Mary Baker Eddy (; July 16, 1821 – December 3, 1910) was an American religious leader and author who founded The Church of Christ, Scientist, in New England in 1879. She also founded The Christian Science Monitor in 1908, and three religious magazines: the Christian Science Sentinel, The Christian Science Journal, and The Herald of Christian Science. She wrote numerous books and articles, the most notable of which were Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures and Manual of The Mother Church. Other works were edited posthumously into the Prose Works Other than Science and Health.

Early life

Bow, New Hampshire

Family

Eddy was born Mary Morse Baker on July 16, 1821, in a farmhouse in Bow, New Hampshire, to farmer Mark Baker (d. 1865) and his wife Abigail Barnard Baker, née Ambrose (d. 1849). Eddy was the youngest of six children: boys Samuel Dow (1808), Albert (1810), and George Sullivan (1812), followed by girls Abigail Barnard (1816), Martha Smith (1819), and Mary Morse (1821). She was also the cousin of U.S. Representative Henry M. Baker.

She was the sixth generation of her family born in the United States. The farmhouse she was born in was built by her grandfather, Joseph Baker Jr., on a tract of land his maternal grandfather, Captain John Lovewell, had been given for service in the American Revolutionary War. Eddy's father Mark inherited, alongside his elder brother James, the farm when Joseph Jr. died in 1816.

Mark Baker was an active member of the Tilton Congregationalist Church. McClure's reported he had a reputation for holding strong opinions and quarrelling with those he disagreed with; one neighbor described him as "[a] tiger for a temper and always in a row." They also reported he was an ardent supporter of slavery and a Copperhead who was reportedly pleased to hear about Abraham Lincoln's death. Despite trying to oust his Republican pastor during the war alongside a faction of his church, he refused to leave the church alongside other members of the faction when they failed. Instead, he continued to attend services, but would storm out at the mention of the American Civil War during a service.

Eddy and her father reportedly had a volatile relationship. Ernest Sutherland Bates and John V. Dittemore wrote in 1932 that Baker sought to break Eddy's will with harsh punishment, although her mother often intervened; in contrast to Mark Baker, Eddy's mother was described as devout, quiet, light-hearted, and kind.

Health
Eddy experienced periods of sudden illness. Those who knew the family described her as suddenly falling to the floor, writhing and screaming, or silent and apparently unconscious, sometimes for hours. Robert Peel, a historian employed by the Christian Science church, wrote in 1966 that these fits would require the family to send Eddy to the village doctor.

The cause for Eddy's illness was unclear, but biographer Caroline Fraser wrote she believed the cause was most likely psychogenic in nature. According to psychoanalyst Julius Silberger, Eddy may have been motivated to have these fits in an effort to control her father's attitude toward her. Fraser attributed the illness likely to a combination of hypochondria and histrionics as well.

Tilton, New Hampshire

In 1836, when Eddy was about 14 to 15 years old, she moved with her family to the town of Sanbornton Bridge, New Hampshire, approximately  north of Bow. Sanbornton Bridge was renamed in 1869 as Tilton.

Ernest Bates and John Dittemore write that Eddy was not able to attend Sanbornton Academy when the family first moved there but was required instead to start at the district school (in the same building) with the youngest girls. She withdrew after a month because of poor health, then received private tuition from the Reverend Enoch Corser. She entered Sanbornton Academy in 1842.

She was received into the Congregational church in Tilton on July 26, 1838, when she was 17, according to church records published by Cather and Milmine. Eddy had written in her autobiography in 1891 that she was 12 when this happened, and that she had discussed the idea of predestination with the pastor during the examination for her membership; this may have been an attempt to mirror the story of a 12-year-old Jesus in the Temple.

Marriage, widowhood

Eddy was badly affected by four deaths in the 1840s. She regarded her brother Albert as a teacher and mentor, but he died in 1841. In 1844, her first husband George Washington Glover (a friend of her brother Samuel) died after six months of marriage. They had married in December 1843 and set up home in Charleston, South Carolina, where Glover had business, but he died of yellow fever in June 1844 while living in Wilmington, North Carolina. Eddy was with him in Wilmington, six months pregnant. She had to make her way back to New Hampshire,  by train and steamboat, where her only child George Washington Glover II was born on September 12 in her father's home.

Her husband's death, the journey back, and the birth left her physically and mentally exhausted, and she ended up bedridden for months. As Eddy was unable to care for him, her son was nursed by a local woman while Eddy herself was cared for by a household servant.

Eddy's mother died in November 1849. Her mother's death was then followed three weeks later by the death of Eddy's fiancé, lawyer John Bartlett.

Eddy's father Mark Baker remarried in 1850; his second wife Elizabeth Patterson Duncan (d. June 6, 1875) had been widowed twice, and had some property and income from her second marriage. Baker apparently made clear to Eddy that her son would not be welcome in the new marital home.

Early influences

Study with Phineas Quimby

Eddy married Dr. Daniel Patterson, a dentist, in 1853.  Mesmerism had become popular in New England; and on October 14, 1861, Patterson, wrote to mesmerist Phineas Parkhurst Quimby, who reportedly cured people without medicine, asking if he could cure his wife. Quimby replied that he had too much work in Portland, Maine, and that he could not visit her, but if Patterson brought his wife to him he would treat her. Eddy did not immediately go, instead trying the water cure at Dr. Vail's Hydropathic Institute, but her health deteriorated even further. A year later, in October 1862, Eddy first visited Quimby. She improved considerably, and publicly declared that she had been able to walk up 182 steps to the dome of city hall after a week of treatment. The cures were temporary, however, and Eddy suffered relapses.

Despite the temporary nature of the "cure", she attached religious significance to it, which Quimby did not. She believed that it was the same type of healing that Christ Jesus had performed. From 1862 to 1865, Quimby and Eddy engaged in lengthy discussions about healing methods practiced by Quimby and others. She took notes on her own ideas on healing, as well as writing dictations from him and "correcting" them with her own ideas, some of which possibly ended up in the "Quimby manuscripts" that were published later and attributed to him. Despite Quimby not being especially religious, he embraced the religious connotations Eddy was bringing to his work, since he knew his more religious patients would appreciate it. Phineas Quimby died on January 16, 1866, shortly after Eddy's father.

J. Gordon Melton has argued "certainly Eddy shared some ideas with Quimby. She differed with him in some key areas, however, such as specific healing techniques. Moreover, she did not share Quimby's hostility toward the Bible and Christianity." Biographer Gillian Gill has disagreed with other scholars arguing they "have flouted the evidence and shown willful bias in accusing Mrs. Eddy of owing her theory of healing to Quimby and of plagiarizing his unpublished work."

1866 fall
On February 1, 1866, while living in Lynn, Massachusetts, Eddy slipped and fell on the ice. An contemporary account by the Lynn Reporter claimed that she was in "critical condition" following the fall, and was spending time at home after being cared for by local homeopathic doctor Alvin Cushing. However, when Georgine Milmine interviewed Dr. Cushing forty years later, he stated that his records from the time documented that Eddy was in a "semi-hysterical" intense emotional state which subsided after she was given a small amount of morphine.

On February 14, 1866, the day after Eddy finished her care with Dr. Cushing, Eddy wrote to Julius Dresser, another patient of Phineas Quimby, claiming that her injury and her subsequent medical care had undone all of the healing that Quimby had done before, and requested that he heal her. Dresser refused, stating that he was not enough to take on the burden of healing, and urged Eddy to instead spread Quimby's teachings further.
Eddy would later credit her fall as her moment of spiritual revelation, claiming that after rejecting the medicines offered to her by her doctor, she opened her Bible three days after her fall and returned to full health after reading of Jesus healing the sick.

Spiritualism

Eddy separated from her second husband Daniel Patterson in 1866, after which she boarded for four years with several families in Lynn, Amesbury, and elsewhere. Frank Podmore wrote:

After she became well known, reports surfaced that Eddy was a medium in Boston at one time. At the time when she was said to be a medium there, she lived some distance away. According to Gill, Eddy knew spiritualists and took part in some of their activities, but was never a convinced believer. For example, she visited her friend Sarah Crosby in 1864, who believed in Spiritualism. According to Sibyl Wilbur, Eddy attempted to show Crosby the folly of it by pretending to channel Eddy's dead brother Albert and writing letters which she attributed to him. In regard to the deception, biographer Hugh Evelyn Wortham commented that "Mrs. Eddy's followers explain it all as a pleasantry on her part to cure Mrs. Crosby of her credulous belief in spiritualism." However, Martin Gardner has argued against this, stating that Eddy was working as a spiritualist medium and was convinced by the messages. According to Gardner, Eddy's mediumship converted Crosby to Spiritualism.

In one of her spiritualist trances to Crosby, Eddy gave a message that was supportive of Phineas Parkhurst Quimby, stating "P. Quimby of Portland has the spiritual truth of diseases. You must imbibe it to be healed. Go to him again and lean on no material or spiritual medium." The paragraph that included this quote was later omitted from an official sanctioned biography of Eddy.

Between 1866 and 1870, Eddy boarded at the home of Brene Paine Clark who was interested in Spiritualism. Seances were often conducted there, but Eddy and Clark engaged in vigorous, good-natured arguments about them. Eddy's arguments against Spiritualism convinced at least one other who was there at the time—Hiram Crafts—that "her science was far superior to spirit teachings." Clark's son George tried to convince Eddy to take up Spiritualism, but he said that she abhorred the idea. According to Cather and Milmine, Richard Hazeltine attended seances at Clark's home, and Eddy had acted as a trance medium, claiming to channel the spirits of the Apostles.

Mary Gould, a Spiritualist from Lynn, claimed that one of the spirits that Eddy channeled was Abraham Lincoln. According to eyewitness reports cited by Cather and Milmine, Eddy was still attending séances as late as 1872. In these later séances, Eddy would attempt to convert her audience into accepting Christian Science. Eddy showed extensive familiarity with Spiritualist practice, but she denounced it in later Christian Science writings. Historian Ann Braude wrote that there were similarities between Spiritualism and Christian Science, but the main difference was that Eddy came to believe, after she founded Christian Science, that spirit manifestations had never really had bodies to begin with, because matter is unreal and that all that really exists is spirit, before and after death.

Hinduism

Scholars debate the influence of Hinduism on Eddy and her work. The 1930 work Hinduism Invades America argues Eddy referenced the Bhagavad-Gita in the 33rd edition of Science and Health. Gillian Gill argued that that her editor, Reverend James Henry Wiggin, had introduced the references, and Eddy removed from the 1891 revision all the references to Eastern religions. Christian Scientist church member and historian Stephen Gottschalk argued that Eddy consciously distinguished Christian Science from Eastern religions starting in the mid-1880s. Damodar Singhal noted that whether or not Eddy was directly influenced by Hindu philosophy, "the echoes of Vedanta in [her] literature are often striking."

Building a church

Eddy divorced Daniel Patterson for adultery in 1873. She published her work in 1875 in a book entitled Science and Health (years later retitled Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures) which she called the textbook of Christian Science, after several years of offering her healing method. The first publication run was 1,000 copies, which she self-published. During these years, she taught what she considered the science of "primitive Christianity" to at least 800 people. Many of her students became healers themselves. The last 100 pages of Science and Health (chapter entitled "Fruitage") contains testimonies of people who claimed to have been healed by reading her book. She made numerous revisions to her book from the time of its first publication until shortly before her death.

In January 1877, Eddy spurned an approach from one of her students, Daniel Spofford, and suddenly married another student of hers, Asa Gilbert Eddy. On January 1, 1877, the two were wed, and she became Mary Baker Eddy in a small ceremony presided over by a Unitarian minister.

In 1881, Mary Baker Eddy started the Massachusetts Metaphysical College with a charter from the state which allowed her to grant degrees. In Spring 1882, the Eddys moved to Boston to Massachusetts Metaphysical College. Gilbert Eddy's health began to decline around this time, and he died June 3 that year.

Eddy devoted the rest of her life to the establishment of the church, writing its bylaws, The Manual of The Mother Church, and revising Science and Health. By the 1870s, she was telling her students, "Some day I will have a church of my own." In 1879, she and her students established the Church of Christ, Scientist, "to commemorate the word and works of our Master [Jesus], which should reinstate primitive Christianity and its lost element of healing." In 1881, she founded the Massachusetts Metaphysical College, where she taught approximately 800 students between the years 1882 and 1889, when she closed it. Eddy charged her students $300 each for tuition, a large sum for the time. In 1892, at Eddy's direction, the church reorganized as The First Church of Christ, Scientist. In 1894, an edifice for The First Church of Christ, Scientist was completed in Boston.

Her students spread across the country practicing healing, and instructing others. Eddy authorized these students to list themselves as Christian Science Practitioners in the church's periodical, The Christian Science Journal. She also founded the Christian Science Sentinel, a weekly magazine with articles about how to heal and testimonies of healing.

When the church re-organized in 1892, Eddy was made the leader of the church as "Pastor Emeritus". In 1895, she ordained the Bible and Science and Health as the pastor.

Eddy founded The Christian Science Publishing Society in 1898, which became the publishing home for numerous publications launched by her and her followers. In 1908, at the age of 87, she founded The Christian Science Monitor, a daily newspaper. She also founded the Christian Science Journal in 1883, a monthly magazine aimed at the church's members and, in 1898, the Christian Science Sentinel, a weekly religious periodical written for a more general audience, and the Herald of Christian Science, a religious magazine with editions in many languages.

Later influences and teachings

Malicious animal magnetism

The opposite of Christian Science mental healing was the use of mental powers for destructive or selfish reasons – for which Eddy used terms such as animal magnetism, hypnotism, or mesmerism interchangeably. "Malicious animal magnetism", sometimes abbreviated as M.A.M., is what Catherine Albanese called "a Calvinist devil lurking beneath the metaphysical surface". As there is no personal devil or evil in Christian Science, M.A.M. or mesmerism became the explanation for the problem of evil. Eddy was concerned that a new practitioner could inadvertently harm a patient through unenlightened use of their mental powers, and that less scrupulous individuals could use them as a weapon.

Animal magnetism became one of the most controversial aspects of Eddy's life. The McClure's biography spends a significant amount of time on malicious animal magnetism, which it uses to make the case that Eddy had paranoia. During the Next Friends lawsuit, it was used to charge Eddy with incompetence and "general insanity".

According to Gillian Gill, Eddy's experience with Richard Kennedy, one of her early students, was what led her to began her examination of malicious animal magnetism. Eddy had agreed to form a partnership with Kennedy in 1870, in which she would teach him how to heal, and he would take patients. The partnership was rather successful at first, but by 1872 Kennedy had fallen out with his teacher and torn up their contract. Although there were multiple issues raised, the main reason for the break according to Gill was Eddy's insistence that Kennedy stop "rubbing" his patient's head and solar plexus, which she saw as harmful since, as Gill states, "traditionally in mesmerism or hypnosis the head and abdomen were manipulated so that the subject would be prepared to enter into trance." Kennedy clearly did believe in clairvoyance, mind reading, and absent mesmeric treatment; and after their split Eddy believed that Kennedy was using his mesmeric abilities to try to harm her and her movement.

In 1882, Eddy publicly claimed that her last husband, Asa Gilbert Eddy, had died of "mental assassination". Daniel Spofford was another Christian Scientist expelled by Eddy after she accused him of practicing malicious animal magnetism. This gained notoriety in a case irreverently dubbed the "Second Salem Witch Trial".

Later, Eddy set up "watches" for her staff to pray about challenges facing the Christian Science movement and to handle animal magnetism which arose. Gill writes that Eddy got the term from the New Testament account of the garden of Gethsemane, where Jesus chastises his disciples for being unable to "watch" even for a short time; and that Eddy used it to refer to "a particularly vigilant and active form of prayer, a set period of time when specific people would put their thoughts toward God, review questions and problems of the day, and seek spiritual understanding." Critics such as Georgine Milmine in Mclure's, Edwin Dakin, and John Dittemore, all claimed this was evidence that Eddy had a great fear of malicious animal magnetism; although Gilbert Carpenter, one of Eddy's staff at the time, insisted she was not fearful of it, and that she was simply being vigilant.

As time went on, Eddy tried to lessen the focus on animal magnetism within the movement, and she worked to clearly define it as unreality which only had power if one conceded to it. Though, it continued to play an important role in the teaching of Christian Science.

The belief in malicious animal magnetism remains a part of Christian Science doctrine. Christian Scientists use it as a specific term for a hypnotic belief in a power apart from God.

British Israelism

There was a complex interaction between Christian Science and British Israelism, a belief which was popular during Eddy's lifetime among a number of well known Christian Scientists.  Until her death, Eddy continued to keep an interest in British Israelism. Early members of the Christian Science Mother Church accepted the Anglo-Israel message of Mrs Eddy. However, after Eddy's death in 1910, the Mother Church denied the validity of anything having to do with British Israelism, and any Christian Scientists supporting British Israelism in the Mother Church were excommunicated. Nevertheless, British Israelism remained attractive to many in the Christian Science movement after Eddy's death. Since the Mother Church no longer wanted to teach British Israelism, a number of offshoot Christian Science churches and groups were set up to continue teaching British Israelism. For example, an English Christian Scientist named Annie Cecilia Bill (1859-1936) became convinced she was the true successor of Mary Baker Eddy. In 1912 Bill began an organization in England known as the Christian Science Parent Church. Bill moved to the United States after World War I, and in 1924 she established her Christian Science Parent Church in America.

Later life and death

Use of medicine

There is controversy about how much Eddy used morphine. Biographers Ernest Sutherland Bates and Edwin Franden Dakin described Eddy as a morphine addict. Miranda Rice, a friend and close student of Eddy, told a newspaper in 1906: "I know that Mrs. Eddy was addicted to morphine in the seventies." A diary kept by Calvin Frye, Eddy's personal secretary, suggests that Eddy occasionally reverted to "the old morphine habit" when she was in pain. Gill writes that the prescription of morphine was normal medical practice at the time, and that "I remain convinced that Mary Baker Eddy was never addicted to morphine."

Eddy recommended to her son that, rather than go against the law of the state, he should have her grandchildren vaccinated. She also paid for a mastectomy for her sister-in-law. Eddy used glasses for several years for very fine print, but later dispensed with them almost entirely. She found she could read fine print with ease. In 1907, Arthur Brisbane interviewed Eddy. At one point he picked up a periodical, selected at random a paragraph, and asked Eddy to read it. According to Brisbane, at the age of eighty six, she read the ordinary magazine type without glasses. Towards the end of her life she was frequently attended by physicians.

Next Friends lawsuit

In 1907, the New York World sponsored a lawsuit, known as "The Next Friends suit", which journalist Erwin Canham described as "designed to wrest from [Eddy] and her trusted officials all control of her church and its activities." During the course of the legal case, four psychiatrists interviewed Eddy, then 86 years old, to determine whether she could manage her own affairs, and concluded that she was able to. Physician Allan McLane Hamilton told The New York Times that the attacks on Eddy were the result of "a spirit of religious persecution that has at last quite overreached itself", and that "there seems to be a manifest injustice in taxing so excellent and capable an old lady as Mrs. Eddy with any form of insanity."

A 1907 article in the Journal of the American Medical Association noted that Eddy exhibited hysterical and psychotic behavior. Psychiatrist Karl Menninger in his book The Human Mind (1927) cited Eddy's paranoid delusions about malicious animal magnetism as an example of a "schizoid personality".

Psychologists Leon Joseph Saul and Silas L. Warner, in their book The Psychotic Personality (1982), came to the conclusion that Eddy had diagnostic characteristics of Psychotic Personality Disorder (PPD). In 1983, psychologists Theodore Barber and Sheryl C. Wilson suggested that Eddy displayed traits of a fantasy prone personality.

Psychiatrist George Eman Vaillant wrote that Eddy was hypochrondriacal. Psychopharmacologist Ronald K. Siegel has written that Eddy's lifelong secret morphine habit contributed to her development of "progressive paranoia".

Death

Eddy died of pneumonia on the evening of December 3, 1910, at her home at 400 Beacon Street, in the Chestnut Hill section of Newton, Massachusetts. Her death was announced the next morning, when a city medical examiner was called in. She was buried on December 8, 1910, at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Her memorial was designed by New York architect Egerton Swartwout (1870–1943).

Legacy
A bronze memorial relief of Eddy by Lynn sculptor Reno Pisano was unveiled in December 2000, at the corner of Market Street and Oxford Street in Lynn near the site of her fall in 1866.

Eddy was named one of the "100 Most Significant Americans of All Time" in 2014 by Smithsonian Magazine, and her book Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures was ranked as one of the "75 Books by Women Whose Words Have Changed the World" by the Women's National Book Association in 1992.

Residences
In 1921, on the 100th anniversary of Eddy's birth, a 100-ton (in rough) and 60–70 tons (hewn) pyramid with a  footprint was dedicated on the site of her birthplace in Bow, New Hampshire. A gift from James F. Lord, it was dynamited in 1962 by order of the church's board of directors. Also demolished was Eddy's former home in Pleasant View, as the Board feared that it was becoming a place of pilgrimage. Eddy is featured on a New Hampshire historical marker (number 105) along New Hampshire Route 9 in Concord.

Several of Eddy's homes are owned and maintained as historic sites by the Longyear Museum and may be visited (the list below is arranged by date of her occupancy):

 1855–1860 – Hall's Brook Road, North Groton, New Hampshire
 1860–1862 – Stinson Lake Road, Rumney, New Hampshire
 1865–1866 – 23 Paradise Road, Swampscott, Massachusetts
 1868,1870 – 277 Main Street, Amesbury, Massachusetts
 1868–1870 – 133 Central Street, Stoughton, Massachusetts
 1875–1882 – 8 Broad Street, Lynn, Massachusetts (NRHP-listed in 2021)
 1889–1892 – 62 North State Street, Concord, New Hampshire (NRHP-listed in 1982)
 1908–1910 – 400 Beacon Street, Chestnut Hill, Newton, Massachusetts (NRHP-listed in 1986)

Selected works

See also
 Septimus J. Hanna, student of Eddy and vice-president of the Massachusetts Metaphysical College
 William R. Rathvon, student of Eddy, early Christian Scientist and lone person to leave an audio recording of his hearing Lincoln's Gettysburg Address at the age of nine.
 Bliss Knapp, a child when the church was in its formative years. Later, he was a teacher and also lectured for 21 years. His father was one of the first Directors of The Mother Church. Knapp's Book, The Destiny of the Mother Church, which was rejected by the Church but privately published, was quite controversial, and Knapp's opinions of Eddy remain controversial to this day in the Christian Science Church.
 Augusta Emma Stetson, pastor and later First Reader of First Church of Christ, Scientist (New York, New York), excommunicated by the Mother Church in 1909.

Notes

Citations

Sources

  (Reprinting)

Further reading

  (archive.org)

External links

 Mary Baker Eddy Library
 Mary Baker Eddy and Basic teachings of Christian Science, christianscience.com
 The Longyear Museum

 Norwood, Arlisha. "Mary Eddy". National Women's History Museum. 2017.

1821 births
1910 deaths
19th-century American women writers
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20th-century American women writers
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Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
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Christian feminist theologians
Founders of new religious movements
People from Lynn, Massachusetts
People from Bow, New Hampshire
People from Swampscott, Massachusetts
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Mary Baker Eddy


A space habitat or spacestead is a theoretical space station that rotates to simulate gravity and is outfitted like an environment on Earth, with landscaping, a settlement, etc. These would be very big, on the order of 800+ meters in diameter

Proposed designs include but are not limited to

O'Neill cylinders - Tin can shaped spacesteads with habitable space all over the inside with the exception of the ends.

Stanford toruses - Donut shaped habitats in which the land, settlement, water, etc is on the outer part of the interior, leaving the other half to be the sky. These would also have spokes and a central hub in the middle.

Bernal Spheres - Spherical habitats several kilometers in diameter with the whole inner surface being habitable land.

Bishop rings - Essentially smaller Stanford toruses without central spokes.

Birch Worlds - Spherical habitats one or two light-years in diameter built around a galaxy's supermassive black hole

Space habitat can also mean a base or enclosed settlement on or beneath the surface of a planet or large natural satellite or floating in its atmosphere.

Space

Space habitat


(Mapudungun for small forest ) is a city and commune of the central zone (centre part) of Chile. It is the capital of the Province of Cardenal Caro.

The beach of Pichilemu is called one of the best beaches in the world for surfing. The most famous beach in Pichilemu is Punta de Lobos, where competitions are often held. The city has become a beach resort.

History

Promoucaes were the first people that populated Pichilemu. They were hunter gatherers and fishermen.

In 1887, President José Manuel Balmaceda decreed Pichilemu as a minor dock.

José Toribio Medina did his first archeological investigations in Pichilemu, and he published in 1908 Los Restos Indígenas de Pichilemu. He said there that Pedro de Valdivia gave land in what is now central Chile to Juan Gómez de Almagro on February 24, 1544. Pichilemu was between the areas of the Palloquierbico, Topocalma, and Gulaquien.

The name Pichilemu comes from the Mapudungún words  (little) and  (forest).

Some of the first land owners of Pichilemu were the Ortúzar family. Daniel Ortúzar is known as one of the founders of the original village of Pichilemu. The family of Ortúzar Cuevas, from the San Antonio de Petrel Hacienda, made a mid-century maritime dock which was as a fishing port for some years. They also built homes along the dock on what is now Ortúzar Avenue. More recently, other large land owners are Pedro Pavez Polanco and the Hacienda of San Antonio de Petrel. In 1891, during the Chilean Civil War, Daniel Ortúzar and the priest of Alcones were taken prisoners from Pichilemu through the dock. During the war, the dock was burned down. After the civil war, Pichilemu got its formal name and status. President Jorge Montt and his Minister, Manuel José Irarrázabal, the city was officially established on December 22, 1891.

Pichilemu has become the historic capital of the province called Cardenal Caro which is named for the first Chilean Catholic Church Cardinal. His father was the first mayor in the city.

Agustín Ross Edwards was a Chilean writer, Member of Parliament, minister and politician.
Ross was very rich and based on his European background, he bought a 300-hectare piece of land and named it "La Posada" (), or Petren Fund, in 1885. Ross designed an urban place of high environmental value and landscape, turning "La Posada" into a hotel (Great Hotel Pichilemu, later Hotel Ross, or Ross Hotel), and building a casino, embankments, stone walls, a balcony facing the beach. Additionally, he built a park and a forest of more than 10 hectares. Agustín Ross turned Pichilemu into a summer resort town for the people from Santiago. Some of his buildings were named National Monuments.

Geography and climate

Pichilemu is located  west of San Fernando, Chile and just east of the Pacific Ocean. It is around a three-hour drive to the Andes Mountains. It is also near the coastal mountain range.

Even though most of the forest areas around Pichilemu are covered in Pine and Eucalyptus trees, a native forest (now Municipal Forest) is still there It contains species such as Litres, Quillayes, Boldos, Espinos and Peumos.

Pichilemu borders Litueche to the north, Paredones  to the south, Marchigüe and Pumanque to the east, and the Pacific Ocean  to the west .

Demographics
In the 17th century, Pichilemu had 1,468 inhabitants. In 1787, Pichilemu had 1,688 inhabitants. In 1907, Pichilemu had 7,787 inhabitants. However, the city's population progressively decreased; in 1920, it was 7,424; in 1930, it was 6,929, and in 1940, it was 6,570. In 1952, the city's population increased to 7,150 inhabitants; in 1992, that figure had increased to 10,510. As of the 2002 census, 12,392 people live in the town. The census recorded that 9,459 people (76.3%) are from urban places of the city, and 2,933 people (23.7%) are from rural places of the city, there are 6,440 (52.0%) men and 5,952 (48.0%) women. The area of Pichilemu is . According to the CASEN 2002 census, 544 inhabitants (4.4%) of the population of Pichilemu live in extreme poverty compared to the average in the greater Region of O'Higgins of 4.5%, and 1,946 inhabitants (15.7%) live in mild poverty, compared to the regional average of 16.1%.

Government and politics

Pichilemu, along with the communes of Placilla, Nancagua, Chépica, Santa Cruz, Pumanque, Palmilla, Peralillo, Navidad, Lolol, Litueche, La Estrella, Chile, Marchihue and Paredones, is part of the Electoral District N° 35 and belongs to the 9th Senatorial Constituency (O'Higgins) of the electoral division of Chile.

The current Mayor of Pichilemu is Roberto Córdova. The last popularly-elected mayor was Marcelo Cabrera, elected in 2008 with 42.08% of the vote, who served from May 2009 to August 2009 due to legal action. The municipal council selected Córdova as the new mayor on September 9, 2009, almost a year after the municipal elections. The current councilors are Aldo Polanco Contreras, Andrea Aranda Escudero, Viviana Parraguez Ulloa, Juan Cornejo Vargas and Marta Urzúa Púa.

Surfing

Surfing is one of the tourist attractions, particularly at Punta de Lobos. According to travel guide Fodor's,

Every October and December the International Championship of Surf takes place at La Puntilla Beach. Punta de Lobos hosts the Campeonato Nacional de Surf () each summer.

Pichilemu has many dark sand beaches. The water is cool year-round, though many tourists choose to swim during the summer months. Bodyboarding, surfing, windsurfing, and kitesurfing can be practiced.

The beach that is farthest north is San Antonio Beach or Main Beach (), which is found in front of the Ross Park. It is known for good surfing.

Las Terrazas Beach () is the busiest beach during the summer. Many surf schools, La Ola Perfecta and Lobos del Pacífico, are found near the beach, as is the Caleta de Pescadores (), where fisherman sell their fish. found at the south of the town and around the other side of the Puntilla, the Infiernillo Beach is found. It is used for fishing. At the south of Infiernillo, Playa Hermosa is found, which is great for walking and fishing.

Further south,  from Pichilemu, Punta de Lobos is found .It is an increasingly popular destination for tourists and specially for surfers. Several surf contests are held there, including an international big-wave contest during the Chilean fall. The size of waves varies throughout the year, but large swells in fall and winter can reach heights of up to 50 feet (15 metres). It is widely considered one of the best beaches for surfing worldwide.

Gallery

References

Other websites

 Pichilemu's official website

Pichilemu


The Miniature Altarpiece (OA 5612) is a Gothic boxwood miniature in the form of a small altarpiece, made in the Netherlands c.1520-1530, probably by the workshop of Adam Dircksz (also known as Adam Theodrici), about whom almost nothing is known. It has been held by the Louvre (catalogue number OA 5612) since 1901, but is not on public display. It was displayed with other boxwood miniatures in 2016–17 in an exhibition that visited the Art Gallery of Ontario, the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Rijksmuseum.

It was acquired by the Louvre in 1901 from the estate of Baron ; previously, it was in the collection of Edward Fitzalan-Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Glossop.

Description

The object is made from intricately carved boxwood. It comprises two main registers of carvings depicting Biblical scenes, each with a door that opens to reveal an interior triptych with further carvings of Biblical scenes, all standing on predella supported by tetramorph carvings of symbols representing the Four Evangelists (ox, eagle, angel, lion) on a wooden plinth. With the doors closed, the outside surfaces of the doors are elaborately decorated in Gothic style, with the upper pair of doors depicting Jesus at the Mount of Olives on the left, and the Kiss of Judas on the right, while the lower doors depict the Holy Kinship on the left, and Mary with her parents St Anne and St Joachim and a lamb on the right. It is held in the Louvre, Paris.

With the doors opened, it measures . Inside, the upper register has a central carving of the Crucifixion with donor portraits with coats of arms and patron saints, flanked by the Christ Carrying the Cross on the left wing and the Descent from the Cross and Resurrection on the right wing. The lower register has a central carving of the Nativity of Jesus, with the Annunciation to the Shepherds in the background and the Adoration of the Shepherds on the lower left side, flanked to the left by an Annunciation, with Anne and Joachim at the Golden Gate in the background, and by the Adoration of the Magi to the right.

The rear is plain and undecorated, suggesting it was intended to be displayed against a wall. The original tooled and stamped leather case survives, decorated with the Tree of Jesse, and bearing an inscription down the sides: "O MATER DEI MEMENTO / MEI RIENS SANS PAIN" (Latin: "O mother of God, remember me"; and French: "nothing without bread").

It shares similarities with a similar boxwood altar in the British Museum, bequeathed by Rothschild's cousin Ferdinand de Rothschild in 1898. and which may or may not be also by Adam Dircksz. Both works share very a similar architectural five level structure, with an upper Crucifixion triptych. Both works contain highly stylized figures, which resemble a third example in the Charlottenborg Palace, in Copenhagen, Denmark.

Notes

Sources
 Thornton, Dora. A Rothschild Renaissance: The Waddesdon Bequest. London: British Museum Press, 1985.

Objets d'art in the Louvre
Gothic boxwood miniature
Medieval European sculptures
16th-century sculptures

Miniature altarpiece (OA 5612)


គោលនយោបាយពាណិជ្ជកម្ម (, ឬ trade policy) គឺជាសំនុំនៃ a set of rules and regulations that are intended to change international trade flows, particularly to restrict imports. Every nation has some form of '''trade policy''' in place, with public officials formulating the policy which they think would be most appropriate for their country. Their aim is to boost the nation's international trade.
The purpose of trade policy is to help a nation's international trade run more smoothly, by setting clear standards and goals which can be understood by potential trading partners. In many regions, groups of nations work together to create mutually beneficial trade policies.

គោលនយោបាយពាណិជ្ជកម្ម


Namakkal  is a town and a municipality in Namakkal district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the headquarters of Namakkal district. It is the first ISO 14001-2004 certified municipality in Asia for environmental management, specifically the provision and maintenance of water supply, solid waste and sewage management, town planning, lighting and other social services.
As of 2011, the town had a population of 55,145.

Reference

Namakkal district

Namakkal


Jean-Louis Philippe Robicheau (June 30, 1874 – March 1, 1948) was a farmer, lumber merchant and political figure in Nova Scotia, Canada. He represented Digby County in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly from 1925 to 1928 as a Liberal-Conservative member. He sat for Digby-Clare division in the Senate of Canada from 1935 to 1948. His name also appears as Jean Louis Philip.

He was born in Meteghan, Digby County, Nova Scotia, the son of Philemon L. Robicheau and Francine Melanson. He was educated at St. Joseph's College and St. Anne's College. In 1907, he married Mary Frances Surette. Robicheau was an agent for the Canadian Pacific Railway from 1910 to 1920. From 1929 to 1932, he was a travelling auditor for the Dominion Atlantic Railway. He died in Maxwellton in Digby County at the age of 73.

References

 A Directory of the Members of the Legislative Assembly of Nova Scotia, 1758-1958, Public Archives of Nova Scotia (1958)

1874 births
1948 deaths
Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia MLAs
Canadian senators from Nova Scotia
People from Digby County, Nova Scotia

Jean-Louis Philippe Robicheau


Victoria Gray Adams (November 5, 1926 – August 12, 2006) was an American civil rights activist. She was born in Hattiesburg, Mississippi on November 5, 1926. She went to Wilberforce University, but could not afford it so she had to leave. Even though she did not finish college, Adams found work as a teacher.

Career
Adams was an African American who became interested in the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s when she started teaching classes for people who wanted to vote. In 1962, Adams became a secretary for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).

Not long after becoming more involved in civil rights, Adams led a boycott against businesses in Hattiesburg. She also helped to organize the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP). Adams, Fannie Lou Hamer, and Annie Devine (fellow activists) were chosen to be the represent the MFDP. They traveled to Atlantic City to go to the Democratic Convention. They were not seated this time, but in 1968 they were all seated as guests on the floor of the US House of Representatives. Adams became the first woman from Mississippi to run for the US Senate.

Adams made a big change when in 1968, she and her husband moved to Thailand. Her goal for this move was to fight against discrimination towards African-American soldiers and their families.

Adams had a very successful career, receiving many awards and honors for her efforts towards ending discrimination. She was also in the documentary Eyes on the Prize and taught at the University of Southern Mississippi.

Death
Victoria Adams died on August 12, 2006 in Baltimore, Maryland when she was 79 from cancer.

Other websites
Victoria Gray Adams legacy
Victoria Jackson Gray Adams 1926-2006
Biography of Victoria Gray Adams
Victoria Gray Adams

1926 births
2006 deaths
African-American people
American civil rights activists
American teachers
Politicians from Mississippi
Writers from Mississippi
Academics from Mississippi

Victoria Gray Adams


Oglebay Hall is a historic classroom building associated with the West Virginia University and located at Morgantown, Monongalia County, West Virginia. It was built in 1918, and is a three-story, brick and concrete building with Classical Revival detailing. The front facade features four Doric order columns that support a pediment with a false, concrete railing and entablature with the building's name.  It also has balconies with cast iron balustrades.  It originally housed the university's College of Agriculture (until 1961) and represents the university's heritage as a land-grant institution. The building is named for industrialist and philanthropist Earl W. Oglebay, whose house at Wheeling, West Virginia is known as the Oglebay Mansion Museum.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.

References

West Virginia University campus
University and college buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in West Virginia
Neoclassical architecture in West Virginia
School buildings completed in 1918
National Register of Historic Places in Monongalia County, West Virginia
1918 establishments in West Virginia

Oglebay Hall


Thomas P. "Oyster" Burns (September 6, 1864– November 11, 1928) was an American baseball player. He played 11 seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Wilmington Quicksteps, Baltimore Orioles, Brooklyn Bridegrooms, and New York Giants. Burns mostly played as an outfielder. He also played as a shortstop, second baseman, third baseman and pitcher. Over his career he compiled a batting average of .300 with 1,392 hits, 65 home runs, and 834 runs batted in (RBI) in 1,188 games played. Burns spent most of his career in the major leagues. He also played in minor league baseball. He first played in MLB at age 19. In his playing days, Burns was  tall and weighed .

Burns was nicknamed "Oyster" because he sold oysters in the off-season. He was described as a "loudmouth" with "an irritating voice and personality". Burns led the Bridegrooms to an American Association championship in 1889 and a National League pennant in 1890. He retired from baseball in 1901. He died on November 11, 1928, in Brooklyn, New York.

Early life
Burns was born on September 6, 1864, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His parents, Patrick and Mary Burns, both came to the United States from Ireland.

Professional career
In 1883, Burns began his professional baseball career. He played as a pitcher for a minor league team in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. In his first season, Burns had an earned run average (ERA) of 2.30, and pitched in 20 games. When he was not pitching, Burns played second and third base.

Burns began the 1884 season playing for the Wilmington Quicksteps. He left the team on August 21, 1884, after they joined the Union Association. On the same day, Burns joined the Baltimore Orioles. At the age of 18, he was the youngest player on the Orioles. Burns played in only 35 games that season but had six home runs. He hit more home runs than any other player on the team that season. In 1885, he batted .231 with five home runs and 37 RBIs. Burns pitched to a 7–4 win–loss record. His low batting average, however, led him to be demoted to the Newark Domestics for the 1886 season. Burns helped the Domestics win the Eastern League pennant. By 1887, he returned to playing in the majors for the Orioles. He became the Orioles' team captain. Burns lost the role when he threw a baseball at a pitcher on another team. He was later fined $25.

Over the 1887 season, Burns hit nine home runs. He had 19 triples, which was tied with five other players for the American Association lead. He played in 140 games, which also tied for the league's lead.

After playing in 79 games for Baltimore, Burns was moved to the Brooklyn Bridegrooms by Harry Von der Horst. Von der Horst owned both teams. While playing for the Bridegrooms, the New York Clipper described Burns as "the noisiest man that ever played on the Brooklyn team. His voice reminds one of a buzz-saw." Burns remained with the Bridegrooms for the 1889 season. He had team highs in batting average and home runs. That season the Bridegrooms became American Association champions. In the World Series, the Bridegrooms played the New York Giants. Burns hit a three-run home run to win the fourth game of the series. This gave Brooklyn a 3–1 series lead. However, the Giants won the World Series after winning five straight games.

In 1890, the Bridegrooms moved to the National League. Burns, then 26, led the league in home runs (13) and RBIs (128). He hit for the cycle on August 1, 1890. He was the first Bridegroom to do so. The Bridegrooms won the National League pennant. In the 1890 World Series, the team played against the Louisville Colonels. The series ended in a 3–3–1 tie because of bad weather. In 1892, the Bridegrooms changed their name to the Grooms. Burns's RBI total was third highest in the league. His hits, doubles, triples, and batting average were the second highest on the Brooklyn team. In 1893, between games of a doubleheader, a teammate of Burns, Tom Daly, was sleeping in center field. Burns stabbed Daly with a knife. Daly woke up and turned into the knife. This led to a severed tendon which kept Daly out for two weeks. Burns' 1894 batting average (.355) was the highest of his career. He continued to play for the club until 1895, when he left the Grooms to play for the New York Giants. In his final MLB year, Burns batted .258 over 53 games.

After the 1895 season, Burns' contract was bought by the minor league Newark Colts. The Colts won the Atlantic League division with a 82–61 record. The next season, Burns served as a player-coach for the Hartford Bluebirds. He lead the team in doubles and batting average. In his final year managing, Burns coached for a minor league team in Portland, Maine.

After baseball
After retiring from baseball, Burns lived in Brooklyn. He died on November 11, 1928. He was buried in Holy Cross Cemetery in North Arlington, New Jersey.

References

1864 births
1928 deaths
American baseball players
Sportspeople from Philadelphia
Los Angeles Dodgers players
San Francisco Giants players

Oyster Burns


is a series of video games created by Nintendo that started on the Nintendo GameCube in 2001. It has four released main-series games - Pikmin, Pikmin 2, Pikmin 3 and Pikmin 4. The series is about a spaceman called Captain Olimar visiting an alien planet and working with creatures called Pikmin to explore it.

Characters

Captain Olimar - Captain Olimar is spaceman who crash lands on the alien planet in Pikmin and meets the Pikmin species, and has to fix his ship and get off the planet in 30 days, or he'll die. Olimar is a play on the name Mario, Nintendo's mascot, by rearranging the syllables. Olimar writes about the biological features of every creature encountered in the Notes section.
Pikmin - The Pikmin are a type of creature who help Captain Olimar. In Pikmin, they come in red, yellow, and blue types. In Pikmin 2, they also come in white and purple types.
Louie - Louie joins Olimar in Pikmin 2 and helps him find treasure. Louie is a play on the name Luigi, Mario's brother and sidekick, by using the nickname for it. Louie is gluttonous, and often causes trouble out of his desire for food. In his unlockable notes on the creatures and plants in game, he details how to cook and eat every creature.
Emperor Bulbax - The villain of the first Pikmin game.
President - The President of Captain Olimar's company, who sends him and Louie to find treasure to pay off the company's debt. He appears as a playable character in Pikmin 2 when Louie is missing.

Setting
Pikmin is set on a world that is supposed to be Earth, but Captain Olimar is very tiny, so it looks like a strange world to the player. Nintendo made it seem more like Earth by adding common items, like a globe of the Earth, a Duracell battery, and a Pepsi bottle cap.

Gameplay
Both games use real-time strategy gameplay. The player plays as Captain Olimar, who can command his Pikmin. Olimar gets Pikmin by bringing pellets, a type of food, and bad guys to an Onion, which is the Pikmin's ship. Pikmin will come out of the Onion and get planted in the ground so that Olimar can pull them out. Olimar can use Pikmin to take stuff back to his base, fight insects and other creatures, or travel across places.

Games

Main

Pikmin

Pikmin is the first game in the series and came out in 2001 on the Nintendo GameCube. Captain Olimar crashes his spaceship on an alien planet, and meets creatures called Pikmin. He only has 30 days life support, and so he and the Pikmin try to find the pieces of his ship that broke off so he can escape.

Pikmin 2

Pikmin 2 came out in 2004 for the Nintendo GameCube. It uses the same gameplay, but adds a new character called Louie, two new kinds of Pikmin, and a new type of area called Underground, where Olimar and Louie search for treasure in. It also added multiplayer, where one player can be Olimar and another can be Louie.

Pikmin 3

Pikmin 3 released in 2013 for the Wii U. It follows 3 new explorers looking for fruit to save their starving planet, Alph, an engineer, Brittany, a botanist, and Charlie, the captain. There is a remaster titled Pikmin 3 Deluxe. It released in 2021 for the Nintendo Switch.

Pikmin 4
Pikmin 4 was released on July 21, 2023, for the  Nintendo Switch. Captain Olimar crashed again, and the player needs to save him. The game lets the player make a custom character to play as. This game also stops making the player go back to their spaceship at night.

Spin-offs

Hey! Pikmin
Hey! Pikmin released in 2017 for the Nintendo 3DS. It has Captain Olimar again. The gameplay is different from other Pikmin games. The game is 2D. Olimar can only use up to ten Pikmin at a time.

Pikmin Bloom
Pikmin Bloom released in 2021 as a mobile game. It uses an AR system. Players run around with their Pikmin followers. Flowers appear where the players run. Pikmin can be used to collect food and other things.

Pikmin Finder

Pikmin Finder released in 2023 as a mobile game. It uses an AR system to display Pikmin the player can interact with.

Other appearances
Pikmin has appeared in the Super Smash Bros. series. In Super Smash Bros. Melee, Pikmin has a couple of collectibles of Captain Olimar and the Pikmin. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl and games after it, Captain Olimar is a playable character along with his Pikmin. Music, enemies, and an area are also taken from the series for stuff in Brawl and other Smash games.

References

Pikmin series

Pikmin


"The Big Four" was the name popularly given to the famous and influential businessmen, philanthropists and railroad tycoons who funded the Central Pacific Railroad (C.P.R.R.), which formed the western portion through the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains of the First Transcontinental Railroad in the United States, built from the mid-continent at the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean during the middle and late 1860s. Composed of Leland Stanford (1824–1893), Collis Potter Huntington (1821–1900), Mark Hopkins Jr. (1813–1878), and Charles Crocker (1822–1888), the four themselves, however, personally preferred to be known as "The Associates." They enriched themselves utilizing tax money and land grants, while heavily influencing the state legislature from within the Republican Party (Stanford was governor of California when the first of the Pacific Railroad Acts was passed.), and through monopolizing tactics. Contemporary critics claimed they were the greatest swindlers in U.S. history.

Membership
Leland Stanford (1824–1893) – C.P.R.R. President, Stanford University founder.
Collis Potter Huntington (1821–1900) – C.P.R.R. Vice President, for whom the city of Huntington, West Virginia was named. He is also the uncle of Henry E. Huntington (1850–1927), founder of the famous Huntington Library with its art galleries and gardens in San Marino, California.
Mark Hopkins Jr. (1813–1878) – C.P.R.R. Treasurer
Charles Crocker (1822–1888) – Construction Supervisor, President of Charles Crocker & Co., a C.P.R.R. subsidiary, later founder of the larger, more extensive Southern Pacific Railroad, another transcontinental link to the east, built later in 1883.

Collectively, the four established the Sacramento Library Association for the state capital in Sacramento, California in 1857, which later established the present Sacramento Public Library.

David Hewes, an enterprising businessman, was called the "maker of San Francisco" for his work in clearing land for development. He was invited to be a part of the "Big Four" but declined due to the financial risks. Over his lifetime he gained and lost several fortunes.

In their time, the four men were sometimes referred to as nabobs or "nobs," a reference to their wealth and influence. When the four built mansions in the same neighborhood of San Francisco, the area quickly became known as Nob Hill, a name it carries today.

In popular culture

In Henry T. Williams' The Pacific tourist – Williams' illustrated trans-continental guide of travel, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean published in 1878, the Big Four was replaced by the Five Associates or Representative Men of the Central Pacific Railroad, with Charles Crocker's older brother Judge Edwin B. Crocker (1818–1875), who served as the CPRR attorney from 1865 to 1869, added.

Ambrose Bierce lampooned the "Big Four" in his work "Black Beetles in Amber", a collection of satirical verses attacking various prominent Californians. In "The Birth of the Rail", "road agents" (bandits) Happy Hunty (Huntington), Cowboy Charley (Crocker), and Leland The Kid (Stanford), joined by minor devil Sootymug (Hopkins), give up robbing stage coaches for the much greater loot of railroad operation.

References

External links
"The Story of the Central Pacific. The Rise of the Big Four: Huntington, Stanford, Crocker, and Hopkins" By W.F. Bailey in The Pacific Monthly, January 1908.

American railway entrepreneurs
Big Four
Businesspeople from the San Francisco Bay Area
First transcontinental railroad
People from Sacramento County, California
Rail transportation in California
History of transportation in California
History of rail transportation in the United States
History of the American West

Quartets

Big Four (Central Pacific Railroad)


Selwyn College is one of the colleges of the University of Cambridge, England. It was created in 1882. It is named after George Selwyn, who was an important bishop and also rowed for Cambridge in the first Boat Race. Today it has about 600 students. Selwyn usually does well in exams, but is also one of the poorest colleges.

At the beginning, the college was for Christian male students only. With time, this changed and women were allowed in 1976, which was quite early compared to other colleges. The college is on Grange Road. It is built in red brick and a Gothic Revival architecture style. The college has a Snowball every year. This is like a May Ball, which is a traditional party in Cambridge. Unlike May Balls though, it is in the winter, usually in December.

Some important people have studied here, like Hugh Laurie and Tom Hollander, both actors.

References

Other websites

Official website

Colleges of the University of Cambridge
1882 establishments in England

Selwyn College, Cambridge


The Barre Opera House is an opera house in Barre, Vermont, USA. It was built to replace the Barre City Hall/Opera House which burned down in 1898.

History of the Barre Opera House

Beginnings

The current opera house, designed by George G. Adams, a leading architect of public buildings in New England, was finished on August 23, 1899.

In the decades that followed, the opera house served as a venue for staged plays, speakers, traveling shows, bands, and politicians. People such as Helen Keller, Eugene V. Debs, George M. Cohan,  Emma Goldman, John Philip Sousa and Tom Mix graced its stage. In 1912, two presidential candidates made speeches from the outer balcony: William Howard Taft and Theodore Roosevelt.

1930s, 1940s, and Closing
During the Great Depression and World War II, the opera house served the community primarily as a movie house. As other, competing movie venues were built in and around Barre, the opera house fell out of favor and closed its doors in January 1944, remaining vacant for nearly 40 years.

Re-opening and Renovation (1982-1993)
With significant community support, a dilapidated Barre Opera House re-opened in October 1982. The facility was in an advanced state of disrepair; windows were broken, few seats were left, and the outdated heating system did not function.

For a decade after its reopening, the opera house underwent a series of incremental upgrades which added curtains, stage lights and a working heating system. In 1993, funds were raised for a massive renovation which added an elevator and balcony seating. The modern seating capacity was raised to 649, bringing it to more than half of the original, 1899-era capacity. The renovations, which have totaled nearly 2 million dollars, are ongoing, with another $400,000 of improvements in the works.

The Barre Opera House today
More than 20,000 people attend events at the opera house annually.

Many major artists, such as Jackson Browne, John Hiatt, and Shawn Colvin have performed at the BOH in recent years.  As an example of the breadth of artists who perform in a given year, the 2013–2014 season has included Nitty Gritty Dirt Band, The Robert Cray Band, Mavis Staples, Lunasa, The Capitol Steps, Le Vent du Nord, Colin Quinn and pianist John O'Connor.

The opera house is renowned for its acoustical purity and it is the central venue of the Vermont Symphony Orchestra.

The Opera House was mentioned in a National Geographic feature on towns in America.: "The proudly blue-collar city supports the arts; rust-peppered pickup trucks jostled newer cars in the overflowing parking lot of the 1899 Barre Opera House for a recent performance of Carmen. But crowds also packed the place for the Miss Vermont pageant last year. You can rent the same stage for your kid's piano recital."

See also
 Barre (city), Vermont

References
Notes

External links
Barre Opera House - official website
Green Mountain Opera Festival official website

Opera houses in Vermont
Theatres completed in 1899
Music venues completed in 1899
1899 establishments in Vermont

Barre Opera House


A bartender (also known as a barkeep or a mixologist) is a person who formulates and serves alcoholic or soft drink beverages behind the bar, usually in a licensed establishment as well as in restaurants and nightclubs, but also occasionally at private parties. Bartenders also usually maintain the supplies and inventory for the bar. As well as serving beer and wine, a bartender can generally also mix classic cocktails such as a Cosmopolitan, Manhattan, Old Fashioned, and Mojito.

Bartenders are also responsible for confirming that customers meet the legal drinking age requirements before serving them alcoholic beverages. In certain countries, such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland and Sweden, bartenders are legally required to refuse more alcohol to drunk customers.

Mixology is defined as the art or skill of preparing mixed drinks. At its core, the purpose of this practice is to craft cocktails. However, the science and skills required to successfully practice mixology are more intricate than what is seen at face value. The key to mixing drinks is knowing the ideal quantity of each ingredient needed to create the flavor profile required. Mixology aims to both elevate and balance the various flavors found in a cocktail. Mixology is essentially edible chemistry in the form of cocktails.

History

Historically, bartending was a profession with a low reputation. It was perceived through the lens of ethical issues and various legal constraints related to the serving of alcohol.

The pioneers of bartending as a serious profession appeared in the 19th century. Jerry Thomas established the image of the bartender as a creative professional, credited with being the father of American Mixology. He earned this title by publishing Jerry Thomas' Bartender's Guide, the first guide to making cocktails in 1862. Thomas perfected his skills by owning and manning saloons across the New York City area throughout the 1800s. Mixology started to take shape in the years following Thomas' book. Harry Johnson published Harry Johnson's New and Improved Illustrated Bartender's Manual in 1882. Both of these books shared recipes for dozens of unique drinks that combined ingredients people had never thought to combine before. Thomas and Johnson incorporated flavored spirits, liqueurs, and fortified wines to their cocktails, which was a new concept. Mixology took off after these two publishing. By the late 1800s, the term mixology was common and widely used.

At the turn of the 20th century, slightly fewer than half the bartenders in London were women, such as Ada Coleman. "Barmaids", as they were called, were usually the daughters of tradesmen or mechanics or, occasionally, young women from the "better-born" classes who had been "thrown upon their own resources" and needed an income. Bartending has often been associated with the struggles of marginalized groups in the workforce, such as African-American women.

After the rise of the cocktail in the early 20th century, Americans were faced with prohibition laws from the Federal government. However, bartending culture remained alive throughout prohibition. Working in underground speakeasies, bartenders continued to provide their patrons with delicious cocktails. Following the suspension of the eighteenth amendment and release of legal booze back into the market, the cocktail era unfortunately took a dip. People drank less and the Great Depression severely limited the ability of people to buy a drink. Cocktails started to be limited to the rich and famous. The celebrities in Los Angeles took a certain liking to the recipes of the old days. But the general population would no longer mix their drinks. Individualism was crushed similar to the food industry. The industry needed a renaissance and it wasn't until the late 90's that we saw the true re-emergence of the cocktail bar.

The bartending profession was generally a second occupation, used as transitional work for students to gain customer experience or to save money for university fees. The reason for this is because bartenders in tipping countries such as Canada and the United States, can make significant money from their tips. This view of bartending as a career is changing around the world, however, and bartending has become a profession by choice rather than necessity. It includes specialized education — European Bartender School operates in 25 countries.

Cocktail competitions such as World Class and Bacardi Legacy have recognized talented bartenders in the past decade and these bartenders, and others, spread the love of cocktails and hospitality throughout the world. Kathy Sullivan, owner of Sidecar Bartending, expressed the difficulties with becoming a prolific bartender, comparing the bartender to the drink they make:  "In drinks you want balance. And you have to be balanced physically, emotionally and mentally."

A professional bartender should master the origin, physical characteristics, taste characteristics, production technology and drinking method of various alcohols, and be able to identify the quality and year of the liquor. In addition, the bartender also needs to give reasonable recommendations on what kind of drink the guests need to match with different foods. Finally, because cocktails are made up of a base liquor paired with different materials, understanding the physical and chemical effects of base liquor and different materials, and thus the taste differences, is the basis for bartenders to create new drinks.

Art of Mixology

Mixology's purpose is to create new or unique cocktails that center around a specific flavor profile or theme. Because of this goal, flavor balance is critical, and is where science comes in. There are four main components to a cocktail: the spirit, the acid, the base and the garnish. Mixologists experiment with different quantities of each component to create a desired flavor or particular drink. Spirits can include gin, whiskey, rum, tequila, mezcal, and modifying liqueurs. However, most mixologists stay away from vodka, as it does not have a distinct flavor to add to a drink. Acids are sour, sharp flavors whose goal is to bring out flavor notes in spirits, add complexity and brighten drinks; they include fresh juices, such as lemon. Bases are sweeteners that aim to balance our spirits and acids; they can include simple syrup, honey, agave nectar, and liqueurs. Mixologists aim to find the ideal balance between acids and bases, so that each flavor is tasted, but not one is overpowering. The fourth component of a cocktail is a garnish. Mixologists top their creations with garnishes and can take more free rein here. Common garnishes include decorative lemon twists, smoked herbs, and edible flowers. Garnishes, finishing touches, and the presentation of drinks, allow for a mixologist's artistic side to shine through.

By country

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, bar work is often not regarded as a long-term profession (unless the bartender is also the landlord), but more often as a second occupation, or transitional work for students to gain customer experience or to save money for university fees. It therefore lacks traditional employment protections, so there is often a high turnover. The high turnover of staff due to low wages and poor employee benefits results in a shortage of skilled bartenders. Whereas a career bartender would know drink recipes, serving techniques, alcohol contents, correct gas mixes and licensing law and would often have cordial relations with regular customers, short-term staff may lack these skills. Some pubs prefer experienced staff, although pub chains tend to accept inexperienced staff and provide training.

Tipping bartenders in the United Kingdom is uncommon, not considered mandatory but is greatly appreciated by the bartender. The appropriate way to tip a bartender in the UK is to say 'have one for yourself', encouraging the bartender to buy themselves a drink with one's money, where a bartender may instead opt to add a modest amount to a bill to take in cash at the end of their shift.

United States

The Bureau of Labor Statistics data on occupations in the United States, including that of bartender, publishes a detailed description of the bartender's typical duties and employment and earning statistics by those so employed, with 55% of a bartender's take-home pay coming in the form of tips. The hourly wage a bartender receives can vary depending on the state.  The federal Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), and the laws of most states, allow employers a tip credit, which counts employees tips toward minimum wage. As of September 26, 2020, the federal minimum wage rate is $7.25/hour.

As a result of the professionalization of the trade, craft bartenders have begun to establish themselves as the elite class of the bartending profession. "Craft" cocktails are curated drinks using high-quality ingredients, generally accompanied by a higher price as well. Craft bartenders typically operate in more upscale venues, such as hotel bars. They make the majority of their income in tips from higher-class customers.

Bartenders in the United States may work in a large variety of bars. These include hotel bars, restaurant bars, sports bars, gay bars, piano bars, and dive bars. Also growing in popularity is the portable bar, which can be moved to different venues and special events.

Hospitality bartenders make up 77% of the membership of the United States Bartender's Guild. As a result, the union lobbies for higher tips with lower base wages. Lower-class bartenders generally do not participate in the union, since their customers may not tip or may not be able to afford to.

The bartender culture in the United States encourages bartenders to be inviting and friendly to their patrons. Their customers' needs and wants become their priority, as well as their safety and enjoyment of their time at the bar. Bartenders are urged to take care of their patrons however they can.

Bartenders may attend special schools or learn while on the job. Bartenders in the United States usually have on-the-job training, from the owners, management, or other superior staff with experience. Prospective bartenders may gain experience by working as wait staff in a restaurant with a bar. Some vocational schools offer bartenders licenses.  Some US states require a bartenders license or a health certificate issued from the state.

Most pubs and bars seek to recruit outgoing, personable individuals as bartenders. All bartenders must comply with all food and beverage regulations, in the United States. All bartenders in the United States should be knowledgeable in mixing, garnishing, and serving drinks with a positive attitude and excellent communication skills. The competition for jobs is high in this field of work.

Japan

The Japanese way of bartending is like "a time-capsule of 1930s international bartending," cocktail historian David Wondrich said. The Japanese cut-glass mixing beaker is in almost universal use nowadays. Japanese bar-tools are also all widely used. The world has been mesmerised by the art and style of Japanese bartending. Japanese law generally requires food and drink to be served under (or in conjunction with) the supervision of a food hygiene supervisor, and this also applies to bartenders. Nippon Bartenders' Association (N.B.A.) is an industry association for bartenders. It is an exam organized by the target is people over the age of 20 who work as a bartender in the restaurant industry. It is a subject exam on liquor and cocktails from the N.B.A. Official Cocktail Book. N.B.A. certification can also take exams other than members, but N.B.A. membership exam fees will be cheaper.  Since the basic knowledge as a bartender is measured, it can be said that it is a suitable qualification for young people who study cocktails every day while working in the field to measure the results of their efforts.

China
In China, with the prosperity of the bar industry, bartenders have gradually become a popular profession. Professional bartenders need to obtain the certification of the National Labor Department's vocational technical ability appraisement. Those who pass the exam will be issued a corresponding level of skill certificate by the China vocational education qualification certification center, which is a compliance certificate for relevant personnel's job hunting, appointment, promotion, etc. , the certificate is valid nationwide. In China, tens of thousands of people have obtained the "Bartender Qualification Certificate" issued by the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection units. With the great increase in the number of cocktail bars, as the pillar of the bar, the salary structure of the bartender includes the basic salary + service charge + drink commission. Any kind of bartending method requires basic bartending knowledge. Junior bartenders are required to master the varieties and formulas of 20 kinds of cocktails, and the training time is 40 hours; intermediate bartenders are required to master the varieties and formulas of 40 kinds of cocktails, and the training time is 60 credit hours; senior bartenders are not only required to master the varieties and recipes of hundreds of cocktails, but also focus on creating their own cocktails and managing bars.

Canada

Bartenders can be found in many establishments across Canada, they may appear in nightclubs, restaurants, bars, hotels and even airports in cities. Although Canada does not have a national-wide bartender certification, instead, people must apply for a new provincial certification in each province they want to bartend. Some provinces do not require certification, such as in Saskatchewan, Labrador, Quebec, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, there's no legally mandatory certification to serve alcohol, but certain document for serving alcoholic beverages that are marked as "recommended" in the province, and employers have a right to ask their bartenders to have them.

As social attitudes toward legal responsibility change, more and more provinces are requiring certification for responsible alcohol sales of bartenders, managers and even event and liquor store employees. The provinces that require bartender certification are Ontario, Alberta, Manitoba, Prince Edward Island and British Columbia. All of these certifications come with a card or certificate, if the province where the bartender is located is mandatory for the bartender certification, health and safety inspectors may ask to see a bartender's certifications when inspecting his workplace.

Mixologist
A mixologist is a person who has studied the deep history and science of mixed drinks and cocktails. While often confused with a bartender, there are notable differences between the two. A mixologist is more specific than a bartender. While all mixologists can be bartenders, not all bartenders can be classified as mixologists. The divide boils down to the skills needed to mix unique drinks. Mixologists must have the in-depth knowledge of how different ingredients interact when mixed, and what flavors they create together. This expertise allows mixologists to apply their skills in various manners.

Mixologists can create cocktails for a variety of reasons. They may purposely use unique ingredients, such as house made ones, historical ones, uncommon ones or obscure flavors. They may reimagine classic cocktails by putting their own spin on them, whether in terms of taste or technique. By examining the chemistry behind basic bar drinks, mixologists can take them to the next level. Additionally, they may toy with the chemical makeup of drinks to make them more sour, bitter, sweet, tangy or deep. Lastly, they may make entirely new cocktails by implementing innovative techniques or mixing flavors that have not been mixed before. This skill set allows mixologists to practice mixology in various ways. Whether it be for fun, as a profession, or as a consultant to restaurants or spirit companies, the skills required are the same.

Notable mixologists

Ada "Coley" Coleman
Ada "Coley" Coleman (1875-1966) is remembered as the most famous female bartender of all time. The British mixologist was one of only two women to be the head bartender at The Savoy in London, where she developed the Hanky Panky (a cocktail made with gin, vermouth and fernet-branca). During her tenure, Coley made cocktails for Mark Twain, the Prince of Wales, Prince Wilhelm of Sweden and "Diamond" Jim Brady.

Harry Craddock
Harry Craddock (1876-1963) was a bartender during the prohibition era. The British mixologist created and wrote the Savoy Cocktail Book, which is referred to as the cocktail bible in the mixology world.

Dale Degroff
Dale Degroff (1948-) is known by his nickname: the King of Cocktails. The American mixologist is known for reviving and improving classic 19th century cocktails with new flavor combinations and fresh ingredients.

Dick Dradsell
Dick Dradsell (1959-2016) was a British mixologist. He invented many classic cocktails, such as the Espresso Martini, the Treacle and the Bramble. Dick trained many top mixologists in the art of hospitality and drink making during his lifetime. He is known for always opting for fresh juices and ingredients, over anything pre-made or run of the mill.

Erika Moore and Raquel Ravenell
Modern day mixologists are growing their presence and following through the use of social media. The digital age allows mixologists to merge their craft with technical tools and share it with a wider audience. Erika Moore and Raquel Ravenell, of @whiskeyandrosemary are Instagram famous mixologists. The Atlanta-based duo is known for their use of obscure ingredients such as eucalyptus raw cane syrup, chickpea water, spinach, marshmallow syrup, BBQ sauce, flamed cinnamon and beef jerky garnish.

See also

References

External links

Food services occupations
Restaurant terminology

Bartender


A low-dropout regulator (LDO regulator) is a DC linear voltage regulator that can operate even when the supply voltage is very close to the output voltage.
The advantages of an LDO regulator over other DC-to-DC voltage regulators include: the absence of switching noise (in contrast to switching regulators); smaller device size (as neither large inductors nor transformers are needed); and greater design simplicity (usually consists of a reference, an amplifier, and a pass element). The disadvantage is that linear DC regulators must dissipate heat in order to operate.

History
The adjustable low-dropout regulator debuted on April 12, 1977 in an Electronic Design article entitled "Break Loose from Fixed IC Regulators". The article was written by Robert Dobkin, an IC designer then working for National Semiconductor. Because of this, National Semiconductor claims the title of "LDO inventor". Dobkin later left National Semiconductor in 1981 and founded Linear Technology where he was the chief technology officer.

Components

The main components are a power FET and a differential amplifier (error amplifier). One input of the differential amplifier monitors the fraction of the output determined by the resistor ratio of R1 and R2. The second input to the differential amplifier is from a stable voltage reference (bandgap reference). If the output voltage rises too high relative to the reference voltage, the drive to the power FET changes to maintain a constant output voltage.

Regulation

Low-dropout (LDO) regulators operate similarly to all linear voltage regulators. The main difference between LDO and non-LDO regulators is their schematic topology. Instead of an emitter follower topology, low-dropout regulators consist of an open collector or open drain topology, where the transistor may be easily driven into saturation with the voltages available to the regulator. This allows the voltage drop from the unregulated voltage to the regulated voltage to be as low as (limited to) the saturation voltage across the transistor.

For the circuit given in the figure to the right, the output voltage is given as:

If a bipolar transistor is used, as opposed to a field-effect transistor or JFET, significant additional power may be lost to control it, whereas non-LDO regulators take that power from voltage drop itself. For high voltages under very low In-Out difference there will be significant power loss in the control circuit.

Because the power control element is an inverter, another inverting amplifier is required to control it, increasing schematic complexity compared to  simple linear regulator.

Power FETs may be preferable in order to reduce power consumption, yet this poses problems when the regulator is used for low input voltage, since FETs usually require 5 to 10 V to close completely. Power FETs may also increase the cost.

Efficiency and heat dissipation
The power dissipated in the pass element and internal circuitry () of a typical LDO is calculated as follows:

where  is the quiescent current required by the LDO for its internal circuitry.

Therefore, one can calculate the efficiency as follows:

  where

However, when the LDO is in full operation (i.e., supplying current to the load) generally: . This allows us to reduce  to the following:

which further reduces the efficiency equation to:

It is important to keep thermal considerations in mind when using a low drop-out linear regulator. Having high current and/or a wide differential between input and output voltage could lead to large power dissipation. Additionally, efficiency will suffer as the differential widens. Depending on the package, excessive power dissipation could damage the LDO or cause it to go into thermal shutdown.

Quiescent current
Among other important characteristics of a linear regulator is the quiescent current, also known as ground current or supply current, which accounts for the difference, although small, between the input and output currents of the LDO, that is:

Quiescent current is current drawn by the LDO in order to control its internal circuitry for proper operation. The series pass element, topologies, and ambient temperature are the primary contributors to quiescent current.

Many applications do not require an LDO to be in full operation all of the time (i.e. supplying current to the load). In this idle state the LDO still draws a small amount of quiescent current in order to keep the internal circuitry ready in case a load is presented. When no current is being supplied to the load,  can be found as follows:

Filtering

In addition to regulating voltage, LDOs can also be used as filters. This is especially useful when a system is using switchers, which introduce a ripple in the output voltage occurring at the switching frequency. Left alone, this ripple has the potential to adversely affect the performance of oscillators, data converters, and RF systems being powered by the switcher. However, any power source, not just switchers, can contain AC elements that may be undesirable for design.

Two specifications that should be considered when using an LDO as a filter are power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) and output noise.

Specifications
An LDO is characterized by its drop-out voltage, quiescent current, load regulation, line regulation, maximum current (which is decided by the size of the pass transistor), speed (how fast it can respond as the load varies), voltage variations in the output because of sudden transients in the load current, output capacitor and its equivalent series resistance. Speed is indicated by the rise time of the current at the output as it varies from 0 mA load current (no load) to the maximum load current. This is basically decided by the bandwidth of the error amplifier. It is also expected from an LDO to provide a quiet and stable output in all circumstances (example of possible perturbation could be: sudden change of the input voltage or output current). Stability analysis put in place some performance metrics to get such a behaviour and involve placing poles and zeros appropriately. Most of the time, there is a dominant pole that arise at low frequencies while other poles and zeros are pushed at high frequencies.

Power supply rejection ratio
PSRR refers to the LDO's ability to reject ripple it sees at its input.  As part of its regulation, the error amplifier and bandgap attenuate any spikes in the input voltage that deviate from the internal reference to which it is compared.  In an ideal LDO, the output voltage would be solely composed of the DC frequency. However, the error amplifier is limited in its ability to gain small spikes at high frequencies. PSRR is expressed as follows:

As an example, an LDO that has a PSRR of 55 dB at 1 MHz attenuates a 1 mV input ripple at this frequency to just 1.78 µV at the output. A 6 dB increase in PSRR roughly equates to an increase in attenuation by a factor of 2.

Most LDOs have relatively high PSRR at lower frequencies (10 Hz – 1 kHz). However, a Performance LDO is distinguished in having high PSRR over a broad frequency spectrum (10 Hz – 5 MHz). Having high PSRR over a wide band allows the LDO to reject high-frequency noise like that arising from a switcher. Similar to other specifications, PSRR fluctuates over frequency, temperature, current, output voltage, and the voltage differential.

Output noise
The noise from the LDO itself must also be considered in filter design. Like other electronic devices, LDOs are affected by thermal noise, bipolar shot noise, and flicker noise. Each of these phenomena contribute noise to the output voltage, mostly concentrated over the lower end of the frequency spectrum. In order to properly filter AC frequencies, an LDO must both reject ripple at the input while introducing minimal noise at the output. Efforts to attenuate ripple from the input voltage could be in vain if a noisy LDO just adds that noise back again at the output.

Load regulation
Load regulation is a measure of the circuit's ability to maintain the specified output voltage under varying load conditions. Load regulation is defined as:

The worst case of the output voltage variations occurs as the load current transitions from zero
to its maximum rated value or vice versa.

Line regulation
Line regulation is a measure of the circuit's ability to maintain the specified output
voltage with varying input voltage. Line regulation is defined as:

Like load regulation, line regulation is a steady state parameter—all frequency components are neglected. Increasing DC open-loop current gain improves the line regulation.

Transient response
The transient response is the maximum allowable output voltage variation for a load current step change. The transient response is a function of the output capacitor value (), the equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the output capacitor, the bypass capacitor () that is usually added to the output capacitor to improve the load transient response, and the maximum load-current (). The maximum transient voltage variation is defined as follows:

Where  corresponds to the closed-loop bandwidth of an LDO regulator.  is the voltage variation resulting from the presence of the ESR () of the output capacitor. The application determines how low this value should be.

Evolution and the future

A competitor to the LDO, the IVR (integrated voltage regulator) appears to offer solutions to many of the issues with efficiency and performance that LDO regulators suffer. IVRs combine a switching voltage regulator with all necessary control circuitry into a single device which results in a 10x size reduction and 10-50% energy savings.

See also

 Linear regulator
 Low-voltage detect (sometimes confused with LDO regulator}
 Voltage regulator
 Switched-mode power supply
 List of linear integrated circuits
 LM7805

References

External links
Understanding Low Dropout Regulators - Basics
Understanding LDO Regulators - TI
 Understanding Noise and PSRR in LDOs - All About Circuits
 Understanding Noise in LDOs - TI
 Index of TI LDO Application Notes - TI

Voltage regulation
Linear integrated circuits

Low-dropout regulator