Prehistoric Egypt and Predynastic Egypt span the period from the earliest human settlement to the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period around 3100 BC, starting with the first Pharaoh, Narmer for some Egyptologists, Hor-Aha for others, with the name Menes also possibly used for one of these kings.

At the end of prehistory, "Predynastic Egypt" is traditionally defined as the period from the final part of the Neolithic period beginning c. 6000 BC to the end of the Naqada III period c. 3000 BC. The dates of the Predynastic period were first defined before widespread archaeological excavation of Egypt took place, and recent finds indicating very gradual Predynastic development have led to controversy over when exactly the Predynastic period ended. Thus, various terms such as "Protodynastic period", "Zero Dynasty" or "Dynasty 0" are used to name the part of the period which might be characterized as Predynastic by some and Early Dynastic by others.

The Predynastic period is generally divided into cultural eras, each named after the place where a certain type of Egyptian settlement was first discovered. However, the same gradual development that characterizes the Protodynastic period is present throughout the entire Predynastic period, and individual "cultures" must not be interpreted as separate entities but as largely subjective divisions used to facilitate study of the entire period.

The vast majority of Predynastic archaeological finds have been in Upper Egypt, because the silt of the Nile River was more heavily deposited at the Delta region, completely burying most Delta sites long before modern times.

Paleolithic
Excavation of the Nile has exposed early stone tools from the last million or so years. The earliest of these lithic industries were located within a 30-metre (100 ft) terrace, and were primitive Acheulean, Abbevillian (Chellean) ( 600,000 years ago), and an Egyptian form of the Clactonian ( 400,000 years ago). Within the 15-metre (50 ft) terrace was developed Acheulean. Originally reported as early Mousterian ( 160,000 years ago) but since changed to Levalloisean, other implements were located in the 10-metre (30 ft) terrace. The 4.5- and 3-metre (15–10 ft) terraces saw a more developed version of the Levalloisean, also initially reported as an Egyptian version of Mousterian. An Egyptian version of the Aterian technology was also located.

Wadi Halfa

Some of the oldest known structures were discovered in Egypt by archaeologist Waldemar Chmielewski along the southern border near Wadi Halfa, Sudan, at the Arkin 8 site. Chmielewski dated the structures to 100,000 BC. The remains of the structures are oval depressions about 30 cm deep and 2 × 1 meters across. Many are lined with flat sandstone slabs which served as tent rings supporting a dome-like shelter of skins or brush. This type of dwelling provided a place to live, but if necessary, could be taken down easily and moved. They were mobile structures—easily disassembled, moved, and reassembled—providing hunter-gatherers with semi-permanent habitation.

Aterian industry

Aterian tool-making reached Egypt c. 40,000 BC.

Khormusan industry
The Khormusan industry in Egypt began between 42,000 and 32,000 BP. Khormusans developed tools not only from stone but also from animal bones and hematite. They also developed small arrow heads resembling those of Native Americans, but no bows have been found. The end of the Khormusan industry came around 16,000 B.C. with the appearance of other cultures in the region, including the Gemaian.

Late Paleolithic
The Late Paleolithic in Egypt started around 30,000 BC. The Nazlet Khater skeleton was found in 1980 and given an age of 33,000 years in 1982, based on nine samples ranging between 35,100 and 30,360 years old. This specimen is the only complete modern human skeleton from the earliest Late Stone Age in Africa.

Mesolithic

Halfan and Kubbaniyan culture

The Halfan and Kubbaniyan, two closely related industries, flourished along the Upper Nile Valley. Halfan sites are found in the far north of Sudan, whereas Kubbaniyan sites are found in Upper Egypt. For the Halfan, only four radiocarbon dates have been produced. Schild and Wendorf (2014) discard the earliest and latest as erratic and conclude that the Halfan existed c. 22.5-22.0 ka cal BP. People survived on a diet of large herd animals and the Khormusan tradition of fishing. Greater concentrations of artifacts indicate that they were not bound to seasonal wandering, but settled for longer periods. The Halfan culture was derived in turn from the Khormusan, which depended on specialized hunting, fishing, and collecting techniques for survival. The primary material remains of this culture are stone tools, flakes, and a multitude of rock paintings.

Sebilian culture

In Egypt, analyses of pollen found at archaeological sites indicate that the people of the Sebilian culture (also known as the Esna culture) were gathering wheat and barley.
The Sebilian culture began around 13,000 B.C and vanished around 10,000 B.C Domesticated seeds were not found. It has been hypothesized that the sedentary lifestyle used by farmers led to increased warfare, which was detrimental to farming and brought this period to an end.

Qadan culture

The Qadan culture (13,000–9,000 BC) was a Mesolithic industry that, archaeological evidence suggests, originated in Upper Egypt (present-day south Egypt) approximately 15,000 years ago. The Qadan subsistence mode is estimated to have persisted for approximately 4,000 years. It was characterized by hunting, as well as a unique approach to food gathering that incorporated the preparation and consumption of wild grasses and grains. Systematic efforts were made by the Qadan people to water, care for, and harvest local plant life, but grains were not planted in ordered rows.

Around twenty archaeological sites in Upper Nubia give evidence for the existence of the Qadan culture's grain-grinding culture. Its makers also practiced wild grain harvesting along the Nile during the beginning of the Sahaba Daru Nile phase, when desiccation in the Sahara caused residents of the Libyan oases to retreat into the Nile valley. Among the Qadan culture sites is the Jebel Sahaba cemetery, which has been dated to the Mesolithic.

Qadan peoples were the first to develop sickles and they also developed grinding stones independently to aid in the collecting and processing of these plant foods prior to consumption. However, there are no indications of the use of these tools after around 10,000 BC, when hunter-gatherers replaced them.

Harifian culture

The Harifians (8,800 – 8,000 BC) are viewed as migrating out of the Fayyum and the eastern deserts of Egypt (including Sinai) during the late Mesolithic to merge with the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) culture, whose tool assemblage resembles that of the Harifian. This assimilation led to the Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex, a group of cultures that invented nomadic pastoralism, and may have been the original culture which spread Proto-Semitic languages throughout Mesopotamia.

Neolithic

Lower Egypt

Faiyum A culture

Continued expansion of the desert forced the early ancestors of the Egyptians to settle around the Nile more permanently and adopt a more sedentary lifestyle during the Neolithic.

The period from 9000 to 6000 BC has left very little in the way of archaeological evidence. Around 6000 BC, Neolithic settlements appear all over Egypt. Some studies based on morphological, genetic, and archaeological data have attributed these settlements to migrants from the Fertile Crescent in the Near East returning during the Egyptian and North African Neolithic, bringing agriculture to the region.

Morphological and post-cranial data has linked the earliest farming populations at Fayum, Merimde, and El-Badari, to Near Eastern populations. The archaeological data also suggests that Near Eastern domesticates were incorporated into a pre-existing foraging strategy and only slowly developed into a full-blown lifestyle. Finally, the names for the Near Eastern domesticates imported into Egypt were not Sumerian or Proto-Semitic loan words.

However, some scholars have disputed this view and cited linguistic, biological anthropological, archaeological and genetic data which does not support the hypothesis of a mass migration from the Levantine during the prehistoric period. According to historian William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft, this view posits that the ancient Egyptians are the same original population group as Nubians and other Saharan populations, with some genetic input from Arabian, Levantine, North African, and Indo-European groups who have known to have settled in Egypt during its long history. Keita stated that genetic data indicates that the "P2 (PN2) marker, within the E haplogroup, connects the predominant Y chromosome lineage found in Africa overall after the modern human left Africa. P2/M215-55 is found from the Horn of Africa up through the Nile Valley and west to the Maghreb, and P2/V38/M2 is predominant in most of infra-Saharan tropical Africa".  Similarly, Ehret cited genetic evidence which had identified the Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker "M35/215" Y-chromosome lineage for a significant population component which moved north from that region into Egypt and the Levant. Ehret argued that this genetic distribution paralleled the spread of the Afrasian language family with the movement of people from the Horn of Africa into Egypt and added a new demic component to the existing population of Egypt 17,000 years ago.

Weaving is evidenced for the first time during the Faiyum A Period. People of this period, unlike later Egyptians, buried their dead very close to, and sometimes inside, their settlements.

Although archaeological sites reveal very little about this time, an examination of the many Egyptian words for "city" provides a hypothetical list of causes of Egyptian sedentarism. In Upper Egypt, terminology indicates trade, protection of livestock, high ground for flood refuge, and sacred sites for deities.

Merimde culture

From about 5000 to 4200 BC the Merimde culture, so far only known from Merimde Beni Salama, a large settlement site at the edge of the Western Delta, flourished in Lower Egypt. The culture has strong connections to the Faiyum A culture as well as the Levant. People lived in small huts, produced a simple undecorated pottery and had stone tools. Cattle, sheep, goats and pigs were held. Wheat, sorghum and barley were planted. The Merimde people buried their dead within the settlement and produced clay figurines. The first life-sized Egyptian head made of clay comes from Merimde.

El Omari culture
The El Omari culture is known from a small settlement near modern Cairo. People seem to have lived in huts, but only postholes and pits survive. The pottery is undecorated. Stone tools include small flakes, axes and sickles. Metal was not yet known. Their sites were occupied from 4000 BC to the Archaic Period (3,100 BC).

Maadi culture

The Maadi culture (also called Buto Maadi culture) is the most important Lower Egyptian prehistoric culture dated about 4000 - 3500 BC, and contemporary with Naqada I and II phases in Upper Egypt. The culture is best known from the site Maadi near Cairo, as well as the site of Buto, but is also attested in many other places in the Delta to the Faiyum region. This culture was marked by development in architecture and technology. It also followed its predecessor cultures when it comes to undecorated ceramics.

Copper was known, and some copper adzes have been found. The pottery is hand-made; it is simple and undecorated. Presence of black-topped red pots indicate contact with the Naqada sites in the south. Many imported vessels from Palestine have also been found. Black basalt stone vessels were also used.

People lived in small huts, partly dug into the ground. The dead were buried in cemeteries, but with few burial goods. The Maadi culture was replaced by the Naqada III culture; whether this happened by conquest or infiltration is still an open question.

The developments in Lower Egypt in the times previous to the unification of the country have been the subject of considerable disputes over the years. The recent excavations at Tell el-Farkha (:de:Tell el-Farcha), Sais, and Tell el-Iswid have clarified this picture to some extent. As a result, the Chalcolithic Lower Egyptian culture is now emerging as an important subject of study.

Gallery

Upper Egypt

Tasian culture

The Tasian culture was the next in Upper Egypt. This culture group is named for the burials found at Der Tasa, on the east bank of the Nile between Asyut and Akhmim. The Tasian culture group is notable for producing the earliest blacktop-ware, a type of red and brown pottery that is colored black on the top portion and interior. This pottery is vital to the dating of Predynastic Egypt. Because all dates for the Predynastic period are tenuous at best, WMF Petrie developed a system called sequence dating by which the relative date, if not the absolute date, of any given Predynastic site can be ascertained by examining its pottery.

As the Predynastic period progressed, the handles on pottery evolved from functional to ornamental. The degree to which any given archaeological site has functional or ornamental pottery can also be used to determine the relative date of the site. Since there is little difference between Tasian ceramics and Badarian pottery, the Tasian Culture overlaps the Badarian range significantly. From the Tasian period onward, it appears that Upper Egypt was influenced strongly by the culture of Lower Egypt. Archaeological evidence has suggested that the Tasian and Badarian Nile Valley sites were a peripheral network of earlier African cultures that featured the movement of Badarian, Saharan, Nubian and Nilotic populations. Bruce Williams, Egyptologist, has argued that the Tasian culture was significantly related to the Sudanese-Saharan traditions from the Neolithic era which extended from regions north of Khartoum to locations near Dongola in Sudan.

Badarian culture

The Badarian culture, from about 4400 to 4000 BC, is named for the Badari site near Der Tasa. It followed the Tasian culture, but was so similar that many consider them one continuous period. The Badarian Culture continued to produce the kind of pottery called blacktop-ware (albeit much improved in quality) and was assigned Sequence Dating numbers 21–29. The primary difference that prevents scholars from merging the two periods is that Badarian sites use copper in addition to stone and are thus Chalcolithic settlements, while the Neolithic Tasian sites are still considered Stone Age.

Badarian flint tools continued to develop into sharper and more shapely blades, and the first faience was developed. Distinctly Badarian sites have been located from Nekhen to a little north of Abydos. It appears that the Fayum A culture and the Badarian and Tasian Periods overlapped significantly; however, the Fayum A culture was considerably less agricultural and was still Neolithic in nature. Several biological anthropological studies have shown strong biological affinities between the Badarians and other Northeast African populations.

In 2005, Keita examined Badarian crania from predynastic upper Egypt in comparison to various European and tropical African crania. He found that the predynastic Badarian series clustered much closer with the tropical African series. Although, no Asian or other North African samples were included in the study as the comparative series were selected based on "Brace et al.'s (1993) comments on the affinities of an upper Egyptian/Nubian epipalaeolithic series". Keita further noted that additional analysis and material from Sudan, late dynastic northern Egypt (Gizeh), Somalia, Asia and the Pacific Islands "show the Badarian series to be most similar to a series from the northeast quandrant of Africa and then to other Africans".

Dental trait analysis of Badarian fossils conducted in a thesis study found that they were closely related to other Afroasiatic-speaking populations inhabiting Northeast Africa and the Maghreb. Among the ancient populations, the Badarians were nearest to other ancient Egyptians (Naqada, Hierakonpolis, Abydos and Kharga in Upper Egypt; Hawara in Lower Egypt), and C-Group and Pharaonic era skeletons excavated in Lower Nubia, followed by the A-Group culture bearers of Lower Nubia, the Kerma and Kush populations in Upper Nubia, the Meroitic, X-Group and Christian period inhabitants of Lower Nubia, and the Kellis population in the Dakhla Oasis. Among the recent groups, the Badari markers were morphologically closest to the Shawia and Kabyle Berber populations of Algeria as well as Bedouin groups in Morocco, Libya and Tunisia, followed by other Afroasiatic-speaking populations in the Horn of Africa. The Late Roman era Badarian skeletons from Kellis were also phenotypically distinct from those belonging to other populations in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Naqada culture

The Naqada culture is an archaeological culture of Chalcolithic Predynastic Egypt (c. 4000–3000 BC), named for the town of Naqada, Qena Governorate. It is divided in three sub-periods: Naqada I, II and III. A number of biological anthropological studies have found Naqada skeletal remains to have clear, Northeast African affinities.

In 1996, Lovell and Prowse also reported the presence of individuals buried at Naqada in what they interpreted to be elite, high status tombs, showing them to be an endogamous ruling or elite segment of the local population at Naqada, which is more closely related to populations in northern Nubia than to neighbouring populations in southern Egypt. Specifically, they stated the Naqda samples were "more similar to the Lower Nubian protodynastic sample than they are to the geographically more proximate Egyptian samples" in Qena and Badari. However, they found the skeletal samples from the Naqada cemeteries to be significantly different to protodynastic populations in northern Nubia and predynastic Egyptian samples from Badari and Qena, which were also significantly different to northern Nubian populations. Overall, both the elite and nonelite individuals in the Naqada cemeteries were more similar to each other than they were to the samples in northern Nubia or to samples from Badari and Qena in southern Egypt.

In 2023, Christopher Ehret reported that the physical anthropological findings from the "major burial sites of those founding locales of ancient Egypt in the fourth millennium BCE, notably El-Badari as well as Naqada, show no demographic indebtedness to the Levant". Ehret specified that these studies revealed cranial and dental affinities with "closest parallels" to other longtime populations in the surrounding areas of northeastern Africa "such as Nubia and the northern Horn of Africa". He further commented that the Naqada and Badarian populations did not migrate "from somewhere else but were descendants of the long-term inhabitants of these portions of Africa going back many millennia". Ehret also cited existing, archaeological and linguistic data which he argued supported the anthropological findings.

Amratian culture (Naqada I)

The Amratian culture lasted from about 4000 to 3500 BC. It is named after the site of El-Amra, about 120 km south of Badari. El-Amra is the first site where this culture group was found unmingled with the later Gerzean culture group, but this period is better attested at the Naqada site, so it also is referred to as the Naqada I culture. Black-topped ware continues to appear, but white cross-line ware, a type of pottery which has been decorated with close parallel white lines being crossed by another set of close parallel white lines, is also found at this time. The Amratian period falls between S.D. 30 and 39 in Petrie's Sequence Dating system.

Newly excavated objects attest to increased trade between Upper and Lower Egypt at this time. A stone vase from the north was found at el-Amra, and copper, which is not mined in Egypt, was imported from the Sinai, or possibly Nubia. Obsidian and a small amount of gold were both definitely imported from Nubia. Trade with the oases also was likely.

New innovations appeared in Amratian settlements as precursors to later cultural periods. For example, the mud-brick buildings for which the Gerzean period is known were first seen in Amratian times, but only in small numbers. Additionally, oval and theriomorphic cosmetic palettes appear in this period, but the workmanship is very rudimentary and the relief artwork for which they were later known is not yet present.

Gerzean culture (Naqada II)

The Gerzean culture, from about 3500 to 3200 BC, is named after the site of Gerzeh. It was the next stage in Egyptian cultural development, and it was during this time that the foundation of Dynastic Egypt was laid. Gerzean culture is largely an unbroken development out of Amratian Culture, starting in the delta and moving south through upper Egypt, but failing to dislodge Amratian culture in Nubia. Gerzean pottery is assigned values from S.D. 40 through 62, and is distinctly different from Amratian white cross-lined wares or black-topped ware. Gerzean pottery was painted mostly in dark red with pictures of animals, people, and ships, as well as geometric symbols that appear derived from animals. Also, "wavy" handles, rare before this period (though occasionally found as early as S.D. 35) became more common and more elaborate until they were almost completely ornamental.

Gerzean culture coincided with a significant decline in rainfall, and farming along the Nile now produced the vast majority of food, though contemporary paintings indicate that hunting was not entirely forgone. With increased food supplies, Egyptians adopted a much more sedentary lifestyle and cities grew as large as 5,000.

It was in this time that Egyptian city dwellers stopped building with reeds and began mass-producing mud bricks, first found in the Amratian Period, to build their cities.

Egyptian stone tools, while still in use, moved from bifacial construction to ripple-flaked construction. Copper was used for all kinds of tools, and the first copper weaponry appears here. Silver, gold, lapis, and faience were used ornamentally, and the grinding palettes used for eye-paint since the Badarian period began to be adorned with relief carvings.

The first tombs in classic Egyptian style were also built, modeled after ordinary houses and sometimes composed of multiple rooms. Although further excavations in the Delta are needed, this style is generally believed to originate there and not in Upper Egypt.

Although the Gerzean Culture is now clearly identified as being the continuation of the Amratian period, significant Mesopotamian influence worked its way into Egypt during the Gerzean, interpreted in previous years as evidence of a Mesopotamian ruling class, the so-called Dynastic Race, coming to power over Upper Egypt. This idea no longer attracts academic support.

Distinctly foreign objects and art forms entered Egypt during this period, indicating contacts with several parts of Asia. Objects such as the Gebel el-Arak knife handle, which has patently Mesopotamian relief carvings on it, have been found in Egypt, and the silver which appears in this period can only have been obtained from Asia Minor.

In addition, Egyptian objects are created which clearly mimic Mesopotamian forms, although not slavishly. Cylinder seals appear in Egypt, as well as recessed paneling architecture, the Egyptian reliefs on cosmetic palettes are clearly made in the same style as the contemporary Mesopotamian Uruk culture, and the ceremonial mace heads which turn up from the late Gerzean and early Semainean are crafted in the Mesopotamian "pear-shaped" style, instead of the Egyptian native style.

The route of this trade is difficult to determine, but contact with Canaan does not predate the early dynastic, so it is usually assumed to have been conducted over water. During the time when the Dynastic Race Theory was still popular, it was theorized that Uruk sailors circumnavigated Arabia, but a Mediterranean route, probably by middlemen through Byblos, is more likely, as evidenced by the presence of Byblian objects in Egypt.

The fact that so many Gerzean sites are at the mouths of wadis that lead to the Red Sea may indicate some amount of trade via the Red Sea (though Byblian trade potentially could have crossed the Sinai and then taken the Red Sea). Also, it is considered unlikely that something so complicated as recessed panel architecture could have worked its way into Egypt by proxy, and at least a small contingent of migrants is often suspected.

Despite this evidence of foreign influence, Egyptologists generally agree that the Gerzean Culture is still predominantly indigenous to Egypt.

Protodynastic Period (Naqada III)

The Naqada III period, from about 3200 to 3000 BC, is generally taken to be identical with the Protodynastic period, during which Egypt was unified.

Naqada III is notable for being the first era with hieroglyphs (though this is disputed by some), the first regular use of serekhs, the first irrigation, and the first appearance of royal cemeteries.

The relatively affluent Maadi suburb of Cairo is built over the original Naqada stronghold.

Bioarchaeologist Nancy Lovell, had stated  that there is a sufficient body of morphological evidence to indicate that ancient southern Egyptians had physical characteristics "within the range of variation" of both ancient and modern indigenous peoples in the Sahara and tropical Africa. She summarised that "In general, the inhabitants of Upper Egypt and Nubia had the greatest biological affinity to people of the Sahara and more
southerly areas" but exhibited local variation in an African context.

Lower Nubia

Lower Nubia is located within the borders of modern-day Egypt but is south of the border of Ancient Egypt, which was located at the first cataract of the Nile.

Nabta Playa

Nabta Playa was once a large internally drained basin in the Nubian Desert, located approximately 800 kilometers south of modern-day Cairo or about 100 kilometers west of Abu Simbel in southern Egypt, 22.51° north, 30.73° east. Today the region is characterized by numerous archaeological sites. The Nabta Playa archaeological site, one of the earliest of the Egyptian Neolithic Period, is dated to circa 7500 BC. Also, excavations from Nabta Playa, located about 100 km west of Abu Simbel for example, suggest that the Neolithic inhabitants of the region included migrants from both Sub-Saharan Africa and the Mediterranean area. According to Christopher Ehret, the material cultural indicators correspond with the conclusion that the inhabitants of the wider Nabta Playa region were a Nilo-Saharan-speaking population.

Timeline

 Late Paleolithic, from 40th millennium BC
 Aterian tool-making
 Semi-permanent dwellings in Wadi Halfa
 Tools made from animal bones, hematite, and other stones
 Neolithic, from 11th millennium BC
 c. 10,500 BC: Wild grain harvesting along the Nile, grain-grinding culture creates world's earliest stone sickle blades roughly at end of Pleistocene
 c. 8000 BC: Migration of peoples to the Nile, developing a more centralized society and settled agricultural economy
 c. 7500 BC: Importing animals from Asia to Sahara
 c. 7000 BC: Agriculture—animal and cereal—in East Sahara
 c. 7000 BC: in Nabta Playa deep year-round water wells dug, and large organized settlements designed in planned arrangements
 c. 6000 BC: Rudimentary ships (rowed, single-sailed) depicted in Egyptian rock art
 c. 5500 BC: Stone-roofed subterranean chambers and other subterranean complexes in Nabta Playa containing buried sacrificed cattle
 c. 5000 BC: Alleged archaeoastronomical stone megalith in Nabta Playa.
 c. 5000 BC: Badarian: furniture, tableware, models of rectangular houses, pots, dishes, cups, bowls, vases, figurines, combs
 c. 4400 BC: finely-woven linen fragment
 From 4th millennium BC, inventing has become prevalent
 c. 4000 BC: early Naqadan trade
 4th millennium BC: Gerzean tomb-building, including underground rooms and burial of furniture and amulets
 4th millennium BC: Cedar imported from Lebanon
 c. 3900 BC: An aridification event in the Sahara leads to human migration to the Nile Valley
 c. 3500 BC: Lapis lazuli imported from Badakshan and / or Mesopotamia
 c. 3500 BC: Senet, world's oldest (confirmed) board game
 c. 3500 BC: Faience, world's earliest-known glazed ceramic beads
 c. 3400 BC: Cosmetics, donkey domestication, (meteoric) iron works, mortar (masonry)
 c. 3300 BC: Double reed instruments and lyres (see Music of Egypt)
 c. 3100 BC: Pharaoh Narmer, or Menes, or possibly Hor-Aha unified Upper and Lower Egypt

Relative chronology

See also
 5.9 kiloyear event
 Prehistoric North Africa

Notes

References

External links
 Information about Ancient Egyptian History'' : from This Is Egypt | Information about Ancient Egyptian History
 Ancient Egyptian History - A comprehensive and concise educational website focusing on the basic and the advanced in all aspects of Ancient Egypt
 Faium.com homepage
 Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization - Oriental Institute

Egypt
Egypt

Prehistoric Egypt


The Pearl Island (Arabic: جزيرة اللؤلؤة, romanized: jazeerat luluwa) in Doha, Qatar, is an artificial island spanning nearly four square kilometers. It is the first land in Qatar to be available for freehold ownership by foreign nationals. As of 2018, there are 27,000 residents. Once fully completed, The Pearl Island will create over 32 kilometers of new coastline, for use as a residential estate with an expected 18,831 dwellings and 45,000 residents by 2018. Developed by United Development Company and planned by architecture and design firm Callison, the island is located 350 meters offshore of Doha's West Bay Lagoon area. In 2004, when the project was first revealed, the initial cost of constructing the island stood at $2.5 billion. It is now believed the project will cost $15 billion upon completion.

References
 Official website
 The Pearl Qatar - RHS

Doha

The Pearl Island


Maurice Hippolyte Dumesnil (20 April 1884 – 26 August 1974) was a French classical pianist.

Biography
Born in Angoulême, Dumesnil studied the piano at the Conservatoire de Paris with Isidore Philipp, and was a pupil of Claude Debussy. He undertook successful concert tours throughout Europe and America. Starting in 1915, he played in trio with violinist Jules Boucherit and cellist André Hekking. He was a member of the piano management committees at the Paris Conservatory, the École Normale de Musique de Paris and the American Conservatory.

Based in the United States, Dumesnil was married to Evangeline Marie Lehman (1896-1975), a composer.

He also published several books on Debussy's piano music (How to Play and Teach Debussy, Claude Debussy, Master of Dreams, 1940).

Dumesnil died at Highland Park, in Michigan (United States).

External links
 Michigan University, Bentley historical library
 Ampico--"The Dancing Marionette"- Opus 11, by Henry-played by Maurice Dumesnil 1920 recording

1884 births
1974 deaths
People from Angoulême
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
20th-century French male classical pianists
Debussy scholars

Maurice Dumesnil


Hasan Izzet Pasha (Turkish: Hasan İzzet Paşa, Hasan İzzet Arolat, 1871; Constantinople (Istanbul) – 3 March 1931) was a Turkish general of the Ottoman Empire.

Early life

Hasan Izzet Born in a family of Turkish origin1871 to mother Süreyya Hanım, and father Ali Muhsin Pasha in Aksaray neighborhood of Istanbul.

He graduated from the Ottoman Military Academy (Mekteb-i Füsûn-u Harbiyye-i Şâhâne) in 1890 and the Staff College (Mekteb-i Erkân-ı Harbiye-i Şâhâne, present day: Harp Akademisi) on 23 March 1893 as a Staff Captain (Erkân-ı Harp Yüzbaşısı).

Military career

He was appointed to the fourth department of the General Staff by the order of Sultan Abdul Hamid II on 14 April 1894. On 7 May 1895, he was promoted to the rank of Senior Captain (Kolağası) and on 12 May 1895, he participated in the military staff excursion to Üsküp (present day: Skopje). On 29 October 1896, he was assigned to the War Academy.

1897 Greco-Turkish War

On 21 April 1897, he was promoted to the rank of Major (Binbaşı) and assigned service in the Alasonya Army (Alasonya Ordusu), a field army will attack Elassona area. During the 1897 Greco-Turkish War, he was assigned to the 2nd Neşet Bey Division (İkinci Neşet Bey Fırkası) and took part in the Battle of Domokos (Dömeke Muharebesi). On 17 July 1897, he was called back to Istanbul and appointed in the commander of the Greek Border.

Interwar period

He was appointed to the inspector of examination of Edirne Military High School (Edirne Askerî İdadisi) on 30 November 1897, and appointed to the teacher of tactics (Artillery, Cavalry, Infantry) of the War Academy on 21 March 1898. He had been in Damascus for the inspection and examination of the Damascus Military High School (Şam Askerî İdadisi). He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel (Kaymakam) on 2 October 1900, to the rank of colonel (Miralay) on 23 April 1905. He was appointed to the fourth department of the General Staff on 26 March 1906.

He went to Romania to observe a military exercise and awarded with a 2nd class order by the Romanian government on 4 August 1907. On 25 June 1908, he was appointed as the member of the military tribunal that was established because of some important affairs. Then he was appointed as the commander of the 17th Division stationed in Siroz (Serez, present day: Serres).

31 March Incident

After the 31 March Incident, he was commissioned commander as the commander of the Provisional Division of the Action Army in 1909. On 2 July 1911, he was appointed to the commander of the 1st Division under the command of the I Corps.

Balkan Wars

During the First Balkan War, he went to Babaeski and was appointed the commander of the 9th Division by the order of the Eastern Army (Şark Ordusu). He took part in battles at Petra (present day: Kayalı village in the central district of Kırklareli Province) on 9–10 October 1912 and Taştabya, Vize and Çatalca. He was promoted to the rank of Mirliva on 19 December 1912. On 21 January 1913, he was appointed the commander of the I Corps (part of the left wing of the Çatalca Army) by proxy. And then he was appointed the commander of the 18th Division on 6 March 1913.

During the Second Balkan War, he commanded the II Corps under the Çatalca Army commanded directly by Ahmet Izzet Pasha and took part in the advance to Adrianople. After the armistice, on 24 December 1913, he was appointed as the commander of the III Corps.

World War

After the 1914 mobilization of World War I, Sultan Mehmed V asked him to be the commander of the Third Army. He was the commander during Bergmann Offensive. He feared in the background of the ill and rapid changes in the Army leadership during the preparations for the Battle of Sarikamish. He also opposed Enver Pasha to attack prematurely during Battle of Sarikamish. He gave his post as commander of the Third Army on 18 December 1914. He later participated in the Turkish War of Independence where he fought on the western front against the Greeks.

Medals and decorations

 Order of the Medjidie 5th classe (8 September 1894)
 Order of the Osmanî 4th classe (18 September 1899)
 Golden Medal of Liakat (1900)
 Rumanian Order, 2nd class (4 August 1907)
 Order of the Medjidie 4th class (21 December 1909)
 Bulgarian Order (1910) (verliehen von Ferdinand I. während seines Istanbul Besuches)

Military ranks

 Captain (Yüzbaşı), 24 March 1893
 Senior Captain (Kolağası), 7 May 1895
 Major (Binbaşı), 21 April 1897
 Lieutenant colonel (Kaymakam), 2 October 1900
 Colonel (Miralay), 23 April 1905
 Mirliva, 19 December 1912
 Ferik, 1 October 1915

Sources

Bibliography

The Encyclopædia Britannica: Vol XXXII, 1922, by Hugh Chisholm, page 803.

External links
 Hasan İzzet Paşa (Arolat), Turkey in the First World War.

1871 births
1931 deaths
Military personnel from Istanbul
Ottoman Military Academy alumni
Ottoman Military College alumni
Ottoman Army generals
Pashas
Ottoman military personnel of the Greco-Turkish War (1897)
Ottoman military personnel of the Balkan Wars
Ottoman military personnel of World War I
Turks from the Ottoman Empire

Hasan Izzet Pasha


Indraprastha (lit. "Plain of Indra" or "City of Indra") is mentioned in ancient Indian literature as a city of the Kuru Kingdom. It was the capital of the kingdom led by the Pandavas mentioned in Mahabharata. Under the Pali form of its name, Indapatta, it is also mentioned in Buddhist texts as the capital of the Kuru mahajanapada. Modern historical research pin its location in the region of present-day New Delhi, particularly the Old Fort (Purana Qila). The city is sometimes also known as Khandavaprastha or Khandava Forest, the name of a forest region on the banks of Yamuna river which (according to the Mahabharata) had been cleared by Krishna and Arjuna to build the city.

History
Indraprastha is referenced in the Mahabharata, a Sanskrit Indian text compiled over a period approximately between 400 BCE and 400 CE. It was one of the five places demanded for the sake of peace and to avert a disastrous war, Krishna proposed that if Hastinapura agreed to give the Pandavas only five villages, namely, Indraprastha, Shonaprastha (Sonipat), Paniprastha (Panipat), Bhagaprastha (Baghpat), and Tilaprastha (Tilpat) then they would be satisfied and would make no more demands. Duryodhana vehemently refused, commenting that he would not part with land even as much as the point of a needle. Thus, the stage was set for the great war for which the epic of Mahabharata is known most of all. The Mahabharata records Indraprastha as being home to the Pandavas, whose wars with the Kauravas it describes.

During the Mauryan period, Indraprastha was known as Indapatta in Buddhist literature. The location of Indraprastha is uncertain but Purana Qila in present-day New Delhi is frequently cited and has been noted as such in texts as old as the 14th-century CE. The modern form of the name, Inderpat, continued to be applied to the Purana Qila area into the early 20th century; in a study of ancient Indian place-names, Michael Witzel considers this to be one of many places from the Sanskrit Epics whose names have been retained into modern times, such as Kaushambi/Kosam.

Location
Purana Qila is certainly an ancient settlement but archaeological studies performed there since the 1950s have failed to reveal structures and artefacts that would confirm the architectural grandeur and rich lives in the period that the Mahabharata describes. The historian Upinder Singh notes that despite the academic debate, "Ultimately, there is no way of conclusively proving or disproving whether the Pandavas or Kauravas ever lived ...". However, it is possible that the main part of the ancient city has not been reached by excavations so far, but rather falls under the unexcavated area extending directly to the south of Purana Qila. Overall, Delhi has been the center of the area where the ancient city has historically been estimated to be. Until 1913, a village called Indrapat existed within the fort walls. As of 2014, the Archaeological Survey of India is continuing excavation in Purana Qila.

Historical Significance
Indraprastha is not only known from the Mahabharata. It is also mentioned as "Indapatta" or "Indapattana" in Pali-language Buddhist texts, where it is described as the capital of the Kuru Kingdom, situated on the Yamuna River. The Buddhist literature also mentions Hatthinipura (Hastinapura) and several smaller towns and villages of the Kuru kingdom. Indraprastha may have been known to the Greco-Roman world as well: it is thought to be mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography dating from the 2nd century CE as the city "Indabara", possibly derived from the Prakrit form "Indabatta", and which was probably in the vicinity of Delhi. Upinder Singh (2004) describes this equation of Indabara with Indraprastha as "plausible". Indraprastha is also named as a pratigana (district) of the Delhi region in a Sanskrit inscription dated to 1327 CE, discovered in Raisina area of New Delhi.

D. C. Sircar, an epigraphist, believed Indraprastha was a significant city in the Mauryan period, based on analysis of a stone carving found in the Delhi area at Sriniwaspuri which records the reign of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Singh has cast doubt on this interpretation because the inscription does not actually refer to Indraprastha and although "... a place of importance must certainly have been located in the vicinity of the rock edict, exactly which one it was and what it was known as, is uncertain." Similarly, remains, such as an iron pillar, that have been associated with Ashoka are not indubitably so: their composition is atypical and the inscriptions are vague.

See also
Swarnprastha
Ashokan Edicts in Delhi
Hastinapura
History of Delhi
Historicity of the Mahabharata

References
Notes

Citations

Locations in Hindu mythology
Places in the Mahabharata
Ancient Indian cities
Former capital cities in India
History of Delhi
Kuru

Indraprastha


Bal Gangadhar Tilak (; born Keshav Gangadhar Tilak (pronunciation: [keʃəʋ ɡəŋɡaːd̪ʱəɾ ʈiɭək]); 23 July 1856 – 1 August 1920), endeared as Lokmanya (IAST: Lokamānya), was an Indian nationalist, teacher, and an independence activist. He was one third of the Lal Bal Pal triumvirate. The British colonial authorities called him "The father of the Indian unrest". He was also conferred with the title of "Lokmanya", which means "accepted by the people as their leader". Mahatma Gandhi called him "The Maker of Modern India".

Tilak was one of the first and strongest advocates of Swaraj ('self-rule') and a strong radical in Indian consciousness. He is known for his quote in Marathi: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it!". He formed a close alliance with many Indian National Congress leaders including Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Aurobindo Ghose, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

Early life

Keshav Gangadhar Tilak was born on 23 July 1856 in an Marathi Hindu Chitpavan Brahmin family in Ratnagiri, the headquarters of the Ratnagiri district of present-day Maharashtra (then Bombay Presidency). His ancestral village was Chikhali. His father, Gangadhar Tilak was a school teacher and a Sanskrit scholar who died when Tilak was sixteen. In 1871, Tilak was married to Tapibai (Née Bal) when he was sixteen, a few months before his father's death. After marriage, her name was changed to Satyabhamabai. He obtained his Bachelor of Arts in first class in Mathematics from Deccan College of Pune in 1877. He left his M.A. course of study midway to join the L.L.B course instead, and in 1879 he obtained his L.L.B degree from Government Law College. After graduating, Tilak started teaching mathematics at a private school in Pune. Later, due to ideological differences with the colleagues in the new school, he withdrew and became a journalist. Tilak actively participated in public affairs. He stated: "Religion and practical life are not different. The real spirit is to make the country your family instead of working only for your own. The step beyond is to serve humanity and the next step is to serve God."

Inspired by Vishnushastri Chiplunkar, he co-founded the New English school for secondary education in 1880 with a few of his college friends, including Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Mahadev Ballal Namjoshi and Vishnushastri Chiplunkar. Their goal was to improve the quality of education for India's youth. The success of the school led them to set up the Deccan Education Society in 1884  to create a new system of education that taught young Indians nationalist ideas through an emphasis on Indian culture. The Society established the Fergusson College in 1885 for post-secondary studies. Tilak taught mathematics at Fergusson College. In 1890, Tilak left the Deccan Education Society for more openly political work. He began a mass movement towards independence by an emphasis on a religious and cultural revival.

Political career
Tilak had a long political career agitating for Indian autonomy from British colonial rule. Before Gandhi, he was the most widely known Indian political leader. Unlike his fellow Maharashtrian contemporary, Gokhale, Tilak was considered a radical Nationalist but a Social conservative. He was imprisoned on a number of occasions that included a long stint at Mandalay. At one stage in his political life he was called "the father of Indian unrest" by British author Sir Valentine Chirol.

Indian National Congress
Tilak joined the Indian National Congress in 1890. He opposed its moderate attitude, especially towards the fight for self-government. He was one of the most-eminent radicals at the time. In fact, it was the Swadeshi movement of 1905–1907 that resulted in the split within the Indian National Congress into the Moderates and the Extremists.

During late 1896, a bubonic plague spread from Bombay to Pune, and by January 1897, it reached epidemic proportions. The British Indian Army was brought in to deal with the emergency and strict measures were employed to curb the plague, including the allowance of forced entry into private houses, the examination of the house's occupants, evacuation to hospitals and quarantine camps, removing and destroying personal possessions, and preventing patients from entering or leaving the city. By the end of May, the epidemic was under control. The measures used to curb the pandemic caused widespread resentment among the Indian public. Tilak took up this issue by publishing inflammatory articles in his paper Kesari (Kesari was written in Marathi, and "Maratha" was written in English), quoting the Hindu scripture, the Bhagavad Gita, to say that no blame could be attached to anyone who killed an oppressor without any thought of reward. Following this, on 22 June 1897, Commissioner Rand and another British officer, Lt. Ayerst were shot and killed by the Chapekar brothers and their other associates. According to Barbara and Thomas R. Metcalf, Tilak "almost surely concealed the identities of the perpetrators". Tilak was charged with incitement to murder and sentenced to 18 months imprisonment. When he emerged from prison in present-day Mumbai, he was revered as a martyr and a national hero. He adopted a new slogan coined by his associate Kaka Baptista: "Swaraj (self-rule) is my birthright and I shall have it."

Following the Partition of Bengal, which was a strategy set out by Lord Curzon to weaken the nationalist movement, Tilak encouraged the Swadeshi movement and the Boycott movement. The movement consisted of the boycott of foreign goods and also the social boycott of any Indian who used foreign goods. The Swadeshi movement consisted of the usage of natively produced goods. Once foreign goods were boycotted, there was a gap which had to be filled by the production of those goods in India itself. Tilak said that the Swadeshi and Boycott movements are two sides of the same coin.

Tilak opposed the moderate views of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and was supported by fellow Indian nationalists Bipin Chandra Pal in Bengal and Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab. They were referred to as the "Lal-Bal-Pal triumvirate". In 1907, the annual session of the Congress Party was held at Surat, Gujarat. Trouble broke out over the selection of the new president of the Congress between the moderate and the radical sections of the party. The party split into the radicals faction, led by Tilak, Pal and Lajpat Rai, and the moderate faction. Nationalists like Aurobindo Ghose, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai were Tilak supporters.

When asked in Calcutta whether he envisioned a Maratha-type of government for independent India, Tilak answered that the Maratha-dominated governments of 17th and 18th centuries were outmoded in the 20th century, and he wanted a genuine federal system for Free India where everyone was an equal partner. He added that only such a form of government would be able to safeguard India's freedom. He was the first Congress leader to suggest that Hindi written in the Devanagari script be accepted as the sole national language of India.

Sedition Charges
During his lifetime among other political cases, Tilak had been tried for sedition charges in three times by British India Government—in 1897, 1909, and 1916. In 1897, Tilak was sentenced to 18 months in prison for preaching disaffection against the Raj. In 1909, he was again charged with sedition and intensifying racial animosity between Indians and the British. The Bombay lawyer Muhammad Ali Jinnah appeared in Tilak's defence but he was sentenced to six years in prison in Burma in a controversial judgement. In 1916 when for the third time Tilak was charged for sedition over his lectures on self-rule, Jinnah again was his lawyer and this time led him to acquittal in the case.

Imprisonment in Mandalay

On 30 April 1908, two Bengali youths, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose, threw a bomb on a carriage at Muzzafarpur, to kill the Chief Presidency Magistrate Douglas Kingsford of Calcutta fame, but erroneously killed two women traveling in it. Chaki committed suicide when caught, and Bose was hanged. Tilak, in his paper Kesari, defended the revolutionaries and called for immediate Swaraj or self-rule. The Government swiftly charged him with sedition. At the conclusion of the trial, a special jury convicted him by 7:2 majority. The judge, Dinshaw D. Davar gave him a six years jail sentence to be served in Mandalay, Burma and a fine of .  On being asked by the judge whether he had anything to say, Tilak said:All that I wish to say is that, in spite of the verdict of the jury, I still maintain that I am innocent. There are higher powers that rule the destinies of men and nations; and I think, it may be the will of Providence that the cause I represent may be benefited more by my suffering than by my pen and tongue.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah was his lawyer in the case. Justice Davar's judgement came under stern criticism in press and was seen against impartiality of British justice system. Justice Davar himself previously had appeared for Tilak in his first sedition case in 1897. In passing sentence, the judge indulged in some scathing strictures against Tilak's conduct. He threw off the judicial restraint which, to some extent, was observable in his charge to the jury. He condemned the articles as "seething with sedition", as preaching violence, speaking of murders with approval. "You hail the advent of the bomb in India as if something had come to India for its good. I say, such journalism is a curse to the country". Tilak was sent to Mandalay from 1908 to 1914. While imprisoned, he continued to read and write, further developing his ideas on the Indian nationalist movement. While in the prison he wrote the Gita Rahasya. Many copies of which were sold, and the money was donated for the Indian Independence movement.

Life after Mandalay

Tilak developed diabetes during his sentence in Mandalay prison. This and the general ordeal of prison life had mellowed him at his release on 16 June 1914. When World War I started in August of that year, Tilak cabled the King-Emperor George V of his support and turned his oratory to find new recruits for war efforts. He welcomed The Indian Councils Act, popularly known as Minto-Morley Reforms, which had been passed by British Parliament in May 1909, terming it as "a marked increase of confidence between the Rulers and the Ruled". It was his conviction that acts of violence actually diminished, rather than hastening, the pace of political reforms. He was eager for reconciliation with Congress and had abandoned his demand for direct action and settled for agitations "strictly by constitutional means" – a line that had long been advocated by his rival Gokhale. Tilak reunited with his fellow nationalists and rejoined the Indian National Congress during the Lucknow pact 1916. .

Tilak tried to convince Mohandas Gandhi to leave the idea of Total non-violence ("Total Ahimsa") and try to get self-rule ("Swarajya") by all means. Though Gandhi did not entirely concur with Tilak on the means to achieve self-rule and was steadfast in his advocacy of satyagraha, he appreciated Tilak's services to the country and his courage of conviction. After Tilak lost a civil suit against Valentine Chirol and incurred pecuniary loss, Gandhi even called upon Indians to contribute to the Tilak Purse Fund started with the objective of defraying the expenses incurred by Tilak.

All India Home Rule League

Tilak helped found the All India Home Rule League in 1916–18, with G. S. Khaparde and Annie Besant. After years of trying to reunite the moderate and radical factions, he gave up and focused on the Home Rule League, which sought self-rule. Tilak travelled from village to village for support from farmers and locals to join the movement towards self-rule. Tilak was impressed by the Russian Revolution, and expressed his admiration for Vladimir Lenin. The league had 1400 members in April 1916, and by 1917 membership had grown to approximately 32,000. Tilak started his Home Rule League in Maharashtra, Central Provinces, and Karnataka and Berar region. Besant's League was active in the rest of India.

Thoughts and views

Religio-Political Views
Tilak sought to unite the Indian population for mass political action throughout his life. For this to happen, he believed there needed to be a comprehensive justification for anti-British pro-Hindu activism. For this end, he sought justification in the supposed original principles of the Ramayana and the Bhagavad Gita. He named this call to activism karma-yoga or the yoga of action. In his interpretation, the Bhagavad Gita reveals this principle in the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna when Krishna exhorts Arjuna to fight his enemies (which in this case included many members of his family) because it is his duty. In Tilak's opinion, the Bhagavad Gita provided a strong justification of activism. However, this conflicted with the mainstream exegesis of the text at the time which was dominated by renunciate views and the idea of acts purely for God. This was represented by the two mainstream views at the time by Ramanuja and Adi Shankara. To find support for this philosophy, Tilak wrote his own interpretations of the relevant passages of the Gita and backed his views using Jnanadeva's commentary on the Gita, Ramanuja's critical commentary and his own translation of the Gita. His main battle was against the renunciate views of the time which conflicted with worldly activism. To fight this, he went to great lengths to reinterpret words such as karma, dharma and yoga, as well as the concept of renunciation itself. Because he founded his rationalization on Hindu religious symbols and lines, he alienated many non-Hindus such as the Muslims who began to ally with the British for support.

Social views against women
Tilak was strongly opposed to liberal trends emerging in Pune such as women's rights and social reforms against untouchability. Tilak vehemently opposed the establishment of the first Native girls High school (now called Huzurpaga) in Pune in 1885 and its curriculum using his newspapers, the Mahratta and Kesari. Tilak was also opposed to intercaste marriage, particularly the match where an upper caste woman married a lower caste man. In the case of Deshasthas, Chitpawans and Karhades, he encouraged these three Maharashtrian Brahmin groups to give up "caste exclusiveness" and intermarry. Tilak officially opposed the age of consent bill which raised the age of marriage from ten to twelve for girls, however he was willing to sign a circular that increased age of marriage for girls to sixteen and twenty for boys.

Child bride Rukhmabai was married at the age of eleven but refused to go and live with her husband. The husband sued for restitution of conjugal rights, initially lost but appealed the decision. On 4 March 1887, Justice Farran, using interpretations of Hindu laws, ordered Rukhmabai to "go live with her husband or face six months of imprisonment". Tilak approved of this decision of the court and said that the court was following Hindu Dharmaśāstras. Rukhmabai responded that she would rather face imprisonment than obey the verdict. Her marriage was later dissolved by Queen Victoria. Later, she went on to receive her Doctor of Medicine degree from the London School of Medicine for Women.

In 1890, when an eleven-year-old Phulamani Bai died while having sexual intercourse with her much older husband, the Parsi social reformer Behramji Malabari supported the Age of Consent Act, 1891 to raise the age of a girl's eligibility for marriage. Tilak opposed the  Bill and said that the Parsis as well as the English had no jurisdiction over the (Hindu) religious matters. He blamed the girl for having "defective female organs" and questioned how the husband could be "persecuted diabolically for doing a harmless act". He called the girl one of those "dangerous freaks of nature". Tilak did not have a progressive view when it came to gender relations. He did not believe that Hindu women should get a modern education. Rather, he had a more conservative view, believing that women were meant to be homemakers who had to subordinate themselves to the needs of their husbands and children. Tilak refused to sign a petition for the abolition of untouchability in 1918, two years before his death, although he had spoken against it earlier in a meeting.

Esteem for Swami Vivekananda
Tilak and Swami Vivekananda had great mutual respect and esteem for each other. They met accidentally while travelling by train in 1892 and Tilak had Vivekananda as a guest in his house. A person who was present there(Basukaka), heard that it was agreed between Vivekananda and Tilak that Tilak would work towards nationalism in the "political" arena, while Vivekananda would work for nationalism in the "religious" arena. When Vivekananda died at a young age, Tilak expressed great sorrow and paid tributes to him in the Kesari. Tilak said about Vivekananda:

Conflicts with Shahu over caste issues
Shahu, the ruler of the princely state of Kolhapur, had several conflicts with Tilak as the latter agreed with the Brahmins decision of Puranic rituals for the Marathas that were intended for Shudras. Tilak even suggested that the Marathas should be "content" with the Shudra status assigned to them by the Brahmins. Tilak's newspapers, as well as the press in Kolhapur, criticized Shahu for his caste prejudice and his unreasoned hostility towards Brahmins. These included serious allegations such as sexual assaults by Shahu against four Brahmin women. An English woman named Lady Minto was petitioned to help them. The agent of Shahu had blamed these allegations on the "troublesome brahmins". Tilak and another Brahmin suffered from the confiscation of estates by Shahu, the first during a quarrel between Shahu and the Shankaracharya of Sankareshwar and later in another issue.

Social contributions

Tilak started two weeklies, Kesari ("The Lion") in Marathi and Mahratta in English (sometimes referred as 'Maratha' in Academic Study Books) in 1880–1881 with Gopal Ganesh Agarkar as the first editor. By this he was recognized as 'awakener of India', as Kesari later became a daily and continues publication to this day. In 1894, Tilak transformed the household worshipping of Ganesha into a grand public event (Sarvajanik Ganeshotsav). The celebrations consisted of several days of processions, music, and food. They were organized by the means of subscriptions by neighbourhood, caste, or occupation. Students often would celebrate Hindu and national glory and address political issues; including patronage of Swadeshi goods. In 1895, Tilak founded the Shri Shivaji Fund Committee for the celebration of "Shiv Jayanti", the birth anniversary of Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire. The project also had the objective of funding the reconstruction of the tomb (Samadhi) of Shivaji at Raigad Fort. For this second objective, Tilak established the Shri Shivaji Raigad Smarak Mandal along with Senapati Khanderao Dabhade II of Talegaon Dabhade, who became the founder President of the Mandal.

The events like the Ganapati festival and Shiv Jayanti were used by Tilak to build a national spirit beyond the circle of the educated elite in opposition to colonial rule. But it also exacerbated Hindu-Muslim differences. The festival organizers would urge Hindus to protect cows and boycott the Muharram celebrations organized by Shi'a Muslims, in which Hindus had formerly often participated. Thus, although the celebrations were meant to be a way to oppose colonial rule, they also contributed to religious tensions. Contemporary Marathi Hindu nationalist parties like the Shiv Sena took up his reverence for Shivaji. However, Indian Historian, Uma Chakravarti cites Professor Gordon Johnson and states "It is significant that even at the time when Tilak was making political use of Shivaji the question of conceding Kshatriya status to him as Maratha was resisted by the conservative Brahmins including Tilak. While Shivaji was a Brave man, all his bravery, it was argued, did not give him the right to a status that very nearly approached that of a Brahmin. Further, the fact that Shivaji worshiped the Brahmanas in no way altered social relations, 'since it was as a Shudra he did it – as a Shudra the servant, if not the slave, of the Brahmin'".

The Deccan Education Society that Tilak founded with others in the 1880s still runs Institutions in Pune like the Fergusson College. The Swadeshi movement started by Tilak at the beginning of the 20th century became part of the Independence movement until that goal was achieved in 1947. One can even say Swadeshi remained part of Indian Government policy until the 1990s when the Congress Government liberalised the economy. Tilak said, "I regard India as my Motherland and my Goddess, the people in India are my kith and kin, and loyal and steadfast work for their political and social emancipation is my highest religion and duty".

Books
In 1903, Tilak wrote the book The Arctic Home in the Vedas. In it, he argued that the Vedas could only have been composed in the Arctics, and the Aryan bards brought them south after the onset of the last ice age. He proposed a new way to determine the exact time of the Vedas. In The Orion, he tried to calculate the time of the Vedas by using the position of different Nakshatras. The positions of the Nakshtras were described in different Vedas. Tilak wrote Shrimadh Bhagvad Gita Rahasya in prison at Mandalay – the analysis of Karma Yoga in the Bhagavad Gita, which is known to be a gift of the Vedas and the Upanishads.

Descendants
Tilak's son, Shridhar Tilak campaigned for removal of untouchability in late 1920s with dalit leader, Dr. Ambedkar. Both were leaders of the multi-caste Samata sangh. Shridhar's son, Jayantrao Tilak (1921–2001) was editor of the Kesari newspaper for many years. Jayantrao was also a politician from the Congress party. He was a member of the Parliament of India representing Maharashtra in the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian Parliament. He was also a member of the Maharashtra Legislative Council.

Rohit Tilak, a descendant of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, is a Pune-based Congress party politician. In 2017, a woman with whom he had an extra-marital affair accused him of rape and other crimes. He was released on bail in connection with these charges.

Legacy

On 28 July 1956, a portrait of B. G. Tilak was put in the Central Hall of Parliament House, New Delhi. The portrait of Tilak, painted by Gopal Deuskar, was unveiled by the then Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru.

Tilak Smarak Ranga Mandir, a theatre auditorium in Pune is dedicated to him. In 2007, the Government of India released a coin to commemorate the 150th birth anniversary of Tilak. The formal approval of the government of Burma was received for the construction of clafs-cum-lecture hall in the Mandalay prison as a memorial to Lokmanya Tilak.  were given by the Indian Government and  by the local Indian community in Burma.

Several Indian films have been made on his life, including: the documentary films Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1951) and Lokmanya Tilak (1957) both by Vishram Bedekar, Lokmanya: Ek Yugpurush (2015) by Om Raut, and The Great Freedom Fighter Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak – Swaraj My Birthright (2018) by Vinay Dhumale.

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

External links

1856 births
1920 deaths
People from Ratnagiri
Marathi-language writers
English-language writers from India
Marathi people
Indian revolutionaries
Indian Hindus
19th-century Indian writers
Hindu writers
Hindu reformers
Swadeshi activists
Hindu nationalism
Indian nationalists
Indian social reformers
Indian independence activists from Maharashtra
20th-century Indian writers
Writers from Maharashtra
Translators of the Bhagavad Gita
Founders of Indian schools and colleges
Activists from Maharashtra
Prisoners and detainees of British India

Bal Gangadhar Tilak


Behnam () is an Iranian / Persian masculine given name or family name, which translates as "distinguished, honorable, reputable, or acclaimed".

The name is composed of two parts: bih (به, meaning "good" or "best") and nâm (نام, meaning "name or reputation").

Given name
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Surname
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Persian masculine given names
Masculine given names

Behnam


The Pharmaceutical Price Regulation Scheme (PPRS) is the mechanism used by the UK Department of Health to ensure that the NHS has access to good quality branded medicines at reasonable prices. It involves a non-contractual agreement between the UK Department of Health and The Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry (ABPI). The scheme applies to all branded, licensed medicines available on the NHS. The purpose of the scheme is to achieve a balance between reasonable prices for the NHS and a fair return for the pharmaceutical industry.

The current PPRS scheme, using a value-based pricing mechanism, came into effect on 1 January 2014, to run for no less than five years. It replaced an earlier scheme running from 2009 to 2013.

In December 2014 Hoffmann-La Roche successfully appealed against a decision of the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence appraisal committee in respect of Kadcyla on the basis that it should have considered that under the scheme, the industry had agreed to cap growth in the drugs bill to 0–1.9% a year for the next five years. Roche said this had "fundamentally changed" the nature of how NICE should consider cost effectiveness.

On 23 August 2017, the UK Government launched a consultation relating to the PPRS, following legislation that was recently passed.

Purpose and objectives
As the primary buyer of medicines in the UK, the Department of Health has an interest in ensuring medicines are available at reasonable prices. However it is also important that pharmaceutical companies, represented by the ABPI, are able to maintain sufficient levels of profit and competitiveness to enable them to invest in sustained research and development. The 2009 PPRS agreement outlines its primary objectives as to:
 Deliver value for money
 Encourage innovation
 Promote access and uptake for new medicines
 Provide stability, sustainability and predictability

Patient access schemes

The 2009 PPRS agreement allows for patient access schemes. These allow for the provision of a drug which would not otherwise be supported by NICE and available on the NHS due to insufficient evidence of its cost-effectiveness. Patient access schemes can be either financially based or outcome-based. Financially based schemes are where the company does not alter the list price of the drug but offers discounts or rebates linked to numbers or types of patients treated, response of patients treated, or the number of doses required. Or, alternatively, the company may alter the list price. Outcome-based schemes take place when a company agrees to a later increase in price, or a rebate, once the value of the drug has been proven. Alternatively risk-sharing agreements can be put in place whereby outcomes are measured and price adjustments take place accordingly.

References

Pharmaceutical industry in the United Kingdom
Pharmaceuticals policy
Pharmacy in the United Kingdom
National Health Service

Pharmaceutical Price Regulation Scheme


Lui (; ) is a French adult-entertainment magazine created in November 1963 by Daniel Filipacchi, a fashion photographer turned publisher, Jacques Lanzmann, a jack of all trades turned novelist, and Frank Ténot, a press agent, pataphysician and jazz critic.

The objective was to bring some charm "à la française" to the market of men's magazines, following the success of Playboy in the United States, launched just a decade before.

France, indeed, in the first half of 20th century had an outstanding reputation for erotic publications, feeding also foreign market and inspiring also ersatz French-flavoured magazines abroad, when, for example, US publishers used French-sounding titles like Chère and Dreamé or placed tricolour flags on the covers, attempting to attract the casual buyer. It was anyway a semi-clandestine circulating material, not allowed to be freely displayed or openly bought. In this sense Playboy changed the way 'soft pornography' (become more respectfully 'adult entertainment'), can be publicly circulated.

This magazine was particularly successful from its origins to the early 1980s, but afterwards it began a long decline. It was published regularly until November 1987 (the final issue of this first series was the number 285). After 1987 there was a further attempt to relaunch the title but the publication ceased again in 1994. Passed into the hands of the media group of Michel Birnbaum, after a transient stimulus, it became a pornographic magazine with episodic dissemination. It was published every three months.

After the purchase of the title by Jean-Yves Le Fur, Lui was relaunched on 5 September 2013 as a high-end magazine with Frédéric Beigbeder at its helm.

Lui published by Filipacchi group (1963–1994)

First series (1963–1987)
This magazine successful recipe was combining content with depth articles and beautiful naked women, featuring many B-List but also celebrities, often prominent French actresses, such as Brigitte Bardot, Mireille Darc, Jane Birkin or Marlène Jobert.

It featured a monthly pin-up by Aslan. The first girl to pose on the cover was Valérie Lagrange (the number 1 appeared on 11 January 1963) photographed by Francis Giacobetti, future director of the soft-core movie Emmanuelle 2.

The magazine hosted also a cartoon by Lauzier: Les Sextraordinaires Aventures de Zizi et Peter Panpan. Among the first collaborators are Jean-Louis Bory, René Chateau, Philippe Labro, Francis Dumoulin, Francis Giacobetti, Siné, Michel Mardore, Gilles Sandier and many others.

The magazine motto was Lui, le magazine de l'homme moderne (The Magazine of the Modern Man). In the beginning, it had also a mascot, a cat's head, similarly to the magazine Playboy Bunny, but it disappeared in the early 1970s.

Second series (1987–1994)
The second series was published by the Filipacchi group from 1987 to 1994. It has been published 69 numbers. Its editor was Stéphane de Rosnay in 1989, Brice Couturier 1990 to 1992.

Initially, its specificity (compared to the first series) was that it was published in a two separate books, but from number 27, ""Lui"" returned to be a single book magazine with the new slogan "Le magazine de l'homme civilisé" (The Magazine of civilized man).

The circulation that was in early 1980 of 350,000 copies dropped to 70,000 copies in 1993. In early 1993, the magazine abandoned the monthly release and became bimonthly. The Filipacchi group stopped publication in June 1994.

Lui published by Michel Birnbaum (1995–2010)

Le Nouveau Lui (1995–1997)
The title was used again from 1995 to 1997 (14 issues) and named Le Nouveau Lui by Michel Birnbaum, a radiotherapist physician turned publisher as founder and owner of the holding company Altinea, specializing in magazines about vintage cars. The goal was to return to the roots (and success) of the original publication, intending a more glamour-oriented publication. The coverage of the first issue was dedicated to Miss Agnes. The magazine was again released as a monthly issue and the design of the title was upgraded. For the first time, the cover picture was devoted to one man alone, without an accompanying female model. This attempt to revive the magazine failed, with the final issue published in February 1997 with Eva Herzigová as the cover girl.

Lui pornographic magazine (2001–2010)
The magazine published quarterly from 2001 to 2010 had a pornographic nature. Its slogan was "L'officiel de la photo de charme" or (as on the online edition) "Le charme des filles d'aujourd hui." It was published by the company 1633, whose president and sole shareholder was Michel Birnbaum. Patrick Guérinet was the managing editor until July 2010, when he was succeeded by Francis Guillebon.

Lui published by Jean-Yves Le Fur (2013– )
The magazine was relaunched in 2013 with Léa Seydoux as its first cover girl. Its editor-in-chief was Frédéric Beigbeder.
In March 2017, the magazine went from monthly to quarterly and Frédéric Taddeï succeeded Frédéric Beigbeder as its editor-in-chief.
Covergirls since the first issue have (as of January 2016) included Rihanna, Gisele Bundchen, Rita Ora, Monica Bellucci, Alessandra Ambrosio, Virginie Ledoyen, Naomi Campbell, Kate Moss, Jourdan Dunn, Carolyn Murphy, Joan Smalls, and others. With the exception of Bellucci who appeared semi-clothed, all have appeared topless or fully naked inside their issues.

National editions
 French edition (1963 – )
 German edition (1977–1992)
 Italian edition (1970–1986?)
 Spanish edition (1977–1978?)
 Brazilian edition (1976–?)
 American edition (1972–2007) as Oui

See also
 List of Lui magazine cover models

Notes and references

External links

1963 establishments in France
French-language magazines
Men's magazines published in France
Magazines established in 1963
Monthly magazines published in France
Pornographic men's magazines

Lui


The prison–industrial complex is a term for the relationship between the government and businesses and how prisons are involved.  Some sources say the government makes sure that many people are locked up in prison to provide cheap workers for businesses. It is similar to the term military–industrial complex.

It is an expression used to describe the overlapping interests of government and industry that use surveillance, policing and imprisonment as solutions to economic, social and political problems.

The United States has the largest prison population in the world. Many of those prisons are private prisons run by companies rather than the government.

Prisons
Politics

Prison–industrial complex


Crockford's Clerical Directory (Crockford) is the authoritative directory of Anglican clergy and churches in the United Kingdom and Ireland, containing details of English, Welsh, Scottish and Irish benefices and churches, and biographies of around 26,000 clergy in those countries as well as the Church of England Diocese in Europe in other countries. It was first issued in 1858 by John Crockford, a London printer and publisher.

Crockford is currently compiled and published for the Archbishops' Council by Church House Publishing.  It covers in detail the whole of the Church of England (including the Diocese in Europe), the Church in Wales, the Scottish Episcopal Church, and the Church of Ireland, and it also gives some information – now more limited – about the world-wide Anglican Communion.

Previous publishers

The title of the first edition was simply The Clerical Directory, but a footnote showed that it was published by John Crockford, 29 Essex Street, the Strand.  The original publisher died suddenly in 1865, shortly before the appearance of the third edition of what had by then become Crockford's Clerical Directory.  For many subsequent issues the volumes were anonymously edited, but they were published under the imprint of Horace Cox – the nephew of John Crockford's closest business associate, solicitor and publisher Edward William Cox (1809Ω–1879).  (His family was probably quite unrelated to the Charles Cox who coincidentally was the publisher of Crockfords chief rival, the Clergy List.) Horace Cox died in 1918 and the title was subsequently sold in 1921 to the Oxford University Press, who continued as publishers until the early 1980s. For the 1985/86 issue, publication was transferred to the Church Commissioners and their Central Board of Finance (who worked from their own administrative lists and databases). The publication is now collated by Church House Publishing.

Frequency of publication
The first four issues came out in 1858, 1860 (with a supplement in 1861), 1865  and 1868. Crockford then reappeared biennially until 1876, when it began being published annually until 1917. The next issue was a delayed 1918/19 edition, which had for the first time incorporated its main rival publication, the Clergy List. Further issues appeared for 1920 and 1921/22; then between 1923 and 1927 and 1929–1940 the directory reappeared annually, followed by more late issues in 1941 and 1947/48. Since that time Crockford has generally appeared every two years, although gradually worsening delays meant that the 87th and 88th editions were dated 1977/79 and 1980/82, and the book failed to appear at all during 1983/84. Biennial publication was once again resumed in 1985/86, although the volume issued late in 1997 was designated the 1998/99 edition. The 100th edition – eventually published for 2008/09 – included within its hardback version a few facsimile pages from the first edition, together with an extended historical note describing some of the earlier volumes.

The 1858 edition was later described as seemingly "assembled in a very haphazard fashion, with names added 'as fast as they could be obtained', out of alphabetical order and with an unreliable index". But nevertheless the 1860 directory "had become a very much more useful work of reference".  However, the original volume was actually a consolidation of what in 1857 had been conceived as a mere series of supplements to an entirely different publication, the Clerical Journal.  The editors explained in the preface that they wished it to be understood that it was "but the foundation of a great work which, with the Cordial aid of the clergy, we shall hope to make more and more perfect every year".

Scope of the directory

The 1858 issue was based on postal returns from the clergy in England and Wales, involving an outlay – as the preface pointed out – of "more than Five Hundred Pounds for Postage Stamps alone".  Simpler lists for the Scottish Episcopal Church and for a number of colonial clergy – obtained from alternative sources – had been added by the 1865 edition, whilst details of Irish clergy had also been extracted from Alexander Thom's Irish Almanack and Official Directory.  From the 1870s onwards the scope was progressively extended to all parts of the Anglican communion with the notable exception of the Episcopal Church (United States).  The 1870 edition contained 940 pages, but this had increased to over 2,100 pages by 1892.

The earliest editions had also gradually added some details of diocesan office holders and administrators, together with the theological colleges, and the royal chapels.  They also acquired much fuller indexes – along with outline maps of dioceses, and increasingly complete lists of bishops, dating right back to the earliest years of their sees.  They further offered to all clergy an opportunity to list their publications, although these lists eventually had to be cut back as their overall length started to increase dramatically.

By the early 1980s severe economies had become necessary and 1985/86 edition had to be restricted to the "home" churches of England, Scotland and Wales.  Retired clergy were temporarily restricted to just a few details of their final appointment, although it became possible to restore the Irish clergy in time for the 1987/88 edition.  Later editions saw a further return of the retired clergy, together with details of those overseas clergy who had originally been licensed or trained in the UK, or who occupied senior positions within their respective church hierarchies.  Details which had also become obtainable from the Church of England Yearbook or from similar sources were generally excluded. For a time too clergy who made their livings though secular jobs were excluded from the biographies section, with the abbreviation NQ (Non-Qualifying Position) being used to cover such periods when clerics returned to parish work and were again eligible for inclusion. In that many such clergy retained diocesan licences or episcopal "Permissions to Officiate" during their periods of secular employment, this approach may have caused a degree of difficulty for clerics who needed to prove their clerical status.

By 1985/86 the first women deacons were being included (although women priests ordained in Hong Kong were included even in the 1970s) while other more recent innovations – from the 1990s onwards – have included optional email addresses, together with lists of those clergy who have died since the previous edition.  Notes on "How to Address the Clergy" have been retained. A small number of clergy have been excluded at their own request, or have allowed their biographies to appear minus a contact address.  The Church Commissioners soon replaced the traditional black hardback bindings in favour of red and also introduced a separate softback alternative version.

Since 2004 there has also been a frequently updated Internet edition of Crockford, which is available by subscription. More recently the directory has also joined in with social networking, operating a Twitter account since 2012.

An alternative to the main work, Crockford's Shorter Directory, focused almost entirely on the Church of England and omitting all past biographical details, was issued as a single edition in 1953–54.

Prefaces
The well-known tradition of having an extensive but anonymous preface offering a general review of events within the Anglican Communion – together with some occasionally sharp and controversial commentary – evolved gradually during the early part of the 20th century. Previous prefaces had tended to be much briefer and they had often been limited merely to explaining the directory's in-house policies. After the events following the publication of the 1987/88 edition, which had ended with the death by suicide of the Revd Gareth Bennett, this tradition of the anonymous preface was discontinued.

An anthology, Crockford Prefaces: The Editor Looks Back, anonymously edited by Richard Henry Malden and covering the previous 25 years, was published by the Oxford University Press in 1947.

Locating previous issues
County libraries each have their own policies, but there are good collections in a number of major academic and ecclesiastical libraries, including Cambridge University Library, Lambeth Palace Library, Canterbury Cathedral Library, Palace Green Library, Durham, York Minster Library, the Guildhall Library and the Society of Genealogists.

Besides the 1865 reprint, a small number of early editions have been reissued in CD format by various publishers, including Archive CD Books.  Scanned copies of other early editions have also begun to appear on the World Wide Web.

Crockford references in fiction
Crockford is referenced in Dorothy Sayers's 1927 detective novel Unnatural Death (chapter XI) where Lord Peter Wimsey uses "this valuable work of reference" in trying to trace a clergyman who is important for solving the book's mystery.

Another fictional character holding Crockford on his bookshelves was Sherlock Holmes, who during one of his final short stories ("The Adventure of the Retired Colourman"), consulted his copy before dispatching his colleague Dr Watson, together with another companion, to a distant part of Essex. There they interviewed "a big solemn rather pompous clergyman" who received them angrily in his study.

Holmes also describes to Mary Russell that he used Crockford to research the preacher Margery Childe, in Laurie R. King's A Monstrous Regiment of Women.

The character Dulcie Mainwaring prefers Crockford's format to Who's Who while reflecting on researching in the Public Record Office in London in Barbara Pym's No Fond Return of Love.

In a chapter entitled The Visitor in the Night by Freeman Wills Crofts of the book The Floating Admiral, Inspector Rudge looks up the background of Reverend Mount in a Crockford's.

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

External links

 Church House Publishing, official C of E publisher

Free downloads of some past directories
1865 version in Google Play
 1868 version at archive.org
 1949/50 version at archive.org
 1961/62 version at archive.org
 1967/68 version at archive.org
 1980/82 version at archive.org

Directories
Church of England
Church in Wales
Scottish Episcopal Church
Anglicanism

Crockford's Clerical Directory


Mansour (, Manṣūr); also spelled Mounsor, Monsur (Bengali), Mansoor, Manser, Mansur, Mansyur (Indonesian) or Mensur (Turkish), is a male Arabic name that means "He who is victorious", from  the Arabic root naṣr (نصر), meaning "victory."

The first known bearer of the name was Mansur ibn Sarjun, Byzantine governor of Damascus in the late 500s and early 600s, who surrendered the city to the Moslems in 635.

Other people called Mansur include, during the golden Age of Islam:
 Al-Mansur, second Abbasid caliph and the founder of Baghdad.
 Ismail al-Mansur, third ruler of the Fatimid dynasty ruled from 946 to 953.
 Mansur Al-Hallaj, Persian mystic, writer, and teacher of Sufism
 Almanzor, 10th-century ruler of al-Andalus
 Mansur ibn Ilyas, Timurid physician
 Mansur Khan (Moghul Khan), a khan of Moghulistan
 Mansur Shah of Malacca, a sultan of Malacca
 Mansur I of Samanid and Mansur II of Samanid, amirs of the Samanids
 Mansur ad-Din of Adal, 15th-century sultan of Adal.

Imams of Yemen
 Al-Mansur Yahya (d. 976)
 Al-Mansur Abdallah (1166-1217)
 Al-Mansur al-Hasan (1199–1271)
 Al-Mansur an-Nasir (d. 1462)
 Al-Mansur Muhammad, Imam of Yemen (1441-1505)
 Al-Mansur al-Husayn  (1669 - 1720)
 Al-Mansur Ali I (1738-1809)
 Al-Mansur Ahmad (d. 1853)
 Al-Mansur Ali II, Imam of Yemen (1812 - 1871)
 Al-Mansur al-Husayn III (d.1888)

Modern given name
Mansur or Mansour is used in Turkic languages, Iranian languages and Arabic, while the transliteration Mansoor is typically used by South Asians, and Mensur is used in the Bosnian language.

Mansur
 Mansur Yavaş, Turkish politician and the mayor of Ankara
 Sheikh Mansur, Chechen leader against Catherine the Great's Russia
 Mansur Mozaffarov, Russian Tatar composer and pedagogue
 Mansur Abdulin, Soviet memoirist and soldier

Mensur
 Mensur Akgün, Turkish scholar
 Mensur Bajramović, Bosnian basketball coach
 Mensur Suljović, professional darts player
 Mensur Kurtiši, Macedonian association football player

Mansoor
 Mansoor Abdullah, Singaporean convicted murderer
 Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi, Indian cricketer
 Mansoor Al-Shehail, Saudi Arabian professional wrestler
 Mansoor Ahmed, Pakistani hockey player
 Mansoor Akhtar, Pakistani cricketer
 Mansoor Amjad, Pakistani  cricketer
 Mansoor Hekmat, Iranian political theorist and activist
 Mansoor Ijaz, American commentator and businessman
 Mansoor Muhammed Ali Qattaa, Saudi Arabian held in detention in the United States' Guantanamo Bay detention camps
 Mansoor Khan, Pakistani film maker
 Mullah Bakht Mohammed, military commander for Afghanistan's Taliban known as Mansoor Dadullah
 Mansoor Muftah, Qatari football player
 Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi, nawab of Bengal
 Mansoor Zaman, Pakistani professional squash player

Mansour
 Mansour (singer), Iranian singer
 Mansour Abbas, Arab-Israeli politician
 Mansour F. Armaly, Palestinian-American physician and researcher
 Mansour al-Balawi, Saudi Arabian businessman
 Mansour Bahrami, Iranian tennis player
 Mansour el-Essawi (1937–2023), Egyptian politician
 Mansour Hassan (1937–2012), Egyptian politician
 Mansour Leghaei, Iranian Shia Imam and Founder of the Imam Husain Islamic Centre
 Mansour Matloubi, Iranian professional poker player
 Mansour Moalla (born 1930), Tunisian economist and politician
 Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan, member of the ruling family of Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates
 Mansour Nariman, Iranian oud player and composer
 Mansour Osanlou, Iranian trade union activist
 Mansour Rahbani, Lebanese composer, musician, and producer
 Mansour Rouhani, Iranian politician
 Mansour bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Saudi royal and politician
 Mansour bin Mutaib Al Saud, Saudi royal and politician
 Mansour bin Muqrin Al Saud (1974–2017), Saudi royal
 Mansour bin Nasser Al Saud (born 1959), Saudi royal
 Mansour bin Saud Al Saud, Saudi royal and businessman
 Mansour Seck, Senegalese singer and musician
 Mansour Al-Thagafi, Saudi Arabian footballer
 Mansour Zalzal, Abbasid musician and composer

Similar
 Almanzo Wilder, American farmer, whose first name is a form of al-Manṣūr.
 Mansurul Haq, Pakistani admiral and Chief of Naval Staff of the Pakistan Navy
 Mancur Olson, American economist and political scientist
 Mansyur S., Indonesian Dangdut singer

Surname

Mansour
 Adly Mansour, Egyptian politian and acting President in 2014
 Adnan Mansour, Lebanese diplomat and politician
 Agnes Mary Mansour, American political figure and former nun
 Ahmed Subhy Mansour, Egyptian cleric, founder of the Quranist group
 Akhtar Mohammad Mansour (1968–2016), leader of the Taliban, in Afghanistan
 Amal Mansour (1950–2018), Palestinian-Jordanian author and translator
 Amir Mansour, American professional boxer
 Eli Mansour, American rabbi, author/writer
 Gueye Mansour, Senegalese footballer
 Hend Al-Mansour, Saudi Arabian-American artist
 Josh Mansour, Australian Rugby League player
 Joyce Mansour, British born Egyptian Surrealist poet who also wrote in French
 Mustafa Mansour, Egyptian footballer
 Ramadan Abdel Rehim Mansour, Egyptian street gang leader and serial killer
 Reda Mansour (born 1965), Israeli writer, historian and diplomat
 Richard Mansour, better known as Dick Dale, Lebanese-American guitarist
 Shadia Mansour, British born Palestinian singer
 Sliman Mansour, Palestinian painter
 Toufik Mansour, Israeli mathematician

Mansoor
 Belal Mansoor Ali, Bahraini runner from Kenya
 Ghulam Mansoor, Subedar major, Bhopal state
 M. A. Mansoor, Egyptian antiquarian
 Maghfoor Mansoor, Pakistani native who was a fugitive in the United States
 Misha Mansoor, American musician and founder of the Progressive Metal band Periphery
 Peter Mansoor, Palestinian American Army colonel, executive officer to Gen. Petraeus during Iraq War troop surge of 2007
 Shoaib Mansoor, Pakistani film producer, director, writer, lyricist, and composer

Mansur
 Ali Mansur, prime minister of Iran
 Hassan-Ali Mansur, Iranian politician and prime minister
 João Mansur, Brazilian politician and governor of Lebanese descent
 Jossy Mansur, Aruban newspaper editor of Lebanese descent
 Mallikarjun Mansur, Indian classical singer
 Muhammad Mansur Ali, Bangladeshi politician and prime minister
 Sheikh Mukhtar Robow, leader and spokesman for Somalia's al-Shabaab known as Abu Mansur
 Ustad Mansur, Mughal painter from India

Similar
 Michael A. Monsoor, United States Navy SEAL and Medal of Honor recipient

See also
 Al-Mansur (disambiguation)
 Manzur, a similar sounding yet unrelated name
 Mansura (disambiguation)
 Mansurnagar Union

Arabic-language masculine given names
Bosniak masculine given names
Turkish masculine given names
Masculine given names

Mansur


The Silver Kiss is a young adult, romance and horror novel written by Annette Curtis Klause; it is printed in hardcover and paperback versions. The novel was Klause's first; it was published on September 1, 1990, and was re-issued in 2009 with two bonus short stories by Klause. The Silver Kiss was inspired by Klause's poems and her teenage fantasy about romancing with a vampire. It is set in a suburban area in Seattle, in the early 1990s and explores themes of belonging, death, and loss through the romance between a young woman—Zoë Sutcliff—and Simon, an English vampire who was turned since he was a nineteen-year-old youth. During the story, Zoë's mother is in hospital dying from cancer. Zoë and Simon come to terms with their own mortality and the loss of their loved ones through their growing relationship and their battle with an evil vampire named Christopher.

The novel is a coming-of-age drama in which the characters must confront their fear of death and challenge their notions of it. Klause uses the horror genre to examine different types of horror such as terminal illness, spiritual horror in the form of vampires, and personal loss.

The Silver Kiss received numerous accolades; it was selected as Best Book of the Year Honor Book (1990) by Michigan Library Association, Best Books by School Library Journal  (1990), and  Best Books for Young Adults (1991) by American Library Association.

Plot
Zoë Sutcliff is a young woman who experiences the slow death of her mother, Anne Sutcliff, and the dislocation of her father, Harry Sutcliff. She turns to her sole friend Lorraine, who cannot provide emotional support for Zoë. Lorraine moves to Oregon with her father and stepmother, leaving Zoë completely alone. On the news, there are reports of women being killed in Zoë's area, whose throats are slashed and drained of blood.

While walking in a park, Zoë meets Simon and begins a friendship with him; they eventually develop a mutual romantic attraction until one night she catches him eating a pigeon. He later tells her the truth of his origin, namely that he is a vampire from 17th-century England, and he is seeking to kill Christopher—his own brother—who looks like a six-year-old albino but is a sadistic version of what Simon could become. He reveals that Christopher is Zoë's neighborhood's throat-slashing killer, and his brother was also responsible for the murder of their mother and his vampirism; hence, he wants retribution against his brother. Prior to Simon's revelations, Lorraine was almost killed by Christopher when he attempted to lure her into an alley until Zoë reached her in time; Zoë now realizes that she has met the childlike vampire before and inadvertently saved her friend's life by interfering. Skeptical, Zoë allows Simon to feed upon her in a controlled manner to prove his claims.

Simon is entranced by the grief-stricken Zoë and must accept his feelings of fondness for her while trying to control his own nature. His growing attachment to Zoë puts them both at risk because of his feud with Christopher. Zoë tells Lorraine about her feelings for Simon, but does not tell her about him being a vampire. Zoë considers asking Simon to turn her mother into a vampire, but he tells her there is no cure for vampirism and that existence as one is unappealing.

Despite misgivings, Simon approaches Zoë; she lures Christopher into a trap where Simon has the strategic advantage. In a climactic battle, Simon slays Christopher. After the battle, Zoë offers herself to Simon for him to turn into a vampire for companionship. He refuses and, seeking the peace he has been unable to get since his transformation, decides to end his life now that his revenge is complete. Simon spends his final hours with Zoë; they have sex and he dies after exposing himself to sunlight.

Characters
Zoë Sutcliff, the main character; a young woman in her late teenage years.
Simon is a 340-year-old vampire from Bristol, England, and Zoë's love interest.
Lorraine, Zoë's best friend who moves to Oregon with her family.
Anne Sutcliff, Zoë's mother, who is dying of cancer.
Harry Sutcliff, Zoë's argumentative father.
Christopher, Simon's older brother, who is also a vampire.

Bonus stories
The 2009 reissue of The Silver Kiss contains two bonus short stories written by Klause; "The Summer of Love" and "The Christmas Cat".

Reception
The Silver Kiss has been compared
to the successful Twilight series as a vampire romance. The Silver Kiss was written several years before Twilight and has been successful by its own merits. Klause has been said to have successfully integrated "gory details" into a "sensuous and suspenseful story". The novel has been cited in the psychology journal Adolescence as an example of literature that can help adolescents understand death, "enabling them to understand the impact of trauma and identify corrective responses".

According to Publishers Weekly, Klause's use of themes and genres is "excessively ambitious", making "her suspense ... uneven, her love story inadequately rooted and her resolution just a bit pat". The reviewer, however, said Klause's use of the vampire figure and the quality of her prose points to "an intelligent and original eye".

Kathleen Reese of Entertainment Weekly gave the novel a "B+" on an A+ to F scale, and stated the novel is a "complicated story, but Klause tells it skillfully and simply".

External links

 "The Silver Kiss"  on SuperSummary

References

1990 American novels
1990 debut novels
Albinism in popular culture
American fantasy novels
American horror novels
American romance novels
American vampire novels
American young adult novels
Young adult romance novels
Christmas novels
Fiction about shapeshifting
Novels about telepathy
Fratricide in fiction
Ghost novels
Halloween novels
Novels about cancer
Novels about death
Novels about revenge
Novels about serial killers
Novels about siblings
Novels set in Bristol
Novels set in San Francisco
Novels set in Seattle
Novels set in the 1960s
Novels set in the 1990s
Paranormal romance novels
Novels about suicide
Young adult fantasy novels

The Silver Kiss