The Province of Maryland was an English and later British colony in North America that existed from 1632 until 1776, when it joined the other twelve of the Thirteen Colonies in rebellion against Great Britain and became the U.S. state of Maryland. Its first settlement and capital was St. Mary's City, in the southern end of St. Mary's County, which is a peninsula in the Chesapeake Bay and is also bordered by four tidal rivers.

The province began as a proprietary colony granted to the English Lord Baltimore, who wished to create a haven for English Catholics in the New World at the time of the European wars of religion. Although Maryland was an early pioneer of religious toleration in the English colonies, religious strife among Anglicans, Puritans, Catholics, and Quakers was common in the early years, and Puritan rebels briefly seized control of the province. In 1689, the year following the Glorious Revolution, John Coode led a rebellion that removed Lord Baltimore, a Catholic, from power in Maryland. Power in the colony was restored to the Baltimore family in 1715 when Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore, insisted in public that he was a Protestant.

Despite early competition with the colony of Virginia to its south, and the Dutch colony of New Netherland to its north, the Province of Maryland developed along very similar lines to Virginia. Its early settlements and population centers tended to cluster around the rivers and other waterways that empty into the Chesapeake Bay, and, like Virginia, Maryland's economy quickly became centered on the cultivation of tobacco, for sale in Europe. The need for cheap labor, and later the mixed farming economy that developed when tobacco prices collapsed, led to a rapid expansion of indentured servitude, penal transportation, and forcible immigration and enslavement of Africans. Maryland received a larger felon quota than any other province.

The Province of Maryland was an active participant in the events leading up to the American Revolution, and echoed events in New England by establishing committees of correspondence and hosting its own tea party similar to the one that took place in Boston. By 1776 the old order had been overthrown as Maryland citizens signed the Declaration of Independence, forcing the end of British colonial rule.

Origins in the 17th century

Founding charter

The Catholic George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore (1579–1632), former Secretary of State to King Charles I of England, wished to create a haven for English Catholics in the New World. After having visited the Americas and founded a colony in the future Canadian province of Newfoundland called "Avalon", he convinced the King to grant him a second territory in more southern, temperate climes. Upon Baltimore's death in 1632 the grant was transferred to his eldest son Cecil, the 2nd Baron Baltimore.

On June 20, 1632, Charles granted the original charter for Maryland, a proprietary colony of about twelve million acres (49,000 km2), to the 2nd Baron Baltimore. Some historians view this grant as a form of compensation for the 2nd Lord Baltimore's father's having been stripped of his title of Secretary of State upon announcing his Roman Catholicism in 1625. The charter offered no guidelines on religion, although it was assumed that Catholics would not be molested in the new colony.

Whatever the reason for granting the colony specifically to Lord Baltimore, however, the King had practical reasons to create a colony north of the Potomac in 1632. The colony of New Netherland begun by England's great imperial rival in this era, the United Provinces, specifically claimed the Delaware River valley and was vague about its border with Virginia. Charles rejected all the Dutch claims on the Atlantic seaboard, but was anxious to bolster English claims by formally occupying the territory. The new colony was named after the devoutly Catholic Queen Henrietta Maria, by an agreement between the 1st Lord Baltimore and King Charles I.

Colonial Maryland was considerably larger than the present-day State of Maryland. The original charter granted the Calverts a province with a boundary line that started "from the promontory or headland, called Watkin's Point, situate upon the bay aforesaid near the river Wighco on the West, unto the main ocean on the east; and between that boundary on the south, unto that part of the bay of Delaware on the north, which lyeth under the 40th degree of north latitude from the aequinoctial, where New England is terminated."p. 116 The boundary line would then continue westward along the fortieth parallel "unto the true meridian of the first fountain of the river Pattowmack". From there, the boundary continued south to the southern bank of the Potomac River, continue along the southern river bank to the Chesapeake Bay, and "thence by the shortest line unto the aforesaid promontory, or place, called Watkin's Point."p. 38. Based on this deceptively imprecise description of the boundary, the land may have comprised up to , 50% larger than today's State.

Early settlement

In Maryland, Baltimore sought to create a haven for English Catholics and to demonstrate that Catholics and Protestants could live together peacefully, even issuing the Act Concerning Religion in matters of religion. The 1st Lord Baltimore was himself a convert to Catholicism, a considerable political setback for a nobleman in 17th-century England, where Roman Catholics could easily be considered enemies of the crown and potential traitors to their country. Like other aristocratic proprietors, he also hoped to turn a profit on the new colony.

The Calvert family recruited Catholic aristocrats and Protestant settlers for Maryland, luring them with generous land grants and a policy of religious toleration. To try to gain settlers, Maryland used what is known as the headright system, which originated in Jamestown. Settlers were given  of land for each person they brought into the colony, whether as settler, indentured servant, or slave.

Of the 200 or so initial settlers who traveled to Maryland on the ships Ark and Dove, the majority were Protestant. On November 22, 1633, Lord Baltimore sent the first settlers to the new colony, and after a long voyage with a stopover to resupply in Barbados, the Ark and the Dove landed on March 25, 1634 (thereafter celebrated as "Maryland Day"), at Blackistone Island, thereafter known as St. Clement's Island, off the northern shore of the Potomac River, upstream from its confluence with the Chesapeake Bay and Point Lookout. The new settlers were led by Lord Baltimore's younger brother the Honorable Leonard Calvert, whom Baltimore had delegated to serve as governor of the new colony.

  The Native Americans in Maryland were a peaceful people who welcomed the English. At the time of the founding of the Maryland colony, approximately forty tribes consisting of 8,000 – 10,000 people lived in the area. They were fearful of the colonists' guns, but welcomed trade for metal tools. The Native Americans who were living in the location where the colonists first settled were called the Yaocomico Indians. The colonists gave the Yaocomico Indians cloth, hatchets, and hoes in exchange for the right to settle on the land. The Yaocomico Indians allowed the English settlers to live in their houses, a type of longhouse called a witchott. The Indians also taught the colonists how to plant corn, beans, and squash, as well as where to find food such as clams and oysters.

Here at St. Clement's Island they raised a large cross, and led by Jesuit Father Andrew White celebrated Mass. The new settlement was called "St. Mary's City" and it became the first capitol of Maryland. It remained so for sixty years until 1695 when the colony's capital was moved north to the more central, newly established "Anne Arundel's Town (also briefly known as "Providence") and later renamed as "Annapolis".

More settlers soon followed. The tobacco crops that they had planted from the outset were very successful and quickly made the new colony profitable. However, given the incidence of malaria and typhoid, life expectancy in Maryland was about 10 years less than in New England.

"Historic St. Mary's City" (a historic preservationist/tourism agency) has been established to protect what is left of the ruins of the original 17th-century village, and several reconstructed, government buildings, little of which remained intact. With the exception of several periods of rebellion by early Protestants and later colonists, the colony/province remained under the control of the several Lords Baltimore until 1775–1776, when it joined with other colonies in rebellion against Great Britain and eventually became the independent and sovereign U.S. State of Maryland.

Relations with the Susquehannock

The establishment of the Province of Maryland disrupted the trade relationship between Virginia colonists and the Susquehannock, an Iroquoian-speaking tribe that lived in the lower Susquehanna River valley. Following a raid on a Jesuit mission in 1641, the Governor of Maryland declared the Susquehannock "enemies of the province." A few attempts were made to organize a military campaign, however, it was not until 1643 that an ill-fated expedition was mounted. The Susquehannock inflicted numerous casualties on the English and captured two cannon. 15 prisoners were taken and afterwards tortured to death.

 Raids on Maryland continued intermittently until 1652. In the winter of 1652, the Susquehannock were attacked by the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois), and although the attack was repulsed, it led to the Susquehannock negotiating the Articles of Peace and Friendship with Maryland. The Susquehannock relinquished their claim to territory on either side of Chesapeake Bay, and reestablished a trading relationship with the English.

A Haudenosaunee raid in 1660 led Maryland to expand its treaty with the Susquehannock into an alliance. The Maryland assembly authorized armed assistance, and described the Susquehannock as "a Bullwarke and Security of the Northern Parts of this Province." A detachment of 50 soldiers was sent to help defend the Susquehannock town against Haudenosaunee attacks. Despite suffering a smallpox epidemic in 1661, the Susquehannock easily withstood a siege in 1663, and destroyed an Haudenosaunee war party in 1666.

By 1675, epidemics and years of war had taken their toll on the Susquehannock. They abandoned their village on the Susquehanna River and moved south into Maryland. Governor Charles Calvert invited them to settle on the Potomac River above the Great Falls, however, the Susquehannock instead chose to occupy a site on Piscataway Creek where they erected a palisaded fort. In July 1675, a group of Virginians chasing Doeg raiders crossed the Potomac into Maryland and mistakenly killed several Susquehannock. Subsequent raids in Virginia and Maryland were blamed on the tribe. In September 1675, a thousand-man expedition against the Susquehannock was mounted by militia from Virginia and Maryland led by John Washington and Thomas Truman. After arriving at the Susquehannock town, Truman and Washington summoned five sachems to a parley, but then had them summarily executed. Sorties during the ensuing six-week siege resulted in 50 English deaths. In early November, the Susquehannock escaped the siege under cover of darkness, killing ten of the militia as they slept.

Most of Susquehannock crossed the Potomac and took refuge in the Piedmont of Virginia. Two encampments were established on the Meherrin River near the village of the Siouan-speaking Occaneechi. In January 1776, the Susquehannock raided plantations in Virginia, killing 36 colonists. Nathaniel Bacon, unhappy with Governor Sir William Berkeley's response to the raids, organized a volunteer militia to hunt down the Susquehannock. Bacon persuaded the Occaneechi to attack the closest Susquehannock encampment. After the Occaneechi returned with Susquehannock prisoners, Bacon turned on his allies and indiscriminately massacred Occaneechi men, women and children.

Other Susquehannock refugees fled to hunting camps on the North Branch of the Potomac or took refuge with the Lenape. Some refugees returned to the Susquehanna River in 1676 and established a palisaded village near the site of their previous village. This village was also abandoned when the inhabitants merged with the Haudenosaunee a few years later.

Border disputes

With Virginia
In 1629, George Calvert, 1st Lord Baltimore "driven by 'the sacred duty of finding a refuge for his Roman Catholic brethren," applied to Charles I for a royal charter to establish a colony south of Virginia. He also wanted a share of the fortunes being made in tobacco in Virginia, and hoped to recoup some of the financial losses he had sustained in his earlier colonial venture in Newfoundland.

In 1631, William Claiborne a Puritan from Virginia received a royal trading commission granting him the right to trade with the natives on all lands in the mid-Atlantic where there was not already a patent in effect. Claiborne established a trading post on Kent Island on May 28, 1631.

Meanwhile, back in London, the Privy Council persuaded the 1st Lord Baltimore that he be granted a charter for lands north of the Virginia colony, in order to put pressure on the Dutch settlements further north along the Delaware and Hudson Rivers. Calvert agreed, but died in 1632 before the charter was formally signed by King Charles I. The Royal Grant and Charter for the new colony of Maryland was then granted to his son, Cecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, on June 20, 1632. This placed Claiborne on Calvert land. Claiborne refused to recognize Lord Baltimore's charter and rights.

Following the arrest of one of his agents for trading in Maryland waters without a license in 1635, Claiborne fitted out an armed ship, and there ensued a naval battle on April 23, 1635, by the mouth of the Pocomoke River during which 3 Virginians were killed. Following this battle, Leonard Calvert captured Kent Island by force in February 1638.

In 1644, during the English Civil War Claiborne led an uprising of Protestants in what came to be called the Plundering Time, also known as "Claiborne and Ingle's Rebellion" and retook Kent Island. Meanwhile, privateer Captain Richard Ingle (Claiborne's co-commander) seized control of St. Mary's City, the capital of the Maryland colony. Catholic Governor Calvert escaped to the Virginia Colony which remained nominally loyal to the crown until 1652. The Protestant pirates began plundering the property of anyone who did not swear allegiance to the English Parliament, mainly Catholics. The rebellion was put down in 1647 by Governor Calvert.

A Parliamentary victory in England renewed old tensions leading to the Battle of the Severn, now present-day Annapolis, in 1655 between moderate Protestants and Catholics loyal to Lord Baltimore under the command of William Stone and Puritans loyal to the Commonwealth of England from the settlement of "Providence" under the command of Captain William Fuller. 17 of Stones men and two Puritans were killed, resulting in victory for the Puritans.

The issue of the ongoing Claiborne grievance was finally settled by an agreement reached in 1657. Lord Baltimore provided Claiborne amnesty for all of his offenses, Virginia laid aside any claim it had to Maryland territory, and Claiborne was indemnified with extensive land grants in Virginia for his loss of Kent Island.

"Multiple colonial charters, two negotiated settlements by the states in 1785 and 1958, an arbitrated agreement in 1877, and several Supreme Court decisions have defined how Maryland and Virginia would deal with the Potomac River as a boundary line, and shaped the boundary on the Eastern Shore (separating Accomack County in Virginia from Worcester/Somerset counties in Maryland)."

With Pennsylvania

The border dispute with Pennsylvania continued and led to Cresap's War, a conflict between settlers from Pennsylvania and Maryland fought in the 1730s. Hostilities erupted in 1730 with a series of violent incidents prompted by disputes over property rights and law enforcement, and escalated through the first half of the decade, culminating in the deployment of military forces by Maryland in 1736 and by Pennsylvania in 1737. The armed phase of the conflict ended in May 1738 with the intervention of King George II, who compelled the negotiation of a cease-fire. A provisional agreement had been established in 1732.

Maryland lost some of its original territory to Pennsylvania in the 1660s when King Charles II granted the Penn family, owners of Pennsylvania, a tract that overlapped the Calvert family's Maryland grant. For 80 years the powerful Penn and Calvert families had feuded over overlapping Royal grants. Surveyors Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon mapped the Maryland-Pennsylvania border in 1767, setting out the Mason–Dixon line.

With New York
In 1672, Lord Baltimore declared that Maryland included the settlement of Whorekills on the west shore of the Delaware Bay, an area under the jurisdiction of the Province of New York (as the British had renamed New Netherland after taking possession in 1664). A force was dispatched which attacked and captured this settlement. New York could not immediately respond because New York was soon recaptured by the Dutch. This settlement was restored to the Province of New York when New York was recaptured from the Dutch in November, 1674.

Government

The Lords Baltimore

 George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore (1579–1631), Secretary of State under King James I, applied in 1629 for charter to establish a colony in the Mid-Atlantic area of North America, but died five weeks before it was issued.
 Caecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore (1605–1675), inherited both his father's title and his charter, which was granted in 1632. He was named for Sir Robert Cecil, first Earl of Salisbury, principal Secretary of State to Queen Elizabeth, whom Calvert had met during an extended trip to Europe between 1601 and 1603. Rather than go to the colony himself, Baltimore stayed behind in England to deal with the political opposition raised by supporters of the Virginia Colony and sent his next younger brother Leonard in his stead. Caecilius never travelled to Maryland.
 Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore (1637–1715), sailed to Maryland in 1661 as a young man of 24, becoming the first member of the Calvert family to take personal charge of the colony. He was appointed deputy governor by his father and, when the 2nd Lord Baltimore died in 1675, Charles inherited Maryland, becoming governor in his own right. During his tenure the price of tobacco began to decline, causing economic hardship especially among the poor. A hurricane in 1667 devastated the tobacco crop. In 1684, the 3rd Lord Baltimore traveled to England<ref>Princes of Ireland, Planters of Maryland: A Carroll Saga, 1500-1782 Hoffman, Ronald, Princes of Ireland, Planters of Maryland: A Carroll Saga, 1500–1782] Retrieved Jan 24 2010</ref> in regard to a border dispute with William Penn. He never returned to Maryland. In his absence the Protestant Revolution of 1689 took control of the colony. That year the family's royal charter was also withdrawn, and Maryland became a Royal Colony.

 Benedict Calvert, 4th Baron Baltimore (1679–1715) understood that the chief impediment to the restoration of his family's title to Maryland was the question of religion. In 1713 he converted to Anglicanism, despite his father cutting off his support. He also withdrew his son Charles from a Jesuit school, largely for political reasons. Henceforth father and son would worship within the Church of England, much to the disgust of his father Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore, who maintained his Catholic faith despite the political drawbacks, until his death in February 1715. Benedict became the Fourth Lord Baltimore upon his father's death in February 1715 and immediately petitioned King George I to reinstate the family's charter. However, the 4th Lord Baltimore survived his father by only two months, dying himself in April 1715.
 Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore (1699–1751) was the great-grandson of Charles II of England through his maternal grandmother, Charlotte Lee, Countess of Lichfield, the illegitimate daughter of the king's mistress, Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland. The Province of Maryland was restored to the control of the Calvert family by King George I when around 1715 Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore, swore publicly that he was a Protestant and had embraced the Anglican faith.

 Frederick Calvert, 6th Baron Baltimore (1731–1771) inherited from his father the title Baron Baltimore and the Proprietary Governorship of the Province of Maryland in 1751. The 6th Lord Baltimore wielded immense power in Maryland, which was then a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain, administered directly by the Calverts. Frederick's inheritance coincided with a period of rising discontent in Maryland, amid growing demands by the legislative assembly for an end to his family's authoritarian rule. Frederick, however, remained aloof from the colony and never set foot in it in his lifetime. He lived a life of leisure, writing verse and regarding the Province of Maryland as little more than a source of revenue. The colony was ruled through governors appointed by the 6th Lord Baltimore. His frequent travels made him difficult to contact and meant that Maryland was largely ruled without him. His personal life was extremely scandalous by the standards of the time, and this contributed to growing unrest in his colony. In 1758, his wife "died from a hurt she received by a fall out of a Phaeton carriage" while accompanied by her husband. Although Frederick was suspected of foul play, no charges were ever brought.

Frederick died in 1771, by which time relations between Britain and her American colonies were fast deteriorating. In his will, Frederick left his proprietary Palatinate of Maryland to his eldest illegitimate son, Henry Harford, then aged just 13. The colony, perhaps grateful to be rid of Frederick at last, recognized Harford as Calvert's heir. However, the will was challenged by the family of Frederick's sister, Louisa Calvert Browning, who did not recognize Harford's inheritance. Before the case could grind its way through the Court of Chancery, Maryland had become engulfed by the American Revolution and by 1776 was at war with Britain. Henry Harford would ultimately lose almost all his colonial possessions.

Proprietarial rule
Lord Baltimore held all the land directly from the King for the payment of "two Indian arrowheads annually and one fifth of all gold and silver found in the colony." Maryland's foundation charter was drafted in feudal terms and based on the practices of the ancient County Palatine of Durham, which existed until 1646. He was given the rights and privileges of a Palatine lord, and the extensive authority that went with it. The Proprietor had the right and power to establish courts and appoint judges and magistrates, to enforce all laws, to grant titles, to erect towns, to pardon all offenses, to found churches, to call out the fighting population and wage war, to impose martial law, to convey or lease the land, and to levy duties and tolls.

However, as elsewhere in English North America, English political institutions were re-created in the colonies, and the Maryland General Assembly fulfilled much the same function as the House of Commons of England. An act was passed providing that:
"from henceforth and for ever everyone being of the council of the Province and any other gentleman of able judgement summoned by writ (and the Lord of every Manor within this Province after Manors be erected) shall and may have his voice, seat, and place in every General Assembly. together with two or more able and sufficient men for the hundred as the said freedmen or the major part of them ... shall think good".
In addition, the Lord Proprietor could summon any delegates whom he was pleased to select.

In some ways the General Assembly was an improvement upon the institutions of the mother country. In 1639, noting that Parliament had not been summoned in England for a decade, the free men of Maryland passed an act to the effect that "assemblies were to be called once in every three years at the least," ensuring that their voices would be regularly heard.

Due to immigration, by 1660 the population of the Province had gradually become predominantly Protestant. Political power remained concentrated in the hands of the largely Catholic elite. Most councilors were Catholics and many were related by blood or marriage to the Calverts, enjoying political patronage and often lucrative offices such as commands in the militia or sinecures in the Land Office.

Religious conflict

Although Maryland was an early pioneer of religious toleration in the British colonies, religious strife among Anglicans, Puritans, Roman Catholics, and Quakers was common in the early years, and Puritan rebels briefly seized control of the province. In 1644 the dispute with William Claiborne led to armed conflict. Claiborne seized Kent Island while his associate, the pro-Parliament Puritan Richard Ingle, took over St. Mary's. Both used religion as a tool to gain popular support. From 1644 to 1646, the so-called "Plundering Time" was a period of civil unrest aggravated by the tensions of the English Civil War (1641–1651). Leonard Calvert returned from exile with troops, recaptured St. Mary's City, and eventually restored order.

In 1649 Maryland passed the Maryland Toleration Act, also known as the Act Concerning Religion, a law mandating religious tolerance for trinitarian Christians. Passed on September 21, 1649, by the assembly of the Maryland Colony, it was the first law requiring religious tolerance in the English North American colonies. In 1654, after the Third English Civil War (1649–1651), Parliamentary (Puritan) forces assumed control of Maryland for a time.

When dissidents pressed for an established church, Caecilius Calvert's noted that Maryland settlers were "Presbyterians, Independents, Anabaptists, and Quakers, those of the Church of England as well as the Romish being the fewest ... it would be a most difficult task to draw such persons to consent unto a Law which shall compel them to maintaine ministers of a contrary perswasion to themselves."

The Protestant Revolution of 1689

In 1689, Maryland Puritans, by now a substantial majority in the colony, revolted against the proprietary government, in part because of the apparent preferment of Catholics like Colonel Henry Darnall to official positions of power. Led by Colonel John Coode, an army of 700 Puritans defeated a proprietarial army led by Colonel Darnall. Darnall later wrote: "Wee being in this condition and no hope left of quieting the people thus enraged, to prevent effusion of blood, capitulated and surrendered." The victorious Coode and his Puritans set up a new government that outlawed Catholicism, and Darnall was deprived of all his official roles. Coode's government was, however, unpopular; and William III installed a Crown-appointed governor in 1692. This was Lionel Copley who governed Maryland until his death in 1694 and was replaced by Francis Nicholson.

After this "Protestant Revolution" in Maryland, Darnall was forced, like many other Catholics, to maintain a secret chapel in his home in order to celebrate the Roman Catholic Mass. In 1704, an Act was passed "to prevent the growth of Popery in this Province", preventing Catholics from holding political office.

Full religious toleration would not be restored in Maryland until the American Revolution, when Darnall's great-grandson Charles Carroll of Carrollton, arguably the wealthiest Catholic in Maryland, signed the American Declaration of Independence.

Plantations and economy

Early settlements and population centers tended to cluster around the rivers and other waterways that empty into Chesapeake Bay. In the 17th century, most Marylanders lived in rough conditions on small farms. While they raised a variety of fruits, vegetables, grains, and livestock, the main cash crop was tobacco, which soon dominated the province's economy.

The Province of Maryland developed along lines very similar to those of Virginia. Tobacco was used as money, and the colonial legislature was obliged to pass a law requiring tobacco planters to raise a certain amount of corn as well, in order to ensure that the colonists would not go hungry. Like Virginia, Maryland's economy quickly became centered around the farming of tobacco for sale in Europe. The need for cheap labor to help with the growth of tobacco, and later with the mixed farming economy that developed when tobacco prices collapsed, led to a rapid expansion of indentured servitude and, later, forcible immigration and enslavement of Africans.

By 1730 there were public tobacco warehouses every fourteen miles. Bonded at £1,000 sterling, each inspector received from £25 to £60 as annual salary. Four hogsheads of 950 pounds were considered a ton for London shipment. Ships from English ports did not need port cities; they called at the wharves of warehouses or plantations along the rivers for tobacco and the next year returned with goods the planters had ordered from the shops of London.C. A. Werner, Tobaccoland A Book About Tobacco; Its History, Legends, Literature, Cultivation, Social and Hygienic Influences (1922)

Outside the plantations, much land was operated by independent farmers who rented from the proprietors, or owned it outright. They emphasized subsistence farming to grow food for their large families. Many of the Irish and Scottish immigrants specialized in rye-whiskey making, which they sold to obtain cash.

The 18th century

Maryland developed into a plantation colony by the 18th century. In 1700 there were about 25,000 people and by 1750 that had grown more than 5 times to 130,000. By 1755, about 40% of Maryland's population was black. Maryland planters also made extensive use of indentured servants and penal labor. An extensive system of rivers facilitated the movement of produce from inland plantations and farms to the Atlantic coast for export. Baltimore, on the Patapsco River, leading to the Chesapeake Bay, was the second-most important port in the 18th-century South, after Charleston, South Carolina.

Dr. Alexander Hamilton (1712–1756) was a Scottish-born doctor and writer who lived and worked in Annapolis. Leo Lemay says his 1744 travel diary Gentleman's Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton is "the best single portrait of men and manners, of rural and urban life, of the wide range of society and scenery in colonial America."

The Abbé Claude C. Robin, a chaplain in the army of General Rochambeau, who travelled through Maryland during the Revolutionary War, described the lifestyle enjoyed by families of wealth and status in the colony:
[Maryland houses] are large and spacious habitations, widely separated, composed of a number of buildings and surrounded by plantations extending farther than the eye can reach, cultivated ... by unhappy black men whom European avarice brings hither. ...Their furniture is of the most costly wood, and rarest marbles, enriched by skilful and artistic work. Their elegant and light carriages are drawn by finely bred horses, and driven by richly apparelled slaves."

The first printing press was introduced to the Province of Maryland in 1765 by a German immigrant, Nicholas Hasselbach, whose equipment was later used in the printing of Baltimore's first newspapers, The Maryland Journal and The Baltimore Advertiser, first published by William Goddard in 1773.Wroth, 1938, p. 41

In the late colonial period, the southern and eastern portions of the Province continued in their tobacco economy, but as the American Revolution approached, northern and central Maryland increasingly became centers of wheat production. This helped drive the expansion of interior farming towns like Frederick and Maryland's major port city of Baltimore.

The American Revolution

Up to the time of the American Revolution, the Province of Maryland was one of two colonies that remained an English proprietary colony, Pennsylvania being the other. Maryland declared independence from Britain in 1776, with Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, and Charles Carroll of Carrollton signing the Declaration of Independence for the colony. In the 1776–77 debates over the Articles of Confederation, Maryland delegates led the party that insisted that states with western land claims cede them to the Confederation government, and in 1781 Maryland became the last state to ratify the Articles of Confederation. It accepted the United States Constitution more readily, ratifying it on April 28, 1788.

Maryland also gave up some territory to create the new District of Columbia after the American Revolution.

See also

List of colonial governors of Maryland
Colonial families of Maryland
History of Maryland
History of slavery in Maryland
Thomas Cresap
Lord Baltimore penny
Economic history of Colonial Maryland

Notes

Sources

Andrews, Matthew Page, History of Maryland'', Doubleday, New York (1929)
Everstine, Carl N. "The Establishment of Legislative Power in Maryland", 12 Maryland Law Review 99 (1951)

External links

Colonial history of Maryland
History of USA, 1904, Maryland
 George Alsop on the condition of indentured servants in Maryland, 1663

1632 establishments in the British Empire
1776 disestablishments in the British Empire
Pre-statehood history of Maryland
Thirteen Colonies
Former English colonies
States and territories established in 1632
States and territories disestablished in 1776

Colonial United States (British)
Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas
Henrietta Maria of France

Province of Maryland


Sheikh Khalid bin Sultan Al Qasimi was Ruler of Sharjah, a Trucial State and now one of the United Arab Emirates, from 1866 to 1868 and of Ras Al Khaimah from 1866 to 1867. His short rule was most notable for the means of his accession, which involved the murder of his nephew, and also his death, at the hands of Abu Dhabi Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan in single combat.

Accession
On the death of Abdulla bin Sultan Al Qasimi during the fighting for Hamriyah in 1855, the administration of Sharjah (under the head of the Al Qasimi tribe and federation, Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi) fell to a wali, Mohammed bin Saqr Al Qasimi, a grandson of Sultan bin Saqr's.

Khalid bin Sultan proceeded to intrigue against Mohammed bin Saqr, who was his nephew. At this time, Sultan bin Saqr was in his dotage and had lost both the use of his hearing and memory and took little or no part in proceedings. By 1859, Khalid had collected strong support from the families of the town and the area became effectively divided between two groups, one supporting Mohammed and one behind Khalid.

Khalid and Mohammed rode out together into the desert in late 1860 and Khalid shot Mohammed, dumping his body in a well. Seeking British recognition for his accession, he was rebuffed with the Resident refusing to converse 'with one so recently and fearfully polluted.'

Ruler of Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah
Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi died in 1866 at the age of 85 and Khalid proclaimed himself the independent Sheikh of Sharjah, while Ibrahim bin Sultan Al Qasimi declared himself Sheikh of Ras Al Khaimah. However, in May 1867, Khalid led a successful attack on Ras Al Khaimah, expelled Ibrahim and declared himself Ruler. The town of Ras Al Khaimah and its dependencies were then re-incorporated into Sharjah.

A number of clashes took place between the forces loyal to Sharjah under Khalid and those of Abu Dhabi under Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan. In April 1868, during one such armed conflict with Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed advanced ahead of his troops and challenged Khalid bin Sultan to single combat. Zayed wounded Khalid mortally and he died that month. He was succeeded by Salim bin Sultan Al Qasimi.

References

Sheikhs of the Emirate of Sharjah
House of Al Qasimi
19th-century monarchs in the Middle East
History of the United Arab Emirates
Sheikhs of the Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah
19th-century Arab people

Khalid bin Sultan Al Qasimi (ruler)


The United States Army Corps of Engineers South Atlantic Division (SAD) is one of the eight permanent divisions of the Army organization, providing civil works and military water resource services/infrastructure.  lolIt also supports economically viable and environmentally sustainable watershed management and water resources development in its territory.

The Division, headquartered in Atlanta, stretches from North Carolina to Alabama as well as the Caribbean, and Central and South America.  It covers all or parts of six states.  One-third of the stateside Army and one-fifth of the stateside Air Force are located within the division boundaries. The largest single environmental restoration project in the world — the Everglades Restoration — is managed by SAD.

The Division Commander is directly responsible to the Chief of Engineers. The SAD Commander directs and supervises the individual District Commanders.

SAD duties include:

 Preparing engineering studies and design.
 Constructing, operating, and maintaining flood control and river and harbor facilities and installations.
 Administering the laws on civil works activities.
 Acquiring, managing, and disposing of real estate.
 Mobilization support of military, natural disaster, and national emergency operations.

Districts

The Division's five districts are headquartered in:

South Atlantic Division

Jacksonville District

Charleston District

Mobile District

Savannah District

Wilmington District

 Wilmington, North Carolina
 Charleston, South Carolina
 Savannah, Georgia
 Jacksonville, Florida
 Mobile, Alabama
 Atlanta, Georgia

External links
USACE South Atlantic Division website

Divisions of the United States Army Corps of Engineers

South Atlantic Division


Coro is a city in Venezuela. It is the capital of the Falcón State. It was founded on July 26, 1527 by Juan de Ampíes as Santa Ana de Coro.

In 1993, "Coro and its port La Vela" became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In 2005, it is on the UNESCO's List of World Heritage in Danger.

Cities in Venezuela
Capitals of Venezuelan states

Coro, Venezuela


The University of Pécs (, PTE; ) is one of the largest higher education institutions in Hungary. The history of the university began in the Middle Ages, when in 1367, at the request of King Louis I the Great, Pope Urban V granted permission to found the institution. This made it the first university in Hungary and the fourth in Central Europe. The official successor of the university is the Elisabeth University of Pozsony, founded in 1912. In 1921, after Bratislava became part of Czechoslovakia, the university was moved to Pécs In 1951, the Faculty of Medicine separated and existed as an independent institution, until it merged with the Janus Pannonius University () in 2000, which united the other faculties in Pécs. This is how the current University of Pécs was created.

Currently, the university has approximately 20,000 students, of which 4,500 are international students studying in English or German. This makes it one of the higher education institutions with the largest number of students in the country. The university has 10 faculties, and several clinics and research centers support the academic development of students.

History

Medieval university (1367–1390)

The medieval university of Pécs was founded in 1367 as the last in the first wave of Central European university foundations. (The first three universities in the region: Prague (1347), Krakow (1364), Vienna (1365).) Historical public consciousness considers Louis the Great as the founder of the university, but the king's role in the foundation can be considered formal, as part of the Holy See procedure. The operation of the University of Pécs was authorized on September 1, 1367 in a bull by Pope Urban V, at the request of King Louis the Great of Hungary. The true spiritual father of the first Hungarian university was the contemporary bishop of Pécs, William of Koppenbach, who, in addition to his ecclesiastical office (1361–1374), was royal chaplain and secret chancellor, one of Louis the Great's important diplomats and confidants.  The University of Pécs was primarily intended for the proper teaching of church law and the Latin language, so that the Hungarian students of the time did not have to travel abroad if they wanted to attend university. In Pécs, the faculty of humanities and law can be taken for granted, so the medieval university was truncated. The Pope did not allow the establishment of the Faculty of Theology.  Very few written documents have survived about the medieval University of Pécs, and we hardly know anything about its functioning. We know a total of four teachers and seven students by name who can be proven to have taught or studied at the university. The most famous medieval professor in Pécs was the Italian Galvano di Bologna, who stayed in Pécs between 1372 and 1374. The second and last chancellor of the university was Bishop Bálint Alsáni of Pécs (later Cardinal) (1374–1408). The university was fundamentally linked to the person of Vilmos Bishop, and then began to decline after his death, finally ending sometime around 1390, it was almost certainly not functioning when the University of Óbuda was founded in 1395. The modern Pécs University is not legally continuous with its medieval predecessor, we can only speak of an intellectual heritage. After that, university-level education did not exist in the city until the beginning of the 20th century, but the renowned and high-quality chapter school continued to exist. The supposed building of the medieval university in Pécs was excavated between 1978 and 1998 in the bishop's castle, east of the Golden Mary chapel, in the immediate vicinity of the Pécs Cathedral, on its north side. The definition of the building is disputed, many researchers do not agree that the medieval studium generale operated in the building. In 2015, a permanent university history exhibition was opened in the restored building, with important medieval Gothic sculptural monuments.

Modern University
In 1785 Joseph II moved the headquarters of the Royal Academy from Győr to Pécs for about twenty years. It was not until 1833 that Bishop Ignác Szepesy, in cooperation with the city council, founded the Academy of Pécs, with faculties of law and humanities. For the lyceum, he had an ornate palace built for 100,000 forints, which was completed in 1832. He donated 251,260 forints to the lyceum and made it his heir in his will. He arranged specialist libraries for his teachers, and placed Klimó's large library there, gifting it with 400 books, 400 minerals and numerous medals.

The Royal Hungarian Elizabeth University in Pozsony was founded in 1912, which can be considered the legal predecessor of the University of Pécs. At the end of the First World War, as a result of the Treaty of Trianon, Bratislava became part of Czechoslovakia. After that, in 1921, the Hungarian National Assembly adopted the law that temporarily moved the University of Bratislava to Pécs. (the original seat in Bratislava became part of the new Comenius University) Delayed due to the Serbian occupation of the city, in any case the university operated from 1923 with four faculties: law, medicine, humanities and evangelical theology. The latter is in Sopron. During the Second World War, the Faculty of Humanities was temporarily moved partly to Szeged and partly to Kolozsvár, which belonged to Hungary as a result of the Second Vienna Award of 1940.

In 1950, the Faculty of Evangelical Theology in Sopron was separated and upgraded to an academy. In 1951, the medical faculty continued to operate as a separate and independent university under the name Pécs University of Medicine, so the University of Pécs continued to operate with a single faculty, the faculty of law. In the meantime, improvements were made at the medical university. In 1966, the so-called 400-bed clinic was opened, in which five different units operated (internal medicine, orthopedics, radiology, surgery, ophthalmology). Dental training also began in 1973. From 1975, a new faculty of economics was established, and in 1982 the Pécs Teacher Training College merged with the Faculty of Economics and the Faculty of Law. The new institution was named Janus Pannonius University. In 1990, the Faculty of Health Sciences was established within the Medical University of Pécs.

In the meantime, the Faculty of Teacher Education was divided into the Faculty of Humanities and the Faculty of Natural Sciences. Pollack Mihály Technical College was merged with Janus Pannonius University in 1995. In 1996, the Faculty of Arts was established as the sixth organizational unit of the university.
The University of Pécs was established in 2000 by the merger of the Janus Pannonius University, the Medical University of Pécs and the Gyula Illyés Teacher Training College in Szekszárd.

In 2004 the Pollack Mihály Technical College transformed into a full-fledged university faculty under the name of Pollack Mihály Faculty of Engineering. In 2005 the Faculty of Adult Education and Human Resources Development is established as the tenth faculty of the university. The College of Health Sciences becomes a full-fledged university faculty under the name of Faculty of Health Sciences in 2006. The name of the Pollack Mihály Faculty of Engineering becomes Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology. In considering the merger of the Faculty of Adult Education and Human Resources Development and the Illyés Gyula Teacher Training College of Szekszárd the Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Education and Regional Development is formed.

In 2015 the university had nine faculties. In 2016 the Faculty of Pharmacy was expected to be established, and as a result, the University of Pécs will once again, feature ten faculties.Besides the general medicine program, training in dentistry and pharmacy were launched in 1973 and 2001. Meanwhile, the English Program in General Medicine was implemented in 1984, the first medical education program of its kind in Central Europe. A similar German Program was initiated in 2004.

Education and research
As a part of the European higher education system, UP operates in the terms of the Bologna process offering the three-tier system consisting of bachelor level programs (BA, BSc) which last 6–8 semesters, master level programs (MA, MSc) with a duration of 2–4 semesters and doctoral level programs (PhD, DLA). Additionally, the university offers one-tier, undivided, long-term master's degree programs (5–6 years) in the domain of medicine, law, arts and engineering. Furthermore, interested students have the opportunity to experience short programs, such as preparatory courses, summer universities, and partial trainings.

The Szentágothai Research Centre of the University of Pécs is a research institute established on the basis of modern international science organizational and management normatives. The Technology Transfer Office has been at the disposal of researchers, students and business partners. In order to effectively operate and develop the research infrastructure, research support laboratories have been established, which carry significant scientific and innovation potential and collaboration opportunities. More than 200 researchers from 19 research groups work in the institution, and several associated members and centers are also part of the professional community. Since September 2020, two National Laboratories have also been housed in the Pécs research center.

The South Transdanubian Regional Library and Knowledge Center also belongs to the university. The former city and county library and the University Library and Knowledge Center of the University of Pécs, as well as the University's Law and Economics Library, moved into the thirteen thousand square meter, four-story building. The building has two 200-seat lecture halls and a conference room, as well as research rooms and Internet workstations. The library is open 84 hours a week, every day from eight in the morning to eight in the evening, even on Saturdays and Sundays. Free Wi-Fi is available everywhere in the building, and almost 300 computers are available to readers. The institution is also suitable for organizing community, cultural and leisure programs. The library welcomes readers from October 25, 2010. In November 2015, the library had 25,000 registered readers. The designer of the building is Balázs Mihály Kossuth award-winning and Prima Primissima award-winning architect.

Faculties

Faculty of Business and Economics

The Faculty of Business and Economics of the university of Pécs was established in 1970 and its mission has always been to cultivate, impart and teach business sciences based on a broad theoretical, methodological and social science base. In September 1970, 103 first-year students began their studies at the Pécs Branch of the Karl Marx University of Economics under the direction of István Hoóz, Professor and Head of the Faculty. In the first "experimental" years, the institution gained experience in the training of economists suitable for corporate jobs, including the development of national and international academic contacts. This was the starting point for what later became known as the "Pécs model". Pécs is the second oldest and the first non-Budapest faculty of economics in Hungary, and in the latter capacity it served to some extent as a model for the later establishment of rural faculties of economics and management. Since the second half of the 1970s, the faculty has been moving with great momentum towards meeting the needs of the corporate and business sectors. The faculty celebrated the 50th anniversary of the start of economics education in Pécs in 2020.

The 1980s saw a significant improvement in the material conditions for education and scientific research. Correspondence courses were introduced, more and more foreign students were studying at the faculty, and the period also saw the start of postgraduate programmes. The development of the faculty's relations with other countries was also given considerable emphasis. A number of its faculty benefited from grants, training and research opportunities abroad funded by the Soros programme among others, and it became somewhat easier for students to gain work experience abroad.

The 90s saw the introduction of the two-tier degree programme and the launch of the MBA programme. During this period, two international partnerships were established which are still a major force in the life of the faculty (Ohio University and Middlesex University) and, more generally, a number of international cooperation initiatives (contacts, conferences, etc.) were undertaken. It was during this period that the faculty obtained its first accreditation, which took place in 1995/96, with an "excellent" rating. The decade also saw the launch of the first part-time Masters programme, the development and implementation of an English-language programme (BA then MSc), which started in 1996 as a result of a collaboration between Middlesex University Business School and PTE. The wide range of courses was completed by the launch of a doctoral programme and the development of a habilitation scheme. Other new educational programmes include the launch of the English-language Master's and Doctoral programmes, the German-language distance learning programme at the University of Hagen, the sandwich course in economics, the specialized translator training, the final accreditation of the two Doctoral Schools, and the introduction of a college course in Szekszárd. In addition to education, the infrastructure has also been improved with the reconstruction of the building complex on Rákóczi Road, 48 Square. The institution was selected by the French Eduniversal as one of the world's top 1,000 business schools. In 2020, the Business Administration and Management course at the faculty achieved EFMD EPAS international programme accreditation.

The faculty's bachelor's degree programmes are Human Resources, Business and Management (in Hungarian and English), Commerce and Marketing, Finance and Accounting, Tourism and Hospitality (in Hungarian and English). Master's Degrees in Marketing, Finance, Tourism Management, Management and Organisation (in Hungarian and English), MBA (Master of Business Administration). Doctoral Courses: Doctoral School of Business Administration, Doctoral School of Regional Politics and Economics.

Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Education and Regional Development
The faculty was established on 1 September 2015 by merging the two predecessor faculties of Adult Education and Human Resource Development and the Szekszárd-based Illyés Gyula Faculty.

The history of the training centre in Pécs began in the 1973/1974 academic year of the Pécs Teacher Training College with the establishment of the "Cultural Studies Research Group". When the college became a university faculty, the department became the Department of Cultural Studies within the Janus Pannonius University. The department experienced a period of growth in the early 1990s. The increase in the number of full-time and part-time students justified the decision of the JPTE Senate and the Rector to transform the department into an autonomous branch and to create the Institute of Adult Education and Human Resource Development with three departments in September 1998. The institute was soon expanded by two new departments. In 1998, an ISO 9001 quality assurance system was introduced to guarantee the quality of the organisation's overall operations. From 2001 to 2005, the institute was an independent part of the Faculty of Sciences.

In May 2005, the Faculty of Adult Education and Human Resources Development (FEEK) was established, which was the second largest faculty of the University of Pécs with 4500 students. The faculty had five institutes and several departments with scientific research workshops.

The Szekszárd Training Centre is the only higher education institution in Tolna County, a major educational and training centre. The predecessor of the former Illyès Gyula Faculty was founded in 1977, and the college program, which started with 100 students and 13 lecturers, has been significantly transformed. The Illyés Gyula College of Education has become the Illyés Gyula Faculty of the University of Pécs as a result of a national integration process and it provides training for kindergarten teachers, German nationality kindergarten teachers, teachers, German nationality teachers, nursery teachers, general social workers and, since 2002, economics and communication specialists (communication and media studies, environmental culture). With the internal restructuring of the Institute of Economic Sciences, the faculty started training in tourism and catering, one of the few places in the world where tourism is taught today. The institution, which initially trained only teachers (first as teachers and then as nursery teachers), now offers training in five disciplines and 13 specialisations.
In vocational education, students can start their studies in tourism management, hospitality management, media moderation, administration, infant and child care, youth support, and then continue their studies in Bachelor's degrees (BA) in tourism and hospitality, communication and media studies, pre-school teacher (including German nationality), social work. In the master's degree (MA), students can pursue a degree in tourism management and a degree in early childhood pedagogy. The interlocking degree structure allows for career planning, so that students can pursue several degrees within the state-subsidised training period, providing greater mobility and job opportunities. The building complex is complemented by a dormitory, a student services centre, a swimming pool and other sports facilities.

The faculty has extensive international contacts; thanks to the tradition of German national kindergarten education, mainly in German-speaking countries (University of Leipzig, Vienna Pedagogical Academy, Feldkirch Pedagogical Academy), where cooperation takes place within the framework of the Erasmus student and teacher exchange programme. The faculty has also concluded bilateral agreements with the Christian University of Partium, the University of Transylvania, the university of Nitra, the University of Osijek, the Faculty of Gheorgheni Faculty of Babeș-Bolyai University, covering a wide range of cooperation areas. The agreements include sections on practical training in schools and kindergartens, culture and sport.

Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology

The Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology was founded in 1970 as an independent college. Its predecessor institutions were: a higher technical college for civil and mechanical engineering, and a technical college of chemical engineering.  Its namesake was originally the renowned classicist architect Mihály Pollack, who gained worldwide fame in the 1800s as the architect of numerous public buildings, churches and country mansions. The college was integrated into the Janus Pannonius University of Pécs on 1 July 1995, and since 2004 it has been operating as a university faculty. In 2011, the name was changed to Pollack Mihály Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology (PTE PMMIK), thus reflecting the rise of computer engineering in education and research. From March 2015, the new name of the institution is University of Pécs Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology (PTE MIK).

The faculty's departments, academic and professional platforms often draw on the experience and innovations of the external environment around PTE, through dual teaching with an industrial partner or through external industrial chairs. The research groups and scientific workshops that thrive in the faculty are mostly working on interdisciplinary topics, sometimes going beyond the technical disciplines, e.g. medical-engineering.

In 2022, the faculty offers nine bachelor's (BA, BSc) and eight master's (MA, MSc) degrees. Students can choose from a wide range of higher education courses - technical higher education, television programme production - and further education courses, while the Breuer Marcell Doctoral School offers a PhD in architecture in addition to the DLA in civil engineering. In 2013, the faculty organised the first English-language courses in the architecture programme, and in the years since then the number of foreign students coming to MIK from all over the world has grown to more than 500. The faculty offers 12 courses in English, and the Master's in Biomedical Engineering, launched in September 2021, specifically in English. The Pollack Expo, which has been held every year since 2007 instead of the previously separate Construction, Civil Engineering and Mechanical, Electrical and Computer Engineering Days, has gained national recognition, attracting thousands of visitors. The event, which combines a trade exhibition, international and national conferences, training courses for engineers and job fairs, is a meeting place for university, industry and engineering communities in the spirit of tradition, innovation and cooperation.

Faculty of Health Sciences

The Faculty of Health Sciences is one of the Faculties where teaching began in 1990. At the University of Pécs Medical School, the health sciences college education was launched on 1 September 1990 on the basis of the "Founding Act" of the Minister of Social and Health Affairs dated 18 August 1989, following the joint preparatory work of the Ministry, the POTE and the leaders of Somogy, Zala and Vas counties. The following period was marked by the continuous development and expansion of the training. As there were several types of trainings in each town, administrative units were set up with the name "training centre" and the status of an institute. The increase in the number of students, teachers and teaching assistants, and the establishment of a college of teachers, created a de facto faculty structure. The next task was to codify it in law. Government Decree 132/1995 (9.11.1995) recognised the de facto faculty structure de jure.

Education takes place in four training centres in Kaposvár, Pécs, Szombathely and Zalaegerszeg, where effective cooperation has been established with local teaching hospitals and social institutions. In terms of the number of students, the number of elective courses, the number of teaching staff and teaching assistants, and the number of training places, the faculty is the largest of its kind in the country.

The faculty the first in the country to offer university courses such as nurse and midwife training. This has created the possibility for health professionals to obtain a doctoral degree, which is now available at the faculty's Doctoral School of Health Sciences.

From 1 March 2006, the Faculty of Health Sciences became a university faculty. In the European Union, two of the seven specialisations automatically recognised under Community law (nursing and midwifery) are recognised as qualifications in this field.

Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
The Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences represents three main [discipline]s: [humanities], social sciences and psychology/education. The faculty is one of the largest at UP.

The history of the faculty goes back hundreds of years. The Royal Academy of Győr, which also had a Faculty of Philosophy, was first established in Pécs in 1785 by Emperor Joseph II. The institution returned to its original seat in Győr in 1802, but training was again offered in the county seat in 1828, when Bishop Ignác Szepesy started a philosophical studio, a home course that was the foundation for theological studies. Four years later, the bishop's library, made public by Bishop György Klimó and considerably enriched by Ignác Szepesy, was moved to its present location. In the following year, Bishop Ignác Szepesy founded the Episcopate Lyceum Quinque Ecclesiae, the Episcopal Law Academy of Pécs, which included a faculty of philosophy.

Education in Hungarian began in 1923, when the Erzsébet University of Pozsony was transferred to Pécs, but in 1940 the Faculty of Humanities was moved to Szeged and partly to Kolozsvár. Humanities education was restarted in 1982 when the Faculty of Teacher Training, the successor of the Pécs College of Education founded in 1948, joined the Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Business and Economics, and the merged institution took the name Janus Pannonius University. In 1992, the Faculty of Teacher Education was split into two parts and the Faculty of Humanities and the Faculty of Sciences were established. In the same year, the Faculty of Humanities became the first in the country to introduce a "unit of study" system, the forerunner of the credit system.

In 2000, the University of Pécs was established by the merger of the Janus Pannonius University, the Medical University and the Illyés Gyula Pedagogical College in Szekszárd, which at that time had nine faculties. In line with national trends, as a result of the Bologna process, the two-level training system with bachelor and master degree courses was also introduced at the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Pécs in 2006.

The Faculty of Humanities of the University of Pécs is an autonomous teaching, research and academic community unit. From 1 August 2020 it was renamed the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences.

Faculty of Law

The roots of higher education in law in Pécs date back to 1367, when the first Hungarian university was founded. As the periods of peace and war alternated in Hungarian history, so did the education of lawyers in Pécs. During the Hungarian Reform Era, generations of jurats were able to study in the law school brought to Pécs by Ignác Négyesy Szepesy, and after the 1848-49 revolution and the Hungarian War of Independence, the institution was renewed under the name of the Pécs Academy at the time of the Compromise. In 1921, the Royal Hungarian Elizabeth University, which had fled from Bratislava, was given a new home here and began its activities two years later, in 1923. In 1982, it became the Janus Pannonius University, and after the integration of higher education in 2000 it became the University of Pécs.

The faculty's departments are currently located in three buildings. The Europe Centre, the European Documentation Centre and the Faculty Library are located in the Knowledge Centre, which was inaugurated in 2010. The faculty provides high quality training for more than 1000 students in the field of law and administration at all levels of education. The courses are offered on a full-time and part-time basis, with state subsidies and reimbursement of costs. The Doctoral School provides training and preparation for academic PhD degrees for nearly one hundred graduates.

Faculty of Music and Visual Arts

The Faculty of Music and Visual Arts in Pécs is the only centre of higher education in Hungary that integrates training in music and fine arts. The faculty was created in 1996 from the various art departments of its predecessors. For many years, the building housing the Faculty of Arts was located at 20 Damjanich Street until the completion of the University District of Zsolnay Cultural Quarter in 2011, when the faculty was relocated to the new cultural centre of the city.
The courses offered by the faculty include sculpture, painting, graphic arts, object design (ceramic design), music (instrumental performance, singing, choir conducting), teaching (instrumental music teacher, singing-music teacher, visual arts teacher, design and visual arts), electronic music, media arts, doctoral (DLA) studies in fine arts and music.

Faculty of Pharmacy

The University of Pécs, with the establishment of the Pharmacy Institutes, as the only pharmacy training centre in Transdanubia, started its activities in September 2000. The School of Pharmacy was accredited by the Hungarian Accreditation Commission (MAB) in 2006.
The independent Faculty of Pharmacy was established in 2016, and as a result, the University of Pécs will once again, feature ten faculties.

Pharmacists, as experts in the field of medicine, are involved in a wide range of activities to meet the needs of society. They are involved in the production and control of pharmaceuticals, the effects of medicines, the interactions between active substances, the bioavailability of different medicinal products, and the rational, economical and effective use of medicines and medicinal products. The degree is obtained by completing a 5-year one-tier Master's programme. During the first semesters of the course, the focus is on the acquisition of basic knowledge in biology, chemistry and physics. Medical theory and practical skills are acquired through the study of anatomy, physiology, pathophysiology, microbiology and immunology. From the third year onwards, students are introduced to the professional subjects of pharmacy, with particular emphasis on pharmacological chemistry, pharmacokinetics, biopharmaceutics, pharmaceutical technology, pharmacognosy, pharmacotherapy and pharmaco-economics.

In the tenth semester of their studies, students participate in internships and complete their thesis. Students interested in scientific work can join a research group in one of the institutes. Students also have the opportunity to obtain a PhD degree through the faculty's Doctoral School of Pharmacy. After graduation, 3–5 years of postgraduate training provide the opportunity to obtain a specialist pharmacist qualification in about 15 different specialties.

Faculty of Sciences

Science education started in Pécs in 1948, at the then independent Teacher Training College. In 1982, the former college became a member of the then Janus Pannonius University of Pécs as the Faculty of Teacher Education, together with the Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Economics.
From then on, both natural sciences and humanities began to be developed to university level. As a result, in 1992, the Faculty of Sciences and the Faculty of Humanities were established simultaneously at the university, which had three faculties until then. The renovation of the old Jesuit grammar school complex began in 1991. This resulted in the construction of the Faculty Library and Lecture Hall, which is shared with the Faculty of Humanities. In 1997 the new Sports Centre building was inaugurated, including a gymnasium and a modern swimming pool. The reconstruction of the complex was completed in 1998. This gave all areas of the faculty modern facilities.

The faculty's institutes are: the Institute of Biology, the Institute of Physics, the Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, the Institute of Chemistry, the Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, the Institute of Sports Science and Physical Education, the centre for Computer Science and Teaching Technology and the Sports Centre. A unique feature in the country is that the University of Pécs offers courses in physical education and sports science. Basic training is provided in 11 fields (biology, physics, geography, earth sciences, chemistry, mathematics, business informatics, environmental sciences, computer programming, sports organisation and physical education - coaching). The faculty offers postgraduate training in four doctoral schools: the Doctoral School of Biology, the Doctoral School of Physics, the Doctoral School of Earth Sciences and the Doctoral School of Chemistry.

Medical School

The Medical School of UP is one of only four Medical Schools in Hungary. The University of Pécs established its first English-taught program in 1984 (it was the first in Hungary) and the German program in 2004.
The Royal Hungarian Elizabeth University in Bratislava, founded in 1912 by Franz Joseph, was moved to Pécs in 1921 by Act XXV of the Hungarian National Assembly. The Elizabeth University started its operation on 15 October 1923.
In 1950, the medical education and the management of the clinics and institutes were transferred from the Ministry of Religion and Public Education to the Ministry of Health. On 1 February 1951, the Medical School separated and continued to operate as an independent university under the supervision of the Ministry of Health under the name of the Medical University of Pécs.

As of 1 January 2000, in the framework of higher education integration, JPTE and POTE merged under the name of the University of Pécs, thus the independent institution of medical education in Pécs ceased to exist; medical education continued at the Medical School of the University of Pécs (PTE ÁOK).
In 2000, the first pharmacist training course was launched with 30 students, which has been operating as an independent faculty since 1 January 2016. The curricula and curricular structure have followed international trends. The English-language training of physicians has been providing world-renowned specialists since 1984. In response to the demand, the faculty started German-language medical training in 2004, English-language training in 2005 and German-language dental training in 2006. Thanks to the good relations between the faculty and the university and the accession to the ECTS system, students of the faculty can join the medical, dental and pharmacy training programmes of national and foreign universities through Erasmus and other international programmes. The training courses involve 29 clinics, 22 theoretical institutes, 9 teaching hospitals and more than 500 doctors, researchers and theoreticians. The faculty library provides access to thousands of publications, prestigious national and international journals and a permanent online database. The university clinics are the highest-quality health care institutions in the city, the county and the South Transdanubian region, offering students the opportunity for practical training. They also serve as a base for scientific development.
The renewing campus is 7700 square metres of modern research area.

Clinical Centers
Today, the Clinical Center is also an integral part of the University of Pécs. It is one of the largest healthcare providers in Hungary, whose main activities are education and research in addition to treatment.

The Clinical Center is made up of several smaller units (clinics and institutes):

Dormitories

In Pécs
Boszorkány College (7624 Pécs, Boszorkány street 2.)
Hunyor guest house and student hostel (7624 Pécs, Jurisics Miklós street 16.)
László Szalay College (Univ) (7622 Pécs, Breuer Marcell pedány 2.)
Szántó College (7633 Pécs, Szántó Kovács János street 1/d)
Jakabhegyi College (7635 Pécs, Jakabhegyi street 8.)
Damjanich College (7624 Pécs, 30 Damjanich street)
Laterum college (7633 Pécs, Hajnóczy út 37-39.)

In other settlements
College of Cultural Studies, Teacher Training and Rural Development Faculty (7100, Szekszárd, Mátyás király street 3.)
ETK Kaposvár College (7400 Kaposvár, Szent Imre street 14/b)
ETK Szombathely College (9700 Szombathely, Jókai Mór street 14.)
ETK Zalaegerszeg College (Zalaegerszeg, Landorhegyi street 23, 33)

Notable alumni
László Lénárd, neuroscientist, member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
Ferenc Győri, ultramarathon runner, geographer,  and university lecturer
Ferenc Gyurcsány, Prime Minister of Hungary from 2004 to 2009, leader of the Democratic Coalition
Ante Starčević, Croatian politician and writer, founder of the Party of Rights
László Sólyom,  President of Hungary from 2005 until 2010, president of the Constitutional Court from 1990 to 1998
Csilla Hegedüs, former Deputy Prime Minister of Romania
Márta Mátrai, First Officer of the National Assembly of Hungary
Bertalan Tóth,  lawyer and former leader of the Hungarian Socialist Party
Zsolt Páva, Mayor of Pécs between 2009 and 2019
Dezső Németh, psychologist and cognitive neuroscientist at INSERM, research team leader in Lyon Neuroscience Research Center (CRNL).
Norbert Pap, geographer–historian, founder of the Balkan Research Group, as well as leader of the Zrinski-Suleiman Research Group
Sándor Keresztes, diplomat and jurist, former president of the Christian Democratic People's Party
György Vókó, criminologist, professor of criminology and criminal law, former director of Hungary's National Institute of Criminology
György Buzsáki, biologist, brain researcher, professor of Neuroscience at New York University School of Medicine
Anna Rudolf, chess player, chess commentator, livestreamer, and YouTuber who holds the titles of International Master and Woman Grandmaster
Zoltan Pozsar, economist known for his analysis of shadow banking
Cecília Müller, physician and Chief Medical Officer of Hungary
Tamás Kenderesi, competitive swimmer, Olympics and European Championships bronze medalist
Ibolya Dávid, lawyer, politician, former president of the Hungarian Democratic Forum, former Minister of Justice
István Bárány, swimmer, four-time European Champion
Zoltán Mága,  violinist
Sándor Fábry, comedian, talk show host, and writer

See also
 List of medieval universities
 Medieval university
 List of early modern universities in Europe

Notes

References
 Pécsi Tudományegyetem: University of Pécs, 1367. Eds.: Harka, Glass. Pécs: UP, 2007.
 Fényes, Miklós. Középkori egyetemek Magyarországon, A Pécsi Egyetem története. In: Bibliographie internationale l'histoire des Universités II. Genève: Librairie Droz, 1976.
 Petrovics, István. A középkori pécsi egyetem és alapítója. Aetas, 2005–04. 2.
 Kéri, Katalin, dr. A pécsi egyetem a középkorban. (In: Napi Magyarország, 1998. március 7., 16. o.)
 The history of the University of Pécs and the Medical School. https://aok.pte.hu/en/menupont/16
 Fedeles, Tamás [et al.]. Centuries of higher education in Pécs. Pécs: University of Pécs, 2017. .
 A pécsi felsőoktatás évszázadai = The centuries of higher education in Pécs / comp. by István Lengvári, Pécs: University of Pécs Marketing Department, 2014. .

Educational institutions established in the 14th century
1367 establishments in Europe
14th-century establishments in Hungary
University
Baranya (region)
History of Baranya (region)
Buildings and structures in Pécs
Tourist attractions in Pécs

University of Pécs


Rachel Lloyd (born 1975) is an English activist against sex trafficking. Lloyd moved to the United States in 1997. In 1998 she started the Girls Educational and Mentoring Services. A documentary was made about it called Very Young Girls. It was released in 2007. In 2011 her book  Girls Like Us: Fighting for a World Where Girls Are Not for Sale, an Activist Finds Her Calling and Heals Herself was published.

Early life
Lloyd was born in Portsmouth. She left school when she was 13 to work. She tried to kill herself three times. When she was 17 years old, she moved to Germany. She worked there as a prostitute for two years. When her pimp tried to kill her, she went to a church to live. Lloyd moved to the United States in 1997. She went back to school and got a General Educational Diploma. Then she went to university. There she got a Master's degree in urban anthropology.

References

1975 births
Living people
British sex industry people
English activists
Prostitutes

Rachel Lloyd


A gatekeeper is a person who controls access to something, for example via a city gate or bouncer, or more abstractly, controls who is granted access to a category or status. Gatekeepers assess who is "in or out", in the classic words of management scholar Kurt Lewin.

Various figures in the religions and mythologies of the world serve as gatekeepers of paradisal or infernal realms, granting or denying access to these realms, depending on the credentials of those seeking entry. Figures acting in this capacity may also undertake the status of watchman, interrogator or judge. In the late 20th century the term came into metaphorical use, referring to individuals or bodies that decide whether a given message will be distributed by a mass medium.

Gatekeeping roles
Gatekeepers serve in various roles including academic admissions, financial advising, and news editing, along with many areas of the fine arts.  An academic admissions officer might review students' qualifications based on criteria like test scores, race, social class, grades, family connections, and even athletic ability.  Where this internal gatekeeping role is unwanted, open admissions can externalize it.

Various gatekeeping organizations administer professional certifications to protect clients from fraud and unqualified advice, for example for financial advisers.

A news editor selects stories for publication based on his or her organization's specific criteria, e.g., importance and relevance to their readership. For example, a presidential resignation would be on the front page of a newspaper but likely not a celebrity break-up (unless the paper was of the gossip variety).

Other people gatekeeping roles are in mental health service, clergy, police, hairdressers, and bartenders because of their extensive contact with the public.

Gatekeeper is also a term used in business to identify the person who is responsible for controlling passwords and access rights or permissions for software that the company uses.

One critique of gatekeeping roles is the potential to create or reinforce inequality, for example if entry is made more difficult for minority applicants or artists. For example, Bernardine Evaristo was only the first black woman to win the prestigious Man Booker Prize in fiction in 2019, a joint award with author Margaret Atwood.

A domestic servant with the job of guarding the main entrance to the estate.

Academic peer review
Peer review is a practice widely used by specialized journals that publish articles reporting new research, new discoveries, or new analyses in a specific academic field or area of focus. Journal editors ask one or more subject matter experts deemed to be "peers" of an article's author or authors to assess an article's suitability for publication in the journal. Notwithstanding the fact that the intent of peer review is to ensure suitability and editorial quality, issues of preference or exclusion of articles are raised from time to time relating to the intellectual prejudices, career rivalries, or other biases of the journal editors or peer reviewers.

Credentials
Credentialing is the practice of evidencing suitability for engaging in a profession or for employability through documentation of demonstrated competency or experience, completion of education or training, or other criteria as specified by a credentialing authority. The documentation provided by the authority is known as "credentials", and may be in the form of a license, certificate of competency, diploma, teaching credential, board certification, or a similar document. Credentialism refers to the practice of relying on credentials to prove the suitability of a professional person or a skilled employee to be assigned the responsibilities of professional engagement or employment.

Employers may use such gatekeeping methods to ensure competence for the job or to accede to the pressures of organizations that award credentials to require specific credentials.

See also
 Gatekeeping (communication)
 Gatekeeper's lodge
 Glewlwyd Gafaelfawr
 Heimdallr
 Janus
 Liminal deity
 Papa Legba
 Porter (college)
 Principal–agent problem
 Saint Peter

References

City gates
Protective service occupations

Gatekeeper


Hamilton Ross (26 August 1849 – 29 March 1938) was an English cricketer who made 20 first-class appearances between 1885 and 1895.  He played twelve first-class matches for the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC), and also appeared for Middlesex and Somerset.  A right-handed batsman, he occasionally played as wicket-keeper.

Life and career
Born in Grenada, British West Indies, Ross was educated at the Hermitage School, Bath, then became a student in the Middle Temple and later a barrister.  He practised in both London and Bath.

In 1869, while playing for Gentlemen of Sussex against the Players of Sussex, he scored 101 in the second-innings after being promoted from batting at number eleven in the first-innings to opening in the second.  A prolific scorer in club cricket, he hit six centuries in 1871.  On his first-class debut however, Ross made a pair for the Gentlemen.  He played one match for Middlesex in 1876, making 35 & 1 during a draw with Oxford University.

During the late 1870s, Ross played a number of matches for the 'Gentlemen of Somerset', a team of amateurs that were forerunners for Somerset County Cricket Club.

References

External links

1849 births
1938 deaths
English cricketers
Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers
Middlesex cricketers
Somerset cricketers
Grenadian cricketers
Gentlemen of the South cricketers
Gentlemen cricketers
Wicket-keepers

Hamilton Ross


Ram Balkrushna Shewalkar (2 March 1931 – 3 May 2009) was a Marathi orator, writer, and literary critic from Maharashtra, India.

He was born on 2 March 1931 in Achalpur in Amravati district of Maharashtra.

Career
Shewalkar obtained post graduate college degrees in Marathi and Sanskrit literature. He taught Sanskrit in a college for some years, and served for more than 25 years as the principal of a college at Wani in Yavatmal district.

In the 1980s, musician and singer Hridaynath Mangeshkar  presented to the public in Maharashtra a popular musical program Amrutacha Ghanu which was based on the  poetic compositions of  Dnyaneshwar. Just before his musical presentations, Shewalkar would present a scholarly commentary on Dnyaneshwar's works. The commentary received much acclaim in the Marathi-speaking public in Maharashtra.

Shewalkar's first literary work was an anthology titled Asoshi (असोशी) (1956). He wrote 59 books, literary reviews, and anthologies. His scholarship pertained to Ramayana and Mahabharata;  the works of poet saints of Maharashtra, including Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram, and Ramdas; and modern personalities like Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and Vinoba Bhave. "निवडक मराठी आत्मकथा" and "अंगारा" are the titles of two of his books.

Website: www.ramshewalkar.com

Recognition
Shewalkar was a member of the Maharashtra State Film Censor Board for eleven years.

Nagpur University awarded him an honorary D. Litt. degree.

He received Dinanath Mangeshkar Kusumagraj award, Nag Bushan award, and Jeenvrati Puraskar of Vidarbha Sahitya Sangh.

He presided over Marathi Sahitya Sammelan in Panaji in 1994.

References

Marathi-language writers
1931 births
2009 deaths
People from Amravati district
Presidents of the Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan

Ram Balkrushna Shewalkar


Libby is a fictional character on the ABC drama television series Lost, which chronicles the lives of over forty people after their plane crashes on a remote island somewhere in the South Pacific. She is played by American actress Cynthia Watros. The character is introduced as a member of the tail section survivors in the second season episode "Everybody Hates Hugo", together with Bernard, and she ends her role as a living character in the episode "?".

Reception towards the character is generally positive, especially after her death, although controversy exists as Watros was charged with and pled guilty to driving under the influence while filming the show. Her given name, Elizabeth, was revealed in the season 2 episode "Live Together, Die Alone". A 2009 San Diego Comic Con panel video listed her surname as "Smith", though this is never mentioned on-screen.

Libby appeared in twenty-four episodes, twenty-one of them in the second season, one in the fourth, and twice in season six in "Everybody Loves Hugo" and the finale. She is one of three main characters to never receive a flashback centric episode dedicated to the character (the others being Ilana Verdansky and Charlotte Lewis). Though the character has a brief flashback at the end of the episode "Dave" shown from her point of view.

Watros was slated to return at various points of the series but did not. After her non-appearance season 3, Libby's backstory was set to be explored in the fourth season, but this was scrapped due to the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike. The actress had been contracted to recur in the season but only made one appearance in "Meet Kevin Johnson" before the WGA strike halted production of the series. Following the end of the strike, scheduling conflicts prevented her from returning in the fifth season to explore the character's backstory as planned. In the sixth season, the writers chose to ignore her backstory in favor of committing to the season's flash-sideways storyline despite Watros' availability and appearances in the season.

Prior to the crash
Little is known about Libby's life prior to the island. She states in "The Other 48 Days" that she visited Vermont, where she broke her leg in a skiing accident, and she attended medical school for a year before dropping out to become a clinical psychologist.

It was shown in "Live Together, Die Alone" before she ends up on the island, she meets Desmond (played by Henry Ian Cusick) at a café. There, she tells him that she is from Newport Beach, California, and when she learns about his intention to join a sailing race, she decides to donate her sailboat Elizabeth, a gift given to her and named after her by her late husband David. She also stayed in the Santa Rosa Mental Institution, a place whose patients include Hurley (Jorge Garcia), as well as Emily Locke, John Locke's (Terry O'Quinn) mother. Prior to boarding the Oceanic flight, she intervenes during an argument between Mr. Eko (Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje) and Charlotte Malkin (Brooke Mikey Anderson) in "?".

After the crash
Libby ends up in the tail-section with another twenty-one survivors. She immediately tries to help the injured, such as Donald (Glenn Lehmann), due to her background with medicine. Some, however, including Donald, die a few days later. The Others invade their camp and kidnap all the remaining survivors except her and six others: Ana Lucia (Michelle Rodriguez), Mr. Eko, Bernard (Sam Anderson), Cindy (Kimberley Joseph), Nathan (Josh Randall), and Goodwin (Brett Cullen). Paranoia soon afflicts Libby and the remaining tail-section survivors causing them to speculate Nathan is not part of the flight and is an Other, which leads to his death. Eventually, she and the remaining survivors make their way to The Arrow, where they find a radio allowing them to make a brief contact with Boone (Ian Somerhalder). Goodwin, the real Other, tries to steal this radio, but Ana Lucia stops and kills him in self defense. Her group stays in The Arrow until Jin (Daniel Dae Kim), Michael (Harold Perrineau), and Sawyer (Josh Holloway) arrive there in "Everybody Hates Hugo", when her group learns about other survivors.

Libby's group soon decides to leave and join the main group of survivors. Before their journey, however, Ana Lucia orders her and Michael to get some fruit ("...And Found"). Soon, Michael finds out, through her, where the Others are and decides to leave her in search for his son, Walt (Malcolm David Kelley). Mr. Eko and Jin find Michael, leading him back to Libby and the group and allowing them to start their journey. During their trek in "Abandoned", numerous tragedies occur, including the disappearance of Cindy and the death of Shannon (Maggie Grace). Once she joins the main camp, she and Hurley start to become romantically involved, especially when she tells him that she remembers when he stepped on her foot in the plane. Aside from Hurley, Libby also becomes friends with Claire (Emilie de Ravin), whom she helps in unlocking the memories of Claire's kidnapping in "Maternity Leave". She also tries to help out with Bernard's S.O.S. but loses interest. In "Dave", Libby helps Hurley solve his food addiction, but this fails when a food pallet coincidentally "falls from the sky" during a supply drop. Sensing something is wrong, she confronts him and eventually ends up on a cliff, where Hurley is about to jump. She tries to stop him, which leads to her professing her feelings for him.

As their relationship grows, Hurley decides to plan dates. In "Two for the Road", he secretly plans a picnic for her but eventually confesses when he is caught with food. Once they arrive at the beach, he tells her that he forgot drinks and blankets, so she tells him to get Rose (L. Scott Caldwell) and Bernard's bottle of wine while she gets the blankets. This turns out to be a fatal mistake for her, because she is accidentally shot by Michael while getting them. Hours later, Libby is found unconscious alongside a dead Ana Lucia and an injured Michael, while "Henry Gale" (Michael Emerson) is found to have fled. Jack (Matthew Fox) tries to save her but fails, so he decides to ease her pain with heroin. Once Jack has injected the drug, she stirs and says "Michael" but says nothing more. Jack assumes it is out of concern and tells her Michael is okay, but then she makes one last gasp and passes, dying with Hurley at her bedside. She is buried beside Ana Lucia, coincidentally during the reappearance of Desmond aboard the Elizabeth. Two weeks later, Hurley visits Libby's grave and expresses how much he misses her before leaving a flower.

Off the island, Libby's presence continues to haunt Michael after her death. In one scene in "Meet Kevin Johnson", she appears to Michael in the hospital as a nurse with blankets on her stomach, representing the position she was in when she was shot. This turns out to be a dream. She even follows him in the freighter Kahana, where she tries to trick Michael into not pushing a button, which he pushes anyway. In an extended version of the Oceanic Six press conference, they say  Libby was one of the eight initial survivors, but died during the first week.

Afterlife
Libby is in the mental institution in the alternate timeline. One day, she sees a Mr. Cluck's commercial with Hurley in it, and memories of her past life on the Island come flooding back to her. Later, at a Mexican restaurant, Libby sees Hurley and tells him she thinks they may be connected and be soul mates. Hurley later tracks her down, and she tells him of her visions and the fact in those visions Hurley was also in the mental institution. Hurley then invites her on a date. On the date they kiss and Hurley's memories of the Island come flooding back to him, and he assures Libby she is not crazy. When the alternate time line is revealed to be a meeting place before the afterlife Libby reunites with many of the other characters in a church. She sits beside Hurley as they move on together into the afterlife.

Personality
Libby is a mysterious character, seated at the tail-section of the plane. Her character was written to be in her late forties to early fifties, easy on the eyes, amicably maladjusted, and a compulsive liar so good at what she does, most people will not know she is not what she seems. Damon Lindelof was quoted in Variety as saying the character "is going to bring a flavor to the show that doesn't exist right now. She's not as intense as some of the other characters. She's that person you want in the trenches with you who can take lemons and make lemonade."

Libby is seen by some as a beautiful blonde "Tailie" and Hurley's true love. She is often described as mysterious, especially since much of her backstory is yet to be revealed. IGN'has described her as a "loose end" in the storyline due to the contradictions between what she tells other characters and the flashbacks viewers see about her, such as her profession as a clinical psychologist and her stay at a mental institution.

On the show, she is often seen as helpful to other people, such as Donald, Jin, Claire, Bernard, and Desmond. One example of her exhibiting this virtue is when she assists Hurley in resolving his mental problems. Characters have often described her as a "shrink" or as a "mega cute blonde chick" due to her profession and appearance. Sawyer, meanwhile, has used the nickname "Moonbeam" on her due to her upbeat hippie-like personality.

Development

American actress Cynthia Watros portrays Libby in about twenty-one episodes of the series. Veteran actress Jennifer Jason Leigh was approached to play the character, but Watros ended up playing the role instead. During her audition, Watros did not think she would be cast. When she learned she had been, she was excited since she was a fan of the show and moved with her twin daughters from Los Angeles to Hawaii where Lost is filmed.

Libby was not going to be killed off, but since Ana Lucia Cortez was considered an unpopular character, the producers thought her death would not generate enough sympathy from fans. They decided Libby, who was well liked, should also be killed for emotional impact. Additionally, the producers and writers ran out of ideas for a compelling storyline for the character. According to Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof, the writers did try to develop her story through her romance with Hurley but they ran out of possible avenues. The writers also thought her story was not as dramatic when juxtaposed with the other characters.

A few weeks before Libby was written out of the show, Watros and Michelle Rodriguez were arrested for driving under the influence in Kailua, Hawaii, in two separate incidents. This led fans to speculate this was the cause of the two characters' deaths in the episode "Two for the Road". The producers denied this claim, and Rodriguez confirmed the producers' comments and denied the relation between their arrests and their characters' deaths. Watros took the news of the death of her character badly and was sad about the decision. The producers felt sorry for her and tried to help her get a new job. She was cast in a pilot for a show on CBS called My Ex-Life, although it was not picked up by the network.

Libby is one of the few main characters not to have a centric episode detailing her life before the crash. The writers said a reason for killing the character was so they could explore her backstory in a mysterious and posthumous way. The producers intended to explore Libby's backstory through flashbacks in the show's third and fourth seasons, respectively. Her character did not appear in season 3 and her season 4 appearance did not provide insight into her past. In September 2008, the writers stated her backstory would probably be explored in the fifth season; however, Lindelof revealed in May 2009 that her story would not be explored any further, saying, "I have learned that if you kill someone off the show, they are less likely to cooperate with you". The producers said Watros was busy with other commitments, and they could not reveal Libby's story without her.

It is revealed in a deleted scene that Libby had been married three times prior to the plane crash and she specializes in marriage counseling. Theories about unknown aspects of her life exist, including assumptions she was once a DHARMA Initiative employee, an Other, a person planted by Desmond's flashback characters Mrs. Hawking and Brother Campbell. Her surname was not given during the show's run, but was later revealed as Smith during Comic-Con 2009 in an in memoriam clip show of Lost's major death scenes.

The producers brought the character back to the show in the second half of the final season. About the return of Libby, Cuse stated, "Finally, all of your questions [about Libby] will be answered", however, Lindelof jokingly responded, "No, they will not". Watros said about the reunion with Hurley and Libby in season six: "[It was] so sweet and honest. And I think, hopefully, when people see our scenes that they'll get that feeling, too. [Libby and Hurley] are so incredibly real with each other. I was really grateful that I got to play those scenes and Libby got to sort of express herself in ways that she hasn't been able to."

Reception
Libby is a well-liked character. After her death, her popularity increased due to the added mystery to her character. In a poll conducted by BuddyTV about five characters seldom seen on the show, she received the highest votes. Meanwhile, her romantic fling with Hurley was described by Entertainment Weekly as "well-played" and "charming". Cynthia Watros co-won the 2005 Screen Actors Guild Award for "Best Ensemble – Drama Series. When she returned to the show in 2008, Watros was praised by the producers who said she "is a smart and engaging actor".

References

External links

Libby at the Lost Wiki
Seasonal promotional photographs for Libby at Lost-Media
The Elizabeth, Libby's sailboat and a real-life ship in Hawaii. Registered in Newport Beach, California.

Lost (2004 TV series) characters
Fictional psychologists
American female characters in television
Fictional characters with psychiatric disorders
Fictional characters from Orange County, California
Television characters introduced in 2005

Libby (Lost)