James Francis Gill (born 1934) is an American artist and one of the protagonists of the Pop art movement.
In 1962, the Museum of Modern Art included his Marilyn Tryptych into its permanent collection. At the peak of his career, Gill retired. He returned to the art scene around 30 years later.

Life

Early works
In 1934, Gill was born in Tahoka, Texas and grew up in San Angelo, Texas. His mother, an interior decorator and entrepreneur, encouraged him to have an artistic interest. In high school, Gill and some friends started a rodeo club to pursue their first dream of being cowboys.
During his military service, Gill worked as a draftsman and designed posters. Back in Texas, he continued his education at the San Angelo College and continued working for an architectural firm.
In 1959, Gill studied at the University of Texas at Austin, in order to work in architecture design in Odessa afterwards. Then he concentrated on his artistic career.

In 1962, Gill moved to Los Angeles, carrying in his luggage numerous works of art including Women in Cars which he presented to the Felix Landau Gallery. In November 1962, the Museum of Modern Art in New York – as a gift of John de Menil and Dominique de Menil – added his three-part painting of Marilyn Monroe called Marilyn Triptych to its collection. His drawing Laughing Women in car and Close-up was shown between drawings by Picasso and Odilon Redon.

In 1965, Gill taught painting at the University of Idaho. His work in these years was often depressing and bleak in tone and mood. Main themes were the social and political affairs such as the Vietnam War. Gill created a series of anti-war paintings which dealt with civil and military leaders. The playwright William Inge described the men in these paintings as "figures of high public reputation, momentarily caught in some nefarious act that will probably destroy their political or professional reputations".

Arising out of a series of anti-war images is the work The Machines. The composition formally joins the media coverage of the United States with the combat conditions in Vietnam. As a draftsman, Gill earned a reputation for handling contemporary issues through photographic images. The combination of his expressionist art and his graphite pencil went against the trend of this time. William Inge described the dark graphite pencil compositions as follows: "His paintings hold a moment of truth, which is of unfortunate beauty and makes memorable". In this way, Gill goes even further than the often apolitical intent of the early movements of pop art. By addressing his paintings for example with the Vietnam War, his works gain an additional socio-critical dimension which provides a much wider range than the mere and superficially not intended criticism of pop art in consumer society.

In 1967, the São Paulo 9 - Environment United States: 1957-1967 in Brazil showed Gill's works with artists such as Andy Warhol and Edward Hopper. This exhibition led to Gill's breakthrough in the international art world. His works were included in the collections of major museums.

In the same year, Gill was asked by Time magazine to portray the Russian Alexander Solzhenitsyn, who had just escaped from a Russian labor camp. Gill produced the image as a four-panel quadriptych. The figure transforms from a faceless into a smiling man who has regained his freedom. Gill: "All the people are political prisoners in the way that they are prisoners of the system in which they are born".

The work hung in the lobby of the Time-Life building for around five years. Gill's sources have always come from the present. His recognition as an artist has not only been based on the portraits of famous personalities such as John F. Kennedy, Marilyn Monroe and the Beatles, but to a large extent on his works which turned the political power structure and the war itself into question. An important work from this period is Political Prisoner. The series shows the silhouette of a pregnant woman. Her body is the symbol for the longevity of the people and for the possibility of a new beginning of each generation, freed from the mistakes of their parents' generation. But simultaneously, Gill seems to suggest that even the unborn child is caught: Born in the cauldron of a nuclear family, the younger generation could be the unfortunate heir of the world, which they did not even form themselves, but by which it was itself formed.

In 1969, Gill taught at the University of California in Irvine.

In 1970, he was offered a visiting professorship at the University of Oregon in Eugene. Gill was at the peak of his career, and very popular in the Pop art scene. But many contemporaries saw a profound and complex sense in his works, expressing more than Pop art originally intended: "Gill is a prominent artist of Pop art, although he is too much a painter and treats its subjects in a very emotionally charged way, than only being regarded as a Pop artist".

Withdrawal from the art scene
In 1972, Gill went surprisingly into a self-imposed exile, in the expectation of being able to maintain a kind of long-distance relationship with the art scene. He wanted to develop his artistic expression, without being delivered to the constraints of the material world. He stated, "at the time I was pretty well strung out on a lot of stuff, strung out on fame and art and the Political Prisoner dilemma (…). So, when I drove up through the California redwoods and up along the coast, the beauty of the place blew my mind and I realized that I didn't have to live in Los Angeles".

After the professorship in Oregon, Gill sold his house, numerous pictures and drawings, so he could buy land and a house in Whale Gulch in the southern portion of the King Range Wilderness.

Rediscovery
Parallel to his work as an architectural designer in Northern California, Gill began again with painting in the mid 1980s. He returned to Texas and developed his art, but without going to the public.
However, his life changed dramatically when about ten years later, the art magazine "American way" of the Smithsonian American Art Museum called him and asked for an interview. This marked the beginning of his rediscovery, and numerous galleries and museums became aware of him again.
Around 1987, Gill started to work with the tools of computer design, using "the computer and the printer as a drawing tool".

For the first time in 2005, a retrospective was held in his hometown San Angelo at the Museum of Fine Arts.

Late works
Around 2010, Gill's late creative phase began, in which – in contrast to the dominance of political motives in the early works – the artist increased the focus on the presentation of classic Pop art icons such as John Wayne, Paul Newman or Marilyn Monroe. Gill created numerous works of the American film actress who, since his early success with the Marilyn Triptych (which was included in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art even before the works of Andy Warhol) has exerted an unbroken fascination on him.
Through personal acquaintances with Tony Curtis, Kirk Douglas, John Wayne, Jim Morrison, Martin Luther King Jr. and Marlon Brando, Gill as an artist has become witness of a whole generation. These celebrated public characters also marked the substance of Gill's work, which he is trying to convey through various techniques and compositions.
Today's art of James Gill is a fusion of realism and abstraction. Photos still remain the foundation of his art. He now sets the image composition of his paintings in the computer and works consciously with mounting effects which he describes as Metamage or Mixed Media.

Exhibitions (selection)
 1962/1964/1966  Alan Gallery, New York City
 1963/1965/1967  Felix Landau Gallery, Los Angeles
 1964 Galeria George Lester, Rome
 1966 Crocker Gallery, Sacramento, California
 1970 Civic Center, Topanga, California
 2005 San Angelo Museum of Fine Arts, San Angelo, Texas
 2012 "L.A. Raw", Pasadena Art Museum, Pasadena, California
 2013 art Karlsruhe
 2014 ART Innsbruck
 2015 Art Southampton, New York
 2016 Busan Biennale, South Korea
 2017 Museum of the Southwest, Midland, Texas

Works in public collections
 Berkeley Art Museum, University of California, Berkeley
 Museum Moderner Kunst Stiftung Ludwig, Vienna
 Museum of Modern Art, New York
 National Museum of the U.S. Navy, Washington, D.C.
 National Portrait Gallery, Washington, D.C.
 Neue Galerie, Kassel
 San Angelo Museum of Fine Arts, San Angelo, Texas
 Santa Barbara Museum of Art, Santa Barbara, California
 Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C.
 Stanford University Center for Visual Arts, Stanford, California
 The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
 Whitney Museum of American Art, New York

Honors and awards
 Art fellowship, University of Texas, 1959
 Awarded Purchase Prize, Sixty-seventh Annual American Exhibition, The Art Institute of Chicago, 1964

Bibliography
 Alfred H. Barr: Painting and Sculpture in the Museum of Modern Art. Museum of Modern Art, 1977.
 John I. H. Baur: Dictionary of Contemporary American Artists. 5. Auflage. Whitney Museum of American Art Catalogue of the Collection. Cummings, Paul (1987), 1974.
 Kimberly S. Bushby: The power of pop-icons in the age of celebrity. In: James Francis Gill: Catalogue Raisonné of Original Prints (Vol. 1). 2017.
 van Deren Coke: The Painter and the Photograph: From Delacroix to Warhol. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque 1964.
 Lonnie Pierson Dunbier (Ed.): The Artists Bluebook 34,000 North American Artists to March 2005. 2005.
 Michael Duncan: Gill. L.A. RAW. Pasadena Museum of California Art. 2005.
 Jim Edwards, William Emboden, David McCarthy: Uncommonplaces: The Art of James Francis Gill. 2005.
 Peter Hastings Falk (Ed.): Who Was Who in American Art. 1564–1975. 1999.
 Jaques Cattell Harris: Who's Who in American Art. 1976.
 Neil Harris, Martina R Norelli: Art, Design and the Modern Corporation. 1985.
 Eberhard and Phyllis Kronhausen: Erotic Art. Carroll & Graf Publishers. 1993.
 David McCarthy: Movements in Modern Art: Pop Art. 2000.
 David McCarthy: Sincerely Disturbed: James Gill and Vietnam. 2005.
 Premium Modern Art (Ed.): James Francis Gill – The Absence of Color. 2018.
 Henrey J. Seldis: James Gill. In: Los Angeles Times. November 8, 1965.
 Peter Selz: Art Across America. 1965.
 Smithsonian Institution: National Portrait Gallery Collection Illustrated Checklist. 1985.
 Tampa Bay Art Center: 40 Now California Painters. 1968.
 University of Oklahoma: East Coast-West Coast Paintings.'' 1968.

External links
 Website of James Gill
 Interview 2010
 Video documentation 2014

References

1934 births
American portrait painters
20th-century American painters
American male painters
21st-century American painters
American contemporary painters
Living people
People from Tahoka, Texas
People from San Angelo, Texas
Postmodern artists
Artists from Texas
University of Idaho faculty
American pop artists
20th-century American male artists

James Gill (artist)


Semiclassical gravity is the approximation to the theory of quantum gravity in which one treats matter fields as being quantum and the gravitational field as being classical.

In semiclassical gravity, matter is represented by quantum matter fields that propagate according to the theory of quantum fields in curved spacetime. The spacetime in which the fields propagate is classical but dynamical. The curvature of the spacetime is given by the semiclassical Einstein equations, which relate the curvature of the spacetime, given by the Einstein tensor , to the expectation value of the energy–momentum tensor operator, , of the matter fields:

where G is the gravitational constant and  indicates the quantum state of the matter fields.

Stress–energy tensor
There is some ambiguity in regulating the stress–energy tensor, and this depends upon the curvature. This ambiguity can be absorbed into the cosmological constant, the gravitational constant, and the quadratic couplings
 and .
There's also the other quadratic term
,
but (in 4-dimensions) this term is a linear combination of the other two terms and a surface term. See Gauss–Bonnet gravity for more details.

Since the theory of quantum gravity is not yet known, it is difficult to say what is the regime of validity of semiclassical gravity. However, one can formally show that semiclassical gravity could be deduced from quantum gravity by considering N copies of the quantum matter fields, and taking the limit of N going to infinity while keeping the product GN constant. At diagrammatic level, semiclassical gravity corresponds to summing all Feynman diagrams which do not have loops of gravitons (but have an arbitrary number of matter loops). Semiclassical gravity can also be deduced from an axiomatic approach.

Experimental status
There are cases where semiclassical gravity breaks down. For instance, if M is a huge mass, then the superposition

where A and B are widely separated, then the expectation value of the stress–energy tensor is M/2 at A and M/2 at B, but we would never observe the metric sourced by such a distribution. Instead, we decohere into a state with the metric sourced at A and another sourced at B with a 50% chance each. Extensions of semi-classical gravity which incorporate decoherence have also been studied.

Applications
The most important applications of semiclassical gravity are to understand the Hawking radiation of black holes and the generation of random gaussian-distributed perturbations in the theory of cosmic inflation, which is thought to occur at the very beginning of the big bang.

Notes

References
 Birrell, N. D. and Davies, P. C. W., Quantum fields in curved space, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1982).

 Robert M. Wald, Quantum Field Theory in Curved Spacetime and Black Hole Thermodynamics. University of Chicago Press, 1994.

See also
Quantum field theory in curved spacetime

Quantum gravity

Semiclassical gravity


John Coles (July 3, 1926 – December 21, 1997) was an American jazz trumpeter.

Early life
Coles was born in Trenton, New Jersey on July 3, 1926. He grew up in Philadelphia and was self-taught on trumpet.

Later life and career
Coles spent his early career playing with R&B groups, including those of Eddie Vinson (1948–1951), Bull Moose Jackson (1952), and Earl Bostic (1955–1956). He was with James Moody from 1956 to 1958, and played with Gil Evans's orchestra between 1958 and 1964, including for the album Out of the Cool. After this he spent time with Charles Mingus in his sextet which also included Eric Dolphy, Clifford Jordan, Jaki Byard, and Dannie Richmond. Following this he played with Herbie Hancock (1968–1969), Ray Charles (1969–1971), Duke Ellington (1971–1974), Art Blakey (1976), Dameronia, Mingus Dynasty, and the Count Basie Orchestra under the direction of Thad Jones (1985–1986).

In 1985 Coles settled in the San Francisco Bay area; he recorded with Frank Morgan and Chico Freeman the following year. After his return to Philadelphia in 1989 he again worked with Morgan and was part of Gene Harris's Philip Morris Superband. In 1990 he recorded with Charles Earland and Buck Hill. Coles recorded as a leader several times over the course of his career. He died of cancer on December 21, 1997 in Philadelphia.

Discography

As leader
The Warm Sound (Epic, 1961)
Little Johnny C (Blue Note, 1963)
Katumbo (Dance) (Mainstream, 1971)
New Morning (Criss Cross Jazz, 1982)
Two at the Top (Uptown, 1983) with Frank Wess

As sideman
With Geri Allen
Some Aspects of Water (Storyville, 1996)
With Tina Brooks
The Waiting Game (Blue Note, 1961)
With Gil Evans
New Bottle Old Wine (World Pacific, 1958)
Great Jazz Standards (World Pacific, 1959)
Out of the Cool (Impulse!, 1960)
The Individualism of Gil Evans (Verve, 1964)
Blues in Orbit (Enja, 1971)
Where Flamingos Fly (Artists House, 1971 [1981])
Bud and Bird (Electric Bird/King, 1986 [1987])
Farewell (Evidence, 1986 [1992])
With Booker Ervin
Booker 'n' Brass (Pacific Jazz, 1967)
With Astrud Gilberto
Look to the Rainbow (Verve, 1966)
With Grant Green
Am I Blue (Blue Note, 1962)
With Herbie Hancock
The Prisoner (Blue Note, 1969)
Fat Albert Rotunda (Warner Bros., 1969)
With Buck Hill
The Buck Stops Here (Muse, 1992)
With Etta Jones
Christmas with Etta Jones (Muse, 1990)
With Philly Joe Jones Dameronia
To Tadd with Love (Uptown, 1982)
With Charles Mingus
Charles Mingus Sextet with Eric Dolphy Cornell 1964 (Blue Note, 1964 [2007])
Town Hall Concert (Fantasy, 1964)
Revenge! (Revenge, 1964 [1996])
The Great Concert of Charles Mingus (America, 1964)
Hope so Eric Volume 1 Charles Mingus Orchestra, with Eric Dolphy 1964 (Italy: Ingo, 1964)
With James Moody
Flute 'n the Blues (Argo, 1956)
Moody's Mood for Love (Argo, 1956)
James Moody (Argo, 1959)
Great Day (Argo, 1963)
The Blues and Other Colors (Milestone, 1969)
With Frank Morgan
Bebop Lives! (Contemporary, 1987)
With Horace Parlan
Happy Frame of Mind (Blue Note, 1963; first issued as part of Back from the Gig as by Booker Ervin, 1976)
With Duke Pearson
Hush! (Jazzline, 1962)
Honeybuns (Atlantic, 1965)
Prairie Dog (Atlantic, 1966)
With A. K. Salim
 Stable Mates (Savoy, 1957)
Afro-Soul/Drum Orgy (Prestige, 1965)

References

1926 births
1997 deaths
Musicians from Trenton, New Jersey
American jazz trumpeters
American male trumpeters
Duke Ellington Orchestra members
Blue Note Records artists
20th-century American musicians
American male jazz musicians
Dameronia members
Uptown Records (jazz) artists
20th-century American male musicians
Criss Cross Jazz artists

Johnny Coles


Disney's Animal Kingdom is a theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort near Orlando, Florida, United States. It was the fourth park built there, and it opened on April 22, 1998. It is the largest Disney theme park in the world, covering more than . It is also the first Disney theme park to be themed around animal conservation, a philosophy once pioneered by Walt Disney himself. Disney's Animal Kingdom is accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, meaning they have met or exceeded the standards in Education, Conservation and Research.

Soon after the park opened, Disney advertised the park using the fictional word "nahtazu". It is pronounced "not a zoo". It was meant to state that the park is more than just a city zoo. Disney stopped using the word in January 2006.

The symbol of Disney's Animal Kingdom is The Tree of Life, a sculpted 14-story (145-foot-tall []),  tree. The tree is man-made. The leaves are made out of resin. Tourists can walk around the whole park to see all 325 animals carved in the bark of the tree.

In 2009, the park had around 9.59 million guests, ranking it the fifth-most visited amusement park in the United States and eighth-most visited in the world.

Themed areas
The park has eight themed areas.

Oasis
The Oasis is the park's main entrance. It has the guest services center and some animal habitats. Guests can see muntjacs, spoonbills, ducks, wallabies and giant anteaters, among others. The main paths lead into the park, and onto Discovery Island.

A Rainforest Cafe is also at the entrance of the Oasis, but it is outside the park boundaries. Guests can eat at the restaurant without entering Disney's Animal Kingdom, while guests entering the restaurant from within the theme park are actually exiting the park and must show their tickets to go back into the park.

Discovery Island
Discovery Island is near the center of the park, in the middle of the Discovery River waterway. It was originally called Safari Village, as Discovery Island was the name for the small zoological park in Walt Disney World's Bay Lake. After it closed in 1999, Safari Village was renamed Discovery Island.

This is the "central hub" of Disney's Animal Kingdom, connecting almost all of the other sections of the park, except Rafiki's Planet Watch. The Tree of Life, the park's icon, is here, surrounded by animal enclosures with kangaroos, black crowned cranes, lemurs and others. The park's largest gift shops and two of its major restaurants are on Discovery Island, each with a different design theme, such as decorations based on nocturnal animals, insects and so forth. The island's other major draw is It's Tough to be a Bug!, a 4-D film starring Flik and Hopper from Disney·Pixar's A Bug's Life.

Camp Minnie-Mickey
Camp Minnie-Mickey is themed as a summer camp. Here guests can meet the Disney characters such as Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, Goofy and others. In the area's main theatre is Festival of the Lion King, a live stage show featuring acrobatics and musical performances inspired by The Lion King.

Africa
Set in the fictional east African village of Harambe, this area has many animal exhibits. Disney's story about Harambe is that it was once part of a Dutch colony, but a peaceful revolution made Harambe independent in 1963. Today, Harambe is the starting point for tourists and students who want to see Africa's animals in their natural habitats.

The village is the namesake of the Harambe Wildlife Preserve, the fictional home of Africa's main attraction, Kilimanjaro Safaris. Guests board an open-sided safari vehicle for a trip to see African animals freely roam through acres of savanna, rivers and rocky hills, including giraffes, hippos, African elephants and lions. On the nearby Pangani Forest Exploration Trail, visitors go into the forest in search of gorillas. Along the way, guests go on a nature walk through an African valley filled with Nile hippos, birds and fish.

Rafiki's Planet Watch
The one section of the park not connected to Discovery Island, Rafiki's Planet Watch is instead connected to Africa. Guests board the Wildlife Express Train for the short trip to and from Planet Watch, which has three distinct areas. Guests first see Habitat Habit!, where they can see cottontop tamarins and learn about the efforts to protect these endangered primates in their natural homes. Along the way, guests can also learn how to provide animal habitats in and around their own homes.

Conservation Station shares the conservation efforts supported by the Walt Disney Company. It also gives a behind-the-scenes look into Disney's Animal Kingdom's animal care facilities, including a veterinary examination room complete with a two-way communications system so the veterinary staff can answer guest questions. Outside, Affection Section is a petting zoo with goats, sheep and other domesticated animals.

Asia

Asia was the first area added to Disney's Animal Kingdom after the park opened. The Asia area opened in 1999. Like Africa, the section's attractions are part of a fictional place, the kingdom of Anandapur (which means "Place of many delights"). Anandapur is made up of two villages: the riverside village of Anandapur and Serka Zong, which is in the foothills of the Himalayan Mountains. Portraits of Anandapur's royal family, the Maharajah and his wife, can be found in most of the businesses within the two villages, and a map of the kingdom, featuring both villages and their location relative to the mountains and river can be found on the wall of the Disney Vacation Club kiosk located there. Much like Harambe, Disney legend states that Anandapur is now a center of animal research and tourism. At the Caravan Stage, these two "worlds" meet in Flights of Wonder, a live bird show where one of Anandapur's bird researchers educates a tour guide with a fear of birds about natural bird behaviors and the effects of habitat loss and conservation efforts on bird species, such as the Black Crowned Crane and American Bald Eagle.

The Maharajah Jungle Trek leads guests through the forests and ruins outside the village, which are home to many animal species, such as Komodo dragons, fruit bats, tapirs, and tigers. Nearby, Kali River Rapids is a river rapids ride along the fictional Chakranadi River through a rainforest, past an illegal logging operation and down a waterfall. Behind Anandapur is the Forbidden Mountain, the home of Expedition Everest, a roller coaster ride through the Himalayas.

DinoLand U.S.A.
DinoLand U.S.A. is inspired by the public's general interest in dinosaurs. The fictitious Dino Institute attracts those with a scientific interest in the long-extinct animals, while Chester and Hester's Dino-Rama recalls the many roadside attractions that were once scattered throughout the United States. Like the other areas of Disney's Animal Kingdom, there are animals on display.

These animals, such as the American Crocodile and Asian brown tortoise, have evolutionary links to the age of the dinosaurs. Other plant and animal species that have survived since the dinosaur era can be found along the Cretaceous Trail. At the edge of DinoLand U.S.A. is the "Theater in the Wild," which has Finding Nemo - The Musical, a live-action musical stage show based on the story of the Disney·Pixar feature film.

The Dino Institute is the home of DINOSAUR, a thrill ride trip through time to the Late Cretaceous Period. Just outside the Institute is "Dino-Sue", a casting of a Tyrannosaurus rex fossil that is the most complete dinosaur skeleton found so far. At the nearby Boneyard, children can play in a multi-leveled playground area with a mammoth fossil to be uncovered.

Chester and Hester's Dino-Rama, on the other hand, is about dinosaurs as fun. The TriceraTop Spin is a colorful ride for families, while Primeval Whirl is a spinning roller coaster for thrill-seekers. Throughout the area are carnival games and gift shops, as well as chances to meet Disney characters.

The area was sponsored by McDonald's until 2009 when the contract ran out.

Pandora
Pandora is inspired by the movie Avatar.

References

Other websites

Walt Disney World
1998 establishments in the United States
Theme parks in Florida
1990s establishments in Florida

Disney's Animal Kingdom


The Canadian Vickers Vanessa was a Canadian biplane transport seaplane of the 1920s.  It was a single-engine, twin-float biplane of mixed construction, evaluated by the Royal Canadian Air Force and used for experimental air-mail services..

Design and development
The Vanessa  was developed as a private venture commercial seaplane.  The Canadian Vickers Chief Engineer based his design on the contemporary Stinson cabin biplane which had been introduced in the United States. The one feature that was a departure from the Stinson was the use of interplane struts which formed an "X" (when viewed from the front), thus eliminating the need for traditional wire bracing and allowing easy access to the cabin. The enclosed cabin fuselage was constructed of steel tubing as were various support structures along with the tail surfaces. The remainder of the aircraft was of wood construction and the entire aircraft was fabric covered.

Ailerons and flaps, the latter being an unusual feature in aircraft of that time, were fitted to each of the equal span wings and were also interconnected by struts.

Testing
A prototype, G-CYZJ,  was constructed, after which the Royal Canadian Air Force evinced an interest in the type as a communications aircraft. Service testing indicated that the aircraft was under-powered and the Armstrong Siddeley Lynx was replaced with a  Wright Whirlwind

In September 1927, the still experimental Vickers Vanessa was used for series of trial airmail runs involving the first airmail delivery. While waiting off the dock at Rimouski, Quebec, on 9 September 1927, Royal Canadian Air Force Squadron Leader John H. Tudhope received  of mail from the inbound RMS Empress of France  While taxiing the Vanessa for takeoff, a strut ruptured and punctured the aircraft's starboard float causing it to tip over to that side. The propeller lopped off half the float and the machine broke up, resulting in the aircraft sinking. Tudhope scrambled to safety and the mail was rescued, eventually reaching its destinations by rail.

Following a subsequent salvage, the Vanessa was considered uneconomical to repair and was abandoned.

Despite a very brief career, the Vanessa has the distinction of being one of the first enclosed cabin aircraft to be designed and built in Canada and the first aircraft to be used in an experimental airmail flight in Canada.

Specifications (Vanessa–Lynx engine)

References

Bibliography

1920s Canadian civil utility aircraft
Vanessa
Biplanes
Single-engined tractor aircraft

Canadian Vickers Vanessa


The 8th Infantry Division () was a French Army formation during World War I, World War II and the Cold War. It was dissolved in 1993.

World War I
The 8th Infantry Division was a part of the 4th Army Corps at the start of the war. At various times it included the 115th, 117th, 124th, 130th, 311th Infantry Regiments, as well as the 34th Territorial Infantry Regiment.

It initially formed part of the garrison of the Verdun fortress and was subordinated to the French 3rd Army, and in the first year of fighting participated in the Battle of the Ardennes, the First Battle of the Marne (including the Battle of the Ourcq), the First Battle of the Aisne and the First Battle of Picardy. In 1915 it participated in the First and Second Battle of Champagne. In 1916, it participated in the Battle of Verdun and the Battle of the Observatories. 1917 saw the division mainly involved in holding the front line, but 1918 saw the division participating in the 4th Battle of Champagne

At various times, it was part of the French First Army, French Second Army, French Third Army, French Fourth Army, French Fifth Army, French Sixth Army and French Tenth Army.

World War II
During the Battle of France in May 1940 the division was made up of the following units:

142nd Infantry Regiment
237th Infantry Regiment
12th Foreign Infantry Regiment
42nd Reconnaissance Battalion
82nd Artillery Regiment
282nd Artillery Regiment

It was a newly created division. The 12th Foreign Infantry Regiment was mainly made up of Spanish Republican Soldiers who had fled to France after the Spanish Civil War. The other regiments were made up of reservists.

Cold War
The 8th Motorised Infantry Brigade was absorbed by the 7th Light Armoured Division, creating the 7th Armoured Division in 1963. In 1977, the 7th Armoured Division was dissolved and its component units were used to create a new 7th Armoured Division, a 4th Armoured Division, and the 8th Infantry Division. The new division had its headquarters at Amiens and formed part of III Corps. In 1985 the division consisted of the 8th Infantry Regiment (8 RI) (VAB) (Noyon), the 94th Infantry Regiment (France) (VAB) (Sissonne), the 67 RI (VAB) (Soissons), the 7 RCh (AML) (Arras), the 41st Marine Artillery Regiment (former Coloniale), the 8 Compagnie de Genie, and the 8 RCS (Amiens). The division was dissolved in 1993.

See also
Achille Pierre Deffontaines

References

Infantry divisions of France
Infantry Division, 8th
Infantry Division, 8th
Military units and formations established in 1914
1914 establishments in France

8th Infantry Division (France)


The Swiss Heritage Society (SHS) is a non-profit organisation dedicated to the advancement of Switzerland's architectural heritage. Its focus is on the preservation of important landmarks, the development of the structural environment, and the promotion of good architectural design.

The Swiss Heritage Society was founded in 1905, has about 17,000 members and publishes the magazine Heimatschutz/Sauvegarde quarterly.

The Swiss Heritage Society pursues its goals mainly with public relations activities, through publications, technical consulting in construction projects, advisory functions in planning committees, appraisals, legal action, and financial grants for pioneering projects. The SHS commends exemplary achievements by awarding prizes (Wakker Prize, Heimatschutz Prize, Schulthess Horticultural Prize). Together with Pro Natura, the SHS has been supporting the annual fundraising drive with chocolate talers (Schoggitaler) for over fifty years.

See also
 Federal Inventory of Landscapes and Natural Monuments

External links
  Official website

Cultural organisations based in Switzerland
Cultural heritage of Switzerland
Historic preservation

Swiss Heritage Society


Bonnet has been used as the name for a wide variety of headgear for both sexes—more often female—from the Middle Ages to the present. As with "hat" and "cap", it is impossible to generalize as to the styles for which the word has been used, but there is for both sexes a tendency to use the word for styles in soft material and lacking a brim, or at least one all the way round, rather than just at the front. Yet the term has also been used, for example, for steel helmets. This was from Scotland (in 1505), where the term has long been especially popular.

Headgear tied under the chin with a string was especially likely to be called a bonnet. Other features associated with bonnets as opposed to hats was that the forehead was not covered, and the back of the head often was. The outdoor headgear of female servants and workers was more likely to be called a bonnet. It was often worn outside over a thinner everyday head covering, which was worn at all times. In summary, hats were often stiffer, worn on the top of the head with the crown and brim roughly horizontal, while bonnets were pushed back, covering the back of the head, with any brim often approaching the vertical at the front. Other types of bonnet might otherwise be called "caps", for example the Scottish blue bonnet worn by working-class men and women, a kind of large floppy beret.

Bonnet derives from the same word in French, where it originally indicated a type of material. From the 18th century bonnet forms of headgear, previously mostly worn by elite women in informal contexts at home (as well as more generally by working women), became adopted by high fashion, and until at least the late 19th century, bonnet was the dominant term used for female hats. In the 21st century, only a few specialized kinds of headgear are still called bonnets, most commonly those worn by babies and the feather bonnets of Scottish Highland regiments, as well as perhaps the war bonnets of North American Plains Indians. In addition, types of headgear called bonnets are worn by women as an outer Christian headcovering in some denominations such as the Amish, Mennonite and Brethren churches among the Anabaptist branch of Christianity, and with Conservative Quakers, mainly in the Americas.

Women

Until the late 19th century bonnet seems to have been the preferred term for most types of hats worn by women, while hat was more reserved for male headgear, and female styles that resembled them, typically either in much smaller versions perched on top of the head, or versions with very wide brims all the way round. In the mid-17th and 18th century house bonnets worn by women and girls were generally brimless headcoverings which were secured by tying under the chin, and which covered no part of the forehead. They were worn both indoors and outdoors, to keep the hair tidy, to keep dust or flour out of the hair while working, and in accordance with the Christian Bible passage 1 Corinthians 11. With society hairstyles becoming increasingly elaborate after 1770, the calash was worn outdoors to protect hair from wind and weather: a hood of silk stiffened with whalebone or arched cane battens, collapsible like a fan or the calash top of a carriage, they were fitted with ribbons to allow them to be held secure in a gale.

From Waterloo, increasingly structured and fashionable bonnets made by milliners grew larger and less functional among the upper classes. A plate in La Belle Assemblée 1817 showed a

This was specified as a carriage dress, with the understanding that when "taking the air" in an open carriage, the bonnet provided some privacy—such a bonnet was called an invisible in Paris—and prevent wind-chapping, with its connotations of countrified "rude" health. Straw was available again after 1815: the best straw bonnets came from Leghorn. As a bonnet developed a peak, it would extend from the entire front of the bonnet, from the chin over the forehead and down the other side of the face. Some styles of bonnets between ca 1817 and 1845 had a large peak which effectively prevented women from looking right or left without turning their heads: a coal-scuttle or poke bonnet. Others had a wide peak which was angled out to frame the face. In the 1840s it might be crimped at the top to frame the face in a heart shape. As the bonnet became more complicated, under it might be worn a lace cornette to hold the hair in place.

The lack of a clear distinction between hats and bonnets can be seen in these extracts from Harper's Bazaar in 1874: (On "Paris Fashions", by Emmeline Raymond, 11 April) "There is no change in bonnets. So long as the hair is piled on top of the head, the little device which takes the place of a dress cap must remain as it is. The brims are generally flattened at the sides, swelling above the front, and turned up behind in order to make room for the hair, which would not find room whereon to lodge if the precaution were not taken, here and there, to punch out what is called a brim of what is called a bonnet. It is said, however, that straw hats of the Pamela shape are in preparation, that is, turned up behind, but shading the forehead. It would be so very sensible to wear a bonnet that would protect the face from the sun that I give this news with due caution. For my part, I can not believe it, as little of practical, functional purpose remains in bonnet design." A week before, ("New York Fashions", 4 April): "Strings are now seldom seen, and this does away with the last distinguishing feature between bonnets and round hats; the same head-covering now serves for each, as it is a bonnet when worn far back on the head, and a hat when tilted forward."

Bonnets remained one of the most common types of headgear worn by women throughout most of the 19th century. Especially for a widow, a bonnet was de rigueur. Silk bonnets, elaborately pleated and ruched, were worn outdoors, or in public places like shops, galleries, churches, and during visits to acquaintances. Women would cover their heads with caps simply to keep their hair from getting dirty and perhaps out of modesty, as informed by Christian religious norms. In addition, women in wedlock would wear caps and bonnets during the day, to further demonstrate their status as married women.

Under the French Second Empire, parasols took the place of headgear for protection from sun, and bonnets became smaller and smaller, until they could only be held on the head with hatpins. As hats came back into style, bonnets were increasingly worn by women who wanted to appear modest in public, with the result that bonnets accumulated connotations of dowager wear and were dropped from fashion, except out on the prairies or country wear.

Most middle-class women in the 19th century would have had at least two bonnets, one suitable for summer weather, often made from straw, and one made from heavier fabric for winter wear. This is where the tradition of an Easter bonnet originated, when women would switch from their winter bonnet to their summer bonnet. Wealthier women would have many bonnets, suitable for different occasions.

Women of some religious groups have continued to wear bonnets for worship or everyday clothing. This is especially the case among Anabaptist Christianity (Old Order Mennonites, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Amish) and other plain people, such as plain-dressing Conservative Friends (Quakers). Bonnets were adopted by the Salvation Army based on 1 Corinthians 11, as part of uniform for women. Initially, Salvation Army bonnets were introduced as symbolic and representative protection for women and were reinforced with black tar to turn them into physical helmets to protect against the projectiles thrown by pagans. Later versions were smaller when there was no longer any need for protection. The bonnet has now been replaced with a bowler hat.

In France, single women wore elaborate yellow and green bonnets to honor St. Catherine's Day on November 25. The French expression coiffer Sainte-Catherine ('don St. Catherine's bonnet'), an idiom that describes an unmarried woman of 25 years or older, derives from this custom.

Slave women shipped from Africa, who traditionally wore African head dress in their native countries, were given European styles of bonnets. Slaves working household tasks they were often given bonnets of a traditional European maid style, while slaves in the field wore hand-tied sunbonnets. These head bonnets were preferred by the masters for hygiene, while also offering protection from the sun.

Men
The word bonnet for male headgear was generally replaced in English by cap before 1700, except in Scotland, where bonnet and the Scots language version bunnet remained in use, originally for the widely worn blue bonnet, and now especially for military headgear, like the feather bonnet (not to be confused with those worn by Native Americans, for which bonnet was also used), Glengarry, Kilmarnock and Balmoral. The Tudor bonnet remains a term for a component of the academic regalia of some universities, and is not unlike the common male bonnet of the 16th century.

Bonnet is also the term for the puffy velvet fabric inside the coronet of some male ranks of nobility, and "the affair of the bonnets" was a furious controversy in the France of Louis XIV over the mutual courtesies due between the magistrates of the Parliament de Paris and the Dukes of France.

The Scotch bonnet pepper was named for its resemblance to a bonnet worn by men in Scotland in the past, as it had a pom pom at the top which indicates the difference form the men's bonnet and women's bonnet.

Babies

The most common kind of bonnet worn today is a soft headcovering for babies. Its shape is similar to that of some kinds of bonnets that women used to wear: it covers the hair and ears, but not the forehead. While a bonnet may be a fashion choice by caregivers for a baby's headgear, it may also be used for sun protection, since an infant's skin is more vulnerable to sunburn than an adult's.

Modern times
Modern bonnets are often made of silk or satin to preserve one's hairstyle while asleep or lying down. They maintain a similar shape to bonnets that were popular in the 1960s. But it is more likely that these styles of headdress originated from the use of shower caps due to their appearance and application in salons.

It can also be worn with French maid costumes.

Bonnets are also used in alternative fashion communities such as lolita fashion.

See also
 Salvation Army bonnet
 Poke bonnet
 Coal scuttle bonnet
 Balmoral bonnet - Scotland

Notes

References
de Courtais, Georgine, Women's Hats, Headdresses and Hairstyles, 2013, Courier Corporation, , 9780486136691, google books

External links

Fashion Plates of Female Headgear from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
Jonathan Walford, "Women's fashion headwear"
Mixed Fashion Plates 1800-1900, with original descriptive captions

Children's clothing
Headgear
English clothing
Medieval European costume
fi:Hilkka

Bonnet (headgear)


Sir Michael Pepper  (born 10 August 1942) is a British physicist notable for his work in semiconductor nanostructures.

Early life
Pepper was born on 10 August 1942 to Morris and Ruby Pepper. He was educated at St Marylebone Grammar School, a grammar school in the City of Westminster, London that has since closed. He then went on to study physics at the University of Reading and graduated Bachelor of Science (BSc) in 1963. He remained at Reading to undertake postgraduate studies and completed his Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in 1967.

In 1987, while an academic of the University of Cambridge, he was granted the status of Master of Arts (MA Cantab). He was awarded a higher doctorate, Doctor of Science (ScD), by Cambridge.

Career
Sir Michael was a physicist at the Plessey Research Laboratories when he formed a collaboration with Sir Nevill Mott, (Nobel Laureate, 1977) which resulted in his commencing research in the Cavendish Laboratory in 1973 on localisation in semiconductor structures. He subsequently joined the GEC Hirst Research Centre where he set up joint Cambridge-GEC projects. He was one of three authors on the paper that eventually brought a Nobel prize for the quantum Hall effect to Klaus von Klitzing. Sir Michael formed the Semiconductor Physics research group at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1984, and following a period as Royal Society Warren Research Fellow was appointed to his current role, Professorship of Physics, at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1987. In 1991, he was appointed managing director of the newly established Toshiba Cambridge Research Centre, now known as the Cambridge Research Laboratory (CRL) of Toshiba Research Europe. The following year, 2001, he was appointed Scientific Director of TeraView, a company formed by spinning off the terahertz research arm of CRL. He became an honorary Professor of Pharmaceutical Science in the University of Otago, New Zealand in 2003. He left his Cambridge Chair to take up the Pender Chair of Nanoelectronics at University College London in 2009 and has been associated with many developments in Semiconductor Physics and applications of terahertz radiation. He sits on the Scientific Advisory Committee of Australia's ARC Centre of Excellence in Future Low-Energy Electronics Technologies.

Honors
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1983 and was elected a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1982. In 1987 he received the Hughes Medal. Previously he had received the Europhysics Prize of the European Physical Society, and the Guthrie Prize of the Institute of Physics both in 1985. The Institute of Physics awarded Sir Michael the first Mott Prize in 2000. He had previously given the first Mott Lecture in 1985. He was awarded the Royal Medal in 2005 for his "work which has had the highest level of influence in condensed matter physics and has resulted in the creation of the modern field of semiconductor nanostructures," gave the Royal Society's Bakerian Prize Lecture in 2004 and received a knighthood in the 2006 New Year's Honours list for services to physics. He was appointed a fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering. In 2010 he won the Swan Medal and Prize. He has been awarded the 2013 Faraday Medal of the IET. In 2019 he was awarded the Institute of Physics Isaac Newton Medal.

Research interests

 Current and resistance quantisation phenomena
 Measurement of electron charge
 One-dimensional and zero-dimensional electronic phenomena
 Quantum transport in general
 Localisation and metal-insulator transitions
 Properties of strongly interacting electron gases
 Bose–Einstein condensation in the solid state
 Hybrid magnetic-semiconductor structures
 Medical physics, Physics in medicine and biology

Media appearances
 Horizon: What is One Degree (10 January 2011) – Interviewed by his former PhD student Ben Miller.

See also
 Quantum Hall effect

References

External links
  Summary of Pepper's Work from Toshiba
 Homepage at the Semiconductor Physics Research group
 Pepper's publication list
 Toshiba Research Europe
 Pepper's Hughes Medal citation
  Pepper biography

1942 births
Living people
British Jews
Fellows of the Royal Society
People educated at St Marylebone Grammar School
Alumni of the University of Reading
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge
Knights Bachelor
Royal Medal winners
English electrical engineers
Academics of University College London
General Electric Company
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Jewish British scientists

Michael Pepper


James Framo (1922–2001) was an American psychologist and pioneer family therapist. He developed an object relations approach to intergenerational and family-of-origin therapy. He collaborated with other pioneers in the field and authored or co-authored several early and significant texts in the field of family therapy. James was born and raised in South Philadelphia and graduated from South Philadelphia High School in 1940.  The last chapter of his 1992 publication Family-of-Origin Therapy: An Intergenerational Approach provides a personal account of his own early family experiences which served as a basis for his insights into the impact of families on individuals.

Bibliography
Boszormenyi-Nagy, I. & Framo, J.L. (1965; 1985). Intensive family therapy: Theoretical and practical aspects. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

Framo, J.L. (1970). Symptoms from a family transactional viewpoint. In N. W. Ackerman, J. Lieb, & J. K. Pearce (Eds.) Family therapy in transition. (pp. 125–171). Boston: Little & Brown.
Framo, J.L (Ed.) (1972). Family interaction: A dialogue between family researchers and family therapists. New York: Springer.
Green, R.J. & Framo, J.L. (Eds.)(1981). Family therapy: Major contributions. New York: International University Press.
Framo, J.L. (1982). Explorations in marital and family therapy: Selected papers of James L Framo. New York: Springer.
Framo, J.L. (1992). Family-of-origin therapy: An intergenerational approach. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Framo, J.L., Weber, T. & Levine, F. (2003). Coming Home Again: A Family-of-origin Consultation. New York: Brunner/Routledge.

External links
Biography: AFTA
In memory of James L. Framo

1922 births
2001 deaths
American family and parenting writers
20th-century American psychologists
American psychotherapists
Family therapists

James Framo


The Durighello family were a family of merchants in 19th century Sidon (modern Lebanon) notable for their contributions to archaeology.

Family members

 Angielo Durighello (1767-1841): moved to Aleppo in 1787 working for the consul of Venice to Aleppo. Became the consul of Spain in 1802, later becoming Consul-General of Spain, Sweden and Norway, France and the United States
 Alphonse (1822-1896), the son of Angielo, became a consul in Aleppo, then Sidon, becoming agent in the French Consulate in 1853 – in charge of the Khan al-Franj – and vice-consul in 1859. Discovered the Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II in 1855, later becoming a partner to Ernest Renan in his Mission de Phénicie.
 Edmond (1854-1922), son of Alphonse, began archaeological digs with Alphonse from 1880 in 1881 discovered the Sidon Mithraeum. Gained a reputation for illegal / poorly recorded excavations.
 Joseph-Ange (1863-1924), the youngest son of Alphonse and arguably the most well known member of the family, became a merchant in Sidon in 1882, then in Beirut in 1895. Later moved to Paris as an art dealer. Made significant donations to the Louvre, such as the Abdmiskar cippus

List of notable artifacts associated with the Durighello family
 Syria Palestine 139 AD Roman Military Diploma
 Emesa Vase
 Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II
 Sidon Mithraeum
 Abdmiskar cippus

References

External links
 Items discovered by Alphonse-Matthieu Durighello at the Louvre
 Items discovered by Edmond Durighello at the Louvre
 Items discovered by Jacques Joseph Antoine (Joseph-Ange) Durighello at the Louvre
 Items donated by Joseph-Ange Durighello at the British Museum

Bibliography

Italian diplomats
Italian orientalists

Durighello family


Vytautas the Great Bridge, also known as Aleksotas Bridge before 1930 and from 1940 until 23 February 2008, crosses the Nemunas River to connect Aleksotas and Old Town in Kaunas, Lithuania. Its length exceeds 256 meters, and its width is of 16 meters. The means of payment for the building of the bridge was arranged back in 1927. After several stages of competition, Copenhagen-based engineers obtained the rights to build the bridge. Finally, on January 11, 1930, the bridge was completed being named after Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas the Great.

During World War II, the bridge was blown up twice. Due to the strategic relevance of the city Kaunas, the bridge was rebuilt in 1948 by architect Levas Kazarinskis. In 2005 the bridge underwent a major reconstruction.

References

External links

Road bridges in Lithuania
Bridges in Kaunas
Bridges completed in 1930

Vytautas the Great Bridge


George Smith Lindsey (December 17, 1928 – May 6, 2012) was an American actor and stand-up comedian, best known for his role as Goober Pyle on The Andy Griffith Show, Mayberry R.F.D. and his subsequent tenure on Hee-Haw.

Life and career

George Lindsey was born in Fairfield, Alabama, to George Ross Lindsey, a butcher, and the former Alice Smith. He was raised by his grandparents in the small town of Jasper, where he graduated from Walker County High School in 1946. He attended Kemper Military School in Boonville, Missouri, and Florence State Teacher's College (Florence, Alabama) (now the University of North Alabama), where he majored in physical education and biology. He was a quarterback on the football team, and acted in college plays. He received a Bachelor of Science in 1952.

After graduating from college he enlisted in the United States Air Force and was stationed at Ramey Air Force Base in Puerto Rico. After his discharge, he taught for a year at Hazel Green High School in Hazel Green, Alabama, while waiting to be accepted by the American Theater Wing in New York City in 1956.  On March 24, 1960, he appeared on the To Tell the Truth television quiz show, posing as a Florida spear fisherman and ultimately revealing himself as a "nightclub comic." After graduating from the Wing and performing in two Broadway plays, "Wonderful Town" and "All American", he moved to Los Angeles in 1962.  He got parts in TV series including Gunsmoke, The Rifleman, The Real McCoys, The Twilight Zone, Daniel Boone, Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea and three episodes of The Alfred Hitchcock Hour, before he got the role he would become famous for as "Goober" on The Andy Griffith Show.

The Andy Griffith Show, as Goober Pyle (1964)
In 1964, Lindsey was cast as the slow-witted but kindly Goober Beasley on The Andy Griffith Show. His character was later renamed Goober Pyle to tie him to his cousin Gomer Pyle, a slow-witted country boy played by Jim Nabors, also from Alabama. Goober's antics frequently included his exaggerated Goober Dance and his comically bad Cary Grant impression.

As Lindsey started his portrayal as Goober, he also had a minor role in the Walter Brennan series The Tycoon on ABC. Lindsey played a sailor in the 1964 film Ensign Pulver, the sequel to Mister Roberts. He also had a role in a Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea episode entitled "Submarine Sunk Here". He appeared in six episodes of the television series Gunsmoke. He played a blackmailing taxicab driver in the "Bed of Roses" episode of The Alfred Hitchcock Hour.

Star Trek, cast as Spock
During an interview segment of TV Land's 40th Anniversary Star Trek Marathon on November 12, 2006, Leonard Nimoy stated that Gene Roddenberry's first choice to play Spock was George Lindsey. Because of the flippant way Nimoy makes the comment, it has been suggested that he was joking. The claim Lindsey was offered the role is given more credibility when Lindsey's close friend Ernest Borgnine wrote in his autobiography, "my hand to God – he turned down the part of Mr. Spock on TV's Star Trek, the role that made Leonard Nimoy famous."

Mayberry R.F.D., other acting work
After Griffith left his television show, CBS retooled it as Mayberry R.F.D. and Lindsey played the same character until CBS cancelled the program in 1971.

In 1972, Lindsey portrayed Charlie, one of a pair of highwaymen in the Gunsmoke episode "Blind Man's Bluff," and an escaped convict, "The Dove," in an episode of The Rifleman. Disney used his talents in a few projects, both as comedy support in features (Snowball Express, Treasure of Matecumbe) and voiceovers for a few of their animated characters. Three Disney animated features that presented the voice of Lindsey were The Aristocats (1970), Robin Hood (1973) and The Rescuers (1977). He appeared in the 1967 Gunsmoke episode "Mad Dog" as one of the Watson Brothers.
In 1978, Lindsey guest starred on M*A*S*H as Roy Dupree, a wild but capable Southern surgeon. In 1997 Lindsey played himself in an episode of NewsRadio.

As Goober on Hee Haw (1972–1992)

Lindsey portrayed Goober for the third and last time on the syndicated country music variety show Hee Haw, playing a more rustic and somewhat smarter version of the character. He appeared on that show from 1972 to 1992.

Personal life
Lindsey's marriage to Joyanne Herbert ended in divorce. They had a son, George Jr., and a daughter, Camden Jo Lindsey Gardner, as well as two grandsons. Nashville businesswoman Anne Wilson was Lindsey's companion for many years until his death.

Death
Lindsey died on May 6, 2012, in Nashville, Tennessee, from heart failure. He was 83. He is buried at Oak Hill Cemetery in his hometown of Jasper, Alabama.

Honors and citations
Lindsey raised over US$1,000,000 for Alabama Special Olympics through 17 years of the George Lindsey Celebrity Weekend and Golf Tournament in Montgomery, Alabama and another $50,000 for the Alabama Association of Retarded Citizens, and participated as Head Coach-Winter Games in the Minneapolis Special Olympics National Competition.

He established and perpetuated the George Lindsey Academic Scholarships at University of North Alabama. In 1992, the university gave him an honorary doctorate.

Lindsey was the 1995 recipient of the Governor's Achievement Award — Alabama Music Hall of Fame. The State of Alabama named the "George Lindsey Highway" in Jasper after the actor. In 1998, he established the George Lindsey/UNA Film Festival that takes place at the University of North Alabama annually in the spring.

He was the 1997 recipient of the Minnie Pearl Lifetime Achievement Award and the 2007 recipient of the first ICON Award presented by the Nashville Associations of Talent Directors.

Partial filmography
The Alfred Hitchcock Hour (1964) (Season 2 Episode 17: "The Jar") as Juke Marmer
The Alfred Hitchcock Hour (1964) (Season 2 Episode 29: "Bed of Roses") as Sam Kirby
The Alfred Hitchcock Hour (1964) (Season 3 Episode 1: "Return of Verge Likens") as D.D. Martin
Death Valley Days TV Series - The Death and the Fury (1964)
The Twilight Zone TV Series – Deputy Pierce in the 1964 episode 'I Am the Night -- Color Me Black'
The Andy Griffith Show CBS TV Series (1964–1968) – Goober Pyle
Ensign Pulver (1964) – Lindstrom
The Joey Bishop Show TV Series (1964) – Marine
Gunsmoke ("Pa Hacks Brood" - 1963) as Orville; ("Which Doctor" - 1966) as Skeeter; ("Mad Dog" - 1967) as Pinto Watson;  & ("Blind Mans Bluff" - 1972) as Charlie
Mayberry R.F.D. TV Series (1968–1971) – Goober
The Aristocats (1970) – Lafayette (voice)
Snowball Express (1972) – Double L. Dingman
Charley and the Angel (1973) – Pete, Handyman
Robin Hood (1973) – Trigger, the Vulture (voice)
Treasure of Matecumbe (1976) – Coahoma Sheriff
The Rescuers (1977) – Deadeye, The Rabbit (voice)
M*A*S*H (TV series) – Captain Roy Dupree in the 1978 episode 'Temporary Duty'
Take This Job and Shove It (1981) – Man at Gas Station
The American Snitch (1983) – Zeke
Cannonball Run II (1984) – Uncle Cal
Return to Mayberry (1986) – Goober Pyle
NewsRadio (1997) - Himself
When I Find the Ocean (2006) – Ed Barker (final film role)
Larry the Cable Guy's Hula-Palooza Christmas Luau - Himself (2009) (Final Television role)

Autobiography

References

External links

 George Lindsey UNA Film Festival

1928 births
2012 deaths
Male actors from Alabama
American male film actors
American male television actors
People from Nashville, Tennessee
United States Air Force airmen
University of North Alabama alumni
North Alabama Lions football players
Writers from Alabama
People from Fairfield, Alabama
People from Jasper, Alabama
Age controversies

George Lindsey


The Cuckoo Trail is a  footpath and cycleway which runs from Hampden Park to Heathfield in East Sussex. It passes through the towns of Polegate and Hailsham, as well as the villages of Hellingly and Horam.

History

The Trail largely follows the route of a disused railway line, the Cuckoo Line, which opened in 1880 and ran between Eridge and Polegate railway stations, creating a direct route between Eastbourne and London. It obtained its name from the tradition that the first cuckoo in Spring was heard at the Heathfield Fair. The line closed in 1968 under the programme of closures put forward by Forest Row resident and British Transport Commission Chairman Richard Beeching.

In 1981 the route of the old railway line to the south of Heathfield was purchased by Wealden District Council and East Sussex County Council. From 1990 Sustrans developed the route along with District Council and the County Council into a shared track for walkers and cyclists, with horses also allowed on some sections. An extension was constructed to the south into Eastbourne and the trail became part of National Cycle Network Route 21. The Trail is currently used by around 200,000 people per year and serves as a traffic-free route between several local schools. It is jointly managed by the latter in conjunction with East Sussex County Council.

Along the route of the Trail are six original sculptures which act as mileposts. In May 1993 a dozen wooden benches were installed which had been hand-carved by a local artist out of trees felled during the Great Storm of 1987. In 2003 a five-year £65,000 package of grants for improvements to the Cuckoo Trail was awarded as part of the Woodland Grant Scheme. Part of these funds went towards the resurfacing of the Trail as far as Heathfield in October 2006.

Extension north
As of 2008, the Cuckoo Trail remains incomplete. The remaining section of the disused railway line north of Heathfield is largely inaccessible and in the ownership of 12 different individuals who have resisted attempts to establish a path/cycleway over their land. Until 1986, East Sussex County Council owned  of the Cuckoo Trail to the south of Mayfield but, seeking to reduce expenditure, it abandoned the idea of reopening it as a public footpath, and parcels of land were sold off in a piecemeal fashion.

The trail has therefore been re-routed from Heathfield over nearby roads, diverging from the railway alignment to join the A265 at Mutton Hall Hill before heading north on Newick Lane through Mayfield town centre. That route caused controversy amongst local residents.

The inability to extend the trail north means that it cannot reach Groombridge and link with the Forest Way, another footpath and bridleway following the route of a disused railway line. Numerous reports have been prepared which identified various routes which would connect with the Forest Way, from a Sustrans report in 1995, to three Owen Williams reports in 1998 and 1999, and finally an Atkins feasibility study in 2006, which confirmed that reusing the old railway line would be the best way forward, with the alternative on-road route as a short-term means of access to Groombridge.

As part of the extension north, the  Heathfield Tunnel was repaired and restored in 1997, funded by a derelict land grant of £198,000 from English Partnerships and a contribution of £60,000 from Wealden District Council. Gates were fitted to the tunnel in 1999 at a cost of £22,000 which allowed access to be restricted to daylight hours. Access became unrestricted from 2002 but ceased entirely following an alleged rape incident on 12 March 2005. A trial reopening period began on 26 March 2007. In 2019, Wealden District Council was contacted due to the full closure of the tunnel. The response was: "due to constant vandalism and anti-social behaviour, the tunnel is to remain closed indefinitely with no plans to look into it".

External links

East Sussex County Council page
Sustrans page

References

Footpaths in East Sussex
Rail trails in England

Cuckoo Trail


Giovanni Toti (born 7 September 1968) is an Italian journalist and politician, who has been President of Liguria since June 2015. Toti was also elected to the European Parliament, following the 2014 European Parliament election.

Biography
Born in Viareggio in 1968, Toti grew up in Massa Carrara where the family ran a hotel, and he has lived for many years with his family and parents in Bocca di Magra, Ameglia, in the province of La Spezia, Liguria. He graduated in political science from the University of Milan. He is married to the journalist Siria Magri.

During the 1980s he was a member of the youth wing of the Italian Socialist Party, led at the time by Bettino Craxi, Prime Minister from 1983 to 1987, later condemned for corruption, in the trial Mani Pulite.

In 1991, he started working for Studio Aperto, the news program of Silvio Berlusconi's TV channel Italia 1, of which he became director in 2010. In March 2012 Toti became also director of Tg4, replacing the long-time one Emilio Fede.

In January 2014, Toti entered politics as political counselor of Berlusconi's party Forza Italia. In the 2014 European elections he was elected to the European Parliament with 148,291 votes.

On 1 April 2015 he presented his candidacy to become President of Liguria in the regional election of May at the head of centre-right coalition composed of Northern League, Brothers of Italy, New Centre-Right and Toti's party FI. After the election, Toti was elected President with 34.4% of votes, defeating the Democratic candidate Raffaella Paita.

References

1968 births
Living people
People from Viareggio
University of Milan alumni
Italian Socialist Party politicians
Forza Italia politicians
Presidents of Liguria
MEPs for Italy 2014–2019
21st-century Italian journalists
21st-century Italian politicians

Giovanni Toti


Theodor Heinrich Boveri (12 October 1862 – 15 October 1915) was a German biologist who made discoveries in cytology, embryology and genetics. His career was devoted to the processes whereby a new individual arises from parental reproductive materials.

His work with sea urchins showed that it was necessary to have all chromosomes present in order for proper development of the embryo to take place. This discovery was an important part of the Boveri-Sutton chromosome theory. His other significant discovery was the centrosome (1888), which he described as the especial organ of cell division. Boveri also discovered the phenomenon of chromatin diminution during embryonic development of the nematode Parascaris.

Boveri–Sutton hypothesis
1902–1904: Boveri, in a series of papers, drew attention to the correspondence between the behaviour of chromosomes and the results obtained by Mendel. He said that chromosomes were "independent entities which retain their independence even in the resting nucleus... What comes out of the nucleus is what goes into it".

In 1903 Walter Sutton suggested that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units. E.B. Wilson, who was Sutton's teacher, called this the Sutton–Boveri hypothesis.

Cancer
Boveri reasoned that a cancerous tumor begins with a single cell in which the make up of its chromosomes becomes scrambled, causing the cells to divide uncontrollably.

It was only later that researchers such as Thomas Hunt Morgan showed that Boveri was correct.

Other websites

 Fritz Baltzer. (1967). excerpt from Theodor Boveri: The life of a great biologist, 1862-1915 . University of California Press, Berkeley; pp. 85–97.

References

1862 births
1915 deaths
German geneticists
Embryologists

Theodor Boveri


The Fiat Ducato is a light commercial vehicle jointly developed by FCA Italy and PSA Group (currently Stellantis), and mainly manufactured by Sevel, a joint venture between the two companies since 1981. It has also been sold as the Citroën C25, Peugeot J5, Alfa Romeo AR6 and Talbot Express and later as the Fiat Ducato, Citroën Jumper (Relay first in the United Kingdom and then in Australia; Dispatch in Australia as a shorter variant), and Peugeot Boxer (Manager in Mexico), from 1994 onwards. It entered the North American market as the Ram ProMaster in May 2014 for the 2015 model year.

In Europe, it is produced at the Sevel Sud factory, in Atessa, Italy. It has also been produced at the Iveco factory in Sete Lagoas, Brazil, at the Karsan factory in Akçalar, Turkey, at the Fiat Chrysler Automobiles Saltillo Van Assembly Plant in Saltillo, Mexico, and at the Fiat-Sollers factory in Elabuga, Russia. Since 1981, more than 2.6 million Fiat Ducatos have been produced. The name "Ducato" is a reference to the ducat; after the Fiorino, this was the second Fiat light commercial vehicle to be named after ancient coinage.

In July 2019, the electric version of the Ducato developed by FCA Italy was presented, and sales commenced in 2020. Since the 2021 model year, the Ducato has also been rebadged as the Opel/Vauxhall Movano, replacing the previous model Movano, which from 1998 until 2021 had been based on the Renault Master.

The Ducato is the most common motorhome base used in Europe; with around two-thirds of motorhomes using the Ducato base.

First generation (1981)

The Ducato was first launched in 1981, and was the result of Fiat's collaboration with PSA Peugeot Citroën, that resulted in the vehicle's development starting in 1978. The vehicles were manufactured at the Sevel Val di Sangro plant in Atessa, in central Italy, and at the Sevel Campania plant in Pomigliano d'Arco, Naples, together with the similar Alfa Romeo AR6, Citroën C25, and Peugeot J5 versions. The Peugeot J5 was sold as the Talbot Express in the United Kingdom (1986–1994). The collaboration of Fiat and PSA had earlier produced the Fiat 242 and Citroën C35 from 1974.

For the Fiat, engines were 2.0 litre 4-cylinder petrol or 1.9 litre diesel. Trim levels were base, S, and SX. Model variants were named according to carrying capacity: Ducato 10 (1.0 tons), Ducato 13 (1.3 tons), Ducato 14 (1.4 tons), and Ducato Maxi 18 (1.8 tons). The Ducato Mk1 was very popular as a basis for campervan conversions. A short-wheelbase version was sold as Fiat Talento.

In August 1992, some Fiat Ducatos were built with the T29C electric DC motor from Leroy-Somer, named as the Ducato Elettra powered by 28 six-volt valve regulated lead–acid (VRLA) gel cell batteries, producing 168 volts DC and 160 amperes, in a wooden box weighing 868 kg. This 4765 × 1965 × 2100 mm transporter (maximum gross weight 3190 kg) had a vehicle payload of 750 kg and a range up to 70 kilometers.

Fiat Talento

The Fiat Talento (Italian pronunciation: ) is a light commercial vehicle produced by the Italian automaker Fiat, first sold in 1981 as a short-wheelbase version of the Ducato. It has been offered in two non-consecutive generations, as the nameplate made its return as a rebadged Renault Trafic (X82) in 2016. In 1994, the first generation Talento was discontinued. The name continues Fiat's practice of naming their commercial vehicles after old currencies, with "talento" referring to the talent, a unit of measurement often used for precious metals.

Alfa Romeo AR6

The Alfa Romeo AR6 was a badge-engineered Ducato sold by Alfa Romeo on the Italian market only, as a replacement for the Alfa Romeo Romeo. It was available in two different wheelbase lengths, and as a passenger van, commercial van, or pick-up truck. It was also the final commercial vehicle sold by Alfa Romeo. The Alfa Romeo AR6 was produced in the Sevel Campania plant (formerly owned by ARVECO – Alfa Romeo Industrial Vehicles) of Pomigliano d'Arco, Naples, until 1 January 1986, when Alfa Romeo dropped out of the commercial vehicle business entirely. Production of the Fiat Ducato continued in the same plant until 1994 when it was closed.

Citroën C25
The Citroën C25 was a 2.5 tonne capacity van (hence the name C25) produced from October 1981 until 1993. The C25 succeeded the dated corrugated Citroën Type H post war one tonne van. The C25's engines are transversely mounted; the petrol one is a Peugeot 504 unit whilst the diesel one is from the Citroën CX diesel. Both units are coupled to a Citroën gearbox.

In February 1982, the range was extended to include a pick-up truck and a minibus. In 1991, the C25 series 2 was launched with an enlarged grille. In 1994, the C25 was replaced by the Jumper.

Peugeot J5

The Peugeot J5 was a 2.5 tonne capacity van, also produced from October 1981 until 1993. Its powertrains are as per the Citroën C25. In 1991, the J5 series 2 was launched with a new front grille and headlights. It was replaced in 1994 by the Peugeot Boxer, which was based on the second generation Fiat Ducato.

It sold reasonably well in France but enjoyed little commercial success outside France, being overshadowed in much of Europe by the Fiat Ducato, which was supported by stronger commercial vehicle dealership networks in key markets.

Talbot Express

The Talbot Express van, sold solely in the United Kingdom, was the last Talbot-badged motor vehicle to be produced, quietly succeeding the outdated Dodge Spacevan modeline. Production of this badge-engineered version for the United Kingdom began in 1982 and continued until 1994, nearly eight years after the last Talbot badged passenger car had been withdrawn.

Its Citroën/Peugeot petrol and diesel engines were transversely mounted driving the front wheels. A 4×4 option was also available, although is now very rare today.

In 1991, the series 2 Express was launched with an enlarged grille. Production was discontinued in 1994, when Peugeot finally discarded the Talbot marque.

This van was popular in the United Kingdom, for new conversions to camper vans or motorhomes by coach builders. Provided they are well-maintained and not too rusty, they can still command prices of many thousands of pounds even though they are over twenty years old. This is in marked contrast to the values of the commercial van versions.

Engines

Second generation (1993)

The second-generation Ducato arrived in 1993 and was still produced by Sevel. Peugeot changed the name from J5 to Boxer while Citroën rebranded the C25 as Jumper (sold as the "Relay" in the United Kingdom and Ireland). One engine option was a Fiat 2.5 L diesel, which was replaced with 2.8 L Iveco/Sofim engine in 1998.

The Ducato Goods Transport has a payload of 12 m³ and comes with a choice of four engines: the 2.0 petrol, 2.0 JTD, 2.3 JTD 16V, or 2.8 JTD. All of these conformed to the Euro 3 standards and offered programmed maintenance management. The range included two types of gearbox: a mechanical box with a five-speed manual plus reverse and an automatic transmission with four speeds plus reverse.

The Ducato Passenger Transport has a carrying capacity of six to nine people and comes with the 2.3 litre JTD 16v engine, which again is Euro 3 compliant and delivers 110 bhp.

The Ducato Combi is a mixture of the Goods Transport and the Passenger Transport. It is ideal for the transport of people and goods alike, and it can accommodate up to nine occupants. Model designations were Ducato 10 (1 ton), Ducato 14 (1.4 tons) and Ducato Maxi 18 (1.8 tons).

2002 facelift

The second series was restyled in February 2002, with the addition of rear and side bump mouldings and revised front grille. The engine range was: 2.0 JTD, 2.3 JTD 16v and 2.8 JTD, 2.5 diesel was dropped. Model designations were changed to reflect maximum gross weight: Ducato 29 (2.9 tons), Ducato 30 (3.0 tons), Ducato 33 (3.3 tons) and Ducato Maxi 35 (3.5 tons).

On 15 December 2005, the three-millionth vehicle was produced, which resulted in the rate of production increasing to nine vehicles per day. This generation was also produced at the Fiat Auto Poland Tychy plant in complete knock down, at the Iveco plant in Sete Lagoas (Brazil), at the Karsan plant in Alkaçar, Turkey, since 2000, and since 2006 in Elabuga, Russia (Fiat-Sollers).

The Ducato, Jumper, and Boxer were also produced in Brazil until December 2016.

Engines

1993–1999

 Only for Fiat Ducato
 Only for Citroën Jumper and Peugeot Boxer

2000–2001

 Only for Citroën Jumper and Peugeot Boxer
 Only for Fiat Ducato

2002–2006

 Only for Citroën Jumper and Peugeot Boxer
 Only for Fiat Ducato

Third generation (2006)

The third-generation Jumper/Relay was launched first in worldwide except in Australia in September 2006 as a 2007 model (including UK) and then in Australia in late 2012 as a 2013 model, followed by the Boxer in June and the Ducato later as a 2008 model. The vehicle was available in many variants both for people and goods transport. Weights were again increased, with the following designations for all-up weight: Ducato 30 (3 tonnes), Ducato 33 (3.3 tonnes), Ducato Maxi 35 (3.5 tonnes) and Ducato Maxi 40 (4 tonnes). In van configuration, the vehicle is available in three wheelbases: 3000 mm (118 inch), 3450 mm (136 inch), and 4050 mm (159 inch), and in three heights: 2250 mm (90 inch), 2500 mm (99 inch), and 2750 mm (109 inch). Also in van configuration, the three wheelbases are offered in four overall vehicle lengths of 4950 mm (195 inch), 5400 mm (213 inch), 6000 mm (236 inch), and 6350 mm (250 inch). The two longest body lengths are available only with the 4050 mm wheelbase.

Mexico
This third-generation Ducato has been available in Mexico since November 2007, and over 30 different models are available. It is marketed as the Fiat Ducato, and as the Peugeot Manager. These models are similar to the European configurations with smaller engines, available diesel, and manual transmissions, although the Canada and U.S. version, with larger gasoline engines and automatic transmissions, is made in Mexico.

Ram ProMaster
Since October 2013, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles's Ram Trucks brand has marketed the Ducato as the Ram ProMaster in Canada and the United States. Since the 2009 bankruptcy of Chrysler and subsequent acquisition by Fiat, Chrysler had not offered a large van in this market. Dodge Trucks (the brand name used by Chrysler prior to the inception of the Ram brand) had offered a version of the Mercedes-Benz Sprinter van between 2003 and 2009, and earlier the Dodge Ram Van. The ProMaster is produced in FCA's Saltillo, Mexico, plant.

Traditional commercial vans in this market are heavy body-on-frame based on pickup trucks. The ProMaster has a unibody construction and front-wheel drive. This gives it a lower floor height, which improves cargo loading. Front-wheel drive also improves handling and safety.

The most significant difference between the ProMaster and the Ducato is the availability of a 3.6 L 24-valve V6 gasoline Chrysler Pentastar engine offered in conjunction with the Chrysler 62TE six-speed automatic transmission as standard equipment. The Iveco 3.0 L 16-valve I4 diesel JTD engine, branded as EcoDiesel by Chrysler, mated with the M40 six-speed automated manual transmission was offered in model years 2014 through 2016; however, the gasoline V6 is currently the sole engine available in the ProMaster. Starting in the 2021 model year, the standard engine is the 3.6 L 24-valve V6 gasoline Pentastar Upgrade engine, in conjunction with the 9-speed ZF 9HP48 automatic replacing the Chrysler 62TE transmission.

The ProMaster is offered in three wheelbases (, , ), four overall body lengths (, , , , with the two longest body lengths available only with the  wheelbase). Only the low ( and medium ) heights are offered on the ProMaster.

The panel van configuration is available in all sizes, while the chassis-cab and cut-away configurations are offered only in  and  wheelbases. The window van is available only in the  wheelbase and  roof height.

For the 2019 model year, the ProMaster received a new front fascia, replacing the crosshair grille with a new "RAM"-lettered front grille. The 3.0L EcoDiesel inline four-cylinder (I4) turbodiesel engine was also discontinued, leaving the 3.6L Pentastar V6 gasoline engine with variable valve timing (VVT) as the only engine choice for the ProMaster. The previously optional five-inch Uconnect 3 touchscreen radio was made standard equipment to comply with the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) requiring that all vehicles with GVWR of 10,000 lb (4535 kg) or less manufactured after April 2018 provide a rearview camera.

At the 2020 Work Truck Show in Indianapolis, Indiana, Ram introduced the 2021 model year ProMaster with new features. A 9.2-inch digital rearview mirror with a rear camera is available as an option. New safety features include blind spot monitoring (BLIS) with rear cross-path detection and a forward collision warning system (FCWS) with emergency brake assist. LED interior lighting for the interior courtesy and ambient interior lighting is also available.

For the 2023 model year, the Ram ProMaster received a second facelift to match the styling of the other post-facelift models.

Engines

2007–2010

 Only for Fiat Ducato
 Only for Citroën Jumper and Peugeot Boxer

2010–2014

 Only for Citroën Jumper and Peugeot Boxer
 Only for Fiat Ducato
 Only for Ram ProMaster

Note: for some versions/markets, the previous engines are still available.

Notes

Facelift (2014–present)
The fourth-generation Ducato/Jumper/Relay/Boxer (platform designation X290) was introduced in the summer of 2014, scheduled for an October 2014 debut as a 2015 model (except in Australia which had two models for Relay/Dispatch: a 2017 model with first facelift and a 2019 model with second facelift) while the 2014 model year was entirely skipped. Although based on the third generation model, it features a heavily revised front end, with more car like headlight styling. Euro 6 engines were introduced for the 2017 model year in late 2016, and does not require Adblue (Fiat version only) unlike most of its competitors. The Relay/Boxer/Jumper received the 2.0L PSA DW10 based Euro 6 engine. The Ram ProMaster was revised in 2018 for the 2019 model year with a different grille, increased payload and improved towing capacity.

In 2019, Ducato moved from twin EGR system introduced with for Euro 6 to AdBlue on the 2.3L engine to comply with Euro 6d. Same year Boxer/Relay/Jumper changed the 2.0L PSA DW10 engine for 2.2L DW12 based engine.

In 2021, new features include adaptive cruise control, autonomous emergency braking and lane keep assist. In the same year, following the acquisition of Opel and Vaxuhall by Groupe PSA and its subsequent merger with FCA to form Stellantis, the Ducato was rebadged as the Opel/Vauxhall Movano, which was previously based on the Renault Master.

In 2022, the Ducato and ProMaster received a redesigned dashboard and the 948TE nine-speed automatic transmission as standard equipment for the ProMaster and optional for the Ducato. The Ducato also receives the 2.2L Fiat Pratola Serra Family B turbo diesel, branded as the Multijet 3, while the ProMaster receives a revised 3.6L Pentastar. For the 2023 model year, the front end of the ProMaster was redesigned to match its European counterparts, coinciding with the introduction of the ProMaster EV; the van also received a third "super-high" roof option on the longest wheelbase.

Toyota Motor Europe and Stellantis plan to build a Toyota-badged large van based on the Ducato platform, expected to be released in mid-2024. This is an expansion of the two automakers' LCV partnership started in 2012.

E-Ducato
The battery electric Ducato Electric was announced in July 2019, with planned availability in 2020. The targeted range was  on the New European Driving Cycle. The same body variants as the conventional Ducato would be available, providing cargo volumes of  and maximum payload of .

In April 2021, Fiat launched the E-Ducato, which had been co-developed with package delivery firm DHL. Ducato gliders are assembled at the Fiat Sevel Sud factory in Atessa, then shipped to Fiat Mirafiori in Turin, where they are fitted with a drivetrain developed by SolarEdge. Estimated maximum production capacity is 1,000 vehicles per month. The similar electric van variants sold by PSA as the Citroen Jumper/Relay and Peugeot Boxer also are assembled at Sevel Sud, but use a different battery technology as they are converted by BD Auto instead.

The E-Ducato is fitted with either a 3- or 5-module high voltage traction battery with 47 or 79 kW-hr of storage, respectively; estimated range is  under the WLTP mixed cycle for the larger battery. Traction motor peak output is  and . As an option, the E-Ducato can be fitted with a port to accept power at up to 50 kW (DC).

Second facelift (2024)
A second facelift was revealed on October 23, 2023, introducing technological updates.

Sales and production figures

Ram ProMaster sales

References

External links

 Fiat Ducato Owner's Manual (3rd generation)

Ducato
Vans
Minibuses
Vehicles introduced in 1981
1980s cars
1990s cars
2000s cars
2010s cars
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars of Turkey
Cars of Brazil

Fiat Ducato


In topology, the Jordan curve theorem asserts that every Jordan curve (a plane simple closed curve) divides the plane into an "interior" region bounded by the curve and an "exterior" region containing all of the nearby and far away exterior points. Every continuous path connecting a point of one region to a point of the other intersects with the curve somewhere. While the theorem seems intuitively obvious, it takes some ingenuity to prove it by elementary means. "Although the JCT is one of the best known topological theorems, there are many, even among professional mathematicians, who have never read a proof of it." (). More transparent proofs rely on the mathematical machinery of algebraic topology, and these lead to generalizations to higher-dimensional spaces.

The Jordan curve theorem is named after the mathematician Camille Jordan (1838–1922), who found its first proof. For decades, mathematicians generally thought that this proof was flawed and that the first rigorous proof was carried out by Oswald Veblen. However, this notion has been overturned by Thomas C. Hales and others.

Definitions and the statement of the Jordan theorem

A Jordan curve or a simple closed curve in the plane R2 is the image C of an injective continuous map of a circle into the plane, φ: S1 → R2. A Jordan arc in the plane is the image of an injective continuous map of a closed and bounded interval  into the plane. It is a plane curve that is not necessarily smooth nor algebraic.

Alternatively, a Jordan curve is the image of a continuous map φ: [0,1] → R2 such that φ(0) = φ(1) and the restriction of φ to [0,1) is injective. The first two conditions say that C is a continuous loop, whereas the last condition stipulates that C has no self-intersection points.

With these definitions, the Jordan curve theorem can be stated as follows:

In contrast, the complement of a Jordan arc in the plane is connected.

Proof and generalizations

The Jordan curve theorem was independently generalized to higher dimensions by H. Lebesgue and L. E. J. Brouwer in 1911, resulting in the Jordan–Brouwer separation theorem.

The proof uses homology theory. It is first established that, more generally, if X is homeomorphic to the k-sphere, then the reduced integral homology groups of Y = Rn+1 \ X are as follows:

This is proved by induction in k using the Mayer–Vietoris sequence. When n = k, the zeroth reduced homology of Y has rank 1, which means that Y has 2 connected components (which are, moreover, path connected), and with a bit of extra work, one shows that their common boundary is X. A further generalization was found by J. W. Alexander, who established the Alexander duality between the reduced homology of a compact subset X of Rn+1 and the reduced cohomology of its complement. If X is an n-dimensional compact connected submanifold of Rn+1 (or Sn+1) without boundary, its complement has 2 connected components.

There is a strengthening of the Jordan curve theorem, called the Jordan–Schönflies theorem, which states that the interior and the exterior planar regions determined by a Jordan curve in R2 are homeomorphic to the interior and exterior of the unit disk. In particular, for any point P in the interior region and a point A on the Jordan curve, there exists a Jordan arc connecting P with A and, with the exception of the endpoint A, completely lying in the interior region. An alternative and equivalent formulation of the Jordan–Schönflies theorem asserts that any Jordan curve φ: S1 → R2, where S1 is viewed as the unit circle in the plane, can be extended to a homeomorphism ψ: R2 → R2 of the plane. Unlike Lebesgue's and Brouwer's generalization of the Jordan curve theorem, this statement becomes false in higher dimensions: while the exterior of the unit ball in R3 is simply connected, because it retracts onto the unit sphere, the Alexander horned sphere is a subset of R3 homeomorphic to a sphere, but so twisted in space that the unbounded component of its complement in R3 is not simply connected, and hence not homeomorphic to the exterior of the unit ball.

Discrete version
The Jordan curve theorem can be proved from the Brouwer fixed point theorem (in 2 dimensions), and the Brouwer fixed point theorem can be proved from the Hex theorem: "every game of Hex has at least one winner", from which we obtain a logical implication: Hex theorem implies Brouwer fixed point theorem, which implies Jordan curve theorem.

It is clear that Jordan curve theorem implies the "strong Hex theorem": "every game of Hex ends with exactly one winner, with no possibility of both sides losing or both sides winning", thus the Jordan curve theorem is equivalent to the strong Hex theorem, which is a purely discrete theorem.

The Brouwer fixed point theorem, by being sandwiched between the two equivalent theorems, is also equivalent to both.

In reverse mathematics, and computer-formalized mathematics, the Jordan curve theorem is commonly proved by first converting it to an equivalent discrete version similar to the strong Hex theorem, then proving the discrete version.

Application to image processing
In image processing, a binary picture is a discrete square grid of 0 and 1, or equivalently, a compact subset of . Topological invariants on , such as number of components, might fail to be well-defined for  if  does not have an appropriately defined graph structure.

There are two obvious graph structures on :

 the "4-neighbor square grid", where each vertex  is connected with .
 the "8-neighbor square grid", where each vertex  is connected with  iff , and .

Both graph structures fail to satisfy the strong Hex theorem. The 4-neighbor square grid allows a no-winner situation, and the 8-neighbor square grid allows a two-winner situation. Consequently, connectedness properties in , such as the Jordan curve theorem, do not generalize to  under either graph structure.

If the "6-neighbor square grid" structure is imposed on , then it is the hexagonal grid, and thus satisfies the strong Hex theorem, allowing the Jordan curve theorem to generalize. For this reason, when computing connected components in a binary image, the 6-neighbor square grid is generally used.

Steinhaus chessboard theorem
The Steinhaus chessboard theorem in some sense shows that the 4-neighbor grid and the 8-neighbor grid "together" implies the Jordan curve theorem, and the 6-neighbor grid is a precise interpolation between them.

The theorem states that: suppose you put bombs on some squares on a  chessboard, so that a king cannot move from the bottom side to the top side without stepping on a bomb, then a rook can move from the left side to the right side stepping only on bombs.

History and further proofs

The statement of the Jordan curve theorem may seem obvious at first, but it is a rather difficult theorem to prove. Bernard Bolzano was the first to formulate a precise conjecture, observing that it was not a self-evident statement, but that it required a proof.
It is easy to establish this result for polygons, but the problem came in generalizing it to all kinds of badly behaved curves, which include nowhere differentiable curves, such as the Koch snowflake and other fractal curves, or even a Jordan curve of positive area constructed by .

The first proof of this theorem was given by Camille Jordan in his lectures on real analysis, and was published in his book Cours d'analyse de l'École Polytechnique. There is some controversy about whether Jordan's proof was complete: the majority of commenters on it have claimed that the first complete proof was given later by Oswald Veblen, who said the following about Jordan's proof:

His proof, however, is unsatisfactory to many mathematicians. It assumes the theorem without proof in the important special case of a simple polygon, and of the argument from that point on, one must admit at least that all details are not given.

However, Thomas C. Hales wrote:

Nearly every modern citation that I have found agrees that the first correct proof is due to Veblen... In view of the heavy criticism of Jordan's proof, I was surprised when I sat down to read his proof to find nothing objectionable about it. Since then, I have contacted a number of the authors who have criticized Jordan, and each case the author has admitted to having no direct knowledge of an error in Jordan's proof.

Hales also pointed out that the special case of simple polygons is not only an easy exercise, but was not really used by Jordan anyway, and quoted Michael Reeken as saying:
Jordan's proof is essentially correct... Jordan's proof does not present the details in a satisfactory way. But the idea is right, and with some polishing the proof would be impeccable.

Earlier, Jordan's proof and another early proof by Charles Jean de la Vallée Poussin had already been critically analyzed and completed by Schoenflies (1924).

Due to the importance of the Jordan curve theorem in low-dimensional topology and complex analysis, it received much attention from prominent mathematicians of the first half of the 20th century. Various proofs of the theorem and its generalizations were constructed by J. W. Alexander, Louis Antoine, Ludwig Bieberbach, Luitzen Brouwer, Arnaud Denjoy, Friedrich Hartogs, Béla Kerékjártó, Alfred Pringsheim, and Arthur Moritz Schoenflies.

New elementary proofs of the Jordan curve theorem, as well as simplifications of the earlier proofs, continue to be carried out.

 Elementary proofs were presented by  and .
 A proof using non-standard analysis by .
 A proof using constructive mathematics by  .
 A proof using the Brouwer fixed point theorem by .
 A proof using non-planarity of the complete bipartite graph K3,3 was given by .

The root of the difficulty is explained in  as follows. It is relatively simple to prove that the Jordan curve theorem holds for every Jordan polygon (Lemma 1), and every Jordan curve can be approximated arbitrarily well by a Jordan polygon (Lemma 2). A Jordan polygon is a polygonal chain, the boundary of a bounded connected open set, call it the open polygon, and its closure, the closed polygon. Consider the diameter  of the largest disk contained in the closed polygon. Evidently,  is positive. Using a sequence of Jordan polygons (that converge to the given Jordan curve) we have a sequence  presumably converging to a positive number, the diameter  of the largest disk contained in the closed region bounded by the Jordan curve. However, we have to prove that the sequence  does not converge to zero, using only the given Jordan curve, not the region presumably bounded by the curve. This is the point of Tverberg's Lemma 3. Roughly, the closed polygons should not thin to zero everywhere. Moreover, they should not thin to zero somewhere, which is the point of Tverberg's Lemma 4.

The first formal proof of the Jordan curve theorem was created by  in the HOL Light system, in January 2005, and contained about 60,000 lines. Another rigorous 6,500-line formal proof was produced in 2005 by an international team of mathematicians using the Mizar system. Both the Mizar and the HOL Light proof rely on libraries of previously proved theorems, so these two sizes are not comparable.  showed that in reverse mathematics the Jordan curve theorem is equivalent to weak Kőnig's lemma over the system .

Application

In computational geometry, the Jordan curve theorem can be used for testing whether a point lies inside or outside a simple polygon.

From a given point, trace a ray that does not pass through any vertex of the polygon (all rays but a finite number are convenient). Then, compute the number  of intersections of the ray with an edge of the polygon. Jordan curve theorem proof implies that the point is inside the polygon if and only if  is odd.

Computational aspects
Adler, Daskalakis and Demaine prove that a computational version of Jordan's theorem is PPAD-complete. As a corollary, they show that Jordan's theorem implies the Brouwer fixed-point theorem. This complements the earlier result by Maehara, that Brouwer's fixed point theorem implies Jordan's theorem.

See also
 Denjoy–Riesz theorem, a description of certain sets of points in the plane that can be subsets of Jordan curves
 Lakes of Wada
 Quasi-Fuchsian group, a mathematical group that preserves a Jordan curve

Notes

References

. author's site

External links

 The full 6,500 line formal proof of Jordan's curve theorem in Mizar.
 Collection of proofs of the Jordan curve theorem at Andrew Ranicki's homepage
 A simple proof of Jordan curve theorem (PDF) by David B. Gauld

Theorems in topology
Theorems about curves

Jordan curve theorem


The Battle of Chesterfield was a minor skirmish in the latter stages of 13th-century England's Second Barons' War.

Background
The battle was part of the "mopping up" of baronial opposition that resisted Henry III following the Battle of Evesham. The fighting took place in, and around, Chesterfield, Derbyshire on 15 May 1266. The leaders of the barons were Robert Ferrers, Earl of Derby; Baldwin Wake, Lord of Chesterfield; and John d'Ayville. The royalist forces were led by Henry of Almain, nephew to Henry III.

Battle
There are several references to aspects of the battle in chronicles from the period. Thomas Wykes, in his "Chronicon Thomae Wykes" mentions the royalist forces using covered wagons to gain entry to the town. A reference also exists to explain how "the men of Brampton" (a suburb of Chesterfield) rushed to the church at the time of the battle and defended that part of the wall for which they were responsible. Presumably, it would fall to them to repair any damage and they were keen to avoid such costs.

Wykes also explains how Ferrers was stricken by gout at the time of the battle and that the barons' leader was "taken ignobly". It is likely that he was captured in the church. Legend has it that he was betrayed by a woman of the town but there is no contemporary documentary evidence for this claim, nor is there contemporary evidence for the assertion that Ferrers was hiding under sacks of wool stored in the church. According to the chronicles of Walter of Guisborough, John d'Ayville forced his way through the enemy and unhorsed Sir Gilbert Haunsard with his lance, before wounding several others and making his escape.

Aftermath
Following his capture, Robert Ferrers was taken "in irons" to London and, at the Westminster parliament later that year, was "totally disinherited". John d'Ayville was later at the Siege of Kenilworth before surrendering. Baldwin Wake also escaped the fighting and joined with other disinherited barons at the Isle of Axholme before eventually surrendering to Prince Edward, the future Edward I.

References

Battles of the Barons' Wars
1266 in England
Conflicts in 1266
Military history of Derbyshire

Battle of Chesterfield