Chronic Lyme disease (CLD) is the name used by some people with non-specific symptoms, such as fatigue, muscle pain, and cognitive dysfunction to refer to their condition, even if there is no evidence that they had Lyme disease.  Both the label and the belief that these people's symptoms are caused by this particular infection are generally rejected by medical professionals. Chronic Lyme disease is distinct from post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome, a set of lingering symptoms which may persist after successful antibiotic treatment of infection with Lyme-causing Borrelia bacteria, and which may have similar symptoms to CLD.

Despite numerous studies, there is no evidence that symptoms associated with CLD are caused by any persistent infection. The symptoms attributed to chronic Lyme are in many cases likely due to fibromyalgia or chronic fatigue syndrome.  Fibromyalgia can be triggered by an infection, and antibiotics are not a safe or effective treatment for post-infectious fibromyalgia. Fatigue, joint and muscle pain are also experienced by a minority of people following antibiotic treatment for Lyme disease.

A number of alternative health products are promoted for chronic Lyme disease, of which possibly the most controversial and harmful is long-term antibiotic therapy, particularly intravenous antibiotics. Recognised authorities advise against long-term antibiotic treatment for Lyme disease, even where some symptoms persist post-treatment. Following disciplinary proceedings by state medical licensing boards in the United States, a subculture of "Lyme literate" physicians has successfully lobbied for specific legal protections, exempting them from the standard of care and science-based treatment guidelines. Such legislation has been criticised as an example of "legislative alchemy", the process whereby pseudomedicine is legislated into practice. Some doctors view the promotion of chronic Lyme disease as an example of health fraud.

Description and background

Chronic Lyme disease is distinct from untreated late-stage Lyme disease, which can cause arthritis, peripheral neuropathy and/or encephalomyelitis. Chronic Lyme disease is also distinct from the post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome (PTLDS), when symptoms linger after standard antibiotic treatments. PTLDS is estimated to occur in less than 5% of people who had Lyme disease and were treated. In contrast to these recognized medical conditions, the promotion of chronic lyme disease has been accused of being health fraud. In many cases there is no objective evidence that people who believe they have chronic Lyme have ever been infected with Lyme disease: standard diagnostic tests for infection are often negative.

While it is undisputed that people can have severe symptoms of an illness, the cause and appropriate treatment promoted by "chronic Lyme" advocates are controversial. The symptoms are similar to those of fibromyalgia or chronic fatigue syndrome.  Fibromyalgia can be triggered by an infection, and then persist when the infection is completely removed from the body.  A few doctors attribute these symptoms to persistent infection with Borrelia, or co-infections with other tick-borne pathogens, such as Ehrlichia and Babesia. Some conclude that the initial infection may cause an autoimmune reaction that continues to cause serious symptoms even after the bacteria have been eliminated by antibiotics.

A review looked at several animal studies that found persistence of live but disabled spirochetes following treatment of B. burgdorferi infection with antibiotics. The authors noted that none of the lingering spirochetes were associated with inflamed tissues and criticized the studies for not having considered adequately the different pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of the antibiotics used to treat the animals in the trials versus what would be expected to be used to treat humans. The authors concluded, "There is no scientific evidence to support the hypothesis that such spirochetes, should they exist in humans, are the cause of post-Lyme disease syndrome."

Major US medical authorities, including the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the American Academy of Neurology, and the National Institutes of Health, have stated there is no convincing evidence that Borrelia is involved in the various symptoms classed as CLD, and particularly advise against long-term antibiotic treatment as it is ineffective and potentially harmful. Prolonged antibiotic therapy presents significant risks and can have dangerous, even deadly, side effects. Randomized placebo-controlled studies have shown that antibiotics offer no sustained benefit in people with chronic Lyme, with evidence of both placebo effects and significant adverse effects from such treatment. Many people who believe that they have chronic Lyme have fibromyalgia. Fibromyalgia can be difficult to treat, and antibiotics do not work at all for fibromyalgia.  A pressure group called the International Lyme and Associated Diseases Society (ILADS) says that the persistence of B. burgdorferi may be responsible for manifestations of chronic Lyme disease symptoms.

False chronic Lyme disease diagnoses are frequently justified due to non-specific symptoms that are common in the population. Harriet Hall examined a long list of symptoms attributed to CLD and remarked that it "pretty much covers everyone." Consistent with this observation, a study found that a questionnaire of non-specific symptoms based on an ILADS symptom checklist could not distinguish between patients with possible post-Lyme symptoms and those with other conditions.

While many people who receive CLD diagnoses have unexplained symptoms (including chronic fatigue and fibromyalgia), others have well-defined diagnoses. Cases of cancer, a brain tumor, ALS, lupus, multiple sclerosis, a thyroid disorder, and mental disorders have each been misdiagnosed as CLD. Scientists from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) also documented life-threatening infections caused by unnecessary treatment with intravenous antibiotics and immunoglobulins. An adolescent girl and a woman were hospitalized for septic shock, with the woman eventually dying. Other patients developed Staphylococcus aureus and intractable C. difficile.

Identity
Among people who self-identify as having chronic Lyme, the idea of chronic Lyme functions as a type of social identity.  In this sense, the goal of the label is not to identify particular objective facts that differentiate one medical condition from another; instead, the main goal is to validate the real suffering experienced by people living with an invisible illness and to provide social support for them as they cope with it. To some patients, receiving a CLD diagnosis can provide a sense of relief and optimism for the future. They may also become dedicated to fighting for recognition of CLD.

Discredited beliefs
Patients who receive a false chronic Lyme diagnosis are frequently told that they have other diagnoses that are not scientifically recognized. Infections may be diagnosed even without compatible symptom history, exposure in an endemic area, and credible positive test results. Some inappropriately diagnosed "co-infections" may be based on known tick-borne infections, such as Babesia or Anaplasma. Others, like Bartonella or Mycoplasma, have not been shown to be tick-borne or a co-infection of Lyme disease. Some may be told that they are being poisoned by mold. NIH doctor Adriana Marques has noted that patients may also be told that they have "metabolic and hormonal imbalances, immune dysfunction, heavy metal toxicity, allergies, damage by toxins, mitochondrial dysfunction and enzyme deficiencies".

CLD advocates have also attempted to link Lyme disease to Morgellons, another condition unrecognized by medical science. Morgellons—which is generally considered a form of delusional parasitosis by mainstream doctors—involves a belief that fibers are being produced by the skin. Among the top promoters of Morgellons is former ILADS president Raphael Stricker, who claims that CLD is causing the fibers to grow. In 2015, The Atlantic reported that Stricker treats people who believe they have Morgellons with long-term antibiotics.

A belief in chronic Lyme disease is often reinforced based on fallacious reasoning. For example, if a patient either feels better or feels worse after a treatment, it may be wrongly interpreted as evidence both that the diagnosis is appropriate and that the treatment is working. In the chronic Lyme world, a patient with worsening symptoms may be told that they are "herxing". The "herxing" claims are based on a real phenomenon called a Jarisch–Herxheimer reaction, but often do not resemble it. True Jarisch-Herxheimer reactions are generally transient, mild, and found only within the first 24 hours of beginning antibiotics. But in online Lyme groups, patients have claimed to "herx" long after initial antibiotic treatment for durations that can last weeks. A mistaken belief that a treatment is working can cause patients to ignore serious drug side effects of antibiotics or prevent diagnosis and treatment of other true causes of worsening symptoms.

If a patient improves while on a treatment, experts warn that this also should not be interpreted as evidence of Lyme infection and that the treatment is working. Randomized controlled trials found that close to 40% of people with post-Lyme symptoms felt better while on placebo. An assumption that a treatment is working can be reinforced because antibiotics can have anti-inflammatory effects and many conditions tend to naturally improve over time.

Political actions

While there is general agreement on the optimal treatment for Lyme disease, the existence of chronic Lyme is generally rejected because there is no evidence of its existence.  Even among those who believe in it, there is no consensus over its prevalence, symptoms, diagnostic criteria, or treatment. The evidence-based perspective is exemplified by a 2007 review in The New England Journal of Medicine, which noted the diagnosis of chronic Lyme disease is used by a few physicians despite a lack of "reproducible or convincing scientific evidence", leading the authors to describe this diagnosis as "the latest in a series of syndromes that have been postulated in an attempt to attribute medically unexplained symptoms to particular infections." Medical authorities agree with this viewpoint: the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), the American Academy of Neurology, CDC, and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), advise against long-term antibiotic treatment for people who identify as having chronic Lyme disease, given the lack of supporting evidence and the potential for harmful side-effects including toxicities.

A minority, primarily not medical practitioners, holds that chronic Lyme disease is responsible for a range of unexplained symptoms, sometimes in people without any evidence of past infection. This viewpoint is promoted by many who have been told they have the condition by people who lack experience in science or medicine. Groups, advocates, and the small number of physicians who support the concept of chronic Lyme disease have organized to lobby for recognition of this diagnosis, as well as to argue for insurance coverage of long-term antibiotic therapy, which most insurers deny, as it is at odds with the guidelines of major medical organizations.

Paul G. Auwaerter, director of infectious disease at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, cited the political controversy and high emotions as contributing to a "poisonous atmosphere" around Lyme disease, which he believes has led to doctors trying to avoid having Lyme patients in their practices.

IDSA lawsuit
In 2006, Richard Blumenthal, the Connecticut Attorney General, opened an antitrust investigation against the IDSA, accusing the IDSA Lyme disease panel of undisclosed conflicts of interest and of unduly dismissing alternative therapies and chronic Lyme disease. The investigation was closed on May 1, 2008, without charges when the IDSA agreed to submit to a review of its guidelines by a panel of independent scientists and physicians which would occur on July 30, 2009, citing mounting legal costs and the difficulty of presenting scientific arguments in a legal setting.

According to the agreement with Blumenthal, the IDSA Lyme disease guidelines remained in place and unchallenged. A Forbes piece described Blumenthal's investigation as "intimidation" of scientists by an elected official with close ties to Lyme advocacy groups. The Journal of the American Medical Association described the decision as an example of the "politicization of health policy" that went against the weight of scientific evidence and may have a chilling effect on future decisions by medical associations.

The expert panel's review was published in 2010, with the independent doctors and scientists in the panel unanimously endorsing the guidelines, stating "No changes or revisions to the 2006 Lyme guidelines are necessary at this time", and concluding long-term antibiotic treatments are unproven and potentially dangerous. The IDSA welcomed the final report, stating that "Our number one concern is the patients we treat, and we're glad patients and their physicians now have additional reassurance that the guidelines are medically sound."

Legal mandates to cover unproven treatments
The state of Connecticut, meanwhile, enacted a law on June 18, 2009, "to allow a licensed physician to prescribe, administer or dispense long-term antibiotics for a therapeutic purpose to a patient clinically diagnosed with Lyme disease." The states of Rhode Island, California, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Maine, and Iowa have similar laws.

Massachusetts (2016) and Rhode Island (2003) have laws mandating insurance coverage for long-term antibiotic therapy for Lyme disease when deemed medically necessary by a physician. In 1999 Connecticut had passed a similar, though somewhat more restrictive law.

Harassment of researchers

In 2001, The New York Times Magazine reported that Allen Steere, chief of immunology and rheumatology at Tufts Medical Center and a co-discoverer and leading expert on Lyme disease, had been harassed, stalked, and threatened by patients and patient advocacy groups angry at his refusal to substantiate their diagnoses of "chronic" Lyme disease and endorse long-term antibiotic therapy. Because this intimidation included death threats, Steere was assigned security guards.

Media

A 2004 study in The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal stated nine of nineteen Internet websites surveyed contained what were described as major inaccuracies. Websites described as providing inaccurate information included several with the word "lyme" in their domain name (e.g., lymenet.org), as well as the website of the International Lyme and Associated Diseases Society. A 2007 article in The New England Journal of Medicine argued media coverage of chronic Lyme disease ignored scientific evidence in favor of anecdotes and testimonials:

The 2008 documentary film Under Our Skin: The Untold Story of Lyme Disease is by a director whose sister self-identified with the condition. A columnist for Entertainment Weekly wrote of the film:

See also
 List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience

References

External links

Medical controversies
Alternative diagnoses

Health fraud

Chronic Lyme disease


Edward Nelson (May 4, 1932 – September 10, 2014) was an American mathematician. He was professor in the Mathematics Department at Princeton University. He was known for his work on mathematical physics and mathematical logic.  In mathematical logic, he was noted especially for his internal set theory, and views on ultrafinitism and the consistency of arithmetic. In philosophy of mathematics he advocated the view of formalism rather than platonism or intuitionism. He also wrote on the relationship between religion and mathematics.

Biography
Edward Nelson was born in Decatur, Georgia, in 1932. He spent his early childhood in Rome where his father worked for the Italian YMCA. At the advent of World War II, Nelson moved with his mother to New York City, where he attended high school at the Bronx High School of Science. His father, who spoke fluent Russian, stayed in St. Petersburg in connection with issues related to prisoners of war. After the war, his family returned to Italy and he attended the Liceo Scientifico Giovanni Verga in Rome.

He received his Ph.D. in 1955 from the University of Chicago, where he worked with Irving Segal. He was a member of the Institute for Advanced Study from 1956 to 1959.  He held a position at Princeton University starting in 1959, attaining the rank of professor there in 1964 and retiring in 2013.

In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. He died in Princeton, New Jersey, on September 10, 2014.

Academic work

Stochastic quantum mechanics

Nelson made contributions to the theory of infinite-dimensional group representations, the mathematical treatment of quantum field theory, the use of stochastic processes in quantum mechanics, and the reformulation of probability theory in terms of non-standard analysis. For many years he worked on mathematical physics and probability theory, and he retained a residual interest in these fields, particularly in connection with possible extensions of stochastic mechanics to field theory.

Four color problem

In 1950, Nelson formulated a popular variant of the four color problem: What is the chromatic number, denoted , of the plane? In more detail, what is the smallest number of colors sufficient for coloring the points of the Euclidean plane such that no two points of the same color are unit distance apart? We know by simple arguments that 4 ≤ χ ≤ 7. The problem was introduced to a wide mathematical audience by Martin Gardner in his October 1960 Mathematical Games column. The chromatic number problem, also now known as the Hadwiger–Nelson problem, was a favorite of Paul Erdős, who mentioned it frequently in his problems lectures. In 2018, Aubrey de Grey showed that χ ≥ 5.

Foundations of mathematics

In the later part of his career, he worked on mathematical logic and the foundations of mathematics. One of his goals was to extend IST (Internal Set Theory—a version of a portion of Abraham Robinson's non-standard analysis) in a natural manner that includes external functions and sets, in a way that provides an external function with specified properties unless there is a finitary obstacle to its existence. Other work centered on fragments of arithmetic, studying the divide between those theories interpretable in Raphael Robinson's arithmetic and those that are not; computational complexity, including the problem of whether P is equal to NP or not; and automated proof checking.

In September 2011, Nelson announced that he had proved that Peano arithmetic was logically inconsistent. An error was found in the proof by Terry Tao, and Nelson retracted the claim.

Publications

Selected papers

Books

See also

Hidden variable theory
Influence of non-standard analysis
Stochastic process
Stochastic quantum mechanics
Stochastic electrodynamics

References

Notes

Sources

External links

 Curriculum Vitae – Edward Nelson
 Mathematics and Faith – Edward Nelson
 Edward Nelson's Homepage
 On-line papers
 Mathematics and Religion Discussion
 The Limitation of Mental and Physical Reality Discussion

1932 births
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the American Mathematical Society
20th-century American mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
American logicians
Set theorists
University of Chicago alumni
Princeton University faculty
2014 deaths
Mathematical physicists

Edward Nelson


Promiscuity is the practice of having casual sex frequently with different partners. In cultures where sexual activity happens only in exclusive committed relationships, promiscuity is criticized as a bad activity. A common example of behavior viewed as promiscuous is a one-night stand.

What sexual behavior is considered promiscuous varies between cultures, as does the frequency of promiscuity. A study published in 2005 found that promiscuous men and women are judged equally harshly. A recent poll showed that both genders tend to express strong preference for sexually conservative partners. However, later studies show evidence for a double standard.

Promiscuity is common in many animal species. Some species have promiscuous mating systems, ranging from polyandry and polygyny to mating systems with no stable relationships. Many species form stable pair bonds, but still mate with other individuals outside the pair.

References

Sexuality
Free love

Promiscuity


The 12th Asianet Film Awards, honors the best films in 2009 and was held on 16 January 2010 at Chandrasekharan Nair Stadium, Thiruvananthapuram. The winners were announced on 3 January 2010 by Asianet senior vice-president R. Sreekantan Nair. The title sponsor of the event was Ujala. The award were given in 25 categories.

Winners
 Best Film: Pazhassi Raja
 Best Director: Ranjith for Paleri Manikyam: Oru Pathirakolapathakathinte Katha
 Best Actor: Mohanlal for Ividam Swargamaanu, Bhramaram
 Best Actress: Kavya Madhavan for Banaras
 Best Supporting Actor: Sreenivasan for Makante Achan, Passenger
 Best Supporting Actress: Shwetha Menon for Paleri Manikyam: Oru Pathirakolapathakathinte Katha
 Best Screenplay: Ranjith Sankar for Passenger
 Best Cinematographer: Ajayan Vincent for Bhramaram
 Best Editor: Vijay Shanker for Bhramaram
 Best Music Director: Deepak Dev for Puthiya Mukham
 Best Lyricist: Vayalar Sarath Chandra Varma for Neelathamara
 Best Male Playback Singer: Shankar Mahadevan for "Picha Vacha" (Puthiya Mukham)
 Best Female Playback Singer: K. S. Chithra for "Kunnathe Konnakkum" (Pazhassi Raja)
 Most Popular Actor: Dileep for  Pappy Appacha, Kaaryasthan, Marykkundoru Kunjaadu
 Most Popular Actress: Lakshmi Rai for Ividam Swargamaanu
 Best Actor in a Villain Role: Lalu Alex for Ividam Swargamaanu
 Best Actor in a Comic Role: Jagadish for 2 Harihar Nagar
 Best Star Pair: Jayasurya & Roma for Utharaswayamvaram
 Best Child Artist: Baby Nivedita for Bhramaram, Kana Kanmani
 Best New Face of the Year (Male): Nishan for Ritu
 Best New Face of the Year (Female): Archana Jose Kavi for Neelathamara
 Special Jury Awards
 R. Sarathkumar for Pazhassi Raja
 Manoj K. Jayan for Pazhassi Raja
 Kanika for Pazhassi Raja, Bhagyadevatha
 Special Award for his notable contribution for the Indian Film World: Resul Pookutty
 Millennium Actor: Mammootty
 Youth Icon of the Year: Prithviraj Sukumaran
 Lifetime Achievement Award: P. V. Gangadharan

References

External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20160303172753/http://www.keralatv.in/2010/01/ujala-asianet-film-awards-2010-announced/
http://www.expressbuzz.com/edition/story.aspx?Title=Kerala:+Ujala-Asianet+film+awards+announced&artid=rJBl1uotmsQ=&SectionID=1ZkF/jmWuSA=&MainSectionID=1ZkF/jmWuSA=&SectionName=X7s7i|xOZ5Y=&SEO=M%20T%20Vasudevan%20Nair,%20Mohanlal,%20Mammootty,%20R%20Sreekan

2009 Indian film awards
Asianet Film Awards

12th Asianet Film Awards


Arthur Bartholomew (3 December 1833 Bruton, Somerset – 19 August 1909 Melbourne) was an English-born Australian engraver, lithographer and natural history illustrator. He was the son of Thomas Bartholomew, a builder, and Charlotte Wright.

Bartholomew was apprenticed to an engraver in Exeter and acquired some lithographic training. He sailed for Australia aboard the Oriental in 1852, arriving in Melbourne in December 1852. Here he spent some time exploring the outback before sailing to Tasmania, where he was to meet his future wife, Eliza Ann Nicholls.

Returning to Melbourne, he became assistant to William Blandowski, producing illustrations for an encyclopedia on the natural history of Australia. Blandowski became involved in a dispute with fellow members of the Philosophical Institute when he named two new fish species after two of the members. This in itself was not unusual, but when he used phrases such as 'slimy', 'slippery', 'low forehead' and 'big belly' in his descriptions, turmoil ensued. Bartholomew made use of the hiatus to travel to Longford in Tasmania, where he married Eliza in 1856. They produced two children – Christianna in 1857 and Ethelinda in 1858, and then returned to Melbourne, where they produced a further six children - Arthur Hubert in 1861, Emma Edith in 1863, Eliza Maud in 1865, Jessie Charlotte in 1867, Hubert Marion in 1870 and Arthur Percy in 1872.

On 1 September 1859 Arthur was appointed Attendant to Frederick McCoy in the department of Natural History at the newly established Melbourne University. For the next six months he diligently attended McCoy's lectures and worked in his laboratory. Bartholomew was given increasing responsibility as McCoy became aware of his artistic talents and the potential of his contribution to future projects.

Bartholomew started on a series of zoological and geological illustrations, laying the groundwork for the "Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria" and "Prodromus of the Palaeontology of Victoria". In the next forty years he illustrated some 700 natural history specimens.

Gallery

References

External links
Google Art Project

1833 births
1909 deaths
Australian engravers
Australian natural history illustrators
British emigrants to the Colony of Victoria
Artists from the Colony of Victoria

Arthur Bartholomew (illustrator)


Lobbæk is a village in the south of the Danish island of Bornholm,  east of Rønne and  west of Aakirkeby. It is mainly residential but has a few small firms. As of 2023, it has a population of 314.

Description
The residential area on either side of Lobbæk Hovedgade is located north of the main road to Rønne and south of the old Rønne–Nexø railway, now a cycle track. On the west side of the village on Rønnevej there are a few small businesses including a building contractor, a farm machinery dealership and a car repair shop. Strangely, as a result of borders defined in 1616, the village belongs to two different parishes, the southwestern side to Nylars and the northeastern side to Vestermarie.

History
Lobbæk takes its name from the stream which ran through an area called Lobberne. Old maps show that in the 1860s, there was a windmill called Myremøllen as well as a blacksmith. The Lobbæk Andelsmejeri dairy was founded in 1887 and operated until 1969. When the railway from Rønne to Nexø opened in 1900, Lobbæk Station attracted businesses and residents until the railway was closed in 1968. The old track has been converted into a cycle track which runs through the village.

References

Bornholm
Cities and towns in the Capital Region of Denmark

Lobbæk


Justice Bipinchandra Jivanlal Divan (1919–2012) was an Indian statesman. He was the Chief Justice of Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh High Courts, and Acting Governor of Andhra Pradesh.

He was born on 20 August 1919. He was educated at Proprietary High School, Ahmedabad, Wilson College and Government Law College, Bombay and University School of Economics and Sociology, Bombay.

He was enrolled as an Advocate of Bombay High Court on the Appellate Side in September, 1941 and on the Original Side in September, 1943 and practiced there from 1943 to 1954. He was appointed judge, Bombay City Civil Court, and additional sessions judge, Greater Bombay, on 4 November 1954 and principal judge, Bombay City Civil Court, and sessions judge, Greater Bombay, on 1 May 1961.

The first 'centurion' blood donor from Ahmedabad, Diwan was born on 20 August 1919, educated at Proprietary High School in Ahmedabad and did his Master of Arts and LLB from a Mumbai-based college, Pallavi told DNA. Diwan was appointed judge at the civil court at the age of 35 and was High Court judge at 45.

He was appointed additional judge of Gujarat High Court from 19 April 1962 and made permanent judge with effect from 23 September 1963.

He was appointed chief justice, Gujarat High Court, from 17 July 1973. He was transferred to Andhra Pradesh High Court with effect from 1 July 1976. He was acting governor of Andhra Pradesh from 17 February 1977 till 5 May 1977. He was again transferred to Gujarat High Court as chief justice with effect from 28 August 1977 and retired on 20 August 1981.

He died on 12 March 2012.

References

20th-century Indian judges
Governors of Andhra Pradesh
1919 births
2012 deaths
Judges of the Gujarat High Court
Judges of the Andhra Pradesh High Court
Chief Justices of the Andhra Pradesh High Court
Chief Justices of the Gujarat High Court

B. J. Divan


This article illustrates some typical operational amplifier applications. A non-ideal operational amplifier's equivalent circuit has a finite input impedance, a non-zero output impedance, and a finite gain. A real op-amp has a number of non-ideal features as shown in the diagram, but here a simplified schematic notation is used, many details such as device selection and power supply connections are not shown. Operational amplifiers are optimised for use with negative feedback, and this article discusses only negative-feedback applications. When positive feedback is required, a comparator is usually more appropriate. See Comparator applications for further information.

Practical considerations

Operational amplifiers parameter requirements
In order for a particular device to be used in an application, it must satisfy certain requirements. The operational amplifier must
 have large open-loop signal gain (voltage gain of 200,000 is obtained in early integrated circuit exemplars), and
 have input impedance large with respect to values present in the feedback network.
With these requirements satisfied, the op-amp is considered ideal, and one can use the method of virtual ground to quickly and intuitively grasp the 'behavior' of any of the op-amp circuits below.

Component specification
Resistors used in practical solid-state op-amp circuits are typically in the kΩ range. Resistors much greater than 1 MΩ cause excessive thermal noise and make the circuit operation susceptible to significant errors due to bias or leakage currents.

Input bias currents and input offset
Practical operational amplifiers draw a small current from each of their inputs due to bias requirements (in the case of bipolar junction transistor-based inputs) or leakage (in the case of MOSFET-based inputs).

These currents flow through the resistances connected to the inputs and produce small voltage drops across those resistances. Appropriate design of the feedback network can alleviate problems associated with input bias currents and common-mode gain, as explained below. The heuristic rule is to ensure that the impedance "looking out" of each input terminal is identical.

To the extent that the input bias currents do not match, there will be an effective input offset voltage present, which can lead to problems in circuit performance. Many commercial op-amp offerings provide a method for tuning the operational amplifier to balance the inputs (e.g., "offset null" or "balance" pins that can interact with an external voltage source attached to a potentiometer). Alternatively, a tunable external voltage can be added to one of the inputs in order to balance out the offset effect. In cases where a design calls for one input to be short-circuited to ground, that short circuit can be replaced with a variable resistance that can be tuned to mitigate the offset problem.

Operational amplifiers using MOSFET-based input stages have input leakage currents that will be, in many designs, negligible.

Power supply effects
Although power supplies are not indicated in the (simplified) operational amplifier designs below, they are nonetheless present and can be critical in operational amplifier circuit design.

Supply noise
Power supply imperfections (e.g., power signal ripple, non-zero source impedance) may lead to noticeable deviations from ideal operational amplifier behavior. For example, operational amplifiers have a specified power supply rejection ratio that indicates how well the output can reject signals that appear on the power supply inputs. Power supply inputs are often noisy in large designs because the power supply is used by nearly every component in the design, and inductance effects prevent current from being instantaneously delivered to every component at once. As a consequence, when a component requires large injections of current (e.g., a digital component that is frequently switching from one state to another), nearby components can experience sagging at their connection to the power supply. This problem can be mitigated with appropriate use of bypass capacitors connected across each power supply pin and ground. When bursts of current are required by a component, the component can bypass the power supply by receiving the current directly from the nearby capacitor (which is then slowly recharged by the power supply).

Using power supply currents in the signal path
Additionally, current drawn into the operational amplifier from the power supply can be used as inputs to external circuitry that augment the capabilities of the operational amplifier. For example, an operational amplifier may not be fit for a particular high-gain application because its output would be required to generate signals outside of the safe range generated by the amplifier. In this case, an external push–pull amplifier can be controlled by the current into and out of the operational amplifier. Thus, the operational amplifier may itself operate within its factory specified bounds while still allowing the negative feedback path to include a large output signal well outside of those bounds.

Amplifiers
The first example is the differential amplifier, from which many of the other applications can be derived, including the inverting, non-inverting, and summing amplifier, the voltage follower, integrator, differentiator, and gyrator.

Differential amplifier (difference amplifier)

Amplifies the difference in voltage between its inputs.
The name "differential amplifier" must not be confused with the "differentiator", which is also shown on this page.

The "instrumentation amplifier", which is also shown on this page, is a modification of the differential amplifier that also provides high input impedance.

The circuit shown computes the difference of two voltages, multiplied by some gain factor. The output voltage

Or, expressed as a function of the common-mode input Vcom and difference input Vdif:

the output voltage is

In order for this circuit to produce a signal proportional to the voltage difference of the input terminals, the coefficient of the Vcom term (the common-mode gain) must be zero, or

With this constraint in place, the common-mode rejection ratio of this circuit is infinitely large, and the output

where the simple expression Rf / R1 represents the closed-loop gain of the differential amplifier.

The special case when the closed-loop gain is unity is a differential follower, with

Inverting amplifier

An inverting amplifier is a special case of the differential amplifier in which that circuit's non-inverting input V2 is grounded, and inverting input V1 is identified with Vin above. The closed-loop gain is Rf / Rin, hence
.
The simplified circuit above is like the differential amplifier in the limit of R2 and Rg very small. In this case, though, the circuit will be susceptible to input bias current drift because of the mismatch between Rf and Rin.

To intuitively see the gain equation above, calculate the current in Rin:

then recall that this same current must be passing through Rf, therefore (because V− = V+ = 0):

A mechanical analogy is a seesaw, with the V− node (between Rin and Rf) as the fulcrum, at ground potential. Vin is at a length Rin from the fulcrum; Vout is at a length Rf. When Vin descends "below ground", the output Vout rises proportionately to balance the seesaw, and vice versa.

As the negative input of the op-amp acts as a virtual ground, the input impedance of this circuit is equal to Rin.

Non-inverting amplifier

A non-inverting amplifier is a special case of the differential amplifier in which that circuit's inverting input V1 is grounded, and non-inverting input V2 is identified with Vin above, with R1 ≫ R2.
Referring to the circuit immediately above,
.
To intuitively see this gain equation, use the virtual ground technique to calculate the current in resistor R1:

then recall that this same current must be passing through R2, therefore:

Unlike the inverting amplifier, a non-inverting amplifier cannot have a gain of less than 1.

A mechanical analogy is a class-2 lever, with one terminal of R1 as the fulcrum, at ground potential. Vin is at a length R1 from the fulcrum; Vout is at a length R2 further along. When Vin ascends "above ground", the output Vout rises proportionately with the lever.

The input impedance of the simplified non-inverting amplifier is high:

where Zdif is the op-amp's input impedance to differential signals, and AOL is the open-loop voltage gain of the op-amp (which varies with frequency), and B is the feedback factor (the fraction of the output signal that returns to the input). In the case of the ideal op-amp, with AOL infinite and Zdif infinite, the input impedance is also infinite. In this case, though, the circuit will be susceptible to input bias current drift because of the mismatch between the impedances driving the V+ and V− op-amp inputs.

The feedback loop similarly decreases the output impedance:

where Zout is the output impedance with feedback, and ZOL is the open-loop output impedance.

Voltage follower (unity buffer amplifier)

Used as a buffer amplifier to eliminate loading effects (e.g., connecting a device with a high source impedance to a device with a low input impedance).

 (realistically, the differential input impedance of the op-amp itself (1 MΩ to 1 TΩ), multiplied by the open-loop gain of the op-amp)

Due to the strong (i.e., unity gain) feedback and certain non-ideal characteristics of real operational amplifiers, this feedback system is prone to have poor stability margins. Consequently, the system may be unstable when connected to sufficiently capacitive loads. In these cases, a lag compensation network (e.g., connecting the load to the voltage follower through a resistor) can be used to restore stability. The manufacturer data sheet for the operational amplifier may provide guidance for the selection of components in external compensation networks. Alternatively, another operational amplifier can be chosen that has more appropriate internal compensation.

The input and output impedance are affected by the feedback loop in the same way as the non-inverting amplifier, with B=1.

Summing amplifier

A summing amplifier sums several (weighted) voltages:

 When , and  independent

 When

 Output is inverted
 Input impedance of the nth input is  ( is a virtual ground)

Instrumentation amplifier

Combines very high input impedance, high common-mode rejection, low DC offset, and other properties used in making very accurate, low-noise measurements

 Is made by adding a non-inverting buffer to each input of the differential amplifier to increase the input impedance.

Oscillators

Wien bridge oscillator

Produces a very low distortion sine wave. Uses negative temperature compensation in the form of a light bulb or diode.

Filters

Operational amplifiers can be used in construction of active filters, providing high-pass, low-pass, band-pass, reject and delay functions. The high input impedance and gain of an op-amp allow straightforward calculation of element values, allowing accurate implementation of any desired filter topology with little concern for the loading effects of stages in the filter or of subsequent stages. However, the frequencies at which active filters can be implemented is limited; when the behavior of the amplifiers departs significantly from the ideal behavior assumed in elementary design of the filters, filter performance is degraded.

Comparator

An operational amplifier can, if necessary, be forced to act as a comparator. The smallest difference between the input voltages will be amplified enormously, causing the output to swing to nearly the supply voltage. However, it is usually better to use a dedicated comparator for this purpose, as its output has a higher slew rate and can reach either power supply rail. Some op-amps have clamping diodes on the input that prevent use as a comparator.

Integration and differentiation

Inverting integrator

The integrator is mostly used in analog computers, analog-to-digital converters and wave-shaping circuits.

Integrates (and inverts) the input signal Vin(t) over a time interval t, t0 < t < t1, yielding an output voltage at time t = t1 of

where Vout(t0) represents the output voltage of the circuit at time t = t0. This is the same as saying that the output voltage changes over time t0 < t < t1 by an amount proportional to the time integral of the input voltage:

This circuit can be viewed as a low-pass electronic filter, one with a single pole at DC (i.e., where ) and with gain.

In a practical application one encounters a significant difficulty:
unless the capacitor C is periodically discharged, the output voltage will eventually drift outside of the operational amplifier's operating range.
This can be due to any combination of:
 The input Vin has a non-zero DC component,
 Input bias current is non-zero,
 Input offset voltage is non-zero.

A slightly more complex circuit can ameliorate the second two problems, and in some cases, the first as well.

Here, the feedback resistor Rf provides a discharge path for capacitor Cf, while the series resistor at the non-inverting input Rn, when of the correct value, alleviates input bias current and common-mode problems. That value is the parallel resistance of Ri and Rf, or using the shorthand notation ||:

 explains the output drift adds a small finite DC error voltage:

The circuit functions now more like a low-pass filter with flat response up to the cutoff frequency  and only significantly above that does it function as an integrator, with equation:

Inverting differentiator

Differentiates the (inverted) signal over time:

where  and  are functions of time.

The transfer function of the inverting differentiator has a single zero in the origin (i.e., where angular frequency ). The high-pass characteristics of a differentiating amplifier can lead to stability challenges when the circuit is used in an analog servo loop (e.g., in a PID controller with a significant derivative gain). In particular, as a root locus analysis would show, increasing feedback gain will drive a closed-loop pole toward marginal stability at the DC zero introduced by the differentiator.

Synthetic elements

Inductance gyrator

Simulates an inductor (i.e., provides inductance without the use of a possibly costly inductor). The circuit exploits the fact that the current flowing through a capacitor behaves through time as the voltage across an inductor. The capacitor used in this circuit is geometrically smaller than the inductor it simulates, and its capacitance is less subject to changes in value due to environmental changes. Applications where this circuit may be superior to a physical inductor are simulating a variable inductance or simulating a very large inductance.

This circuit is of limited use in applications relying on the back EMF property of an inductor, as this effect will be limited in a gyrator circuit to the voltage supplies of the op-amp.

Negative impedance converter (NIC)

Creates a resistor having a negative value for any signal generator.

In this case, the ratio between the input voltage and the input current (thus the input resistance) is given by

In general, the components , , and  need not be resistors; they can be any component that can be described with an impedance.

Non-linear

Precision rectifier

The voltage drop VF across the forward-biased diode in the circuit of a passive rectifier is undesired. In this active version, the problem is solved by connecting the diode in the negative feedback loop. The op-amp compares the output voltage across the load with the input voltage and increases its own output voltage with the value of VF. As a result, the voltage drop VF is compensated, and the circuit behaves very nearly as an ideal (super) diode with VF = 0 V.

The circuit has speed limitations at high frequency because of the slow negative feedback and due to the low slew rate of many non-ideal op-amps.

Logarithmic output

The relationship between the input voltage  and the output voltage  is given by

where  is the saturation current, and  is the thermal voltage.

If the operational amplifier is considered ideal, the inverting input pin is virtually grounded and the op-amp inputs draw no current. So the current flowing from the source through the resistor and diode is

where  is the current through the diode. As known, the relationship between the current and the voltage for a diode is

When the voltage across the diode  is greater than zero, this current can be approximated by

Putting these two formulae together and considering that the output voltage is the negative of the voltage across the diode (), the relationship is proven.

This implementation does not consider temperature stability and other non-ideal effects.

Exponential output

The relationship between the input voltage  and the output voltage  is given by

where  is the saturation current, and  is the thermal voltage.

Considering the operational amplifier ideal, the negative pin is virtually grounded, so the current through the diode is given by

When the voltage is greater than zero, it can be approximated by

The output voltage is given by

Other applications

 audio and video preamplifiers and buffers
 filters
 voltage regulator and current regulator
 analog-to-digital converter
 digital-to-analog converter
 voltage clamp
 oscillators and waveform generators
 Analog computer
 Capacitance multiplier
 Charge amplifier

See also

 Current-feedback operational amplifier
 Frequency compensation
 Operational amplifier
 Operational transconductance amplifier
 Transimpedance amplifier

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

   – Analog Devices Application note

   – Texas Instruments Application note
 Low Side Current Sensing Using Operational Amplifiers

 Logarithmically variable gain from a linear variable component
 Impedance and admittance transformations using operational amplifiers by D. H. Sheingold
 High Speed Amplifier Techniques  very practical and readablewith photos and real waveforms
 Properly terminating an unused op-amp

Linear integrated circuits

Operational amplifier applications


is a 2002 tag team head-to-head fighting game released for the Neo Geo hardware by Playmore. The game was developed by Japanese company Noise Factory, co-developed by BrezzaSoft and chiefly-designed by the Mexican team Evoga. As of May 2020, Piko Interactive has acquired the game's IP and has expressed interest in using it in some way. Ports for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5, and Xbox One and Xbox Series are scheduled for a future release, ported by QUByte Interactive.

Gameplay

Rage of the Dragons features a tag team system, in which the player takes control of two characters and can switch between one or the other during gameplay. The character who is not being controlled will slowly recover part of his or her energy while the other is fighting. The player can perform special combos in which both characters attack an opponent at the same time for added damage.

An auxiliary meter located at the bottom of the screen that slowly fills up when an attack connects with an opponent. When the meter is full, special moves can be performed (Ex: Counter Attacks, Super Moves, etc.).

Plot and characters
There are a total of fourteen playable characters in Rage of the Dragons. The player can select from one of the seven default pairings, or create a custom pairing with nearly 80 possible combinations. The player will see a hidden ending if they complete the single player tournament with a Billy and Jimmy pairing.

 Billy (William Lewis): A famous street racer and master of Ryu Zui Ken. He hasn't seen his older brother, Jimmy, ever since the death of Jimmy's girlfriend, Mariah. Partner: Lynn
 Jimmy (James Lewis): After the death of his girlfriend, Mariah, Jimmy abandoned his brother and became a famous street fighter, both for the money and the thrill. He returns to Sunshine City after feeling the resonance of an evil dragon spirit. Partner: Sonia
 Lynn (Lynn Baker): A Chinese American, Lynn has trained with both Jimmy and Billy Lewis. She is a master of Ryu Zui Ken. Partner: Billy
 Sonia (Sonia Romanenko): Sonia was a highly skilled assassin. After leaving her life as an assassin behind, she meets Jimmy Lee and falls in love with him. Partner: Jimmy
 Radel: Radel is one of the last members of the great clan of dragon hunters. He has developed his skills to help those in need. Partner: Annie
 Annie (Annie Murakami): Annie Murakami was born into an ancient family of psychics. Early in her life, the leader of the family noticed that her psychic abilities were exceptionally powerful. He hoped that she would play an important role in the future of the family and the world. Despite her young age, she was tasked with helping Radel find and defeat Johan. Annie, along with her black cat named Qui-zi, traveled with Radel, leaving home and her insular life for the first time. The novelty of the outside world has left her fascinated. Partner: Radel
 Cassandra: Cassandra grew up in an orphanage. There she met Oni Inomura and the two became close. They realized that they both possess strange powers and see each other as siblings. They were forced to leave the orphanage after Oni burned it down. After leaving the orphanage they begin to travel. During their travels, Oni is compelled to fight. It is an urge that he cannot ignore. During one of these fights, Oni is severely wounded, leaving Cassandra to find help for him. With Oni wounded, Cassandra seeks out Elias Patrick for help. Elias quickly notices the strange energy that both possess. They agree to travel together, but their time together does not last. One night, Elias noticed Oni assaulting Cassandra in order to satisfy his hunger for battle. They were forced to flee, continuing on their journey by themselves once more. Partner: Oni
 Oni: Oni travels the world with his sister Cassandra in an attempt to learn the truth behind their past. He constantly struggles with his powers and urges. Partner: Cassandra
 Pepe (José Rodríguez): José "Pepe" Rodríguez is a Mexican fighter. After finding a scroll from the god Quetzalcoatl, his fighting abilities advance considerably. Partner: Pupa
 Pupa (Pupa Salgueiro): Pupa is a young Brazilian girl and Pepe's friend, who is searching for her missing older brother. She is trained in Capoeira and often uses a wrench when she fights. Partner: Pepe
 Alice (Alice Carroll): Alice was born into a wealthy and prominent family in London. At the age of 10, tragedy struck her family. Her parents were brutally murdered, leaving Alice in a state of shock. When she was found, she was covered in blood and unable to tell the investigators what had happened. Some involved with the investigation into the murders suspected the young Alice of being responsible, but they could not prove it. Due to this suspicion, and her depression and erratic behavior, she was admitted to a psychiatric hospital for observation. The doctors were unable to do anything for her. Alice would remain in the hospital until she met Elias Patrick. Elias immediately recognized that Alice was possessed by an evil spirit and the doctors would not be able to help her. He became determined to help the young girl and took her under his wing. She reappears in a hack of Sega's Streets of Rage 2 called Girls' Paradise. Partner: Elias
 Elias (Elias Patrick): After the death of his family, Elias devoted his life to eradicating evil. He has studied exorcism tactics in order to eliminate any evil he finds. Partner: Alice
 Mr. Jones (Johnny D. Jones): Mr. Jones is loosely based upon Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. He is a self-proclaimed disco fanatic and movie star who developed his own variation of Jeet Kune Do. Partner: Kang
 Kang Jae-Mo: While he was ridiculed for his size when he was young, he eventually became a famous wrestler. He has dreams of becoming an actor someday, and is good friends with Mr. Jones. Partner: Mr. Jones

There are also two boss characters in the game, who are fought by the player at the end of the single player tournament. Unlike the regular characters, these bosses only fought by themselves, having no partners.
 Abubo (Abubo Rao): A once glorious fighter and former member of the gang that ruled Sunshine City. He was plotting to one day overthrow his boss until Jimmy and Billy barged into their turf and defeated them. He was personally defeated by the older brother and bore a grudge against him ever since.
 Johann: The leader of a big underground cult in Sunshine City, Johann is also a former disciple of Lynn's grandfather and the current possessor of the Black Dragon, an evil entity destined to wreak havoc on the land.

Development and release
Evoga originally envisioned Rage of the Dragons as a sequel to the Neo Geo fighting game version of Double Dragon released in 1995. However, Evoga were unable to use the intellectual rights for the characters (which were purchased by the company founded by former Technōs Japan staff Million, the developers of Double Dragon Advance), and thus Rage of the Dragons was turned into a homage to the Double Dragon series instead of an official sequel. The two lead characters in Rage of the Dragons, Billy and Jimmy Lewis, share their names with the protagonists of the Double Dragon series, Billy and Jimmy Lee, while Kang is based on Burnov from Double Dragon II: The Revenge, and the boss character Abubo is based on Abobo from the original Double Dragon. Two supporting characters in Rage, Linda (Abubo's female assistant) and Mariah (Jimmy's girlfriend), are also based on Double Dragon characters. Jimmy, Lynn, Elias and Annie would later appear as hidden guest characters in Matrimelee, a fighting game also produced by Noise Factory. Coincidentally, Atlus, the company that originally produced the Power Instinct series, published Double Dragon Advance for Million. The game was co-designed by Mario Vargas and Eduardo d' Palma, who would later work in the anime industry. The soundtrack was composed by Toshikazu Tanaka, who was previously employed at SNK and worked on project such as Fatal Fury: King of Fighters. Prior to launch, French magazine HardCore Gamers noted the inclusion of both Billy and Jimmy from Double Dragon in the game.

Reception
Spanish magazine Gametype gave Rage of the Dragons a positive review. Monthly Arcadia reported on their September 2002 issue that the game was the sixth most popular release in Japan. Double Dragon original creator Yoshihisa Kishimoto stated he had "nothing to do with Rage of the Dragons". In 2012, Complex ranked this "sequel to the first Double Dragon fighting game" as the 13th best SNK fighting game ever made. Kurt Kalata of Hardcore Gaming 101 regarded the game as "an excellent game for anyone into late era 2D fighters, and doubly so for its rad character designs and awesome soundtrack".

Notes

References

External links

 Rage of the Dragons at Killer List of Videogames
 Rage of the Dragons at MobyGames
 Rage of the Dragons at Noise Factory

2002 video games
Arcade video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Neo Geo games
Nintendo Switch games
Piko Interactive games
PlayStation 4 games
SNK Playmore games
Tag team videogames
Fighting games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games developed in Mexico
Xbox One games
QUByte Interactive games
Noise Factory games

Rage of the Dragons


A global network is any communication network which spans the entire Earth. The term, as used in this article refers in a more restricted way to bidirectional communication networks, and to technology-based networks. Early networks such as international mail and unidirectional communication networks, such as radio and television, are described elsewhere.

The first global network was established using electrical telegraphy and global span was achieved in 1899. The telephony network was the second to achieve global status, in the 1950s. More recently, interconnected IP networks (principally the Internet, with estimated 2.5 billion users worldwide in 2014 ), and the GSM mobile communication network (with over 6 billion worldwide users in 2014) form the largest global networks of all.

Setting up global networks requires immensely costly and lengthy efforts lasting for decades. Elaborate interconnections, switching and routing devices, laying out physical carriers of information, such as land and submarine cables and earth stations must be set in operation. In addition, international communication protocols, legislation and agreements are involved.

Global networks might also refer to networks of individuals (such as scientists), communities (such as cities) and organizations (such as civil organizations) worldwide which, for instance, might have formed for the management, mitigation and resolval of global issues.

Satellite global networks

Communication satellites are an important part of global networks. However, there are specific low Earth orbit (LEO) global satellite constellations, such as Iridium, Globalstar and Orbcomm, which are comprised by dozens of similar satellites which are put in orbit at regularly spaced positions and form a mesh network, sometimes sending and receiving information directly among themselves. Using VSAT technology, satellite internet access has become possible.

Mobile wireless networks

It is estimated that 80% of the global mobile market uses the GSM standard, present in more than 212 countries and territories. Its ubiquity makes international roaming very common between mobile phone operators, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts of the world. In order to achieve this, these networks must be interconnected by way of peering arrangements, and therefore the GSM network is a truly global one.

Network interconnection

The telegraph and telex communication networks have been phased out, so interconnection among existing global networks arise at several points, such as between the voice telephony and digital data networks, and between these and satellite networks. Many applications run now on several networks, such as VoIP (voice over IP). Mobile communication (voice and data) networks are also intimately intertwined, because the majority of 21st century cell phones have both voice and data (internet navigation and emailing) capabilities.

Digital global networks require huge carrying capacity in the main backbones. This is currently achieved by fiber optic cables.

Social and economic impact
The Canadian sociologist Marshall McLuhan was the first to forecast the huge impact of the matrix of global networks upon society, coining the term global village. His work, however, related to radio and television networks, which are broadcast (unidirectional) networks, thus predating the much larger impact of the internet.

Global networks have revolutionized human communication several times. The first to do so was the electrical telegraph. Its impact was so large that it has been dubbed the Victorian Internet. It was expanded many times in its coverage with the advent of radiotelegraphy, and with text messaging using telex machines.

The Internet and mobile communication networks have made possible entirely new forms of social interaction, activities and organizing, thanks to its basic features such as widespread usability and access, and instant communication from any connected point to another. Thus, its social impact has been, and still is, enormous. Finally, the impact on governance have been significant facilitating the emergence of 'transnational policy networks'

See also
 History of telecommunication
History of the Internet
History of radio
History of television
History of the telephone
History of telegraphy
 Mobile telecommunications
 Computer networking
 Communication protocol
 Network architecture
 Global network positioning
 Quantum Internet
 Telephony
 Fiber-optic cable
 Telegraphy

References

Communication
Computer networking
Satellites
Mobile telecommunications
World
Social networks

Global network


Karel Hubáček (; 23 February 1924 – 25 November 2011) was a Czech architect who designed the Ještěd Tower and hotel atop the Ještěd mountain near Liberec.

Hubáček's best known work was the Ještěd Tower, which was constructed between 1966 and 1973. In 1969, the Ještěd Tower received the Perret Prize from the International Union of Architects. In 2000, Czech architects named Hubáček's tower most successful domestic architectural work of the 20th century.

In addition to the Ještěd Tower, Hubáček designed buildings throughout the Czech Republic. Czech architects named Hubáček the fourth most influential Czech architect of all time. He was the only living architect to place in the top ten in the same survey.

Hubáček was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia, on 23 February 1924.  He died in the Czech Republic on 25 November 2011, at the age of 87.

References

1924 births
2011 deaths
Czech architects
Architects from Prague
Recipients of Medal of Merit (Czech Republic)
Herder Prize recipients

Karel Hubáček


Ndabaningi Sithole (21 July 1920 – 12 December 2000) was the founder of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), a militant, nationalist organisation that opposed the government of Rhodesia, in July 1963. Sithole's father was Ndau and his mother was Ndebele. He worked as a United Church of Christ in Zimbabwe (UCCZ) minister. He spent 10 years in prison after the government banned ZANU. A rift along tribal lines split ZANU in 1975, and he lost the 1980 elections to Robert Mugabe.

Early life
Sithole was born in Nyamandlovu, Southern Rhodesia, on 21 July 1920. He studied teaching in the United States from 1955 to 1958, and was ordained a Methodist minister in 1958. The publication of his book African Nationalism and its immediate prohibition by the minority government motivated his entry into politics. During his studies in the United States he studied at the Andover Newton Theological School and attended the First Church in Newton, founded in 1665, both located in Newton, Massachusetts.

ZANU
He was one of the founders and chief architect of Zimbabwe African National Union party in August 1963 in conjunction with Herbert Chitepo, Robert Mugabe and Edgar Tekere in the Highfields House of Enos Nkala. In 1964 there was a party Congress at Gwelo, where Sithole was elected president and appointed Robert Mugabe to be his secretary general. ZANU was banned in 1964 by Ian Smith's government. He spent 10 years in prison after being arrested on 22 June 1964 alongside Mugabe, Tekere, Nyagumbo and Takawira for his political activities. While in prison he specifically authorised Chitepo to continue the struggle from abroad as a representative of ZANU. Sithole was convicted on a charge of plotting to assassinate Ian Smith and released from prison in 1974.

On 18 March 1975 Chitepo was assassinated in Lusaka, Zambia, with a car bomb. Mugabe, in Mozambique at the time, was unanimously chosen to be the first secretary of ZANU. Later that year there was a factional split, with many Ndebele following Joshua Nkomo into the equally militant ZAPU. Sithole eventually founded the moderate ZANU-Ndonga party, which renounced violent struggle, while the Shona-dominated ZANU (now called ZANU PF) followed Mugabe with a more militant agenda.

Sithole joined Abel Muzorewa's transitional government under the Internal Settlement on 31 July 1979. Later in September 1979 he attended the Lancaster House Agreement, chaired by Lord Carrington, which paved the way for fresh elections, but his ZANU-Ndonga Party's supporters and their villages were targeted by Mugabe's ZANLA troops and it failed to win any seats in the 1980 elections.

His exit from ZANU was claimed by Mugabe to have been caused by his neglecting the fighters in Zambia (where their camp was bombed resulting in many fatalities and casualties).

Exile and return
Declaring that his life was in danger from political enemies, Sithole went into self-imposed exile first in the United Kingdom in the early-1980s and then in Silver Spring, Maryland, United States, around 1984, returning to Zimbabwe in January 1992.

He was elected to parliament for his tribal stronghold of Chipinge in southeastern Zimbabwe in 1995, and was a candidate in the 1996 presidential election (though he withdrew shortly before the election after claiming that Mugabe's ZANU-PF was undermining his campaign). In December 1997, a court tried and convicted him of conspiring with Chimwenje to assassinate Mugabe and the government disqualified him from attending parliament. Sithole's small opposition group again won the Chipinge seat in the June 2000 elections.

He was granted the right to appeal, appeal was filed, but the case was never heard by the Supreme Court. He was allowed bail because of his deteriorating health. He died on 12 December 2000, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. The author of three books on African politics, he is survived by his wife, Vesta, and five adult children.

His farm, "Porta Farm" situated  from Harare on Bulawayo Road, was legally purchased in 1992 under "willing buyer – willing seller" arrangements. It was later confiscated by Robert Mugabe's ZANU-PF government, on the grounds that it harboured the "undesirables" of Harare. These were people who had been left homeless after being summarily evicted from shanties in Harare before the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 1991. Sithole had felt compassion for them, and what he felt was the breach of their human rights; he therefore had invited some of them to stay on the farm. This incensed the government, which then carried out an eviction operation. This was co-ordinated by the Ministry of Local Government and National Housing as well as the City of Harare. Pre-dawn raids were carried out and, in the aftermath, Porta Farm was confiscated.

Books
Sithole was the most prolific Black author in Rhodesia. He published 12 books including The Polygamist, a novel published in 1972 by The Third Press/Joseph Okpaku Publishing Co., Inc., New York ().

References

External links

 Interview with Ndabaningi Sithole by Tor Sellström within the project Nordic Documentation on the Liberation Struggle in Southern Africa – dated 25 July 1995.

1920 births
2000 deaths
People from Matabeleland North Province
Alumni of Achimota School
Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army personnel
Zimbabwean revolutionaries
People convicted of treason
Prisoners and detainees of Rhodesia
Prisoners and detainees of Zimbabwe
Zimbabwean Methodist ministers
20th-century Methodist ministers
21st-century Methodist ministers
Andover Newton Theological School alumni
Zimbabwe African National Union – Ndonga politicians
Zimbabwean expatriates in the United States
Members of the National Assembly of Zimbabwe
Rhodesian Methodist clergy

Ndabaningi Sithole


Infrared and thermal testing refer to passive thermographic inspection techniques, a class of nondestructive testing designated by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT). Infrared thermography is the science of measuring and mapping surface temperatures.

"Infrared thermography, a nondestructive, remote sensing technique, has proved to be an effective, convenient, and economical method of testing concrete. It can detect internal voids, delaminations, and cracks in concrete structures such as bridge decks, highway pavements, garage floors, parking lot pavements, and building walls. As a testing technique, some of its most important qualities are that (1) it is accurate; (2) it is repeatable; (3) it need not inconvenience the public; and (4) it is economical."

Principles
There are three ways of transferring thermal energy:
 conduction
 convection
 radiation

All objects emit electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength dependent on the object's temperature. The wavelength of the radiation is inversely proportional to the temperature. According to thermodynamics, emitted energy will flow from warmer to cooler areas, and the rate of energy transfer will vary according to the efficiency of the heat transfer processes and the insulating effects of the material through which energy is flowing. In principle, a targeted object or feature will have different thermal properties than its surroundings; for instance, a buried metallic pipe conducts heat more readily than the surrounding soil, so if the fluid it is carrying is at a different temperature than the ambient conditions, the pipe will be visible to a thermal imaging sensor without having to perform an excavation to locate the pipe.

Various types of construction materials have different insulating abilities.  In addition, differing types of pipeline defects have different insulating values and/or vary in the magnitude of energy supplied. Because of the potential heterogeneities in the surrounding pipe (i.e., different types of soils), it can be difficult to distinguish targeted objects from background noise.

Sensitivity
An infrared thermographic scanning system can measure and view temperature patterns based upon temperature differences as small as a few hundredths of a degree Celsius.  Infrared thermographic testing may be performed during day or night, depending on environmental conditions and the desired results.

In practice

In infrared thermography, thermal radiation is detected and measured with infrared imagers, also known as thermographic cameras or radiometers.  The imagers contain an infrared detector that converts the emitted radiation into electrical signals that are displayed on a color or black and white computer display monitor.

After the thermal data is processed, it can be displayed on a monitor in multiple shades of gray scale or color.  The colors displayed on the thermogram are arbitrarily set by the Thermographer to best illustrate the infrared data being analyzed.

Sample applications

A typical application for regularly available IR Thermographic equipment is looking for "hot spots" in electrical equipment, which illustrates high resistance areas in electrical circuits.  These "hot spots" are usually measured in the range of 40 °C to 150 °C (70 to 270 °F) above ambient temperatures.

When engineers use proprietary systems to locate subsurface targets such as underground storage tanks (USTs), pipelines, pipeline leaks and their plumes, and hidden tunnels, their locations are identified by temperature patterns typically in the range of 0.01 °C to 1 °C above or below ambient temperatures.

Roofing
In this roofing investigation application, infrared thermographic data was collected during daytime hours, on both sunny and rainy days. This data collection time allowed for solar heating of the roof, and any entrapped water within the roofing system, during the daylight hours.  IR data was observed until the roof had sufficiently warmed to allow detection of the entrapped wet areas because of their ability to collect and store more heat than the dry insulated areas.  The wet areas would also transfer the heat at a faster rate than the dry insulated roof areas.  At this point in time, the wet areas showed up as warmer roof surface temperatures than the surrounding dry background areas of the roof.

During the rainy day, with minimum solar loading, any entrapped leak plumes would become evident because of their cooler temperature as compared to the dry roof areas

Pipeline testing
An infrared thermographic scanning system measures surface temperatures only.  But the surface temperatures that are measured on the surface of the ground, above a buried pipeline, are, to a great extent, dependent upon the subsurface conditions.

Good solid backfill should have the least resistance to conduction of energy and the convection gas radiation effects should be negligible. The various types of problems associated with soil erosion and poor backfill surrounding buried pipelines increase the insulating ability of the soil, by reducing the energy conduction properties, without substantially increasing the convection effects. This is because dead air spaces do not allow the formation of convection currents.

In order to have an energy flow, there must be an energy source.  Since buried pipeline testing can involve large areas, the heat source has to be low cost and able to give the ground surface above the pipeline an even distribution of heat.  The sun fulfills both of these requirements.  The ground surface reacts, storing or transmitting the energy received.

For pipelines carrying fluids at temperatures above or below the ambient ground temperatures (i.e., steam, oil, liquefied gases, or chemicals), an alternative is to use the heat sinking ability of the earth to draw heat from the pipeline under test.  The crucial point to remember is that the energy must be flowing through the ground and fluids.

Ground cover must be evaluated for temperature differentials (i.e., anomalies such as high grass or surface debris), as to how it may affect the surface condition of the test area. Of the three methods of energy transfer, radiation is the method that has the most profound effect upon the ability of the surface to transfer energy.  The ability of a material to radiate energy is measured by the emissivity of the material.  This is defined as the ability of the material to release energy as compared to a perfect blackbody radiator.  This is strictly a surface property.  It normally exhibits itself in higher values for rough surfaces and lower values for smooth surfaces.  For example, rough concrete may have an emissivity of 0.95 while a shiny piece of tinfoil may have an emissivity of only 0.05.  In practical terms, this means that when looking at large areas of ground cover, the engineer in charge of testing must be aware of differing surface textures caused by such things as broom roughed spots, tire rubber tracks, oil spots, loose sand and dirt on the surface and the height of grassy areas.

Standards
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
ISO 6781, Thermal insulation - Qualitative detection of thermal irregularities in building envelopes - Infrared method
ISO 18434-1, Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines - Thermography - Part 1: General procedures
ISO 18436-7, Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines - Requirements for qualification and assessment of personnel - Part 7: Thermography

References

Infrared imaging
Nondestructive testing

Infrared and thermal testing


The Trojan Women (), also translated as The Women of Troy, and also known by its transliterated Greek title Troades, is a tragedy by the Greek playwright Euripides. Produced in 415 BC during the Peloponnesian War, it is often considered a commentary on the capture of the Aegean island of Melos and the subsequent slaughter and subjugation of its populace by the Athenians earlier that year (see History of Milos). 415 BC was also the year of the scandalous desecration of the hermai and the launch of the Athenians' second expedition to Sicily, events which may also have influenced the author.

The Trojan Women was the third tragedy of a trilogy dealing with the Trojan War. The first tragedy, Alexandros, was about the recognition of the Trojan prince Paris who had been abandoned in infancy by his parents and rediscovered in adulthood. The second tragedy, Palamedes, dealt with Greek mistreatment of their fellow Greek Palamedes. This trilogy was presented at the Dionysia along with the comedic satyr play Sisyphos. The plots of this trilogy were not connected in the way that Aeschylus' Oresteia was connected. Euripides did not favor such connected trilogies.

Euripides won second prize at the City Dionysia for his effort, losing to the obscure tragedian Xenocles.

The four Trojan women of the play are the same that appear in the final book of the Iliad lamenting over the corpse of Hector. Taking place near the same time is Hecuba, another play by Euripides.

Plot

Euripides's play follows the fates of the women of Troy after their city has been sacked, their husbands killed, and their remaining families taken away as slaves. However, it begins first with the gods Athena and Poseidon discussing ways to punish the Greek armies because they condoned that Ajax the Lesser raped Cassandra, the eldest daughter of King Priam and Queen Hecuba, after dragging her from a statue of Athena. What follows shows how much the Trojan women have suffered as their grief is compounded when the Greeks dole out additional deaths and divide their shares of women.

The Greek herald Talthybius arrives to tell the dethroned queen Hecuba what will befall her and her children. Hecuba will be taken away to the Greek general Odysseus, and Cassandra is destined to become the conquering general Agamemnon's concubine.

Cassandra, who can see the future, is morbidly delighted by this news: she sees that when they arrive in Argos, her new master's embittered wife Clytemnestra will kill both her and her new master. She sings a wedding song for herself and Agamemnon that describes their bloody deaths. However, Cassandra is also cursed so that her visions of the future are never believed, and she is carried off.

The widowed princess Andromache arrives and Hecuba learns from her that her youngest daughter, Polyxena, has been killed as a sacrifice at the tomb of the Greek warrior Achilles.

Andromache's lot is to be the concubine of Achilles' son Neoptolemus, and more horrible news for the royal family is yet to come: Talthybius reluctantly informs her that her baby son, Astyanax, has been condemned to die. The Greek leaders are afraid that the boy will grow up to avenge his father Hector, and rather than take this chance, they plan to throw him off from the battlements of Troy to his death.

Helen is supposed to suffer greatly as well: Menelaus arrives to take her back to Greece with him where a death sentence awaits her. Helen tries to convince Menelaus that Aphrodite was the cause of her betrayal and that she should not be punished, but Hecuba says that Helen is lying and has only ever been loyal to herself. While he remains resolved that he will slay her when they return to Greece, at the end of the play it is revealed that she is still alive; moreover, the audience knows from Telemachus' visit to Sparta in Homer's Odyssey that Menelaus continued to live with Helen as his wife after the Trojan War.

In the end, Talthybius returns, carrying with him the body of little Astyanax on Hector's shield. Andromache's wish had been to bury her child herself, performing the proper rituals according to Trojan ways, but her ship had already departed. Talthybius gives the corpse to Hecuba, who prepares the body of her grandson for burial before they are finally taken off with Odysseus.

Throughout the play, many of the Trojan women lament the loss of the land that reared them. Hecuba in particular lets it be known that Troy had been her home for her entire life, only to see herself as an old grandmother watching the burning of Troy, the death of her husband, her children, and her grandchildren before she will be taken as a slave to Odysseus.

Modern treatments and adaptations

Film
The Mexican film Las Troyanas (1963) directed by Sergio Véjar, adapted by writer Miguel Angel Garibay and Véjar, is faithful to the Greek text and setting.

Cypriot-Greek director Michael Cacoyannis used Euripides' play (in the famous Edith Hamilton translation) as the basis for his 1971 film The Trojan Women. The movie starred American actress Katharine Hepburn as Hecuba, British actors Vanessa Redgrave and Brian Blessed as Andromache and Talthybius, French-Canadian actress Geneviève Bujold as Cassandra, Greek actress Irene Papas as Helen, and Northern Ireland-born Patrick Magee as Menelaus.

Novel
Sheri Tepper wove The Trojan Women into her 1988 feminist science fiction novel The Gate to Women's Country.

Stage
A 1905 stage version, translated by Gilbert Murray, starred Gertrude Kingston as Helen and Ada Ferrar as Athena at the Royal Court Theatre in London.

The French public intellectual Jean-Paul Sartre wrote a version of The Trojan Women (Les Troyennes) in 1965) that mostly is faithful to the original Greek text, yet includes veiled references to European imperialism in Asia, and emphases of existentialist themes.

Israeli playwright Hanoch Levin (1943–1999) wrote his own version of the play, The Lost Women of Troy, adding more disturbing scenes and scatological details.

In 1974, Ellen Stewart, founder of La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club in New York City, presented The Trojan Women as the last fragment of a trilogy (which included Medea and  Electra).  With staging by Romanian-born theatre director Andrei Serban and music by American composer Elizabeth Swados, this production went on to tour more than 30 countries over the course of 40 years.  Since 2014, The Trojan Women Project has been sharing this production with diverse communities that now include Guatemala, Cambodia and Kosovo.

Charles L. Mee adapted The Trojan Women in 1994 to have a more modern, updated outlook on war. He included original interviews with Holocaust and Hiroshima survivors. His play is called Trojan Women: A Love Story.

David Stuttard's 2001 adaptation, Trojan Women, written in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, toured widely within the UK and was staged internationally. In an attempt to reposition The Trojan Women as the third play of a trilogy, Stuttard then reconstructed Euripides' lost Alexandros and Palamedes (in 2005 and 2006 respectively), to form a "Trojan Trilogy", which was performed in readings at the British Museum and Tristan Bates Theatre (2007), and Europe House (2012) in London. He also wrote a version of the satyr play Sisyphus (2008) to round off Euripides' original trilogy.

Femi Osofisan's 2004 play Women of Owu sets the story in 1821, after the conquest of the Owu kingdom by a coalition of other West African states. Although it is set in 19th century Africa, Osofisan has said that the play was also inspired by the 2003 invasion of Iraq by the U.S.-led coalition.

Brad Mays directed a multimedia production for the ARK Theatre Company in Los Angeles in 2003. The play opened with a faux CNN TV news report intended to echo the then-current war in Iraq. A documentary film was made of the production, released in 2004.

The Women of Troy, directed by Katie Mitchell, was performed at the National Theatre in London in 2007/08. The cast included Kate Duchêne as Hecuba, Sinead Matthews as Cassandra and Anastasia Hille as Andromache.

The Trojan Women, directed by Marti Maraden, was performed at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival at the Tom Patterson Theatre in Stratford, Ontario, Canada, from 14 May to 5 October 2008 with Canadian actress Martha Henry as Hecuba.

Christine Evans reworked and modernised the Trojan Women story in her 2009 play Trojan Barbie. Trojan Barbie is a postmodern updating, which blends the modern and ancient worlds, as contemporary London doll repair shop owner Lotte is pulled into a Trojan women's prison camp that is located in both ancient Troy and the modern Middle East.

In 2011, Anne Bogart's SITI Company premiered Trojan Women (After Euripides) at Getty Villa before touring the production.

In 2016, Zoe Lafferty's version of the play, Queens of Syria, in Arabic with English subtitles, was put on by the Young Vic before touring Britain.

In 2021, Anne Carson, the experimental poet, translator, and classicist, published her translation as Trojan Women: A Comic with illustrations by Rosanna Bruno, a portion of which was excerpted earlier that year in the 236th issue of the Paris Review. Carson's vision was realised by Bruno to stage the production of a tragedy in the form of a "comic," or graphic novel with the characters cast as uncanny figures, such as Hekabe as an old, once-regal dog, the goddess Athena as a pair of overalls wearing an owl mask, and the murdered baby Astyanax (last heir to the Trojan throne) as a poplar tree sapling.

In March 2023 a production of Women of Troy directed by Ben Winspear and starring his wife actor-producer Marta Dusseldorp was staged at the 10 Days on the Island festival in Tasmania, Australia. Poetry by Iranian-Kurdish refugee Behrouz Boochani, who was for many years detained by the Australian Government in Manus Island detention centre, was set to music composed by Katie Noonan and performed by a chorus of Tasmanian women and girls, interspersed with the text of the play.

Translations

See also
List of plays with anti-war themes

Notes

References
 Croally, Neil (2007). Euripidean Polemic: The Trojan Women and the Function of Tragedy. Cambridge University Press.

Additional resources
Mortal Women of the Trojan War, information on each of the Trojan women

External links

Plays by Euripides
Trojan War literature
Anti-war plays
Women and death
Plays set in ancient Greece
Greek plays adapted into films
Women in ancient Greece
Plays based on classical mythology

The Trojan Women


Mehgan Heaney-Grier (born Mehgan Renee Heaney; August 26, 1977) is an American champion freediver, fashion model, actress, conservationist, and TV personality.

Early life
Heaney-Grier was born in Duluth, Minnesota to Bill and Renee Heaney. Her parents divorced when she was six years old.  When she was eleven years old her mother remarried to Nelson Grier and in the summer of 1989, Heaney-Grier, along with her sister Erin, mother and new stepfather moved to the Florida Keys. When she was 16 years old, she legally changed her last name to Heaney-Grier.

Freediving

In 1996 at the age of 18 Heaney-Grier established the first constant weight free-diving record in the United States with a dive to  on a single breath of air. The following year she beat her own record with a dive to ,   When she set her second US record, the women's world record for free diving was .

In 1998 Heaney-Grier captained the first United States Freediving Team to compete in the World Cup Freediving Championships held in Sardinia, Italy. In 2000, Heaney-Grier was inducted as part of the inaugural roster into the Women Divers Hall of Fame.

Modeling
Heaney-Grier has modeled for, and been featured in, numerous catalogs and magazines including People, Outside, Life, Vogue Japan, Abercrombie & Fitch. She has also been a public relations ambassador for Omega Watches.

Television
In the late 1990s, Heaney-Grier partnered with her diving trainers, Manny Puig and Mark Rackley (who was at the time also Heaney-Grier's boyfriend), filming underwater encounters with animals such as alligators and sharks. Rackley had worked as a spearfisherman and underwater videographer, and Puig had experience as an animal handler on movie sets and had learned how to ride and handle alligators in their environment. Together with Heaney-Grier, they formed a company named Extreme Encounters, and the footage they produced led to the Animal Planet series titled Extreme Contact. The 20-episode series featured the trio in cage-free encounters with sharks, alligators and other aquatic wildlife. They also worked on a USA Network one-hour special titled "Deep Diver: Tiger Shark Odyssey". In 2002, Heaney-Grier went on to other projects.

In 1999 Heaney-Grier had a guest-starring role as a free-diver on an episode of Baywatch, and a starring role on a UPN movie of the week,  Avalon:Beyond the Abyss, produced by Viacom Productions. Heaney-Grier has been a featured guest on the Late Show with David Letterman, London's TFI Friday, Primetime Live with Anderson Cooper and Ripley's Believe it or Not. Heaney-Grier also hosted Saturn's Gravity Files, covering the Gravity Games in 2004, and the Mad Fin Shark Series for ESPN in 2008.

In 2015 Heaney-Grier co-starred as a member of a 5-person exploration team on the reality show Treasure Quest: Snake Island, which documents the search for the legendary Treasure of the Trinity on Snake Island, Brazil.

Stunt work
In 2003, Heaney-Grier was sought by the director of Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, Gore Verbinski, to perform an underwater stunt for Keira Knightley. Heaney-Grier has also performed underwater stunts, including scuba diving, free diving and working with sharks, as a stunt double for Jessica Alba and Ashley Scott in Into the Blue, and for actress Olivia Wilde in Turistas.

Other work
Heaney-Grier was featured in the books A Family of Women by Carolyn Jones. and Freedive! by Terry Maas and David Sipperly,

Personal life
Heaney-Grier married Silas Binkley on June 6, 2010. For seven years she has been the guardian of a rescued wolf-dog hybrid named Rontu, and they are in the process of becoming a registered team for animal-assisted therapy work. Heaney-Grier graduated from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 2011 with both a B.A. degree in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and a B.A. in Anthropology. They have one child together, Cash, born 2013.

References

External links

 Official Site for Mehgan Heaney-Grier

1977 births
Sportspeople from Minneapolis
American freedivers
American conservationists
American film actresses
American television actresses
Female models from Minnesota
Living people
 Women Divers Hall of Fame

Mehgan Heaney-Grier


Lawrence Davis "Coon" Weldon (June 24, 1915 – August 17, 1990) was an American football quarterback in the National Football League (NFL) for the Washington Redskins.  He attended Presbyterian College.

Early life
Weldon was born in Sumter, South Carolina, and attended Hillcrest High School in Dalzell, South Carolina, where he played high school football.

College career
Weldon attended and played college football at Presbyterian College in Clinton, South Carolina.  He also played baseball.

Professional career

Dixie League
After college, Weldon played for the Portsmouth Cubs of the Dixie League, and won the championship in 1939 and 1940.  He set a new league record by throwing seven touchdown passes in the span of ten games.  Over a span of 20 games in 1939 and 1940, the Cubs managed to win 16 games, lose two, and tie two games (a .889 winning percentage).  He led the Dixie league in scoring in 1938 and 1939, and was named the league MVP in 1939.  He returned to the Dixie League in 1946, and played for the Norfolk Shamrocks.

Baseball
While playing in the Dixie League, Weldon also played Major League Baseball (MLB) as a pitcher under the moniker "Larry Jacobs". He took the assumed name because he was under contract to the St. Louis Cardinals and didn't want the owners to know he was playing football.  He also used this name with the San Diego Padres.  He played for the Spartansburg Spartans, the Cardinals' farm team in the South Atlantic (Sally) League.

NFL
Weldon played in the National Football League (NFL) for the Washington Redskins in 1944-1945.  He was the backup quarterback behind future Hall of Fame quarterback Sammy Baugh.

American Football League
After playing with the Redskins, Weldon played for the Wilmington Clippers of the American Football League in 1946.  He returned as coach for the Clippers in 1949, after a brief stint as an assistant coach at West Virginia University.

Coaching career
After retiring from professional football, Weldon became a high school football coach.  He was the head football coach at Cradock High School in Portsmouth, Virginia, for 19 seasons (now Woodrow Wilson High School), then stepped down in 1969 to become the athletic director, a position he held until 1972.  He then resigned to become a principal in Lunenburg County, Virginia.  He also coached at Bishopville High School in Bishopville, South Carolina, Hargrave Military Academy, and Presbyterian College.

In 1946, Weldon hired Art Baker as Sumter High School's B Team head coach, which was Baker's first coaching position.  Baker went on to be the head coach of the Furman (1973–1977), The Citadel (1978–1982) and East Carolina (1985–1988) college football programs.  In 1948, Weldon was chosen to be the head coach of "Lower State" team in the first annual South Carolina high school football all-star game, which they won.

Personal life
Weldon was married with four children.  He died on August 17, 1990, in Virginia Beach, Virginia.

References

External links

 Obituary

1915 births
1990 deaths
American football quarterbacks
Washington Redskins players
Sportspeople from Sumter, South Carolina
Wilmington Clippers coaches
Wilmington Clippers players

Larry Weldon