The Richter scale (), also called the Richter magnitude scale, Richter's magnitude scale, and the Gutenberg–Richter scale, is a measure of the strength of earthquakes, developed by Charles Francis Richter and presented in his landmark 1935 paper, where he called it the "magnitude scale". This was later revised and renamed the local magnitude scale, denoted as ML or .

Because of various shortcomings of the original  scale, most seismological authorities now use other similar scales such as the moment magnitude scale () to report earthquake magnitudes, but much of the news media still erroneously refers to these as "Richter" magnitudes. All magnitude scales retain the logarithmic character of the original and are scaled to have roughly comparable numeric values (typically in the middle of the scale). Due to the variance in earthquakes,  it is essential to understand the Richter scale uses logarithms simply to make the measurements manageable (i.e., a magnitude 3 quake factors 10³ while a magnitude 5 quake is 100 times stronger than that).

Richter magnitudes

The Richter magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs (adjustments are included to compensate for the variation in the distance between the various seismographs and the epicenter of the earthquake). The original formula is:

where  is the maximum excursion of the Wood-Anderson seismograph, the empirical function  depends only on the epicentral distance of the station, . In practice, readings from all observing stations are averaged after adjustment with station-specific corrections to obtain the  value.
Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude; in terms of energy, each whole number increase corresponds to an increase of about 31.6 times the amount of energy released, and each increase of 0.2 corresponds to approximately a doubling of the energy released.

Events with magnitudes greater than 4.5 are strong enough to be recorded by a seismograph anywhere in the world, so long as its sensors are not located in the earthquake's shadow.

The following describes the typical effects of earthquakes of various magnitudes near the epicenter. The values are typical only. They should be taken with extreme caution since intensity and thus ground effects depend not only on the magnitude but also on the distance to the epicenter, the depth of the earthquake's focus beneath the epicenter, the location of the epicenter, and geological conditions.

(Based on U.S. Geological Survey documents.)

The intensity and death toll depend on several factors (earthquake depth, epicenter location, and population density, to name a few) and can vary widely.

Millions of minor earthquakes occur every year worldwide, equating to hundreds every hour every day. On the other hand, earthquakes of magnitude ≥8.0 occur about once a year, on average. The largest recorded earthquake was the Great Chilean earthquake of May 22, 1960, which had a magnitude of 9.5 on the moment magnitude scale.

Seismologist Susan Hough has suggested that a magnitude 10 quake may represent a very approximate upper limit for what the Earth's tectonic zones are capable of, which would be the result of the largest known continuous belt of faults rupturing together (along the Pacific coast of the Americas). A research at the Tohoku University in Japan found that a magnitude 10 earthquake was theoretically possible if a combined  of faults from the Japan Trench to the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench ruptured together and moved by  (or if a similar large-scale rupture occurred elsewhere). Such an earthquake would cause ground motions for up to an hour, with tsunamis hitting shores while the ground is still shaking, and if this kind of earthquake occurred, it would probably be a 1-in-10,000-year event.

Development

Prior to the development of the magnitude scale, the only measure of an earthquake's strength or "size" was a subjective assessment of the intensity of shaking observed near the epicenter of the earthquake, categorized by various seismic intensity scales such as the Rossi-Forel scale. ("Size" is used in the sense of the quantity of energy released, not the size of the area affected by shaking, though higher-energy earthquakes do tend to affect a wider area, depending on the local geology.) In 1883, John Milne surmised that the shaking of large earthquakes might generate waves detectable around the globe, and in 1899 E. Von Rehbur Paschvitz observed in Germany seismic waves attributable to an earthquake in Tokyo. In the 1920s, Harry O. Wood and John A. Anderson developed the Wood–Anderson seismograph, one of the first practical instruments for recording seismic waves. Wood then built, under the auspices of the California Institute of Technology and the Carnegie Institute, a network of seismographs stretching across Southern California. He also recruited the young and unknown Charles Richter to measure the seismograms and locate the earthquakes generating the seismic waves.

In 1931, Kiyoo Wadati showed how he had measured, for several strong earthquakes in Japan, the amplitude of the shaking observed at various distances from the epicenter. He then plotted the logarithm of the amplitude against the distance and found a series of curves that showed a rough correlation with the estimated magnitudes of the earthquakes. Richter resolved some difficulties with this method and then, using data collected by his colleague Beno Gutenberg, he produced similar curves, confirming that they could be used to compare the relative magnitudes of different earthquakes.

Additional developments were required to produce a practical method of assigning an absolute measure of magnitude . First, to span the wide range of possible values, Richter adopted Gutenberg's suggestion of a logarithmic scale, where each step represents a tenfold increase of magnitude, similar to the magnitude scale used by astronomers for star brightness. Second, he wanted a magnitude of zero to be around the limit of human perceptibility. Third, he specified the Wood–Anderson seismograph as the standard instrument for producing seismograms. Magnitude was then defined as "the logarithm of the maximum trace amplitude, expressed in microns", measured at a distance of . The scale was calibrated by defining a magnitude 0 shock as one that produces (at a distance of ) a maximum amplitude of 1 micron (1 µm, or 0.001 millimeters) on a seismogram recorded by a Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer. Finally, Richter calculated a table of distance corrections, in that for distances less than 200 kilometers the attenuation is strongly affected by the structure and properties of the regional geology.

When Richter presented the resulting scale in 1935, he called it (at the suggestion of Harry Wood) simply a "magnitude" scale. "Richter magnitude" appears to have originated when Perry Byerly told the press that the scale was Richter's and "should be referred to as such." In 1956, Gutenberg and Richter, while still referring to "magnitude scale", labelled it "local magnitude", with the symbol , to distinguish it from two other scales they had developed, the surface wave magnitude (MS) and body wave magnitude (MB) scales.

Details

The Richter scale was defined in 1935 for particular circumstances and instruments; the particular circumstances refer to it being defined for Southern California and "implicitly incorporates the attenuative properties of Southern California crust and mantle." The particular instrument used would become saturated by strong earthquakes and unable to record high values. The scale was replaced in the 1970s by the moment magnitude scale (MMS, symbol ); for earthquakes adequately measured by the Richter scale, numerical values are approximately the same. Although values measured for earthquakes now are , they are frequently reported by the press as Richter values, even for earthquakes of magnitude over 8, when the Richter scale becomes meaningless.

The Richter and MMS scales measure the energy released by an earthquake; another scale, the Mercalli intensity scale, classifies earthquakes by their effects, from detectable by instruments but not noticeable, to catastrophic. The energy and effects are not necessarily strongly correlated; a shallow earthquake in a populated area with soil of certain types can be far more intense in impact than a much more energetic deep earthquake in an isolated area.

Several scales have been historically described as the "Richter scale",, especially the local magnitude  and the surface wave  scale. In addition, the body wave magnitude, , and the moment magnitude, , abbreviated MMS, have been widely used for decades. A couple of new techniques to measure magnitude are in the development stage by seismologists.

All magnitude scales have been designed to give numerically similar results. This goal has been achieved well for , , and . The  scale gives somewhat different values than the other scales. The reason for so many different ways to measure the same thing is that at different distances, for different hypocentral depths, and for different earthquake sizes, the amplitudes of different types of elastic waves must be measured.

 is the scale used for the majority of earthquakes reported (tens of thousands) by local and regional seismological observatories. For large earthquakes worldwide, the moment magnitude scale (MMS) is most common, although  is also reported frequently.

The seismic moment, , is proportional to the area of the rupture times the average slip that took place in the earthquake, thus it measures the physical size of the event.  is derived from it empirically as a quantity without units, just a number designed to conform to the  scale. A spectral analysis is required to obtain . In contrast, the other magnitudes are derived from a simple measurement of the amplitude of a precisely defined wave.

All scales, except , saturate for large earthquakes, meaning they are based on the amplitudes of waves that have a wavelength shorter than the rupture length of the earthquakes. These short waves (high-frequency waves) are too short a yardstick to measure the extent of the event. The resulting effective upper limit of measurement for  is about 7 and about 8.5 for .

New techniques to avoid the saturation problem and to measure magnitudes rapidly for very large earthquakes are being developed. One of these is based on the long-period P-wave; The other is based on a recently discovered channel wave.

The energy release of an earthquake, which closely correlates to its destructive power, scales with the  power of the shaking amplitude (see Moment magnitude scale for an explanation). Thus, a difference in magnitude of 1.0 is equivalent to a factor of 31.6 () in the energy released; a difference in magnitude of 2.0 is equivalent to a factor of 1000 () in the energy released. The elastic energy radiated is best derived from an integration of the radiated spectrum, but an estimate can be based on  because most energy is carried by the high-frequency waves.

Magnitude empirical formulae

These formulae for Richter magnitude  are alternatives to using Richter correlation tables based on Richter standard seismic event    In the formulas below,  is the epicentral distance in kilometers, and  is the same distance represented as sea level great circle degrees.

The Lillie empirical formula is:

 where  is the amplitude (maximum ground displacement) of the P-wave, in micrometers (µm), measured at 0.8 Hz.

Lahr's empirical formula proposal is:

 where
  is seismograph signal amplitude in mm and
  is in km, for distances under 200 km .
and

 where  is in km, for distances  between 200 km and 600 km .

The Bisztricsany empirical formula (1958) for epicentre distances between 4° and 160° is:

 where
  is the duration of the surface wave in seconds, and
  is in degrees.
  is mainly between 5 and 8.

The Tsumura empirical formula is:

 where
  is the total duration of oscillation in seconds.
  mainly takes on values between 3 and 5.

The Tsuboi (University of Tokyo) empirical formula is:

 where  is the amplitude in µm.

See also

 1935 in science
 Rohn emergency scale for measuring the magnitude (intensity) of any emergency
 Seismic intensity scales
 Seismic magnitude scales
 Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)

Notes

Sources

.

, NUREG/CR-1457.

.

.

.

.

.

.

External links

 Seismic Monitor – IRIS Consortium
 USGS Earthquake Magnitude Policy (implemented on January 18, 2002) – USGS
 Perspective: a graphical comparison of earthquake energy release – Pacific Tsunami Warning Center

1935 in science
1935 introductions
California Institute of Technology
Seismic magnitude scales
Logarithmic scales of measurement
American inventions

Richter scale


David Anthony Brading FRHistS, FBA (born 26 August 1936), is a British historian and Professor Emeritus of Mexican History at the University of Cambridge, where he is an Emeritus Fellow of Clare Hall and an Honorary Fellow of Pembroke College. His work has been recognized with multiple awards including the Bolton Prize in 1972, the Order of the Aztec Eagle, and the Medalla 1808—both of which were awarded by the Mexican government—and the Medal of Congress from the Peruvian government in 2011.

He is regarded as one of the foremost historians of Latin America in the United Kingdom, and was the most widely cited British Latin Americanist.

Early life and education
David Brading was born in London, England, and educated at St Ignatius' College and Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he read history and obtained a BA (Hons) Double first-class honours in 1960. He was an Exhibitioner and Foundation Scholar at Cambridge University where he attended the lectures of David Knowles, Geoffrey Elton, and Michael Postan. In 1961 he was awarded a Henry Fellowship to Yale University. But it was later that year, whilst in Mexico, that Brading's fascination with the country began:

After working for several months in the Civil Service as Assistant Principal at the Board of Trade, he received his M.A. from Cambridge University and enrolled for a PhD at University College London, under the supervision of John Lynch.

Deciding to investigate silver mining in New Spain, Brading spent 15 months engaged in archival research, starting in the Archive of the Indies, Biblioteca Nacional de España and the Archivo Histórico Nacional before continuing in Mexico in the National Library of Mexico, General Archive of the Nation and finally the archive of Guanajuato. The fruition of this research was the completion in 1965 of his doctoral thesis, entitled "Society and Administration in Late Eighteenth Century Guanajuato with especial reference to the Silver Mining Industry" which was examined by Charles Boxer and John Parry.

Returning to the United States as an assistant professor at the University of California, Berkeley, Brading delivered three sets of lectures dealing with Mexico, Peru, and Argentina, before moving to Yale University as Associate Professor in 1971.

Brading's first book, Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico 1765–1810 was published in 1971. It dealt with the general history of the silver industry in Mexico with a comprehensive study of Guanajuato and its mines, population and leading families. A review in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science called it a  "landmark of dissertation research and organization" while Fernand Braudel who is considered one of the greatest of the modern historians found it a "fascinating book". It won the Bolton Prize in 1972.

In 1973, Brading returned to Cambridge University as a University Lecturer in Latin American History and become Director of the Centre of Latin American Studies at Cambridge University from 1975 – 1990. He was a fellow of St Edmund's College from 1975 to 1988. In 1991 a LittD was awarded to Brading and he was made Reader in Latin American History at Cambridge University. The following year he was the Leverhulme Research Fellow in Mexico, received an honorary doctorate from the University of Lima in Peru. and was elected member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts of which he is one of only ten British members in the humanities, the others being Roger Scruton, Richard Overy, Norman Davies and Timothy Garton Ash among others.
In 1999, Brading was made Professor in Latin American History at Cambridge University.

Works
In 1992, Brading's book The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867 was published. Its central thesis was that Spaniards born in the New World (creoles) had an American cultural identity, a creole consciousness, distinct from those born and raised in Spain (peninsulares). A review in the journal History declared it to be a book of major importance on the topic, as did a review in the Journal of Latin American Studies. The Mexican literary magazine Letras Libres "said it occupies a place of honor in the library of neophytes and scholars."

In 2001, Brading published Mexican Phoenix, Our Lady of Guadalupe: Image and Tradition across Five Centuries, a detailed history of the most important religious icon in Latin America – the Virgin of Guadalupe. Foreign Affairs magazine commented in a review saying that it was "brilliant"... and had " remarkable insight."

Festschrift

In 2007, Brading was honoured by a Festschrift, with essays by former students and colleagues, as a "celebration of his outstanding contribution to the field of Mexican history." The result was Mexican Soundings: Essays in Honour of David A. Brading.
Its genesis lay in a September 1999 three-day conference, "Visions and Revisions in Mexican History held at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.

Mexican Soundings is organised into two distinct halves, the opening three essays focus on Brading's work and life, and the six following highlight the themes that have marked his career and range from the late seventeenth to the twentieth centuries, focused on religion, political culture and Mexican national identity.

's essay pays tribute to Brading's "thorough research for mining, agricultural production, land tenure and historical textual analysis of chronicles, political treatises and myths piece encapsulates the principal contributions of each of David Brading's major works".

While Eric Van Young's "historiographical essay, in particular, underlines the impact that each of Brading's publications has made. . . Brading is the "chief architect" of the Age of Revolution periodization (1750-1850), which he calls "Brading's century;" that he led the way in "the socialization of elite studies in Mexican historiography…and that he is the leading scholar of intellectual history and the Catholic Church for colonial Mexico."

The next two essays explore Colonial society and culture with Susan Deans-Smith's essay focusing on the work of painters and guild politics in colonial Mexico City. It is a "study finely tuned to questions of guild and community, Spanish presumptions of superiority, and the assertions of men of indigenous, mestizo, and mulatto ancestry." Ellen Gunnarsdóttir's article is centred around Francisca de Los Ángeles, a Querétaro Beata who lived in the late seventeenth century and the first half of the eighteenth. "A fascinating portrayal of how women might break out of traditional gender restraints in colonial society".
A trio of essays explores the middle decades of the nineteenth century and the liberal reform era's conflicts with Brian Hamnett's portrait of Tomas Mejia, a figure who linked local and national politics and illustrated the dense network of clientelistic relationships behind the familiar categories of 'liberal' and 'conservative' blurring the crucial period of 1840-1855.

María Eugenia García Ugarte's recounting of the life of the Bishop of Puebla, Pelagio Antonio de Labastida y Dávalos "offers a narrative of how one influential member of the Catholic establishment sought to navigate a way through the more draconian measures of liberal reform designed to restrict Church privileges."

Guy Thomson's "Memoirs and Memories of the European Intervention in the Sierra de Puebla, 1868- 1991" offers an illuminating examination of the interactions among nineteenth-century historical narratives, modern historical memories, and scholarly historians."

Alan Knight's discussion is on whether there is such a thing as "Mexican national identity…as it
"is shifting and disputatious in nature, is a conceptual black hole, and that while the 1910 Revolution and its aftermath advanced some fundamentals of a common national identity in Mexico, "the objective national identity remained notoriously fragmented by region, locality, religion, ideology, age, gender, and ethnicity." Knight argues for an integrated economic, social, political, and cultural history, "as exemplified in the work of David Brading".

Brading's autobiographical essay, "A Recusant Abroad" was an amplification of a piece published in Spanish in 1993. It was received enthusiastically by reviewers, Keith Brewster in the Bulletin of Latin American Research commented "We are afforded a rare glimpse of an eminent scholar's development from a hesitant graduate searching a true vocation into an accomplished master of his craft, while Cynthia Radding in the Journal of Latin American Studies called it "beautifully reflective."
Timothy Anna in The Americas found Brading's essay to be fascinating "Declaring that his first love was Baroque art and architecture and Catholic political thought and mysticism, Brading provides his assessment of the origins, meanings, and purposes of his various publications."
Professor John Tutino of Georgetown University commenting in The Hispanic American Historical Review that "Brading's contributions to Mexican history are equalled by few and exceeded by none… No one can understand the silver economy, social processes, and government reforms of the late colonial era without knowing Miners and Merchants, the book that introduced David Brading to a generation. The First America took on even larger challenges, brilliantly tracing imperial power and ideology along with Spanish American cultural and intellectual responses and innovations over more than three centuries, reaching past independence to mid-nineteenth-century liberal reforms."

Awards and honors
Brading has received honorary degrees from four universities, including Universidad del Pacifico, Universidad de Guanajuato Universidad de Lima and the Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo.

Books in English

 Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763–1810 (Cambridge University Press, 1971)
 Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajio: Leon 1700–1863 (Cambridge University Press, 1978)
 Prophecy and Myth in Mexican History (Cambridge University Press, 1984)
 The Origins of Mexican Nationalism (Cambridge University Press, 1985)
 The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriotism and the Liberal State 1492–1867 (Cambridge University Press, 1991)
 Church and State in Bourbon Mexico. The Diocese of Michoacan, 1749–1810 (Cambridge University Press, 1994)
 Mexican Phoenix. Our Lady of Guadalupe: Image and Tradition Across Five Centuries (Cambridge University Press, 2001)

Books in Spanish

 Espiritualidad barroca, política eclesiástica y renovación filosófica : Juan Benito Díaz de Gamarra, 1745-1783 (Mexico, D.F. : Centro de Estudios de Historia de Mexico Codumex 1993)
Una iglesia asediada : el Obispado de Michoacán, 1749-1910 (Fondo de Cultura Económica, México, D.F., 1994)
 Siete Sermones Guadalupanos, 1709-1765 (México : Centro de Estudios de Historia de México, Condumex, 1994)
 El Ocaso Novohispano:Testimonios Documentales (Mexico, D.F.:Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, 1996)
 Apogeo y derrumbe del imperio español (México, D.F. Clío 1996)
 Juan Pablo Viscardo y Guzmán (1748-1798):el hombre y su tiempo (Lima:Fondo Editorial del Congreso del Perú, 1999)
 Cinco miradas británicas a la historia de México (México, D.F. : Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, 2000)
 Octavio Paz y la poética de la historia Mexicana (Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2002)
 Nueve sermones guadalupanos (1661-1758) (Centro de Estudios de Historia de México Condumex, México, 2005)
 El Pegaso o el mundo barroco novohispano en el siglo XVII (Renacimiento, Sevilla 2006)
 Visión y símbolos : del virreinato criollo a la República Peruana (Lima Banco de Crédito 2006)
 La Canonización de [Juan Diego] (México : Fondo de Cultura Económica : Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas, 2009)
 El Gran Michoacán en 1791 : sociedad e ingreso eclesiástico en una diócesis novohispana (Zamora, Michoacán : Colegio de Michoacán; San Luis Potosí, S.L.P. : El Colegio de San Luis, 2009)
 Profecía y patria en la historia del Perú (Lima : Fondo Editorial del Congreso del Perú, 2011)
 Ensayos sobre el México contemporáneo (Ciudad de México : FCE - Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2021)

Books edited and prefaces

 Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution (Cambridge University Press, 1980)
 Historia de la revolución de Nueva España (Prefacio. In Saint-Lu, A., & Bénassy-Berling, M. (Eds.) Centro de estudios mexicanos y centroamericanos. 1990
  Génesis del porvenir : sociedad y política en Querétaro (1913-1940) (Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales/UNAM : Gobierno del Estado de Querétaro : Fondo de Cultura Económica, México, 1997)
 Letter to the Spanish Americans : a facsimile of the second English edition (Providence, Rhode Island : John Carter Brown Library, 2002)
 Carta dirigida a los españoles americanos (Fondo de Cultura Económica, México, D.F., 2004)
  Los proyectos y las realidades : América Latina en el siglo XX (Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaíso, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile, 2004)
 Mexican soundings : Essays in honour of David A. Brading Edited by Susan Deans-Smith and Eric Van Young (London: Institute for the Study of the Americas, 2007)
 El mestizaje mexicano (BBVA Fundación Bancomer, México, 2010)
 América (Fundación para las Letras Mexicanas : Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey; Fondo de Cultura Económica, Monterrey, N.L., México, D.F., 2015)

Articles and Book Chapters

  "Society and Administration in Late Eighteenth Century Guanajuato: With Especial Reference to the Silver Mining Industry." PhD diss., University of London 1965
  "La minería de la plata en el siglo XVIII: el caso Bolaños." Historia Mexicana 18, no. 3 (1969): 317-333.
 "Nuevo plan para la mejor administracion de justicia en América: Vicente de Herrera" Boletin, vol. IX (Archivo General de la Nacién, Mexico 1969), pp. 369– 400.
 "Relacién sobre la economia de Querétaro y de su corregidor don Miguel Dominguez, 1810-1811, Boletin, vol. XI (AGN, Mexico)
(1969) pp. 275-318.

  "Mexican Silver-Mining in the Eighteenth Century: The Revival of Zacatecas." The Hispanic American Historical Review 50, no. 4 (1970): 665–81.
  "La situación económica de los hermanos don Manuel y don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, 1807." Boletín del Archivo General de la
Nación 2, no. 11.1-2 (1970): 15-82.

  with Harry E. Cross."Colonial silver mining: Mexico and Peru." Hispanic american historical review 52, no. 4 (1972):545-579.
  and Margarita Zaionz de Zilberay. "Las minas de plata en el Perú y México colonial. Un estudio comparativo." Desarrollo
económico (1971):101-111.

  "Grupos étnicos; clases y estructura ocupacional en Guanajuato (1792)." Historia Mexicana 21, no. 3 (1972): 460-480.
  "The Structure of Agricultural Production in the Mexican Bajío during the Eighteenth Century." 1972.
  with H. E. Cross. "Silver mines in colonial America." Hispanic Am. Hist. Rev 52 (1972): 547-549.
  "Noticias sobre la economía de Querétaro y de su corregidor don Miguel Domínguez, 1802-1811"
  with Celia Wu. "Population Growth and Crisis: Leon, 1720-1860." Journal of Latin American Studies 5, no. 1 (1973): 1–36.
  "Creole Nationalism and Mexican Liberalism." Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 15, no. 2 (1973): 139–90.
  "Las tareas primarias en la historia econémica Latinoamericana} in Enrique Flores- cano (ed.), La historia econmica en América Latina, 2vols. (Septentas, Mexico), vol. II, (1973) pp. 100-10.
 "Grupos étnicos, clases y estructura occupacional en Guanajuato (1792)"; Historia Mexicana, vol. XXI, (1972) pp. 460–80.
  "Los Españoles En México Hacia 1792." Historia Mexicana 23, no. 1 (1973): 126–44.
  "Government and Elite in Late Colonial Mexico." The Hispanic American Historical Review 53, no. 3 (1973): 389–414.
  "La Estructura de La Producción Agrícola En El Bajío de 1700 a 1850." Historia Mexicana 23, no. 2 (1973): 197–237
  "Gobierno y Élite En El México Colonial Durante El Siglo XVIII." Historia Mexicana 23, no. 4 (1974): 611–45.
  "The Capital Structure of Mexican Haciendas 1700 -1850" Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv 1, no. 2 (1975): 151–82.
 Katz, Friedrich, and Doris M. Ladd. "Correspondence." The Hispanic American Historical Review 55, no. 1 (1975): 174–76.
 "Mineros y comerciantes en el México borbónico, 1763-1810" Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico (1975)
  "The Historical Demography of Eighteenth Century Mexico: A Review" Bulletin of the Society for Latin American Studies, no. 25 (1976): 3–17.
  "Tridentine Catholicism and Enlightened Despotism in Bourbon Mexico." Journal of Latin American Studies 15, no. 1(1983):1–22.
  "Prophet and Apostle: Bartolomé de Las Casas and the Spiritual Conquest of America."New Blackfriars 65, no. 774(1984):513-34.
  "Facts and Figments in Bourbon Mexico." Bulletin of Latin American Research 4, no. 1 (1985): 61–64.
  "The Incas and the Renaissance: The Royal Commentaries of Inca Garcilaso de La Vega." Journal of Latin American Studies 18,
no. 1 (1986):1–23.

  "Manuel Gamio and Official Indigenismo in Mexico." Bulletin of Latin American Research 7, no. 1 (1988): 75–89.
  "The Two Cities: St. Augustine and the Spanish Conquest of America." Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia 44, no. 1 (1988): 99–126.
  "Liberal Patriotism and the Mexican Reforma." Journal of Latin American Studies 20, no. 1 (1988): 27–48.
  with María Urquidi "Manuel Gamio y El Indigenismo Oficial En México." Revista Mexicana de Sociología 51, no. 2 (1989):267-84.
  "Comments on 'The Economic Cycle in Bourbon Central Mexico: A Critique of the Recaudacion Del Diezmo Liquido En Pesos,' by
Ouweneel and Bijleveld. I." The Hispanic American Historical Review 69, no. 3 (1989): 531–38

  "Power and Justice in Catorce 1799 - 1805." Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv 20, no. 3/4 (1994): 357–80.
  "Nationalism and State-Building in Latin American History." Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv 20, no. 1/2 (1994): 83–108.
 "with Lucrecia Orensanz. "Francisco Bulnes y La Verdad Acerca de México En El Siglo XIX." Historia Mexicana 45, no. 3 (1996)
  with Lucrecia Orensanz. "Edmundo O'Gorman y David Hume." Historia Mexicana 46, no. 4 (1997): 695–704.
  with Rafael Vargas. "La Patria Criolla y La Compañía de Jesús." Artes de México, no. 58 (2001): 58–71.
  "Europe and a world expanded", The Short Oxford History of Europe.The Sixteenth Century (Oxford University Press, 2006) 174-99.
 "Divine Idea and "Our Mother". Elite Understanding in the Cult of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico' Studies in Church History no.42 (Boydell Press, Suffolk, 2006), 240-60.
 "Our Lady of Guadalupe of Mexico. Religion and Patriotism', Vírgenes, Reinas y Santas.(Universidad de Huevla, 2006) 163-91
 "Prólogo', André Pons, Blanco White y América" (Universidad de Oviedo, 2006), 13-23.
	"Patria e Historia: tríptico peruano', Visión y Símbolos del virreinato criollo a la república peruana" ed. Ramón Mujica Pinilla (Lima, Banco del Credito, 2006), 1-41.
  "Juárez, conductor de hombres", Letras Libres, VII, 87 (Mexico, 2006), 50-4.
  with María Palomar "La Plata Zacatecas en el Siglo XVIII" Artes de México, no. 86 (2007): 20–31.
  "El Jansenismo español." Artes de México, no. 92 (2008): 66–71.
  "Imperial Mexico: the Viceregal City, Mexico City through History and Culture", ed. Linda A. Newson and John P. King (London, The British Academy, Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 39–53.
  "The rebirth of ancient Mexico, Moctezuma. Aztec Ruler", ed. Colin Mcewan and Leonardo López Luján (London, British Museum Press, 2009), pp. 256–73.
 "Social Darwinism and Nationalism in Mexico', Nations and their Histories: Constructions and Representations, ed. Susana Carvalho and François Gemenne (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pp.111-35.
 "Orígen de la grandeza de Guanajuato, Renovada grandeza de Guanajuato" (Mexico, Artes de México, 2009), pp. 29–85.
 "Pasado y presente en México del siglo XIX", El temple Liberal. Acercamiento a la obra de Enrique Krauze, compilación de Fernando García Ramírez (Mexico, Fondo de Cultura Económica and Tusquets Editores, 2009), pp. 51–75
 "Ensayo. Justo Sierra y la Historia Patria", 20/10. Memoria de las Revoluciones en México, no.6 (Mexico, 2009), pp. 14–49

Academic achievements, awards, and honors

In the Spring 1998 newsletter of the Conference on Latin American History published by the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, William McGreevey in a study of the 11 volumes of The Cambridge History of Latin America, bibliographic essays, demonstrated that David Brading was "cited more frequently than that of any other writer on Latin American history".

Henry Fellow, Yale University, 1960–1961
Herbert Eugene Bolton Prize, 1972
Visiting Fellow, University of Tokyo, Japan, 1985
Directeur d'Etudes at I'Ecole de Hautes Etudes en Science Sociales, 1989
Professor Honorario (Honoris Causa), University of Lima, Peru, 1993
Fellow of Academia Scientiarum et Artium Europaea, 1993
Leverhulme Research Fellow in Mexico,1993
Visiting Scholar, Centro de Estudios de Historia de Mexico, Condumex,1993
Member of European Academy of Sciences and Arts
Fellow of Clare Hall, Cambridge University, 1995
Fellow of the British Academy 1995
Julio Cortázar Visiting Professor, University of Guadalajara, 1996
Miembro Honorario, Instituto Riva-Agüero, Escuela de Altos Estudios, Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru, 1997
Miembro Fundador, La Sociedad Mexicana de Bibliofilos, A.C. 1997
Miembro Correspondiente, La Academia Nacional de la Historia, Lima, Perú, 1998
Andrew W. Mellon Senior Research Fellow, John Carter Brown Library, Brown University, 2000
Academico Corresponsal, Academia Mexicana de la Historia, 2008
 Honorary Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge University, 2008

References

External links
 Clare Hall, Cambridge University biography
 Prof. David Anthony,Who's Who 2016, A & C Black, 2016; online edn, Oxford University Press, 2016
 British Academy biography
 Centre of Latin American Studies, Cambridge University
 Author Page, Fondo de Cultura Economica
 Audio/Video recordings David Brading and Leopoldo Zea De la region a la globalidad, 8 February 2000
  Audio/Video recordings Mexican Nationalism: History and Theory Podcast, Institute of Historical Research (IHR)4 October 2011

Historians of Mexico
British Hispanists
Latin Americanists
Historians of Spain
Historians of Peru
1936 births
Living people
Historians of Latin America
Members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts
Fellows of Clare Hall, Cambridge
Historians of Mesoamerica
Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge
Alumni of University College London
Academics of the University of Cambridge
English Roman Catholics
English Roman Catholic writers
British Roman Catholic writers
Members of the University of Cambridge faculty of history
20th-century English historians
Fellows of the Royal Historical Society
Fellows of the British Academy
Fellows of Pembroke College, Cambridge
Yale University faculty
21st-century English historians
21st-century Mesoamericanists
20th-century Mesoamericanists
Historians of the Catholic Church
Berkeley
Fellows of St Edmund's College, Cambridge
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
English historians
Economic historians
British historians

David Brading


Sepia robsoni is a species of cuttlefish known only from its type locality, Hout Bay in South Africa. Its lives at depths of between 17 and 37 m.

Sepia robsoni grows to a mantle length of 20 mm.

The type specimen was collected in Hout Bay, South Africa and is deposited at The Natural History Museum in London. The specific name honours the painter and curator of Zoology at the British Museum, Natural History, Guy Coburn Robson (1888-1945), and the species was named by the Irish naturalist Annie Massy (1868-1931).

References

External links

Cuttlefish
Molluscs described in 1927
Taxa named by Annie Massy

Sepia robsoni


KLFG (89.5 FM) is a radio station that serves the Fort Dodge, Iowa area. The station broadcasts a Contemporary Christian music format airing Educational Media Foundation's K-Love network programming.

The transmitter and broadcast tower are located four miles north of Badger, Iowa along Hwy P52. According to the Antenna Structure Registration database, the tower is  tall with the FM broadcast antenna mounted at the  level. The calculated Height Above Average Terrain is .

On May 29, 2015, Family Stations, Inc. filed an application to sell the then-KIFR, KEAF and four translators to Educational Media Foundation. KIFR would air EMF's K-Love network. Educational Media bought the six licenses for $553,750.

The station changed its call sign to the current KLFG on November 20, 2015, coincident with the consummation of the sale to EMF.

References

External links

K-Love radio stations
Fort Dodge, Iowa
Radio stations established in 2005
2005 establishments in Iowa
Contemporary Christian radio stations in the United States
Educational Media Foundation radio stations
LFG

KLFG


Han Yu (; 76825 December 824), courtesy name Tuizhi (), and commonly known by his posthumous name Han Wengong (韓文公), was an essayist, Confucian scholar, poet, and government official during the Tang dynasty who significantly influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism. Described as "comparable in stature to Dante, Shakespeare or Goethe" for his influence on the Chinese literary tradition,  Han Yu stood for strong central authority in politics and orthodoxy in cultural matters.

He is often considered to be among China's finest prose writers. Ming dynasty scholar Mao Kun () ranked him first among the "Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song".

Biography
Han Yu was born in 768, in Heyang (河陽, present day Mengzhou) in Henan to a family of noble lineage. His father worked as a minor official but died when Han Yu was two. He was then raised in the family of his older brother, Han Hui (). He was a student of philosophical writings and confucian thought. His family moved to Chang'an in 774 but was banished to Southern China in 777 because of its association with disgraced minister Yuan Zai. Han Hui died in 781 while serving as a prefect in Guangdong province. In 792, after four attempts, Han Yu passed the jinshi imperial examination. In 796, after failing to secure a position in the civil service at the capital, he went into the service of the provincial military governor of Bianzhou until 799, and then of the military governor of Xuzhou. He gained his first central government position in 802 on the recommendation of the military governor. However, he was soon exiled for several possible reasons: for failing to support the heir apparent's faction, his criticism of the misbehavior of the emperor's servants, or his request for reduction of taxes during a famine.

From 807 to 819 he held a series of government posts, first in Luoyang and then in Chang'an. During these years, he was a strong advocate of reimposing central control over separatist northeastern provinces. This period of service came to an end when he wrote his famous Memorial on Bone-relics of the Buddha () presented to Emperor Xianzong. The memorial is a strongly worded protest against Buddhist influence on the country.  The Emperor, offended by Han Yu's criticism, ordered his execution.  He was however saved by his friends at the court, and was thusly demoted and exiled to Chaozhou instead.  After Han Yu offered a formal apology to the Emperor a few months later, he was transferred to a province nearer to the capital. Emperor Xianzong died within a year, and his successor Emperor Muzong brought Han Yu back to the capital where he worked in the War Office. He was then appointed to a high-ranking position after he successfully completed a mission to persuade a rebellious military commander to return to the fold.

Han Yu held a number of other distinguished government posts such as the rector of the Imperial university. At the age of fifty-six, Han Yu died in Chang'an on December 25, 824 and was buried on April 21, 825 in the ancestral cemetery at Heyang.

Thoughts and beliefs
Although generally not considered a philosopher,  Han Yu was an important Confucian intellectual who influenced later generations of Confucian thinkers and Confucian philosophy. He also sponsored many literary figures of the turn of the ninth century. He led a revolt against pianwen (), a formal, richly ornamented literary style, advocating a return to a classical, simple, logical, and exact style. He felt that this classical style of writing—called guwen (), literally, "ancient writing"—would be appropriate for the restoration of Confucianism.

Han Yu promoted Confucianism but was also deeply opposed to Buddhism, a religion that was then popular at the Tang court. In 819, he sent a letter, "Memorial on Bone-relics of the Buddha", to the emperor in which he denounced "the elaborate preparations being made by the state to receive the Buddha's fingerbone, which he called 'a filthy object' and which he said should be 'handed over to the proper officials for destruction by water and fire to eradicate forever its origin'.  Han Yu contrasted the Chinese civilization and barbarism where people were "like birds and wild beast or like the barbarians".  He considered Buddhism to be of barbarian () origin, therefore an unsuitable religion for the Chinese people.

Again from Han Yu's letter, "Memorial on Bone-relics of the Buddha":

"Your servant begs leave to say that Buddhism is no more than a cult of the barbarian peoples which
spread to China. It did not exist here in ancient times.
Now I hear that Your Majesty has ordered the community of monks to go to greet the finger bone of the
Buddha [a relic from India], and that Your Majesty will ascend a tower to watch the procession as this
relic is brought into the palace. [...]
The Buddha was a man of the barbarians who did not speak Chinese and who wore clothes of a different
fashion. The Buddha's sayings contain nothing about our ancient kings and the Buddha's manner of
dress did not conform to our laws; he understood neither the duties that bind sovereign and subject,
not the affections of father and son. If the Buddha were still alive today and came to our court, Your
Majesty might condescend to receive him, but he would then be escorted to the borders of the nation,
dismissed, and not allowed to delude the masses. How then, when he has long been dead, could the
Buddha's rotten bones, the foul and unlucky remains of his body, be rightly admitted to the palace?
Confucius said: "Respect ghosts and spirits, but keep them at a distance!" Your servant is deeply
ashamed and begs that this bone from the Buddha be given to the proper authorities to be cast into fire
and water, that this evil be rooted out, and later generations spared this delusion."

Han Yu was also critical of Taoism, which he considered to be a harmful accretion to Chinese culture. He nevertheless made the distinction between Taoism, a homegrown religion, and Buddhism, a foreign faith. In "The Origin of Dao" (原道, Yuandao), he argued that the monasticism of both Buddhism and Taoism to be economically nonproductive, creating economic and social dislocation. He also criticized both of these beliefs for being unable to deal with social problems. He considered Confucianism to be distinct from these two beliefs in linking the private, moral life of the individual with the public welfare of the state.  He emphasized Mencius's method of assuring public morality and social order, and his concept of the expression of Confucian spirituality through political action would later form the intellectual basis for neo-Confucianism.  Han introduced the ideas of the succession of the Way (道統, daotong), as well as the concept of the "teacher" (師, shi) who embodies the Way as expressed in "Discourse on Teachers" (師說, Shishuo). Although Han Yu attacked Buddhism and Taoism, some of his ideas have Buddhist and/or Taoist roots; for example, the succession of the Way was inspired by the Buddhist idea of transmission of the dharma, while his concept of the "teacher" originated from the Buddhist and Taoist idea of religious mentor.

In his "Discourse on Teachers" (師說, Shishuo), Han Yu discussed the necessity and principles of learning from teachers, and criticized the phenomenon of "shame to learn from the teacher" in the society at that time. He stated that "a disciple need not be necessarily inferior to the teacher, [while] the teacher need not be necessarily more virtuous than the disciple. The only fact is that [one may] acquire Dao earlier or later [than the others], [and there may be] specific field that one specialized in."

Literary works

Prose
Han Yu is often considered the greatest master of classical prose in the Tang.  He was listed first among the "Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song" by Ming Dynasty scholar Mao Kun.  Together with Liu Zongyuan he headed the Classical Prose Movement to return to the unornamented prose of the Han Dynasty. He considered the classical "old style prose" (古文, guwen) to be the kind of writing more suited to argumentation and the expression of ideas.  Han Yu's guwen however was not an imitation of ancient prose, but a new style based on the ancient ideals of clarity, concision, and utility. Han Yu wrote in many modes, often with discursiveness and daring experimentation.

Among his most renowned essays are his polemics against Buddhism and Taoism and support for Confucianism, such as "Buddhism Memorial on Bone-relics of the Buddha" and "The Origin of Dao".  Other notable works include "Text for the Crocodiles" () in which he declares that crocodiles be formally banished from Chaozhou, and "Goodbye to Penury" () that describes his failed attempt to rid himself of the ghost of poverty.

Poetry
Han Yu also wrote poetry. However, while Han Yu's essays are highly regarded, his poetry is not considered exceptional.  According to A History of Chinese Literature by Herbert Giles, Han Yu "wrote a large quantity of verse, frequently playful, on an immense variety of subjects, and under his touch the commonplace was often transmuted into wit. Among other pieces there is one on his teeth, which seemed to drop out at regular intervals, so that he could calculate roughly what span of life remained to him.  Altogether, his poetry cannot be classed with that of the highest order, unlike his prose writings".

The poem where Han Yu ruminated on getting old by recounting how he lost his own teeth is "Losing Teeth" ().

Significance and assessment

Han Yu ranks among the most important personalities in the history of traditional Chinese culture. His works not only become classics in Chinese literature, but his writings redefined and changed the course of the tradition itself. He was a stylistic innovator in the many genres he wrote in, and was a major influence on the literary and intellectual life of his time as well as later dynasties.  The writings of Han Yu were influential to Song Dynasty writers and poets, in particular Ouyang Xiu who popularized the use of guwen as advocated by Han Yu, a style that would stay as the model for Chinese prose until the revolution in Chinese literature of modern China. In an inscription for a shrine to Han Yu, Song Dynasty poet Su Shi praised Han Yu:

All the major accounts of Han Yu's life agree that he had an open and forthright character, which manifested itself in his unswerving loyalty to his friends. According to Li Ao, Han Yu was a great conversationalist and an inspired teacher: "His teaching and his efforts to mold his students were unrelenting, fearing they would not be perfect. Yet he amused them with jokes and with the chanting of poems, so that they were enraptured with his teaching and forgot about returning home". The sense of humor that is so obvious in his writing was also important in his life. Herbert Giles judged that it was "due to his calm and dignified patriotism that the Chinese still keep his memory green".

Han Yu led a defense of Confucianism at a time when Confucian doctrine was in decline, and attacked both Buddhism and Taoism which were then the dominant belief systems. His writings would have a significant influence on Neo-Confucians of later eras, such as the Song dynasty scholars Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi. Although usually not considered a philosopher, he introduced a new intellectual direction for Confucianism as well as influential ideas to later Confucians. However, he was criticized by Song Confucians for being much more of a stylist than a moralist.

Most modern scholarship, although content to assign to Han Yu a secure place in the history of Chinese literature, has been embarrassed by the violence of his Confucian passions.

Memorial

In honor of Han's contribution to Chaoshan when he was exiled to Chaozhou, the Han River flowing through Chaozhou is named after him. Han Yu Temple () in Chaozhou was established since the Song dynasty at the riverside of Mount Han, which also named after him. Due to his dealings with crocodiles in South China, the extinct gharial Hanyusuchus was named after him in 2022.

Studies
Erwin von Zach wrote Han Yüs poetische Werke, a German language study. The Poetry of Meng Chiao and Han Yü, a book by Stephen Owen published by the Yale University Press, was the first substantial English-language study of Han Yu. It was published 13 years after Zach's book.

Modern references
In an essay on Kafka, the Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges, in making the argument that "each writer creates his own precursors", placed Han Yu as one of the antecedents of Kafka due to some resemblance between them.

Descendants
Han Yu's descendants held the title of "Wujing boshi" (五經博士; Wǔjīng bóshì).

References

Citations

Sources
 Works cited

 Barnstone, Tony; Chou, Ping (eds.) (2005).  The Anchor Book of Chinese Poetry. , New York: Random House.
 Birch, Cyril (ed.) (1965). Anthology of Chinese Literature. New York: Grove Press, Inc.
  Available online at: Google Books; A History of Chinese Literature Internet Archive;  A History of Chinese Literature Project Gutenberg.
 Leung, K. C. "The Poetry of Meng Chiao and Han Yü" (book review). Books Abroad, ISSN 0006-7431, 07/1976, Volume 50, Issue 3, p. 715.
 Hartman, Charles (1986). Han Yu and the T'ang Search for Unity. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
 Owen, Stephen (ed.) (1996). An Anthology of Chinese Literature. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

External links

 John Thompson on Han Yu and the guqin
 Books of the Quan Tangshi that include collected poems of Han Yu at the Chinese Text Project: Book 336, Book 337, Book 338, Book 339, Book 340, Book 341, Book 342, Book 343, Book 344, Book 345

768 births
824 deaths
8th-century Chinese historians
8th-century Chinese philosophers
8th-century Chinese poets
9th-century Chinese historians
9th-century Chinese philosophers
9th-century Chinese poets
Chinese Confucianists
Critics of Buddhism
Critics of Taoism
Historians from Henan
Poets from Henan
Politicians from Nanyang, Henan
Tang dynasty historians
Tang dynasty philosophers
Tang dynasty government officials
Three Hundred Tang Poems poets
Writers from Nanyang, Henan
9th-century Confucianists

Han Yu


Srđan Karanović (, , born 17 November 1945) is a Serbian film director and screenwriter. He has directed 17 films since 1968. His film Miris poljskog cveća won the FIPRESCI prize at the 1978 Cannes Film Festival, Nešto između was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1983 Cannes Film Festival. A Film with No Name (Za Sada Bez Dobrog Naslova) won the Golden Tulip Award at the Istanbul International Film Festival in 1989.

His 2009 film Besa was selected as the Serbian entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 83rd Academy Awards, but it did not make the final shortlist. In 2017, Srđan Karanović has signed the Declaration on the Common Language of the Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks and Montenegrins.

Selected filmography

See also
 Praška filmska škola

References

External links

1945 births
Living people
Serbian film directors
Serbian screenwriters
Male screenwriters
Golden Arena for Best Director winners
Film people from Belgrade
Yugoslav film directors
Signatories of the Declaration on the Common Language

Srđan Karanović


The Minoritenkirche (, related to the monastic Order of Friars Minor Conventual monks), formally called Italienische Nationalkirche Maria Schnee (, related to the Italian Congregation who was the owner of this church), was built in French Gothic style in the Altstadt or First District of Vienna, Austria.

The site on which the church is built was given to followers of Francis of Assisi in 1224. The foundation stone was laid by King Ottokar II of Bohemia in 1276. Duke Albrecht II later supported the building process, especially the main portal. The Gothic Ludwig choir was built between 1316 and 1328, and used as a mausoleum in the 14th and 15th centuries. Construction of the church was completed in 1350.

The top of its belltower was damaged during the first Austro-Turkish war, rebuilt, then again destroyed again during the second Austro-Turkish war; the top was then replaced by a flat roof.

When Joseph II gave the church to the Italians as a present, they transferred the name Maria Schnee ("Mary of the Snows") from their nearby chapel which was subsequently destroyed.

Following disagreements between the church owner (the Italian Congregation Mary of the Snows) and the Archdiocese of Vienna, the Italian community was moved to the Church of the Holy Trinity of the Friars Minor in the Alservorstadt. After two years of uncertainty, in 2021 the Italian Congregation donated the Minoritenkirche to the Society of Saint Pius X, which operates it to this day.

History
The church is located in the Innere Stadt of Vienna, northwest of the Hofburg, at the Minoritenplatz. The Minoriten were Franciscan friars (Latin: "fratres minores"). They were appointed to Vienna in 1224.

After the city fire of 1275, the foundation-stone for the new church was laid by Ottokar Přemysl. It was one of the first Gothic churches in the east-Austrian area. After Ottokar's death in the battle on the Marchfeld, he was laid out here for thirty weeks.

A crucial break came in 1782, when the Minorite church was closed in the course of the religious politics of Joseph II. The church thereupon was renamed the "Italian National Church of Mary of the Snow" (Santa Maria Maggiore) – a name which still exists today. In the course of the evacuation of their church, the Franciscan friars minor brought the cross provided with a picture of Christ hanging over the high altar of their church in Wimpassing, so that, when it came back to Vienna some centuries later, it was called the "Wimpassinger cross." Today a copy of it hangs in the Stephansdom cathedral.

Parish split and donation to the Society of Saint Pius X
In 2019, a split occurred between the owner of the church (the Italian Congregation Mary of the Snows, led by Mrs Daniela Panella Jirout) and Father Thomas Manalil, the priest in charge of the church: the disagreement involved many issues, especially the liturgy, with Panella supporting the use of traditional liturgy and Father Manalil supporting a more modern one. Following repeated failed attempts to reconcile, the Congregation asked the Archdiocese of Vienna to dismiss Father Manalil and send a new priest; in response, Father Manalil resigned from his post in the church. Since a part of church-community-members supported Manalil's positions, the Archdiocese moved the Italian Catholic community in Vienna to the Church of the Holy Trinity of the Friars Minor in the Alservorstadt.

After two years of uncertainty, on 25 May 2021 the Congregation donated the Minoritenkirche to the Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX), a traditionalist Catholic clerical fraternity which is currently not in full communion with the Holy See. The SSPX started to operate the church on 3 June 2022. Since then, the Tridentine Mass is recited daily on working days and twice on Sunday.

Exterior

The whole building follows the pattern of French Cathedral architecture. The building masters are unknown; however, it is commonly attributed to Jacobus Parisiensis, Fra Giacomo of Paris, who was the confessor of Duke Albrecht II. The portal follows a French pattern, rare for Austria. The tympanum is divided by circle impacts into three fields, whereby in the middle field, Christ on a branch cross is displayed. On the left, is Mary with Mary Magdalene and other female figures; on the right, John the Evangelist, Saint Longinus the soldier, and other male figures. The outermost male and female figures could represent Duke Albrecht II and his wife Johanna of Pfirt, particularly since the male figure seems to wear a Duke hat. The figures are very elegant and fine-linked represented: probably a French influence, and, at the same time, an important style characteristic of the Minoritenwerkstatt, which date back until approximately 1360.

In the course of the new dedication, numerous changes were made by Johann Ferdinand Hetzendorf von Hohenberg, which were aimed particularly at the removal of baroque on the inside. Nevertheless, it was not in the final result "Regotisierung," as this was called more frequently, since also parts of the Gothic building style of the Church were eliminated, in particular, the long choir.

In 1529, the spire was destroyed for the first time but rebuilt in 1633. During the second Turkish siege of 1683, it once again was destroyed. The destroyed spire was replaced by a flat roof.

In the following centuries, the church remained to a large extent unchanged, only that in different wars the tower suffered damage several times. Around 1900, the last major changes took place, in particular, the construction of the choir-like sacristy. In the course of the building of underground subways, into the late 1980s, the foundation walls of the long choir were found.

Interior

There were important changes under the first Habsburgs. Blanche of France, Duchess of Austria, the wife Rudolf III, left a chapel for her grandfather, Louis IX of France (Heiliger Ludwig von Frankreich in German) on the northern side of the church, which was completed in 1328. It had a separate entrance and no connection to the nave. This was changed circa 1340, as the Ludwig chapel was combined with the two naves of the church forming a church hall with two choirs and three naves. Into the church therefore new columns were added and a new portal was constructed in the west.

The Chapel of Sf Anthony of Padua holds a Baroque altar made of polychrome marble and a glass window in the style of the 17th century.

The walls of the church are covered with frescoes of the coats of arms of Austrian aristocratic families who either contributed to the construction of the church or are buried here.

High altar

The Neo-Gothic high altar was made by Ferdinand Hohenberg. On the altarpiece is an image by Ignaz Unterberger of the Virgin Mary similar to the one venerated in Our Lady of the Snows in Rome. Flanking it are four statues: Saints Stephen of Hungary and John the Baptist to the left, and Saints John the Evangelist and Leopold the Glorious to the right.

Mosaic of The Last Supper

There is a life-sized copy of Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper on the church's northern wall. It is a mosaic made by the Roman mosaic artist Giacomo Raffaelli, commissioned by Napoleon I in 1809, but still unfinished upon his abdication. Francis II of Austria bought it, wanting to install it in the Belvedere in Vienna. As it was too large for the building, it was donated by Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria to the Italian Congregation and set up on the north wall of the church, where it remains to this day. The mosaic is 9.18 x 4.47 m and weighs approximately 20 tons.

Monument for Pietro Metastasio

This monument, made by Lucardi, was erected in memory of the Poet Laureate Metastasio in 1855. In the central relief, Pope Pius VI is depicted blessing the dying poet. Behind him are the composer Salieri followed by W.A. Mozart, while J. Haydn is looking at the Pope.

Madonna of Rossellino
This Madonna was executed by the Italian artist Antonio Gamberelli, nicknamed Antonio Rossellino, in Carrara marble (15th century).

Paintings

 The glorification of St. John Nepomuck, by Bartolomeo Altomonte
 The foundation of abbey Klosteneuburg, by Martino Altomonte
 The Holy Family by Hautzinger
 The Tragedy of the Plague, by Steiner
 St. Benedict and the Miracle of St Nicholas, by Daniel Gran
 Delicate figure of St Francis of Assisi, painted by an unknown Master of the 16th century.

Trivia

 The Church is the subject of Adolf Hitler's most renowned work of art, a watercolor painted in 1910. The painting is mentioned several times in the novel Deadeye Dick by Kurt Vonnegut.

Images

Notes

External links

 Italienische Nationalkirche Maria Schnee Minoritenkirche Official Homepage of the Minoritenkirche & the Italian Congregation
 Viennas Minoritenkirche see here a video of the church

Churches completed in 1328
Gothic architecture in Austria
Roman Catholic church buildings in the Vicariate of Vienna City
Buildings and structures in Innere Stadt
National parishes
Buildings and structures of the Society of Saint Pius X

Minoritenkirche (Vienna)


Universiti Kuala Lumpur (UniKL) is a multi-campus technical university with its main campus based in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Rated as a Tier-5 "Excellent University" by the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia in 2009, 2011, 2013 and awarded Putra Brand Award in 2016. UniKL has 14 institutes spread across 12 campuses throughout Malaysia in Kuala Lumpur, Gombak, Cheras, Bangi, Kajang, Sepang, Taboh Naning, Pasir Gudang, Ipoh, Lumut and Kulim.

Campuses and institutes
In 2012 the university had around 20,500 local and international students studying at 11 campuses throughout the country

Universiti Kuala Lumpur Institute of Medical Science Technology (UniKL MESTECH)
Universiti Kuala Lumpur Institute of Medical Science Technology was incorporated in July 2008

Address: Lot No. A1-1, Jalan TKS 1, Taman Kajang Sentral, 43000 Kajang, Selangor

Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysia France Institute (UniKL MFI)
Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysia France Institute was incorporated in February 1995 as a collaborative project between Malaysia and France. The institute, located in Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor became a branch campus of Universiti Kuala Lumpur in 2003. The technical programmes offered in the institute were mostly developed in collaboration with education institutions in France.

Address: Seksyen 14, Jalan Teras Jernang, 43650 Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor

Universiti Kuala Lumpur British Malaysian Institute (UniKL BMI)
Universiti Kuala Lumpur British Malaysian Institute (UniKL BMI) was set up as a result of a partnership between the Malaysian and British government in 1998. Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA), representing the Malaysian government provided the infrastructure and manpower while the British government contributed support through industries such as the BAE Systems, British Airways, Standard Chartered Bank (M) Bhd and Rolls-Royce as well as its institutions which include Wigan & Leigh College and the University of Hertfordshire.

Address: Batu 8 Jalan Sungai Pusu, 53100 Gombak, Selangor

Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Spanish Institute (UniKL MSI)
Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Spanish Institute (UniKL MSI) began its operation at a temporary campus in August 2002 and moved to its main campus on a  piece of land in Kulim Hi Tech Park, Kedah in December 2003. A collaborative effort between the Malaysian and Spanish government.

Address: Kulim Hi Tech Park, 09000 Kulim, Kedah

Malaysian Institute of Information Technology, Universiti Kuala Lumpur City Campus (UniKL MIIT)

Formerly known as Institut Infotech MARA, Malaysian Institute of Information Technology (MIIT) has provided IT education since 1982. It started off as Electronic Data Processing School of MARA and its objective then was to impart knowledge in computer programming.

Address: 1016, Jalan Sultan Ismail, 50250 Kuala Lumpur

Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology (UniKL MIAT)
Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology (UniKL MIAT) is the pioneer aviation institution in Malaysia and it is a wholly owned subsidiary of Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA). It is also the first Maintenance Training Organisation (MTO) approved by the Department of Civil Aviation Malaysia (DCA) to offer aircraft maintenance programmes.

Initially established as part of MARA Vocational Training or Institut Kemahiran MARA (IKM) in Jasin, Malacca for sheet metal and composite repair program.  With Northrop-Rice U.S.A as the technology provider; it became MARA-Northrop Rice Institute (MNRI) and transferred to Subang; Selangor. With the expansion of the programmes and increased student enrollment, MNRI became known as the Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology Sdn. Bhd. (MIAT) and moved to its current facility in Jenderam Hulu; Selangor closer to KLIA. When MARA combined all its high education institutes to be part of Universiti Kuala Lumpur, MIAT hereon known as Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology (UniKL MIAT). Further expansion of the program, UniKL-MIAT has opened up another campus facility located within the premises of the Subang airport in Subang, Shah Alam, Selangor.

Address: Jalan Jenderam Hulu, Kampung Jenderam Hulu, 43900 Sepang, Selangor

Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Chemical and Bioengineering Technology (UniKL MICET)
Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Chemical and Bioengineering Technology (UniKL MICET) is an institution of higher learning in the country that provides chemical based technology education. It is located within the Bio Valley of Malaysia.

Address: Bandar Vendor, Lot 1988, 19, 78000 Alor Gajah, Malacca

Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology (UniKL MIMET)
Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology (UniKL MIMET) was established in collaboration between Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA) and International Training Australia (ITA) that represented the Australian government as a training provider. Its permanent campus is located in Lumut, Perak, relatively known as the home base of the Royal Malaysian Navy.

Universiti Kuala Lumpur Royal College of Medicine Perak (UniKL RCMP)
Becoming part of Universiti Kuala Lumpur in 2005, Universiti Kuala Lumpur Royal College of Medicine Perak (UniKL RCMP)
Address: 3, Jalan Greentown, 30450 Ipoh, Perak

Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysia - Italy Design Institute (UniKL MIDI)
Formally known as Institute of Product Design and Manufacturing (UniKL IPROM). Located in Cheras, Kuala Lumpur.

Address: 119, Jalan 7/91, Taman Shamelin Perkasa, 56100 Kuala Lumpur

Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Industrial Technology (UniKL MITEC)
UniKL MITEC, formerly known as UniKL Pasir Gudang, specialises in Industrial Logistics, Quality Engineering, Plant Maintenance, Oil and Gas, and Instrumentation and Control Engineering. The ground-breaking ceremony of UniKL Pasir Gudang worth RM 196.5 million on a 24 hectare piece of land was officiated by the former Minister of Entrepreneur and Co-operative Development, Dato' Seri Mohamed Khaled Nordin in March 2008. The campus was ready in 2010 at Pasir Gudang with the maximum capacity of 2,500 students.

Address: Jln Persiaran Sinaran Ilmu, Bandar Seri Alam, Masai, 81750 Johor Bahru, Johor

Universiti Kuala Lumpur Business School (UBIS)
Universiti Kuala Lumpur Business School, formerly known as Universiti Kuala Lumpur International School of Entrepreneurship (UniKL ISE) was established in 2008.

Address: (Gurney Road Campus) Jalan Pesiaran Gurney, Kampung Datuk Keramat, 54000 Kuala Lumpur  (Quill City Mall Campus) Quill City Mall, Jalan Sultan Ismail, Bandar Wawasan, 50000 Kuala Lumpur

Rankings

References

Universities and colleges in Kuala Lumpur

Educational institutions established in 2002
2002 establishments in Malaysia
Private universities and colleges in Malaysia
Educational institutions in Malaysia

University of Kuala Lumpur


Micromoths, or microlepidoptera is a group of moth families. They are very common, but much smaller than the more familiar butterflies and moths. They have wingspans of under 20 mm, and are hard to see well enough to identify.

They have some lifestyles different from the larger lepidoptera, but this is not an identifying mark. The group is not monophyletic, so the term 'micromoth' is just a convenient label. It can be contrasted with macrolepidoptera, the larger types.

Micromoths include no butterflies, but they do have a number of day-flying groups. The coming of digital macrophotography. is making them much easier to identify.

In considering microsize prey, one should see the issue from the perspective of their main predator, which is birds taking larvae to feed their chicks. Birds take a stupendous number of insect larvae to feed their chicks. One kind of defence is to eat food which is distasteful to birds. Many grubs put away ("sequester") poisonous compounds from the plants they eat. That makes them unpalatable to birds and their chicks. Another kind of defence is to be "not worth chasing", when the energy expended by the bird is not worth the energy gained by eating the prey. Micromoths and their microgrubs are not worth chasing for many birds. Thus they gain in having less rigorous predation from their main enemy. Much the same is true of microflies, which are also common. A similar argument explains that bats may go for larger, plumper flying adults where the energy gained is large compared to the energy spent catching them.

Related pages
Clothes moth

References

Moths

Micromoth


The K5 Blazer was the smallest full-size SUV version of the Chevrolet C/K Truck family. It was added to the Chevrolet line in 1969. The full-size Blazer was replaced in 1995 by the Chevrolet Tahoe. In 1970, GMC introduced its own model of the truck, called the Jimmy.The Blazer name was also discontinued in 1994 and replaced by the GMC Yukon. However the Blazer has a re-design in 1992 in which would later become the Tahoe in 1995. Both were based on the short wheelbase trucks. They were available with either rear-wheel drive or four-wheel drive. The K5 Blazer and Jimmy had "full convertible" removable tops until 1975. In 1976, GM introduced a half-cab design that was less prone to leaks. It was slightly safer in a rollover accident. These half cabs also had a removable top section. It started at a few inches behind the driver/passenger doors all the way back to the tailgate.

First generation 1969–1972

When it was introduced in 1969, it was available as 4-wheel drive only. In 1970, a two-wheel-drive model was offered. There were four engine choices: the 250 in straight-6, the 292 straight-6, the 307 V8, and the 350 V8.

The Blazer was designed and marketed to compete with International Harvester Scout and the Ford Bronco. Both of these were originally aimed at the short Jeep CJ series. But all three were much smaller than other trucks. The Blazer was a shortened pickup truck. This gave it increased interior space. It also lowered the cost of production with a shared platform. The Blazer quickly became popular. For the first time, it married the off-road capabilities of the Scout with the "luxury" features like air conditioning and automatic transmissions. At that time were usually available on cars. By 1970, the Blazer was already outselling both of its older rivals. It took Jeep (with the Cherokee) and Dodge (with the Dodge Ramcharger) to introduce similar models. Ford did not have a competing model until 1978 (Ford F-Series pickup).

The two-wheel drive version came with independent front suspension and rear trailing arms, both with coil springs. The four-wheel drive version had a solid front axle and used leaf springs front and rear. Both versions used drum brakes at all four wheels until 1971. This is when the entire GM light truck line got standard front disc brakes. A tachometer was optional.

There was also a choice between a three-speed automatic transmission Turbo Hydromatic (TH350), a three-speed manual transmission, and a four-speed Synchromesh (SM465) manual transmission. Two transfer cases were offered. The Dana 20 was available only with the manual transmissions. The NP-205 was available with both types of transmissions. The Blazer had  of ground clearance and an approach angle of 35°.

1973–1991

In 1973, GM's line of full-size trucks was redesigned and updated. A tilt-steering wheel became optional. Although rear-wheel drive Blazers were manufactured until 1982, the majority sold were four-wheel drive.

Until 1975, the K5 had a removable convertible top. In 1976, a half-cab design was introduced and used until 1991.

The GMT400 platform was introduced in the spring of 1987 as for the 1988 model trucks. However, the K5 Blazer, Suburban, and crew-cab (four-door) trucks kept the earlier platform until 1991. In 1989, the front grille was changed to look like the ones used on the GMT400 series of pickups.

The K5 Blazer was available with a 305ci (1981–1987), 307ci (1973 only), 350ci (1973–1991), or 400ci (1973–1980) small blocks, the 250ci Inline-6 (1973–1984), or the 6.2L Detroit Diesel (1982–1987). Starting in 1981 the NP208 transfer case was used. From 1988 to 1991 the NP241 transfer case was used with some axles.

The second generation K5 models made the rear hatch glass and tailgate into a single unit. This allowed the glass panel to retract inside the tailgate. It used either a manual handle or an electric motor to raise and lower the glass. For better fuel economy second generation Blazers used the smaller displacement 305 V-8. These engines produced nearly as much torque as the 350 V-8. However, these engines were not as powerful and prone to detonation (engine knocking). After 1987, when throttle-body injection was introduced in the truck engines, the 350 was made the standard engine.

M1009 CUCV
Around 1981, a prototype K5 Blazer was used as a testbed for a military CUCV vehicle. Between 1983 and 1987, what is known as the M1009 CUCV was the production military version of the civilian K5. The differences are the lack of an air conditioner. They had an additional leaf spring in the suspension. Instead of the normal 12 V car battery the military version used a hybrid 12/24 volt system. It also had blackout headlights, front mounted brush guard, a rifle rack and special paint jobs. A majority of them are painted olive drab green or in the woodland camouflage pattern. Some M1009s that saw desert use were painted tan. All M1009s are powered with the 6.2 L Diesel engine. Some decommissioned M1009s end up in law enforcement use (for example with the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department). Some were sold through government auctions. A few are still in use by the National Guard.

References

K5 Blazer
Sport utility vehicles

Chevrolet K5 Blazer


Heather Denise Gibson () is a Scottish economist currently serving as Director-Advisor to the Bank of Greece (since 2011). She was the spouse of Euclid Tsakalotos, former Greek Minister of Finance.

Academic career
Before assuming her duties at the Bank of Greece and alternating child-rearing duties with her husband, Gibson worked at the University of Kent, where she published two volumes on international exchange rate mechanisms and wrote numerous articles on this and other topics, sometimes in cooperation with her husband, who was teaching at Kent at the time.

Personal life
Gibson first came to Greece in 1993, with her husband, with whom she took turns away from their respective economic studies to raise their three children while the other worked.

The couple maintain two homes in Kifisia, along with an office in Athens and a vacation home in Preveza. In 2013, this proved detrimental to Tsakalotos and his party when his critics began calling him «αριστερός αριστοκράτης» (aristeros aristokratis, "aristocrat of the left"), while newspapers opposed to the Syriza party seized on his property holdings as a chance to accuse the couple of hypocrisy for enjoying a generous lifestyle in private while criticizing the "ethic of austerity" in public. One opposition newspaper published on the front page criticism reasoning that Tsakalotos own family wealth came from the same sort of investments in companies as made by financial institutions JP Morgan and BlackRock.

Works

Editor
Economic Bulletin, Bank of Greece

Books
The Eurocurrency Markets, Domestic Financial Policy and International Instability (London, etc., Longman: 1989)
International Finance: Exchange Rates and Financial Flows in the International Financial System (London, etc., Longman: 1996)
Economic Transformation, Democratization and Integration into the European Union (London: Palgrave Macmillan: 2001)

Articles and papers

"Fundamentally Wrong: Market Pricing of Sovereigns and the Greek Financial Crisis," Journal of Macroeconomics, Elsevier, vol. 39(PB), pp. 405–419 (with Stephen G. & Tavlas, George S., 2014)
"Capital flows and speculative attacks in prospective EU member states" (with Euclid Tsakalotos, Economics of Transition Volume 12, Issue 3, pages 559–586, September 2004)
"A Unifying Framework for Analysing Offsetting Capital Flows and Sterilisation: Germany and the ERM" (with Sophocles Brissimis & Euclid Tsakalotos, International Journal of Finance & Economics, 2002, vol. 7, issue 1, pp. 63–78)
"Internal vs External Financing of Acquisitions: Do Managers Squander Retained Profits" (with Andrew Dickerson and Euclid Tsakalotos, Studies in Economics, 1996; Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 2000)
"Are Aggregate Consumption Relationships Similar Across the European Union" (with Alan Carruth & Euclid Tsakalotos, Regional Studies, Volume 33, Issue 1, 1999)
Takeover Risk and the Market for Corporate Control: The Experience of British Firms in the 1970s and 1980 (with Andrew Dickerson and Euclid Tsakalotos, 1998) PDF
"The Impact of Acquisitions on Company Performance: Evidence from a Large Panel of UK Firms" (with Andrew Dickerson and Euclid Tsakalotos, Oxford Economic Papers New Series, Vol. 49, No. 3 (Jul., 1997), pp. 344–361)
"Short-Termism and Underinvestment: The Influence of Financial Systems" (with Andrew Dickerson and Euclid Tsakalotos, The Manchester School of Economic & Social Studies, 1995, vol. 63, issue 4, pp. 351–67)
"Testing a Flow Model of Capital Flight in Five European Countries" (with Euclid Tsakalotos, The Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies, Volume 61, Issue 2, pp. 144–166, June 1993)
 Full list of articles by Heather D Gibson. researchgate.net. Recovered 7 July 2015

References

Living people
British expatriates in Greece
Scottish economists
British women economists
Writers from Glasgow
Year of birth missing (living people)

Heather D. Gibson


Alcor or 80 Ursae Majoris is a binary star located in the Ursa Major constellation. It is also a companion to the brighter binary star of Mizar. The main star is a white star a few times larger than the Sun. Alcor is located 83 light years away from the Sun along with Mizar.

References

Binary stars

Alcor (star)


The Glove (also known as The Glove: Lethal Terminator) is a 1979 action film directed by cult actor Ross Hagen and starring John Saxon. Saxon plays a bounty hunter who's given a large sum to track down a vicious ex-convict who has been murdering former prison guards with a large leather-laced steel glove. It was one of several action films Saxon appeared in following Enter the Dragon.

Plot
Sam Kellog (John Saxon) is an ex-cop who works as a modern day bounty hunter in Los Angeles. He works for bailbondsman Bill Schwartz (Keenan Wynn) and is assigned to bring in ex-convicts and criminals who have skipped bail. Kellog is frustrated over the low amount of money he receives from his jobs. Recently divorced, Kellog's ex-wife is threatening to end weekend visitation rights to their young daughter over missing several alimony payments. One day, Kellog is offered a large, off-the-book $20,000 bounty by his former police commander, Lt. Kruger (Howard Honig) to bring in an ex-convict named Victor Hale (Roosevelt Grier) who is suspected in the murders of various former prison guards in the L.A. area. Hale was brutalized in prison by the guards who used a five-pound, leather-covered, steel glove called the 'riot glove' and has been using a copy of it to murder the prison guards who used to beat him with it. Kellog takes the job, aware that the 20 grand reward will solve all of his financial problems. Harry Iverson (Michael Pataki), a bounty hunter from New York City, arrives and offers to team up with Kellog to find Hale, but Kellog refuses, claiming that he works alone.

Over the course of the film, the action switches back and forth between the lives of the protagonist Kellog, who narrates several aspects of his life, as well as the antagonist Hale, who in between murdering the former prison guards, makes a living as a guitarist in a jazz band, and is popular and well liked among the tenants in the low-income housing project where he lives. Hale soon realizes that Kellog is on his tail when he learns that Kellog has been asking questions about Hale's whereabouts. Hale begins stalking Kellog as well as making phone calls to his house to stop trying to find him.

At the climax, Kellog and Hale finally meet face to face when Kellog tracks Hale to the roof of Hale's apartment building where Hale (whom annoys Kellog during most of the film by addressing him as "hound dog") offers to make bringing him in a challenge by giving Kellog his riot glove to fight him with. Kellog accepts and a brutal and climatic brawl occurs on the roof of the building where both men batter each other senseless. The fight ends in a stalemate when both of them collapse against a wall, exhausted, and Kellog concedes defeat by removing the riot glove. To show that he does not hold any grudge against him, Hale helps Kellog up and begins to escort him from the building until the bounty hunter, Iverson, suddenly shows up and shoots Hale to death. Iverson tells Kellog that the bounty for Victor Hale was to kill him, not to bring him in alive. The residents of the building, after hearing the gunshots, rush up and literally beat Iverson to death for killing "one of their own", leaving behind the battered and bloodied Kellog on the floor. In a final voice-over, Kellog explains that he nevertheless received the $20,000 bounty for Victor Hale and, having used the money to pay off all of his debts, was able to regain visitation rights to his daughter.

Cast
John Saxon as Sam Kellog
Roosevelt Grier (credited as Rosey Grier) as Victor Hale
Joanna Cassidy as Sheila Michaels
Joan Blondell as Mrs. Fitzgerald
Jack Carter as Walter Stratton
Aldo Ray as Tiny
Keenan Wynn as Bill Schwartz
Howard Honig as Lt. Kruger
Michael Pataki as Harry Iverson

References

External links

1979 films
1979 action films
American action films
American independent films
Troma Entertainment films
Films scored by Robert O. Ragland
1970s English-language films
1970s American films
1979 independent films
English-language action films

The Glove (film)