he did not speak it if not a few words and sentnces he remembered from his great-grandparents.

He was a childhood friend of the composer Darius Milhaud, and wrote the librettos of Milhaud's operas Esther de Carpentras ("Esther of Carpentras," 1938, based on Judeo-Provençal folklore),  Les malheurs d'Orphée ("The Misfortunes of Orpheus," 1924), and David (1954). He also provided the libretto for Henri Sauguet's La chartreuse de Parme, premiered in 1939.

He married Rachel Suzanne Messiah (1892-1981), a daughter of architect Aron Messiah in 1920.

Most of the current knowledge about Lunel was collected by his son-in-law Georges Jessula.

Bibliography
L'Imagerie du cordier, La Nouvelle Revue Française, Paris, 1924.
Nicolo-Peccavi ou L'affaire Dreyfus à Carpentras, Gallimard, Paris, 1926.
Le Balai de sorcière, Gallimard, Paris, 1935.
Jérusalem à Carpentras, Gallimard, 1937.
Les Amandes d'Aix, Gallimard, Paris, 1949.
La Belle à la fontaine, A. Fayard, Paris, 1959.
J'ai vu vivre la Provence, A. Fayard, Paris, 1962.
Juifs du Languedoc, de la Provence et des États français du Pape, Albin Michel, Paris, 1975. Translated by Samuel N. Rosenberg as "The Jews of the South of France" (with a foreword by David A. Jessula), Cincinnati: Hebrew University College Annual 89 (2018), pp. 1–158.
Les Chemins de mon judaïsme et divers inédits, presented by Georges Jessula, L'Harmattan, Paris, 1993.

References
 .

External links
Armand Lunel at Beit Hatefutsot, the Museum of the Jewish Diaspora in Ramat Aviv, Israel
"The Last Man Who Spoke Provence's Dead Jewish Language"

1977 deaths
1892 births
20th-century French Jews
French opera librettists
Last known speakers of a language
Jewish novelists
Prix Renaudot winners
Writers from Aix-en-Provence
French male novelists
French male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century French novelists
20th-century French dramatists and playwrights
20th-century French male writers

Armand Lunel


Atum (, Egyptian: jtm(w) or tm(w), reconstructed ; Coptic  Atoum), sometimes rendered as Atem or Tem, is the primordial god in Egyptian mythology from whom all else arose. He created himself and is the father of Shu and Tefnut, the divine couple, who are the ancestors of the other Egyptian deities. Atum is also closely associated with the evening sun. As a primordial god and as the evening sun, Atum has chthonic and underworld connections. Atum was relevant to the ancient Egyptians throughout most of Egypt's history. He is believed to have been present in ideology as early as predynastic times, becoming even more prevalent during the Old Kingdom and continuing to be worshiped through the Middle and New Kingdom, though he becomes overshadowed by Re around this time.

Name
Atum's name is thought to be derived from the verb tm which means 'to complete' or 'to finish'. Thus, he has been interpreted as being the "complete one" and also the finisher of the world, which he returns to watery chaos at the end of the creative cycle. As creator, he was seen as the progenitor of the world, the deities and universe having received his vital force or ka.

Origins

Atum is one of the most important and frequently mentioned deities from earliest times, as evidenced by his prominence in the Pyramid Texts, where he is portrayed as both a creator and father to the king throughout the collection of spells. Several writings contradict how Atum was brought into existence. According to the Heliopolitan view, Atum originally existed in his egg within the primeval waters, being born during the primordial flood, becoming the source of everything that was created after him. The Memphites (priests of Memphis), on the other hand, believed that Ptah created Atum in a more intellectual way, using his speech and thought, as told on the Shabaka Stone.

Role

In the Heliopolitan creation myth, Atum was considered to be the first god, having created himself, sitting on a mound (benben) (or identified with the mound itself), from the primordial waters (Nu). Early myths state that Atum created the god Shu and goddess Tefnut by spitting them out of his mouth. One text debates that Atum did not create Shu and Tefnut by spitting them out of his mouth by means of saliva and semen, but rather by Atum's lips. Another writing describes Shu and Tefnut being birthed by Atum's hand. That same writing states that Atum's hand is the title of the god's wife based on her Heliopolitan beginning. Other myths state Atum created by masturbation, with the hand he used in this act that may be interpreted as the female principle inherent within him and identified with goddesses such as Hathor or Iusaaset. Yet other interpretations state that he has made union with his shadow.

In the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians believed that Atum lifted the dead king's soul from his pyramid to the starry heavens. He was also a solar deity, associated with the primary sun god Ra. Atum was linked specifically with the evening sun, while Ra or the closely linked god Khepri were connected with the sun at morning and midday.

In the Coffin Texts, Atum has a vital conversation with Osiris in which he describes the end of the universe as a time in which everything will cease to exist with the exception of the elements of the primordial waters, stating that after millions of years he and Osiris would be the only ones to survive the end of time as serpents. He claims that he will destroy everything he created in the beginning of existence and bring it back to Nu, the primeval waters, thus describing the belief that the gods and goddesses would one day cease to exist outside of the primeval waters.

In the Book of the Dead, which was still current in the Graeco-Roman period, the sun god Atum is said to have ascended from chaos-waters with the appearance of a snake, the animal renewing itself every morning.

Atum is the god of pre-existence and post-existence. In the binary solar cycle, the serpentine Atum is contrasted with the scarab-headed god Khepri—the young sun god, whose name is derived from the Egyptian ḫpr "to come into existence". Khepri-Atum encompassed sunrise and sunset, thus reflecting the entire cycle of morning and evening.

Relationship to other gods
Atum was a self-created deity, the first being to emerge from the darkness and endless watery abyss that existed before creation. A product of the energy and matter contained in this chaos, he created his children—the first deities, out of loneliness. He produced from his own sneeze, or in some accounts, semen, Shu, the god of air, and Tefnut, the goddess of moisture. The brother and sister, curious about the primeval waters that surrounded them, went to explore the waters and disappeared into the darkness. Unable to bear his loss, Atum sent a fiery messenger, the Eye of Ra, to find his children. The tears of joy he shed upon their return were the first human beings.

Iconography

Atum is usually depicted in anthropomorphic form, wearing either the royal head-cloth or the dual white and red crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, reinforcing his connection with kingship. He is typically depicted sitting on a throne and will usually be represented with the head of a ram when he is mentioned within the context of his connection to the underworld and his solar attributes. Sometimes he is also shown as a serpent, the form he returns to at the end of the creative cycle, and also occasionally as a mongoose, lion, bull, lizard, or ape. When he is represented as a solar deity, he can also be depicted as a scarab and when in reference to his primeval origins he is also seen depicted as the primeval mound.

Worship

Atum was worshipped throughout Egypt's history; the center of his worship centered on the city of Heliopolis (Egyptian: Annu or Iunu). The only surviving remnant of Heliopolis is the Temple of Ra-Atum obelisk located in Al-Masalla of Al-Matariyyah, Cairo. It was erected by Senusret I of the Twelfth Dynasty, and still stands in its original position. In the Old Kingdom Atum was at the center of the Egyptian belief system, being partly responsible for the origins of existence, having created himself and everything else out of the primordial waters. He is believed to have been present in ideology as early as predynastic times, becoming even more prevalent during the Old Kingdom as indicated by the pyramid texts in which he appears frequently. He continues to be found in the Middle Kingdom, during which he is depicted in the Book of the Dead in which he appears in spells to help with the journey to the Afterlife. Later, in the New Kingdom, there cults attributed to Atum, such as the Theban royal high priestesses known as the Divine Adoratrices of Amun who acted as the Hand of Atum in temple rituals at the time. Re would take centerstage later on but as Atum was overshadowed, the people of ancient Egypt would continue to worship him through cultic rituals in which he is depicted as having close relationships with the king, as well as being represented through lizards on small reliquaries and amulets closer to the Late Period

See also
 Animal mummy § Miscellaneous animals
 List of solar deities
 Solar myths

References

Bibliography

Further reading

Egyptian gods
Solar gods
Creator gods
Snake gods
Ra
Epithets of Amun-Ra
Lion gods
Personifications
Chthonic beings

Atum


A fire drill is a sudden practice event, where people leave a building. They are practicing what they would do if there was a fire in the building. The event is started when the fire alarm goes off. The fire alarm sound can either be a continuous metal bell, a horn or a two-tone siren. Some old alarms in the UK like the Chloride Gent Warbler will curve between the two tones. The entire building is evacuated and everybody leaves the building using the nearest fire exit. At a school, college or university, the teacher or the lecturer counts the people outside to find out if anyone is missing. Sometimes people are evacuated when a drill is not scheduled by the school. This is called a false alarm. There are rules and regulations in place where fire alarm devices should be tested on a weekly basis. If the fire alarm sounds and the building is not evacuated, this may be due to the a scheduled fire alarm test that people already know about.

In the United Kingdom, the law recommends that all schools must do a fire drill every term.  But with the current UK government laws,  any organization in the UK should conduct a fire drill once a year. In addition to sounding the fire alarms for regular fire drills during term time, regular health and safety checks such as testing fire alarm systems and fire extinguishers must be done weekly. During half term holidays and breaks, these tests are often done during the day so that staff who work during term time know what the fire alarm sounds like. The fire alarm in the United Kingdom sounds either a continuous two tone buzzer or a beep similar to an electronic game beeping in test mode. Sometimes depending on the sounder used, the buzzer can curve between the two tones. In the United States, different states have laws that say how often schools must have fire drills. For example, in many states, schools must have one fire drill per month and fire alarms can either be continuous, or set to different codes such as code 3.

Fire drills commonly take place in schools, colleges and public companies. In public transport such as cruise ships, it is called a muster drill. Fire drills aren't done on airplanes, but a safety demonstration  that shows the emergency procedures of the aircraft is done instead. If an aircraft is about to perform an emergency landing, the passangers on the aircraft are told to take the safety brace position on hearing the "brace" command.

Different ways of having fire drills
During fire drills, some schools block exits with a piece of cardboard or something else that is supposed to stand for a fire. This makes people practice finding another way out of the building.

References

Other websites
An example of state fire drill laws in the United States: Minnesota school fire drill laws

Safety

Fire drill


Oscar Jacobsson (Göteborg, 1889 – Solberga, December 25, 1945) was a Swedish comic creator and cartoonist who started his career in 1918 when his first newspaper illustration was published. Jacobsson's first illustrations were published in Naggen.

In 1920, he created the comic strip Adamson for the publication Söndags-Nisse. Adamson himself was a (usually) silent little cigar-smoking man with a big hat and frequent misadventures.

The strip soon became very popular and became published in hundreds of newspapers all over the world. In the United States, it became known as "Silent Sam".

Jacobsson also worked for other publications. His illustrations frequently appeared in magazines and papers like Exlex, Dagens Nyheter and Lutfisken. Near the end of his stellar career, Jacobsson created another comic character: Abu Fakir. This was published in Vi.

Keeping Adamson Alive
'Adamson' outlived his creator; the Danish artist Viggo Ludvigsen continued the comic strip for nearly two decades after Oscar Jacobsson's death in 1945. And in the U.S. two artists kept Jacobson alive—Henry Thol from 1935 to 1940 and Jeff Hayes from 1941 to 1953.

The Adamson Award
In 1965, the Swedish Comic Academy founded the "Adamson Awards" in Jacobsson's honor. This "Nobel Prize of comics" is given to one Swedish and one international comic creator every year.

References

1889 births
1945 deaths
Swedish comics artists
Swedish comic strip cartoonists

Oscar Jacobsson


The counts of Toggenburg (Grafen von Toggenburg) ruled the Toggenburg region of today's canton of St. Gallen, Switzerland, and adjacent areas during the 13th to 15th centuries.

A baronial family of Toggenburg is mentioned in the 11th and 12th centuries, but their genealogical connection to the comital family is unclear. They are named for their ancestral seat, now known as Alt-Toggenburg, near Kirchberg, St. Gallen.
The castle was built in the 10th or 11th century, and was destroyed in 1085 in a conflict with the Abbot of St. Gallen, later rebuilt and in 1226 given to St. Gallen Abbey by count Diethelm of Toggenburg.

The  family is attested from the early 13th century, as Toccanburg, later Tochimburc. Diethelm I (possible mention 1176, died 1205 or 1207) was followed by Diethelm II (possible mention 1210, died c. 1230). Either of these was the beneficiary of the inheritance of a number of local noble families (among these Alt-Rapperswil) in c. 1200 and adopted the title of comes (count) from 1209. In 1187, one Werner of Toggenburg became abbot of Einsiedeln.
The legend of a Saint Ida of Toggenburg is recorded in 1481, making her the wife of a count of Toggenburg, possibly either Diethelm, or one Heinrich. According to the legend, the husband defenestrated his innocent wife on suspicion of adultery. She survived and lived as an anchoress in Fischingen. Her veneration there is attested for 1410.

The early counts were in competition with St. Gallen Abbey, the bishops of Constance and the counts of Kyburg. The inheritance disputes motivated the donation of religious establishments in  Bubikon, Rüti, Oberbollingen and Wurmsbach in the 1190s, and a fratricide by one Diethelm (fl. 1209–36) of his brother Rudolf in 1226.

On 23 April 1398 Count Donat von Toggenburg donated the church of Elsow as benefice for the new Allerheiligenaltar at the grave of the Toggenburg family, for the "salvation of the soul of his daughter Menta von Toggenburg" who had died shortly before. Count Fridrich von Toggenburg, Herr zu Brettengow und Tafas donated to "his own and the salvation of his ancestors who were buried" (at the Rüti church) "and where he also expects to be buried," the church, rights and lands (Kirchwidem and Kirchensatz) in Wangen in der March to the Rüti Abbey, sealed by Fridrich and the knights Herman von Landenberg, Johans von Bonstetten from Ustra and Herman von der Hochenlandenberg on 21 January 1407.

In 1436, the death of the last count, Frederick VII, Count of Toggenburg, led to the Old Zurich War over the succession.
Friedrich VII was later buried in a chapel, the so-called Toggenburger Kapelle (capella nova in latere monasterii de novo construxit) given by his noble wife, Elisabeth Countess of Toggenburg, née von Mätsch. Elisabeth spent her last days in the Rüti Abbey, writing on 20 June 1442 that she had retreated there (unser wesen gentzlich in dasselbe gotzhus got zuo dienende gezogen habe) and desired her tomb to be with her husband's. On 11 June 1443 marauding troops of the Old Swiss Confederacy devastated the monastery and desecrated the bodies of the nobles, including Count Friedrich VII whom they held responsible for the war with Zürich. 14 members of the family were buried in the Toggenburg vault in the church of the Rüti Abbey.

List of counts

House of Toggenburg

References

Medieval Switzerland
Toggenburg
History of the canton of St. Gallen
House of Toggenburg
Counties of the Holy Roman Empire
Former countries

Counts of Toggenburg


The Utah State Historical Society (USHS), founded in 1897 and now part of the Government of Utah's Division of State History, encourages the research, study, and publication of Utah history. Since 1928, the USHS has also published the Utah Historical Quarterly, a journal covering a variety of topics in Utah history.

Almost lost amid the parades, speeches, and other kinetic exciting of Utah's Golden Jubilee in July 1897 was the meeting of a few dozen Utahns at the Templeton Hotel in Salt Lake City to create the state historical society. Yet, when the last float was nothing more than a fading image in a wide-eyed child's memory and the final hyperbolic speech had dissipated into the summer air, the organizational work of those history-minded visionaries was already beginning to prove itself as the greatest legacy of that grand celebration.

From its modest beginnings, the Utah State Historical Society has grown to several thousand members, developed a research collection of over a million items, published over 300 issues of the Utah Historical Quarterly, led the historic preservation movement in Utah for nearly fifty years, created energetic antiquities and museums programs, and much more.

In 2014, the Utah Historical Society launched a fresh, newly designed Utah Historical Quarterly and free online "extras" to make the Utah Division of State History's existing assets - including I Love History, History to Go, the entire run of the quarterly since 1928, and a vast collection of scholarship - increasingly accessible and useful to students, scholars, and the general public.

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1897 establishments in Utah
Government of Utah
Historical societies in Utah

Utah State Historical Society
Organizations established in 1897
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State historical societies of the United States

Utah State Historical Society


Howard Gary Costigan (1904–1985) was an American radio commentator, political functionary, and politician. Costigan is best remembered as the Executive Secretary of the Washington Commonwealth Federation during the second half of the 1930 while he was simultaneously a secret member of the Communist Party USA (CPUSA); he later provided testimony in support of legislative committees investigating communist activities.

Costigan left the Communist Party in 1940, shortly after the conclusion of the Nazi-Soviet Pact. In 1948, Costigan provided testimony as a friendly witness to the Canwell Committee of the Washington State Legislature, charged with investigating Communist influence in the state. In May 1954, Costigan played a similar role on behalf of the House Committee on Un-American Activities during its investigation of radicalism in the Pacific Northwest.

Biography

Early years

Howard Gary Costigan was born January 27, 1904, in Seattle, Washington. He attended primary school in Seattle and Everett before graduating from Centralia High School in Centralia, Washington. While at Centralia High School Costigan was a member of the school debate team for three years and was elected president of the student body.

On November 11, 1919, the 15-year-old Costigan was a witness to the so-called Centralia Massacre, an outburst of mob violence in which members of the American Legion participating in an Armistice Day parade attempted to storm the local headquarters of the radical Industrial Workers of the World and were met with armed resistance. The injustice of the event, which culminated in an IWW member being pulled from jail by an organized band and lynched, was instrumental in moving the young Costigan to himself become involved in radical politics.

Costigan worked in local lumber mills and retail shops even while in high school. Following graduation he attended Whitman College and Washington State Normal School at Bellingham, where he trained to be a teacher. While in college Costigan learned how to cut hair and became a member of the haircutter's union.

Upon graduation from college Costigan was employed as a teacher in Vancouver, Washington, where he also coached athletics.

Political career

In 1934 Costigan became actively involved in politics, helping to organize a state-level social democratic organization called the Commonwealth Builders, serving as Executive Secretary of the new group and editor of its official newspaper. According to Costigan's later sworn testimony to Congress

"The Commonwealth Builders was an organization originally of protesting and unemployed citizens who were displeased at the fact that they were expected to go up in front of soup kitchens when they preferred working with tools to build themselves and adequate standard of living...

"They decided that as long as private industry couldn't provide them with the chance to do it that it was the duty of the state, and they nominated candidates who supported what we call the Economic Security Act of 1935; and I might add that that act almost passed the House of Representatives. It got, I believe, 48 votes and there were 99 members in the House. And we elected on the Commonwealth Builders ticket 41 members of the House of Representatives in 1934, and I have forgotten the number in the State Senate..., about a third if my memory serves me right..."

The Commonwealth Builders provided the core for a new expanded organization established in 1935, the Washington Commonwealth Federation, of which Costigan was named the Executive Secretary. This group, which drew inspiration from the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation of Canada, continued to play a decisive role in Democratic Party politics in Washington state, working to elect political candidates and to push forward the New Deal program of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Costigan was a proficient public speaker on political and in 1935 this affinity soon gained him a place at Seattle radio station KIRO-AM (known as KPCB until 1937), where he worked as a political commentator and interviewer. Costigan would remain in this capacity for more than a decade, with his broadcasts frequently picked up for a national audience by the CBS and Mutual radio networks.

In December 1936, during the height of the international communist movement's attempt at fostering political cooperation with socialists and liberals under the banner of the Popular Front against Fascism, Costigan joined the Communist Party USA. According to his own testimony, Costigan signed his application for party membership with the pseudonym "Jack Robinson" and was accepted as a secret member of the organization, paid no dues, and did not attend meetings of local party units. Despite this unpublicized membership, Costigan indicates he was coopted into membership in the governing bureau of the Pacific Northwest district of the Communist Party in 1937 and remained in that capacity until 1939.

During this interval Costigan shaped the policy of the Washington Commonwealth Federation in accord with policy initiatives of the Communist Party.

Costigan left the CPUSA early in 1940, a few months after the conclusion of the conclusion of the Nazi-Soviet Pact. It was also at this time that he left the Washington Commonwealth Federation to work on the 1940 Roosevelt re-election campaign.

Costigan ran for political office himself for the first time in 1944, when he entered the Democratic primary election for U.S. Congress, attempting to win the seat vacated by Warren Magnuson, who decided to run instead for U.S. Senate. This effort proved unsuccessful, however, with the seat being won by Washington Commonwealth Federation stalwart and secret Communist Party member Hugh DeLacy.

In 1944 Costigan was appointed head of the Division of Progress and Industry Development of the Washington State Department of Conservation and Development, also working for the state's publicity division. He remained in this politically appointed position until resigning in 1946.

Costigan ran once more for political office in 1946, again running unsuccessfully against Hugh DeLacy in the Democratic primary. Following his defeat in that election by the more radical DeLacy — who ultimately lost his seat in the November general election — Costigan was hired to help establish a new organization called Pacific Northwest United. This was to be a mainstream political organization bringing together representatives of industry, agriculture, labor, and government and included the active participation of Seattle mayor William F. Devin and Portland mayor Earl Riley. Costigan would serve as Executive Secretary of this organization.

1948 anti-communist testimony

On February 2, 1948, Costigan gave testimony to the Canwell Committee of the Washington State Legislature, a state-level organization patterned on the national House Committee on Un-American Activities charged with the investigation of Communism in Washington state.

Costigan testified that the Washington Commonwealth Federation had been established in 1935 by liberal and labor groups over the opposition of the Communist Party as a means for advancing Roosevelt's New Deal agenda. It was only in 1936, according to Costigan's testimony, that the CPUSA warmed up to the idea of using its trade union and liberal connections for the "penetration" of the Washington Commonwealth Federation, including its executive board. Costigan told the committee that the Communists diligently supported the Roosevelt administration and the WCF as a bulwark against the spread of fascism and that Communists in the WCF were "the most ardent and perhaps the most conservative" supporters of these institutions.

Costigan testified that only in 1939, with the coming of the pact between the Soviet Union and Hitlerite Germany, did he note the primary emphasis of the Communist Party in supporting the interests of Soviet foreign policy. Costigan insisted that he had paid no party dues and carried no party card and "frankly had no feeling of being in the Party, except to consult with these people" throughout the 1937 to 1939 interval. After breaking with the CPUSA in 1940, Costigan noted that he had run against "the line that DeLacy and the rest of the Executive Committee of the Communist Party" were promoting until by the time of the 1946 elections Costigan found himself "probably hated more than anyone in the Pacific Northwest by the Communist Party."

During his Canwell Committee testimony Costigan named as members of the Communist Party former Congressman Hugh DeLacy, old age pension activists William Pennock and N.P. Atkinson, union leader Jess Fletcher, journalist Terry Pettus, longshoremen's union official Harry Bridges, and civil rights attorney John Caughlan.

Costigan separated from his wife in April 1948 and moved to Southern California, where he worked on behalf of the United Nations Appeal for Children. He subsequently served as the Executive Secretary of the Labor League of Hollywood Voters and as director of publicity for the Hollywood Film Council. He was also employed by the California Democratic Party's State Central Committee in 1948 and 1949.

From 1950 through 1954 Costigan served as the assistant to Roy Brewer, who occupied leading roles in the Hollywood Film Council and  Council Against Communist Aggression in addition to heading the Theatrical Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine Operators union.

1954 anti-communist testimony

In 1954 the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) turned its attention to radicalism in the Pacific Northwest. Howard Costigan was called on May 28, 1954, as a friendly witness. In his testimony Costigan detailed his own biography and the formation of the Commonwealth Builders and Washington Commonwealth Federation for the committee and named as members of the Communist Party journalists Lowell Wakefield, Jim Cour, and Ellen McGrath, his former secretaries Sylvia Keen and Irene Borowski, University of Washington professors E. Harold Eby and Mel Jacobs, union officials Karley A. Larsen and Harry Jackson, party functionaries Lou Sass and Henry Huff, woodworkers' union official Mickey Orton, and attorney Jim Molthan, in addition to those already named in the 1948 Canwell proceedings.

Costigan also noted to HUAC that he had worked with the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other departments of the U.S. Government, including the Immigration department, since the conclusion of World War II.

Costigan argued to the committee that it was essential for conservatives to allow for "freedom for the expression of progressive and liberal ideas, in an effort to ameliorate conditions that give the Communists adequate soil in which to fortify." He also declared that progressives and liberals needed to learn that "under no circumstance" was the Communist Party a force for the advancement of humanitarian values, but rather existed as part of "the most reactionary force in the world."

Later years

After 1955 Costigan worked as an independent consultant and writer, counting among his clients the House Committee on Un-American Activities, for whom he helped investigate Communist influence in the motion picture industry.

Costigan moved to Fresno, California in 1970 and was active in the political campaigns of anti-communist Washington Senator Henry M. Jackson.

In the late 1970s Costigan began to research and write his memoirs, aided by his second wife, but the book was never finished.

Death and legacy

Howard Costigan died on October 7, 1985. He was 81 years old at the time of his death.

Costigan's papers are held in the Special Collections department of Suzzallo Library at the University of Washington in Seattle.

Footnotes

External links
Howard Costigan and the Washington Commonwealth Federation, from Strikes! Labor History Encyclopedia for the Pacific Northwest
 "Guide to the Howard Costigan Papers, 1933-1989," Suzzallo Library Special Collections, University of Washington, Seattle.

1904 births
1985 deaths
Radio personalities from Seattle
Whitman College alumni
Members of the Communist Party USA
American communists
Former Marxists
Washington (state) Democrats
California Democrats
Politicians from Vancouver, Washington

Howard Costigan


Spencer State Forest is a Massachusetts state forest and recreation reserve located in the town of Spencer, managed by the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation. The 92 mile (148 km) Midstate Trail passes through the state forest. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts also conducts logging in some parts of the property.

Geography
Spencer State Forest is divided among three non-contiguous parcels. The most notable of these, located in south Spencer, is the Howe Pond parcel, an estate formerly belonging to Elias Howe, the inventor of the sewing machine.
The Howe family of Spencer did much to make the town famous in the annals of ingenious Americans. William Howe of Spencer developed a wooden truss bridge named for him, his brother, Tyler Howe, patented a spring bed. Their nephew, Elias Howe, Jr., may well have eclipsed them when he invented the lockstitch sewing machine. The Howe Pond parcel (historically referred to as Howe State Park) includes a mill pond and dam constructed by the inventor. Swimming, once permitted is not currently permitted in the pond; lifeguards are no longer present in season due to State DCR cutbacks. The Howe Pond parcel also includes picnic tables and outdoor grills. The public restrooms have been shuttered for a decade. It is located off Massachusetts Route 31 via Howe Pond Road.

Spencer State Forest Trails
The 92 mile Mid-State Trail is the longest trail marked by yellow triangles and extends from Douglas State Forest at the Massachusetts/Rhode Island border in the south to New Hampshire. In Spencer, it enters from Charlton via Four Chimneys Wildlife Area on Borkum Road traversing Spencer State Forest sections on East Charlton Road, Ash Street, then leads off-street through both private lands and the forest to R Jones Road where it crosses a primitive parking lot continuing on through Spencer's newly designated Sibley/Warner Farm conservation lands through to Route 9 near the Spencer/Leicester Line.

The Mid-State Trail ties Spencer State Forest parcels, Moose Hill and Buck Hill Wildlife Management areas, Sugden Reservoir, Thompson and Browning Ponds, Camp Marshall 4H Camp, Treasure Valley Boy Scout reservation, Sampson's Pebble geological feature and leads into the town of Oakham. In Spencer, Mid-State trail parking is roadside at East Charlton and I Capen Roads and in the Buck Hill areas.

The trail north of Route 9 through Moose Hill Wildlife Management Area crosses picturesque Moose Hill levy pond created in the 1960s for flood control. Ski enthusiast/historians will note the former 1960s era Moose Hill Ski area referenced which ferried skiers on a hay wagon, truck bed and primitive rope tow up to the top of Moose Hill above the levy area.

The upper section of Spencer State Forest is in northern Spencer, in the area of Turkey Hill Brook.
A primitive lean-to for overnight campers is located on the property atop the 1,014 foot (309 m) drumlin Buck Hill. A parking lot is located off McCormick Road in Spencer.

Areas comprising the Spencer State Forest and adjacent Wildlife Management Areas (WMA), Howe and Browning Ponds, Sugden Reservoir and the following entwined brooks present an outstanding array of water resources for serene intimate aquatic aficionado's enjoyment.

Turkey Hill Brook flows from Paxton to Spencer in the northeast corner of town. "Dams were erected along the brook to power the wire mills that dotted this area, but the only remaining dam is the one that forms Thompson Pond. The brook joins the Seven Mile River northeast of Pine Grove Cemetery.

The Seven Mile River originates in Rutland and was dammed to form Browning Pond. It merges with Turkey Hill Brook and connects to the Quaboag River in East Brookfield. Seven miles from Brookfield, the river served as a landmark when Brookfield was the only settlement between Worcester and the Connecticut Valley.

Cranberry River flows from Charlton and was dammed to form Cranberry Meadow Pond in the southeast corner of town and dammed again to form Howe Pond at Howe State Park, joining the Seven Mile River near Route 9.

The overall geography includes hilly terrain, creeks, wetlands, and transitional oak-hickory to northern hardwood forest types.

The Depot Trail, Spencer's rail trail is a 2 ½‐mile walking trail along an abandoned railroad bed running from South Spencer Road to Chestnut Street, and connects into Spencer State Forest trails. There is lower section of Howe Pond with benches, fishing and portaged watercraft launching. Trail parking is adjacent to the railroad overpass parking on South Spencer Road.

The Spencer Snowbirds Snowmobile Club, a private organization formed in 1972, maintains a network of snowmobile trails throughout the town, crossing both public and private property. Trail riding permits, membership and landowner memberships are detailed at http://www.spencersnowbirds.com

Howe State Park originated as part of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) legacy formed in 1933's height of the Great Depression, when newly inaugurated President Franklin D. Roosevelt's first New Deal initiatives established the Emergency Conservation Work Act (ECW), popularly known as the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and/or "Roosevelt's Tree Army."
Both an economic relief and conservation program, CCC provided jobs for unemployed young men and veterans to support their families, while focusing on improving the nation's open space and recreational resources. The CCC program in Massachusetts (1933-1942), was concerned with improvement and development of state park resources. Approximately 68 camps enrolled nearly 100,000 men. The CCC touched both the lives of these enrollees and their families and left a lasting legacy of state forest improvements and recreational resources still evident today.

Massachusetts State Parks system was in its infancy when the CCC was established in 1933. Now, more than seventy-five years later, the work of the CCC still forms the cornerstones of the system as we know it today.
Spencer State Forest, as many others, emerged from cut-over lands acquired for less than $5 per acre and largely inaccessible areas due to lack of roads and recreational facilities into being Spencer's community resource with beach, roads, trails, ponds, forest plantations and recreational facilities built by the CCC, and found in every region of the state. Currently the Howe Park area is mothballed.

References

External links
Spencer State Forest Department of Conservation and Recreation
Spencer State Forest Trail Map Department of Conservation and Recreation

State parks of Massachusetts
Massachusetts natural resources
Massachusetts state forests
Parks in Worcester County, Massachusetts
Spencer, Massachusetts
Protected areas established in 1922
1922 establishments in Massachusetts

Spencer State Forest


Sir Michael John Cullen  (5 February 1945 – 19 August 2021) was a British-born New Zealand Labour politician and historian. He held key job positions during the Helen Clark cabinet such as Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand from 2002 to 2008.

Early life
Cullen was born in London. His family emigrated to New Zealand in 1955 where he was raised in Christchurch. He studied at the University of Canterbury and University of Edinburgh.

From 1971 to 1981 he was a lecturer at the University of Otago, with a term as a visiting fellow at the Australian National University from 1975 to 1976.

Career

In 1981, he was elected to the New Zealand Parliament.

He was Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand from 2002 to 2008 during the Helen Clark cabinet. He was also Minister of Finance from 1999 to 2008 and Attorney-General in 2005 and again from 2006 to 2008.

He was the Deputy Leader of the Labour Party from 1996 until November 2008, when he resigned following a defeat in the general election.

He resigned from Parliament in April 2009, to become the deputy chairman of New Zealand Post from 1 November 2009 and chairman from 1 November 2010. He left the position in 2016.

Cullen identifies as a social democrat.

Personal life
In 1967, he married Rowena Joy Knight. They divorced in 1989. That same year, he married then-MP Anne Fraser.

Cullen became a naturalized New Zealand citizen in 1975. In 2012, Cullen was appointed Knight Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit.

In March 2020, Cullen was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer which had spread to his liver. He died from the disease on 19 August 2021 in Whakatāne, New Zealand at the age of 76.

References

1945 births
2021 deaths
Deputy Prime Ministers of New Zealand
New Zealand writers
Historians
People from Christchurch

Michael Cullen (politician)


Far from the Madding Crowd is a 1998 drama television film adaptation of Thomas Hardy's 1874 novel of the same name.

Critical reception
Will Joyner of The New York Times wrote a positive review of the adaptation: "Strangely, and to its great credit, this new Far From the Madding Crowd, which was produced by Granada Television in Britain and WGBH-TV in Boston, does not simply survive the viewer's tendency to compare and second-guess; it thrives upon it. At almost every turn of the deliciously gradual tale of romantic chaos, the new version is just as visually striking as the 1967 film -- some of the locations are virtually identical -- and is more naturally rendered dramatically, with a rough language truer to Hardy's blend of poetry and rural speech."

References

External links

1998 British television series debuts
1998 British television series endings
1990s British drama television series
ITV television dramas
1990s romantic drama television series
1990s British television miniseries
Television shows set in England
Television shows based on British novels
Television series by ITV Studios
Television shows produced by Granada Television
English-language television shows
Television shows based on works by Thomas Hardy
Films based on Far from the Madding Crowd

Far from the Madding Crowd (1998 film)