Admiral of the Fleet John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent  (9 January 1735 – 13 March 1823) was an admiral in the Royal Navy and Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom. Jervis served throughout the latter half of the 18th century and into the 19th, and was an active commander during the Seven Years' War, American War of Independence, French Revolutionary War and the Napoleonic Wars. He is best known for his victory at the 1797 Battle of Cape Saint Vincent, from which he earned his titles, and as a patron of Horatio Nelson. Despite having a fierce reputation for discipline, his crews had great affection for him, calling him Old Jarvie.

Jervis was also recognised by both political and military contemporaries as a fine administrator and naval reformer. As Commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean, between 1795 and 1799 he introduced a series of severe standing orders to avert mutiny. He applied those orders to both seamen and officers alike, a policy that made him a controversial figure. He took his disciplinarian system of command with him when he took command of the Channel Fleet in 1799. In 1801, as First Lord of the Admiralty, he introduced a number of reforms that, though unpopular at the time, made the Navy more efficient and more self-sufficient. He introduced innovations, including block making machinery at Portsmouth Royal Dockyard. St Vincent was known for his generosity to officers he considered worthy of reward, and his swift and often harsh punishment of those he felt deserved it.

Jervis' entry in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography by P. K. Crimmin describes his contribution to history: "His importance lies in his being the organiser of victories; the creator of well-equipped, highly efficient fleets; and in training a school of officers as professional, energetic, and devoted to the service as himself."

Early life
John Jervis was born in Meaford Hall, Staffordshire, on 9 January 1735, the second son of Swynfen and Elizabeth Jervis. His father was a barrister, counsellor to the Admiralty Board and auditor of Greenwich Hospital. Swynfen Jervis intended that his son should follow him to the bar. The young Jervis was educated at Burton Grammar School and subsequently at Reverend Swinden's Academy in Greenwich, London.

Their family name Jervis is pronounced  . The name Jervis originates from the Norman name Gervase.

Early naval career
At the age of thirteen, Jervis ran away and joined the navy at Woolwich, London. After a short time he returned home as he had heard his family were very upset at his disappearance. Lady Jane Hamilton (mother of Sir William Hamilton) and Lady Burlington became aware of Jervis' desire to join the navy and lobbied his family on his behalf. Eventually, they introduced the Jervis family to Admiral George Townshend, who agreed to take the boy aboard one of his ships.

On 4 January 1749, Jervis entered the navy as an able seaman aboard the 50-gun  on her way to Jamaica. On arrival in the West Indies, Jervis was assigned to the sloop  on the Mosquito Coast, where he saw constant service against Spanish guarda-costas and privateers.

When Townshend quit the West Indies, he discharged Jervis into the  under Admiral Thomas Cotes. Cotes' flag captain Henry Dennis rated Jervis as a midshipman. On 31 July 1754, Jervis was transferred to the 24-gun . Jervis commented in a letter to his sister: "my chief employ when from my duty is reading studying navigation and perusing my old letters, of which I have almost enough to make an octavo volume."

While in Jamaica, the young Jervis drew funds against his father's account with a local banker. When the reply came from England that the withdrawal could not be honoured, the midshipman found himself in debt. Jervis was forced to quit his officer's mess and live as a common sailor until enough money was collected to pay off the loan. The event deeply affected the young Jervis, who swore never to "draw another bill without the certainty of it being paid".

Sphinx was paid off at Spithead on 7 November 1754. Jervis was assigned to the 20-gun HMS Seaford in December of the same year, and then from the end of December until February 1755 underwent further instruction onboard HM Yacht William and Mary under the navigational expert Captain John Campbell.

Jervis passed his lieutenant's examination on 2 January 1755 and was assigned as sixth lieutenant to the first-rate  of 100 guns. By March, he had moved to third lieutenant of the 60-gun . While serving on Nottingham, he participated in an attempt by the fleet of Admiral Edward Boscawen to prevent French reinforcements from reaching New France.

On 31 March 1756, Jervis moved to the 74-gun HMS  and on 22 June he was promoted to be fourth lieutenant of the 90-gun Prince under Captain Charles Saunders in the Mediterranean. When the captain was promoted to admiral, Jervis was assigned as one of his officers aboard the 74-gun  in November 1756. By that time the Seven Years' War between Great Britain and France had begun.

In January 1757 Jervis was promoted to temporary command of HMS Experiment after her captain was incapacitated by sickness. As commander, he fought a larger French privateer in an indecisive action off Cape Gata. When the captain of the Experiment regained his health, Jervis moved back to Culloden.

In June 1757, he followed Saunders to the 90-gun HMS St George. Jervis returned to England in temporary command of the 80-gun , a ship that had been captured by Henry Osborn's fleet at the Battle of Cartagena. He followed Saunders once more when the admiral was promoted to command the North American station; Jervis was promoted to first lieutenant of HMS Prince.

Quebec and promotion to captain

The fleet, part of an expedition to capture the French possessions in North America, left England in February 1759. They stopped first at Louisbourg, which had been captured from the French the previous year. By June, the ice along the Saint Lawrence River had broken up and the fleet along with the military transports headed up river to the assault of Quebec City.

On 15 May 1759, Jervis had been promoted acting commander of the sloop . In this command Jervis impressed General James Wolfe in the preparations that led to the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. Porcupine and the frigate  led the armed transports past Quebec to land up river. One biographer, Jedediah Tucker, notes that as the approach was so critical, both Wolfe and the subsequently famous James Cook boarded Porcupine to ensure the success of the mission.

For his efforts Jervis was promoted commander and took command of . Jervis returned to England in September but immediately returned to North America in command of the Albany. In May 1760 Jervis was attached to Admiral Sir George Rodney's Channel squadron.

In October 1760 he was made post-captain in command of the 44-gun . Gosport had on board a young midshipman, George Elphinstone, later Viscount Keith, who took over Jervis' command in the Mediterranean after Jervis' departure in 1799. In 1762, HMS Gosport,  and  under Captain Joshua Rowley, convoyed the East and West Indian trade to the westward, and successfully protected it from the squadron of Commodore de Ternay.

By the end of 1763, with the end of the Seven Years' War, Gosport had been paid off and Jervis remained unemployed until February 1769, when he was appointed to the 32-gun , the first coppered warship in the Royal Navy. He was tasked with delivering bullion to the English merchants in Genoa. During his time in Genoa two enslaved Turks escaped a Genoese galley and hid aboard one of Alarm boats. They were forcibly removed; Jervis made an official protest and promised retaliation if they were not handed over. Both were produced and Jervis took custody of them.

On 30 March 1770 Alarm was driven ashore off Marseilles, but with the efforts of Jervis, the crew and the local French authorities under the governor of Marseilles, Georges René Le Peley de Pléville she was brought off and repaired. Jervis personally returned to Marseilles with a letter of thanks from the Board of the Admiralty to the governor for his assistance.

In 1771 Alarm returned to England to collect the Duke of Gloucester, King George III's brother, in order that he could winter in Italy. He lived aboard with his entourage until May 1772, when Alarm returned to England and was paid off.

Touring Europe and Russia
Between October 1772 and June 1775, Jervis travelled extensively. He began in France, where he studied the language and made observations about French life. He accompanied Captain Samuel Barrington to Russia where they spent time in Saint Petersburg and inspected the arsenal and dockyards at Kronstadt and took a tour of the yacht designed by Sir Charles Knowles for Catherine of Russia.

The pair continued on to Sweden, Denmark and northern Germany. All the while Jervis made notes on defences, harbour charts and safe anchorages. They came home via the Netherlands, Jervis once again making extensive studies of the area and taking copious notes describing any useful information. He and Barrington then took a private cruise along the Channel coast, calling at various harbours, including Brest, making and improving their charts as they went. When Jervis later became the Commander-in-Chief of the Channel Fleet he was aided significantly in his blockade of Brest by these charts. In later years, he commented: "Had the young Captain Jervis not performed such a complete survey of this port then the Earl St Vincent would not have been able to effect such a thorough blockade of it."

American War of Independence

First Battle of Ushant

At the outbreak of the American War of Independence in 1775 Jervis was given the command of ; however, she was surveyed by the dockyard and found unfit for service. He was therefore appointed instead to command of HMS Foudroyant, the ship he had brought to England as a prize seventeen years earlier.

For the first few years of the war, the French supplied arms, funding, and military advice on an informal and limited basis to the newly emerging nation of America. With the signing of the Treaty of Alliance in 1778 and the creation of the Franco-American alliance, the war widened.

Jervis spent the first few years of the war patrolling the Channel in Foudroyant without seeing any significant action, but as the war reached Europe Jervis was placed under the command of Admiral Augustus Keppel. The Channel fleet, under Keppel, sighted the French fleet intending to enter Brest on 23 July. The British fleet of 30 ships of the line chased the French fleet of 29 ships and engaged them on 27 July in what became known as the First Battle of Ushant. The battle was indecisive and in the political aftermath Jervis provided a stalwart defence of Admiral Keppel at the latter's court-martial, helping to secure Keppel's acquittal.

Relieving Gibraltar and capture of Pégase

Jervis remained in Foudroyant attached to the Channel Fleet and for a short time acted as flag captain to Admiral Molyneux Shuldham. In 1780 Jervis was with Admiral Rodney when the British fleet relieved Gibraltar. In 1781 he was with Admiral George Darby at the second relief of Gibraltar.

On 19 April 1782 Jervis was with his old friend and travelling companion when a ship in Admiral Barrington's squadron sighted a French convoy leaving Brest. The squadron gave chase and Foudroyant caught and engaged the French 74-gun . After an engagement of more than an hour Pégase struck. Jervis himself was wounded in the attack. For his services he was invested as a Knight of the Bath on 19 May 1782.

He was again at the relief of Gibraltar with Earl Howe's fleet in 1782 and took part in the indecisive Battle of Cape Spartel. Jervis was promoted commodore and hoisted his broad pennant in the 50-gun  in December 1782, with orders to proceed to the West Indies. Due to the peace negotiations his orders were rescinded and he struck his pennant on 14 January 1783.

Marriage and political office
During the peace Jervis married his cousin Martha, daughter of Lord Chief Baron Sir Thomas Parker. Jervis was also returned as MP for Launceston in 1783. Jervis began his political career in earnest and voted for Pitt's parliamentary reforms and against Charles James Fox and his East India Bill.

During the elections of 1784 Jervis stood for election in the independent borough of Great Yarmouth, where he was returned as MP alongside Henry Beaufoy. Jervis then voted against Pitt's further bills for reform but supported him once more during the 1788–1789 Regency Crisis.

On 24 September 1787 Jervis was promoted rear-admiral of the blue and hoisted his flag in the 74-gun Carnatic for several months during the tensions arising from the Prussian invasion of the Netherlands.

In 1790 Jervis was recalled to service once more and moved his flag to the second-rate Prince during the Nootka Sound crisis that threatened war between England and Spain. Also in 1790 Jervis was promoted rear-admiral of the white and stood down as MP for Great Yarmouth and stood instead for the Chipping Wycombe seat, to which he was returned as MP alongside the Earl Wycombe.

With his interest in politics wavering he spoke rarely and then almost exclusively on naval matters. In 1792 Jervis proposed a scheme to alleviate the financial hardship of superannuated seamen. He later withdrew the proposal as Viscount Melville promised that the matter would be addressed by the Admiralty Board. In 1794 he resigned his seat and did not stand again for political office.

French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
Jervis was promoted Vice-Admiral of the Blue and was appointed as Commander-in-Chief, Leeward Islands. Jervis took with him an army that, combined with the navy, formed a joint military expedition. The goal of the expedition was to capture French colonies and thereby weaken France's international trade. The army commander was Sir Charles Grey, a friend and political ally.

Jervis hoisted his flag in . He took Grey's son, Captain George Grey, later Sir George Grey, 1st Baronet, as his flag-captain. The combined forces captured the French colonies of Martinique, Guadeloupe and Saint Lucia and restored monarchist rule.

The French counter-attacked and recaptured Guadeloupe on 2 June 1794. Jervis and Grey landed a force to recapture the island but were repulsed by the reinforced French garrison and the British expedition withdrew.

In November 1794 Admiral Benjamin Caldwell replaced Jervis. Disputes over prize money were widely held as the reason that Jervis and Grey were not awarded peerages for their service. The prize money for the capture of the three islands, when finally calculated, amounted to £70,000 that was due to the officers and men of the navy. If adjusted for inflation this would equal approximately £ as of 20.

Grey and Jervis' enemies proposed a vote of censure against the general and admiral. The vote itself was negative. Jervis and Grey were however awarded the thanks of both Houses of Parliament for their services. On 12 April 1794 Jervis was promoted vice-admiral of the white.

Command of the Mediterranean Fleet

Jervis was promoted admiral of the blue on 1 June 1795 and appointed to command the Mediterranean Fleet. Boyne had caught fire on 1 May 1795 and had blown up in Spithead, the result of an accident, and Jervis lost almost all of his possessions.

Jervis went to take command of the Mediterranean fleet in the frigate  and once more took Charles Grey's son, Captain George Grey, as his flag-captain. Jervis also took Robert Calder as his captain of the fleet.

On arrival at Gibraltar Jervis took  as his flagship. Among Jervis' subordinates were Captains Horatio Nelson, Cuthbert Collingwood, and Thomas Troubridge.

Jervis began a close blockade of Toulon and Nelson was assigned the task of aiding the Austrian army along the Italian coast. By September 1796 the British presence in the Mediterranean had become untenable. Napoleon had beaten Britain's Austrian allies, who were in disarray, and in October, Spain surrendered and allied themselves to the French.

Jervis recalled Admiral Robert Mann to aid in the blockade of Cadiz. Mann took his ships instead to Spithead. Jervis abandoned Corsica between September and November 1796 and withdrew his forces to Gibraltar.

Battle of Cape St. Vincent

A Spanish fleet made up of twenty four line-of-battle ships and seven frigates sailed from Toulon on 1 February 1797. Jervis' fleet of ten ships-of-the-line was patrolling off Cape Saint Vincent and was subsequently joined by five more under Sir William Parker. The Spanish admiral, José de Córdoba, had taken his ships into the Atlantic to weather a storm and was making his way to Cadiz when the two fleets caught sight of each other at dawn on 14 February 1797.

The British fleet had fifteen line-of-battle ships against the twenty four Spanish ships. On the quarter-deck of Victory, Jervis and his flag captain, Robert Calder, counted the ships. It was at this point Jervis discovered that he was outnumbered nearly two-to-one:

"There are eight sail of the line, Sir John"
"Very well, sir"
"There are twenty sail of the line, Sir John"
"Very well, sir"
"There are twenty five sail of the line, Sir John"
"Very well, sir"
"There are twenty seven sail of the line, Sir John"
"Enough, sir, no more of that; the die is cast, and if there are fifty sail I will go through them."Tucker. Vol. 1, p. 255 A passenger aboard Victory, Captain Benjamin Hallowell, achieved a brief notoriety for slapping the admiral on the back and calling out "That's right Sir John, that's right. By God, we shall give them a damned good licking!"

During the battle Nelson, in command of , wore out of line and performed a stunning feat by capturing two of the enemy vessels within moments. Nelson and his crew boarded and captured one and crossed her deck and boarded and captured the second, which had collided in the smoke and general melee of the battle. The move was later feted by the public and press and dubbed "Nelson's patent bridge for boarding first-rates".

When the Spanish retreated Jervis did not press his advantage but consolidated his victory and began the lengthy job of repairing his ships and restoring their crews. The British had suffered casualties of 73 killed and 227 wounded.

Sir John did not mention Nelson's achievement in his initial despatch to the Admiralty despite Nelson's obvious contribution to the success of the battle. In later despatches Jervis did mention Nelson. In one anecdote, when discussing the battle with his flag-captain, Sir Robert, who had been mentioned in the despatch and had been awarded a knighthood for his services, brought up the issue of Nelson's disobedience of the admiral's orders for having worn out of the line of battle in order to engage the enemy. Jervis silenced him by saying: "It certainly was so, and if you ever commit such a breach of your orders, I will forgive you also."

Despite the capture of only four vessels, the Battle of Cape Saint Vincent became celebrated as an outstanding victory and the awards and recognition far outweighed the achievement. The bad news of the evacuation of the Mediterranean, the capitulation of the Spanish and the Italian city-states and the defeat of the Austrian army, alongside the increasing threat of a French invasion of Britain, had depressed the politicians and general public. A victory, such as that of Cape Saint Vincent, was more important for the morale of the country as a whole than its military ramifications.

Both Jervis and Nelson were hailed as heroes and Jervis was made Baron Jervis of Meaford and Earl St Vincent. Songs were written about Jervis and the battle and there was a general feeling of relief in both the Government and people of Britain. Nelson for his services was invested as a Knight of the Bath. The now Earl St Vincent was granted a pension for life of £3,000 per year. The City of London had already presented him with the Freedom of the City in a gold box valued at 100 guineas for his success in the West Indies and for this battle awarded him a presentation sword. The presentation box and sword are both currently held at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

Nelson was also awarded his freedom of the City of London for the Battle of Cape St. Vincent, and was later to get a presentation sword for the Nile. The sword awarded to Jervis was the first of its kind that the City of London issued. St Vincent was awarded the thanks of both Houses of Parliament and given a gold medal by the King.

The London Gazette published an advertisement in 1798 regarding the prize money that was due to the officers and men who had fought at the battle. The sum quoted was £140,000, in inflationary terms this would be approximately £ as of 20, of which, as admiral, Jervis was entitled to a sizeable share. Jervis resumed his blockade of the Spanish fleet in Cadiz.

Mutiny and discipline
During 1797 there was considerable discontent among the seamen of the Royal Navy. This discontent manifested itself at the Nore and at Spithead when the greater part of the Channel Fleet rose up against their officers.

These mutinies were not overly violent and the officers were put ashore and the heads of the mutinies established their own order and kept the ships under "committee" control until their collective demands were met. The mutineers' demands ranged from discontent at cruel officers to poor pay and long sea service without shore leave.

There were other mutinies throughout the Navy that year, most notably  and , both on the Jamaica station. These mutinies resulted in the crews killing their officers and taking their ships into enemy-held ports.

Jervis had the reputation as a disciplinarian and put in place a new system that would ensure that the men in the Mediterranean fleet did not mutiny. To begin with the admiral wrote a new set of standing orders. For example, Jervis divided the seamen and marines and berthed the two separately, putting the marines between the officers aft and the men forward. Thus he created an effective barrier between officers and potentially unruly crews.

Jervis discouraged conversation in Irish, though he did not ban it. He ordered the marine detachments to be paraded every morning and, if there was a band available, for God Save the King to be played. The marine detachment was then to remain armed at all times. Marines and soldiers were also excused from duties in regard to the general running of the ship.

In order to keep his crews active and to ensure that the Spanish did not perceive that there might be discontent in the fleet, Jervis ordered the nightly bombardment of Cadiz in his own words to "Divert the animal."

The admiral isolated the ships from one another to minimise collusion and the opportunities the men might have to band together in mutiny. St Vincent did ensure, however, that the men under his command were cared for. When the stock of tobacco ran low the Admiral ensured that the supply was renewed from his own funds. When the postmaster in Lisbon detained the letters and packets arriving from England for the men for fear that they would carry seditious communications, Jervis set up a post office aboard his flagship  to receive and distribute all the letters that arrived for both seamen, marines and officers.

Jervis strictly adhered to the Articles of War and individual regulations that he had written for his fleet. Any infraction was dealt with harshly and he was renowned for treating both officers and seamen with the same harsh discipline. As an example, one officer who allowed his boats crew to plunder a fishing boat was placed before a court martial and it was ordered that he be "degraded from the rank of Midshipman in the most ignominious manner by having his uniform stripped from his back on the quarter deck of the (ship unknown)[sic]. before the whole ship's company and to be further disposed of as the Commander-in-chief shall direct. To be mulcted of his pay now due to him for his services on board any ship of his Majesty's service and to be rendered incapable of ever serving as an Officer or a Petty Officer in any of His Majesty's ships." Jervis later personally directed that the midshipman should have his head shaved, a notice hung around his neck describing his crime and that he should be solely responsible for the cleaning of the head (naval term for the communal toilets situated at the bow of the ship) until further notice.

In another incident, St Vincent instructed that two men aboard  who were tried for mutiny on a Saturday were executed on Sunday. The men were duly executed but Admiral Charles Thompson raised an objection to formal executions on the Sabbath and Jervis wrote to the Board of Admiralty demanding Thompson's removal or that they accept his own resignation. The Board relieved Thompson. On 9 July 1797 Nelson wrote to Jervis congratulating him in his resolve and wholeheartedly supporting his decision to execute the men on a Sunday.

Jervis could also be exceptionally kind when he felt that the situation warranted it. On one occasion, while the fleet was becalmed the men of the flagship were ordered to bathe. The men leapt over the side to swim in a sail that had been lowered over the side. One of the men, a senior able seaman, jumped in wearing his trousers. In one of the pockets he had his prize money and back pay that he had been saving for several years. The bank notes were destroyed by the water and when the man came aboard and discovered what had happened he began to weep. The Admiral saw the man and asked the problem. One of his officers told him and St Vincent went to his cabin. When he returned he had the crew mustered and called the man forward. "Roger Odell you are convicted, Sir, by your own appearance of tarnishing the British oak with tears. What have you to say in your defence why you should not receive what you deserve?" The man told him what had happened and St Vincent replied "Roger Odell you are one of the best men in this ship you are moreover a captain of a top and in my life I never saw a man behave himself better in battle than you did in the Victory in the action with the Spanish fleet. To show therefore that your Commander-in-chief will never pass over merit wheresoever he may find it. There is your money Sir!" The Earl produced £70 of his own money and presented it to the surprised sailor "but no more tears mind, no more tears Sir".

When Nelson returned to the Mediterranean St Vincent wrote to Earl Spencer, First Lord of the Admiralty: "I do assure your Lordship that the arrival of Admiral Nelson has given me new life; you could not have gratified me more than in sending him. His presence in the Mediterranean is so very essential." St Vincent detached Nelson to pursue Napoleon in his invasion of Egypt

Rear-Admiral Sir John Orde, who was senior to Nelson complained publicly and bitterly about what he considered a personal slight. Jervis ordered Orde home. Orde requested that he be court-martialled in order that he might have the opportunity to clear his name. The Board refused. Orde then requested that St Vincent be brought before a court-martial. Again, the Board refused. The Board censured Jervis for not having supported his subordinates.

Orde later challenged the ageing admiral to a duel. The challenge became public knowledge and the king ordered Jervis to decline. Before the challenge was formally declined, Orde wrote to the Board to inform them that he had withdrawn it.

When the men aboard the  refused to execute a man for mutinous behaviour and their captain did nothing, the Earl threatened the captain with replacement and had boats from the rest of the fleet armed with carronades surround the Marlborough; he then threatened to sink the ship if his orders were not carried out. The man was duly executed. St Vincent turned to an officer beside him watching the mutineer hanging from the yard arm and said "Discipline is preserved, Sir!"

Between 1797 and 1799, alongside the suppression of mutiny, Jervis set himself the task of improving the dockyards and defences of Gibraltar. Having had great difficulty supplying the fleet with fresh water the Admiral arranged for large water tanks to be built in Gibraltar. In addition St Vincent planned the building of a new Victualling Yard to replenish his ships, and the upgrading of the dockyards. After the Battle of the Nile the dockyards, under Jervis' watchful eye, managed to successfully repair most of the fleet.

Lady Lavinia Bingham, wife of Earl Spencer wrote to St Vincent to congratulate him for having provided the necessary tools for Nelson to have achieved the victory he did at the Nile. "Never did disinterested zeal and friendship meet with a brighter reward than yours has reaped in this victory of your gallant friend." Nelson commented that he had "never beheld a fleet equal to Sir John Jervis'".

On 14 February 1799 St Vincent was created admiral of the white. Constant service and approaching old age meant that the admiral became increasingly unwell. Despite his failing health, St Vincent was reluctant to relinquish command and the Board reluctant to supersede him. By 17 June 1799 he had no choice but to resign his command and return to England. During his time ashore the Earl lived in Rochetts, in South Weald, Essex with his wife.

Command of the Channel Fleet
As his health had improved he was given command of the Channel Fleet. St Vincent was to comment "The King and the government require it and the discipline of the British Navy demands it. It is of no consequence to me whether I die afloat or ashore. The die is cast."

He took command of the Channel fleet in  on 26 April 1800 and took up a close blockade of Brest. Once at Brest he transferred to Ville de Paris of 110 guns and took Sir Thomas Troubridge as his captain of the fleet. He was also accompanied by his personal physician, Doctor Andrew Baird. Baird was later to become instrumental in the plans of the commander-in-chief and the health and well being of the Channel fleet.

St Vincent's appointment was not popular among the officers of the Channel fleet. His reputation as a strict disciplinarian had followed him from the Mediterranean and he immediately issued orders banning officers and captains from sleeping ashore and forbade them from travelling more than three miles from their ship. The wife of one of his captains is said to have toasted the news of his appointment with the line "May his next glass of wine choke the wretch."

Among other strict regulations introduced were orders that ships were to be repaired where possible at sea and that Ushant was to be the official rendezvous for the Channel fleet rather than the traditional Torbay. Ships were forbidden to go to Spithead without specific written orders from the Admiral or Admiralty. During his command he remained with the fleet and became respected by the officers and men for suffering their hardships with them.

With the charts that he had made with Barrington in 1775 the inshore squadron at Brest was able to keep a much tighter blockade. In one incident, the inshore squadron sighted several French ships leaving Brest. Sir Edward Pellew, captain of HMS Impétueux, gave chase. The rear admiral in charge of the inshore squadron recalled him, worried that Impétueux would run aground. The French escaped.

After several letters went back and forth between the two admirals, St Vincent, tired of his subordinate's excuses, took the entire offshore squadron and sailed them between the inshore squadron and the shore, thus proving that the ships had a shallow enough draught to have given chase and captured the French. St Vincent then wrote to the rear admiral and suggested that he strike his flag and return to shore for some needed rest.

St Vincent was as generous in the Channel as he had been in the Mediterranean. A particular letter from England made the admiral host a dinner aboard the flagship for fifty of the officers whom he felt closest to. At the dinner he revealed that the letter was from an orphanage near Paddington in London. The orphanage had run out of money to support the children of sailors who had died in the service of their country. St Vincent solicited from each captain and lieutenant a sum of money and then added his own donation. The cutter sailed back to England the same evening. St Vincent gave the orphanage £1,000

St Vincent's skills as an administrator and logistician came into play, particularly regarding the health and well being of the fleet. St Vincent wrote to Earl Spencer, commenting "I have ever considered the care of the sick and wounded as one of the first duties of a Commander-in-chief, by sea or land." Based on Doctor Baird's advice on cleanliness and hygiene the admiral brought in as many fresh vegetables as he could, along with vast quantities of fresh lemon juice to minimise illness, particularly scurvy.

The effect was dramatic. The hospital ship that accompanied the fleet was sent home unneeded and in November 1800 when the fleet came to anchor in Torbay there were as few as sixteen hospital cases among the estimated twenty three thousand men. In a letter to Sir Evan Nepean, first secretary to the Admiralty, St Vincent described Baird as "the most valuable man in the Navy not excepting the Board itself,"

The oncoming winter of 1800–1801 forced the admiral to live ashore at Torre Abbey overlooking Torbay. Vice-Admiral Sir Henry Harvey took over operational command of the fleet in St Vincent's absence.

In 1801 in a letter to the Board of Admiralty, St Vincent made the now famous remark: "I do not say, my Lords, that the French will not come. I say only they will not come by sea." In 1801 St Vincent was replaced by Admiral William Cornwallis and the new Prime Minister Henry Addington promoted St Vincent to First Lord of the Admiralty.

First Lord of the Admiralty
 In January 1801 St Vincent had written a short letter to the then First Lord Earl Spencer stating: "Nothing short of a radical sweep in the dockyards can cure the enormous evils and corruptions in them; and this cannot be attempted till we have peace." As First Lord St Vincent intended to investigate, discover and remove all of the corruption that he considered plagued the Navy, the Royal Dockyards and their civilian administration. Consequently, he clashed with the various Navy Boards, the civil administration of the Royal Navy that administered among other things the navy yards and stores. St Vincent saw these boards and individuals as hindering the efforts of the Navy.

Commission of Inquiry
During the peace with France, after the Treaty of Amiens was signed on 27 March 1802, St Vincent ordered the Navy Board to begin an investigation for fraud and corruption in the Royal Dockyards. He swiftly found that the investigations were not being conducted effectively and ordered the commissioners to retrieve all logs and accounts and inventories and put them under their "personal seal" in anticipation of the Admiralty Board travelling to the various yards itself and conducting their own inspection.

The investigation began in earnest in 1802. St Vincent swiftly uncovered casual and obvious abuses of the system. Some men were listed as having done work, then over-time and then acted as night watchmen for years without a break of any kind. Others were listed as workmen ashore but also as sailors receiving pay in the Receiving Ship. Work was done and then the identical work was charged for over various periods, often by different departments or sections. In another yard, "The men of an entire department were found to be incapables, as old, infirm boys, cripples, or idiots, and the department itself to have the appearance of an asylum for every rogue and vagabond that could not obtain a meal by any other means."

St Vincent found that minor dockyard officials were the tip of a far bigger pattern of corruption. He lobbied the government to create a special commission of inquiry that would have the power to question suspects under oath. The cabinet determined that the outcome of such an inquiry might be damaging politically (and possibly, in some cases, personally) and gave the board of inquiry permission to question suspects under oath but gave the suspects the right to refuse to answer questions that might incriminate themselves. This addendum prevented the inquiry from acting effectively.

The Commission of Inquiry produced twelve reports:

 Foreign Yards;
 the Chatham Chest (the pension fund for seamen);
 supply of Blocks and Naval Cooperage;
 prize money and prize causes;
 the Collection of the sixpence from Merchant Seamen;
 the Economy of the Naval Yards;
 the Naval Hospitals and the Hospital ships for French prisoners at Plymouth;
 the Victualling and Cooperage at Plymouth;
 the receipt and expenditure of stores at Plymouth;
 Office of Treasurer of the Navy;
 the issue of Money Bills;
 the purchase Stores for the Naval Service more particularly Masts, Spars, Fir and Hemp

One of St Vincent's biographers put the findings of the commission succinctly "The valuable British oak rotted in the forests for want of the axe; the frames building rotted on the stocks for want of timber; the ships at sea rotted before their day because constructed of such worthless perishable materials."

Reform
 One reform St Vincent did achieve was the introduction of block making machinery at the navy yard in Portsmouth. The machinery was designed by Marc Isambard Brunel and Samuel Bentham. By 1808 forty-five machines were turning out 130,000 pulley blocks per year. The innovation meant that only ten to thirty unskilled men were able to equal the output of 100 skilled blockmakers and the capital cost of the project was recovered in three years. The revolution of machinery enabled the Navy to become self-sufficient in regard to the production of the essential blocks.

This self-sufficiency removed a great deal of corruption, from external contractors producing inferior goods that jeopardised sailors' lives, to the corruption that arose from poorly paid officials responsible for awarding contracts and the bribes that might ensue. The buildings that housed the Block Machinery remain to this day and make up part of the Historic Portsmouth Dockyard.

As First Lord, St Vincent also determined to build a breakwater in Plymouth. The First Lord commissioned a civil engineer, John Rennie, and Joseph Whidbey, the former Master-Attendant at Woolwich dockyard, to design the breakwater. Work did not begin until 1811 but the earl is widely credited as the force behind its construction.

St Vincent spoke with the King regarding the contribution made by marines to the general service of the Navy and recommended to the King that the prefix "Royal" be added. These were the first official discussions into the retitling of the corps to Royal Marines.

During his tenure, the workers in the Royal dockyards demanded an increase in pay due to an increase in living costs. St Vincent reacted by dismissing the ringleaders and every man who had taken an active role in the strike. He eventually agreed to a small temporary allowance for the purchase of bread while the price of bread remained high.

St Vincent's gaze passed over every aspect of the Navy from the Sea Fencibles, civilian militias made up of merchant seamen using their own private or commercial vessels, but operating under letters of marque that authorised them to capture enemy ships should opportunity arise, to the Navy Hospitals. The earl attempted to disband the Sea Fencibles, claiming that they were needed only to quiet the fears of little old ladies and that good men passed their whole careers without hearing a shot fired. Doctor Baird, St Vincent's personal physician, was appointed to the Sick and Hurt Board as Inspector of all hospitals.

Powers to promote
Another burden of his promotion to First Lord of the Admiralty was that St Vincent was inundated with letters from aspiring officers and their relatives and friends. Soliciting employment from those in positions of influence in the navy had become common practice and was a generally accepted method of securing a good posting. The more influence that an officer could draw upon, the better and often more lucrative the position.

Also, due to the peace with France the navy had been reduced and employment was scarce. The First Lord could not, therefore, provide every officer of influence a position and was obliged to reject many of the letters that he received. Despite St Vincent having declared both publicly and privately that officers would be promoted or given position commensurate with their achievements and not based on their political or social influence, the letters continued to flow to the Admiralty.

The ways in which St Vincent chose to communicate the rejections often depended on the number of letters, the individual concerned, or the demands made by their respective well wishers. To the Earl of Portsmouth he wrote: "I cannot possibly agree in opinion with your Lordship, that a person sitting quietly by his fireside, and enjoying very nearly a sinecure, during such a war as we have been engaged in, has the same pretensions to promotion with the man who has exposed his person, and hazarded his constitution in every clime." A harsh rebuff to a peer of the realm. Yet to a lady of no discernible rank or influence he wrote: "Although I cannot admit the force of your argument in favour of Captain (name unknown) [sic.], there is something so amiable and laudable in a sister contending for the promotion of her brother that no apology was necessary for your letter of the 24th, which I lose no time in acknowledging."

Famously, when Commander Lord Cochrane captured the 32-gun Spanish frigate El Gamo in the 14-gun sloop  a promotion was the usual reward for such a feat of skill and seamanship. It would be fair to argue that it would have been expected by both the commander and his friends and family. Unfortunately for Cochrane, the ship carrying the letter of that victory was intercepted and it was only received after he had himself been captured by the French and was facing a court-martial over the loss of his ship. A court-martial for losing one's ship was common practice at the time and in many cases, including Cochrane's, it was only a formality. It was only when Cochrane was cleared by the court that he could be promoted.

Unfortunately the commander thought that the First Lord had deliberately withheld the promotion due to an unforeseen grudge; he held this opinion for the rest of his life. Cochrane had many powerful friends and relatives who lobbied continuously on his behalf. These solicitations may have had a negative effect on Cochrane's career as it is possible that Jervis became irritated by them.

Resignation as First Lord
The detailed investigation into corruption that St Vincent began caused him to become extremely unpopular, as many influential men were involved in the various money-making schemes perpetrated. The board of inquiry set up by St Vincent was responsible for the impeachment of Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, the trusted lieutenant of British Prime Minister William Pitt and the most powerful politician in Scotland in the late 18th century, and his trial for misappropriation of public funds; Melville resigned. The House of Lords found Melville not guilty and he was acquitted of all charges.

St Vincent had thereby made an enemy of Pitt, who used the naval reform and its unpopularity to attack the First Lord and the Addington administration. St Vincent left the office on 14 May 1804 when Addington was replaced as Prime Minister by Pitt. Lord Howick, second son of St Vincent's friend Sir Charles Grey, came to his defence and, with the assistance of Charles James Fox, moved for a vote of thanks in the Commons for St Vincent's tireless efforts in naval reform in 1806.

On 14 May 1806, John Jeffery, one of the Members of Parliament for Poole, opened a parliamentary debate condemning St Vincent for "unprecedented neglect in building and repairing of ships while his Lordship presided at the Board of Admiralty and with delivering up the navy to his successor in a far less efficient state than that in which he received it".
This motion was rejected and instead the Foreign Secretary, Charles James Fox, proposed a vote of thanks to Earl St Vincent, "That it appears to this house, that the conduct of the Earl of St. Vincent, in his late naval administration, has added an additional lustre to his exalted character, and is entitled to the approbation of this house."

Fox had said of St Vincent's appointment in 1801 "allow me to say, that I do not think it would be easy, if possible, to find a man in the whole community better suited, or more capable of the high office he fills, than the distinguished person at the head of the Admiralty – I mean the Earl of St Vincent." and had continued his support of the Earl throughout his time as first lord.

Resumption of command
On 9 November 1805 St Vincent was promoted admiral of the red. He took command of the Channel Fleet once more in the 110-gun first-rate . During his tenure in command he spent much of his time at a house that he rented in the village of Rame. Once again he issued the orders that had become so effective in the Mediterranean and his previous Channel command. Once again these orders proved unpopular.

For a short time in 1806 he gave command of the Channel Fleet to his second-in-command Sir Charles Cotton in order that he might travel to Portugal on a particular mission. Portugal was under threat of invasion and St Vincent had been ordered, if necessary, to take the Portuguese court to its colony in Brazil. The invasion was delayed and St Vincent was recalled to the Channel Fleet. It was Sir Sidney Smith and Graham Moore who led the Royal family to safety in Brazil.

The Earl had always attempted to promote on merit rather than patronage and had become increasingly frustrated with the system of preferment by social rank and not competence. At his retirement in 1807 he had an audience with the King. The King asked if the navy were a better institution now than it had been on St Vincent's entrance into it. St Vincent replied that it was not. He stated: "Sire, I have always thought that a sprinkling of nobility was very desirable in the Navy, as it gives some sort of consequence to the service; but at present the Navy is so overrun by the younger branches of nobility, and the sons of Members of Parliament and they so swallow up all the patronage and so choke the channel to promotion, that the son of an old officer, however meritorious both their services may have been, has little or no chance of getting on." He continued on "I would rather promote the son of an old deserving Officer than of any noble in the land."

In a letter dated 18 October 1806 to Viscount Howick, then the First Lord, St Vincent wrote "If you will, my good Lord, bring a bill into Parliament to disqualify any Officer under the rank of Rear-Admiral to sit in the House of Commons, the Navy may be preserved; but while a little, drunken, worthless jackanapes is permitted to hold the seditious language he has done, in the presence of Flag-officers of rank, you will require a man of greater health and vigour than I possess to command your fleets." Presumably St Vincent was referring to a particular member of Parliament, although his feelings on the subject remain clear.

St Vincent had long suffered from poor health and a change in government led to his resignation on 24 April 1807.

Final years

In his retirement he seldom took his seat in the House of Lords and made his last appearance in either 1810 or 1811. During these final years St Vincent gave generously to various charities, organisations and individuals. He donated £500 to the wounded and survivors of the Battle of Waterloo and £300 to relieve starvation in Ireland. St Vincent also donated £100 to the building of a Jewish chapel in Whitechapel, London.

In 1807 St Vincent, as a member of the House of Lords, opposed a bill to abolish the slave trade. His motives appear to have been practical rather than humanitarian or otherwise. St Vincent argued that if Britain were to ban the trade it would simply be continued by other countries and thereby Britain would lose the revenue generated and be weakened accordingly.

St Vincent also spoke in opposition to the Convention of Sintra and the Walcheren Campaign and then condemned its failure, although he conspicuously excluded the failure of its officers and men. St Vincent spoke in defence of Lieutenant-General Sir John Moore's retreat through Spain and Portugal and condemned the government and army commanders for failure to support him thoroughly.

In 1816 his wife Martha died at Rochetts in Essex. The couple had no children. In the winter of 1818–1819 St Vincent went to recover his health in France. When he arrived at Toulon he was greeted by Admiral Édouard Missiessy, who said of St Vincent that he was "as much the father of the French as of the English Navy".

Further honours
In 1800 St Vincent was made an honorary lieutenant-general of Marines and in 1814 was promoted to general. These positions were little more than a sinecure and carried no official duties.

In 1801 St Vincent had been created Viscount St Vincent of Meaford, Staffordshire. a title that because he had no children passed to his nephew, Edward Jervis Ricketts. In 1806 he was appointed as one of the thirty one elder brothers of Trinity House. The elder brothers, along with the master, form the court of Trinity House.

In 1809 St Vincent was honoured by John VI of Portugal who awarded him the Royal Portuguese Military Order of the Tower and Sword in order to commemorate the safe arrival of the Royal Family in Brazil, after Napoleon had invaded Portugal.

In May 1814 he was promoted acting admiral of the fleet and commander-in-chief of the Channel squadron. He was confirmed Admiral of the fleet on 19 July 1821 and George IV sent him a gold topped baton as a symbol of the office. The baton is currently held in the collections of the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

On 2 January 1815 he was made Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath when the order was rearranged by the Prince Regent. Knight Grand Cross is the highest rank in the order.

Death and memorial

St Vincent died on 13 March 1823 and, because he had no children, the Barony of Jervis and the Earldom of St Vincent became extinct. His nephew, Edward Jervis Ricketts, became the 2nd Viscount St Vincent and changed his surname to Jervis, becoming Edward Jervis Jervis in honour of his uncle. St Vincent was buried at Stone, Staffordshire, in the family mausoleum, at his own request, and a monument was erected in the crypt of St. Paul's Cathedral.

Legacy

At least three ships and two stone frigates (or shore establishments) have been named , either in honour of the Earl or after that battle that he won. , commissioned in 1910, was the first of her class and therefore the class of battleship was named after her. The s included  and . , a J-class destroyer, launched just prior to the Second World War, was named after the admiral. HMS Jervis served throughout the war. She was known as a lucky ship as, despite taking part in several actions, she never lost a man to enemy fire. , an armed merchant cruiser that was sunk in heroic circumstances by the German pocket battleship  in 1940, was indirectly named after him.

Jervis has also been remembered in schools in England. He has a boarding house (Saint Vincent) named in his honour at the Royal Hospital School in Holbrook, Suffolk. St Vincent College in Gosport, England is named after the admiral's most famous battle.

As with many other officers during the great age of discovery there are several areas of the world named in the earl's honour. Cape Jervis and Gulf St Vincent, South Australia, and Jervis Bay, New South Wales, Australia were named for him as was the town of Vincentia and Jervis Bay National Park. The County of St Vincent, New South Wales was also named in his honour. Jervis Inlet, in British Columbia, Canada, was also named for him.

Jervis appears as a fictional character in two Horatio Hornblower novels, Hornblower and the Atropos and Lord Hornblower

Historiography
Though Jervis clearly had a strong impact during the Napoleonic Wars and afterwards on the development of the Navy, surprisingly few contemporary biographies of Jervis are available, and those are seriously lacking in breadth and thoroughness. The most recent work related to Jervis is The Remaking of the English Navy by Admiral St. Vincent: The Great Unclaimed Naval Revolution by Charles Arthur, 1986, but this focused more on Jervis's reforms to the docks, and less to other parts of his life. Evelyn Berkman's Nelson's Dear Lord: Portrait of St. Vincent (1962), as the bibliographer Eugene Rasor points out, is merely an "effort" to create a biography. The same bibliographer says much the same about William Milbourne James's "Old Oak": The Life of John Jervis, Earl St. Vincent (1950) and Owen Sherrard's A life of Lord St. Vincent (1933), pointing to both as mediocre. Ruddock Mackay published an article which documented the early life of Jervis.

See also

 Letters of Admiral of the fleet, the John Jervis, Earl of St. Vincent whilst the first lord of the Admiralty, 1801–1804, edited by David Bonner-Smith. Publications of the Navy Records Society, vols. 55, 61 ([London]: Printed for the Navy Records Society, 1922–27).

References

Literature

 Guerres maritimes sous la république et l'empire, Jean Pierre Edmond Jurien de La Gravière, Pierre Charles Jean Baptiste Silvestre de Villeneuve, Charpentier, 1860 Tome 1, pp. 101–119

External links

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1735 births
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British military personnel of the French and Indian War
British naval commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
Royal Navy personnel of the American Revolutionary War
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Earls in the Peerage of Great Britain
Peers of Great Britain created by George III
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Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for constituencies in Cornwall
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Jervis, John

John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent


The L'Atalante basin is a very salty 'lake' at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea.

It is about 190 km (~120 miles) west of the island of Crete. It is called a 'lake' because, though it is under more than two miles of water, it is almost completely separate from the sea above it. Its huge salt content prevents the waters mixing. Sometimes these lakes are called brine pools. They are found in many oceans; there is one in the Gulf of Mexico.

How it formed
L'Atalante is only one of several such lakes underneath the normal waters of the Mediterranean. When the Strait of Gibraltar was closed, about six million years ago, the Mediterranean dried up and became a huge salt lake, rather like the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake are today. Then it dried out completely, leaving an enormous amount of salt. When the Straight of Gibraltar opened again about five million years ago, water from the Atlantic Ocean rushed in to form the Mediterranean we see today. Even today, the Atlantic feeds the Mediterranean with water, because the evaporation from the 'Med' is greater than is provided by its rivers. With its huge supply of salt underneath, and the constant evaporation, the Med is a high salt sea compared with the Atlantic.

The L'Atalanta lake and its neighbours the Urania and Discovery lakes are about 35,000 years old. They were formed by salt deposits dissolving out of the Mediterranean Ridge and collecting in deep depressions at the bottom of the Med. L'Atalante is the smallest of the three. Its surface begins at about  below sea level.

Salt content
L'Atalante's salinity (salt content) is near saturation, at 36.5%, about eight times more than seawater. This prevents the water in the brine pool from mixing with the 'normal' seawater above. Without mixing, oxygen from above can't get into the brine pool. The basin's water is completely anoxic: it has no oxygen.

Between the normal water and the brine is a short (1.5 metres) boundary zone called a halocline. The salt content rises sharply there, and oxygen reduces towards zero. This halocline between the seawater above and the brine below has many bacterial and archaeal cells: they are chemoautotrophs, which feed on ammonia from the brine but cannot function without some oxygen. Certain methane oxidizers and haloarchaea are found only in the halocline.

Life without oxygen
Below, in the brine, the number of cells is much lower than in the halocline. Extremophiles are most common, including some of the deep-sea hydrothermal vent archaea and bacteria. Eukaryotes are also found in l'Atalante, mostly ciliates (45%), dinoflagellates (21%) and choanoflagellata (10%).p360–381

The dark grey anoxic sediments at the bottom of L'Atalante lake are covered with a  loose black layer. Microbes found in the sediments are almost all (90%) various species of Bacillus. In 2010, three metazoan species, all in the Loricifera phylum, were discovered living in the sediment, the first multicellular lifeforms known to live entirely without oxygen.

References

Mediterranean Sea
Earth sciences

L'Atalante basin


Reza Homam (born December 12, 1960 - January 28, 2006 in Hamburg) was a German-Iranian make-up artist.

Homam, who is considered the pioneer of permanent make-up, counted many prominent personalities among his customers, including Barbara Herzsprung, Esther Schweins, Dagmar Berghoff, Sonja Kirchberger, Jürgen Drews. He moderated several television programs and founded his own line of cosmetics. Homam was the brother of professional poker player Soraya Homam.

Reza Homam committed suicide in his Hamburg apartment in 2006.

References

Make-up artists
1960 births
2006 deaths

Reza Homam


Opinga (Gheg Albanian: Apânga) are traditional shoes worn by Albanians in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia (opinci), Montenegro, Greece (by the Arvanites), and the Arbëresh villages of Italy. They were also worn by countrymen in Romania (opinca), Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (opanak), Bulgaria (opinka), and other countries. They are made of a single leather skin, formed to the feet with leather or wool strips. A southern Albanian variety of opinga are the typical turned up leather shoes with red and black wool pompoms on the ends, which are often used for folk dances.

Etymology
According to the most recent statement on Albanology by Matzinger, the word "opingë" derives from Proto-Albanian  "*api + *ga", *api also giving rise to hap ("step"). Related to hap ("open")

History

The earliest archaeological evidence for opinga dates back to the 5-4th centuries BC, indicating they were an element in Illyrian culture. Later evidence of their use in Albania is apparent in the works of 16th century iconographic painter Onufri.

It has been suggested that the etymology of the word comes from Proto-Albanian *api (modern ), meaning "step".

In 1610 Marino Bizzi, a Venetian patrician in Dalmatia and Archbishop of Antivari, noted that the men of Mirdita wore opinga, made of cow skin, prepared by the men themselves.

The artisans of the kaza of Përmet held the monopoly in the trade of opinga in the vilayets of Shkodër and Janina until 1841, when that privilege was revoked under the Tanzimat reforms.

See also
Opanak
Culture of Albania
Albanian traditional clothing
Qeleshe
Xhamadan

References

Albanian clothing
Shoes
Folk footwear
Illyrian Albania

Opinga


A summary is a condensed explanation of an event, story, document, etc.. i.e. "summing up the facts." They are not constrained to any medium or topics. Not to be confused with abstract, which is a summary of a document. There are many different levels of summarization that can be done. The summarizer may choose any length, but the sumarees may not appreciate anything more than absolutely necessary to get the required facts.

Summaries help to spread information fast. They also help people make decisions on if it is something worth looking further into.

EXAMPLES

A quick "good/bad" can suffice in some situations. In other situations, the summary may rival the length of the original.

"This book was really cool. This guy drives a pickup to work everyday, and has a dangerous job."

Many scientific journals publish a summary for every large article so people who do not have much time can read the main information quickly without spending too much time reading the article.

References
Writing

Summary


Bernard Abram Lippmann. (August 18, 1914 – February 12, 1988) was an American theoretical physicist. A former Professor of Physics at New York University, Lippmann is mainly known for the Lippmann-Schwinger equation, a widely used tool in non-relativistic scattering theory, which he formulated together with his doctoral supervisor Julian Schwinger

Biography
Bernard Lippmann was born in Brooklyn, New York City, in 1914. After initially attending the Polytechnic School of Brooklyn, where he attained a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering, he switched to physics and was admitted to the degree of Master of Science at the University of Michigan in 1935

Subsequently, Lippmann entered the industry, where he held various engineering roles until the entry of the United States into the Second World War when he joined MIT's Radiation Laboratory. From 1941 until the end of the war, he conducted experimental and theoretical research on the X band and K band regions of the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum, specifically in their generation by circuitry, as well as similar work on directional couplers and microwave junctions. After the war, in 1946, he began his Doctor of Philosophy degree at Harvard under the supervision of Schwinger, while also leading the radar receiver group at the Submarine Signal Company in Boston (later amalgamated into Raytheon).

For his doctoral thesis, Lippmann collaborated with Schwinger to produce the Lippmann-Schwinger equation, an integral equation formulation of the Schrödinger equation intended to calculate scattering cross-sections since the required boundary conditions are implicit in the formalism. The equation is the basis for the majority of calculations pertaining to non-relativistic scattering processes, finding application in atomic, molecular, and optical physics, as well as low-energy nuclear physics and particle physics.

After being awarded his doctorate in 1948, Lippmann spent the subsequent two decades conducting research at several American institutions. Initially, these investigations were focused on particle trajectories, magnetohydrodynamics, scattering processes, and solid-state physics at the Naval Research Laboratory, New York University's Institute of Mathematical Sciences, and his alma mater, the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. Furthermore, from 1957 to 1962, he was a researcher at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, where he studied both classical and quantum mechanical scattering, followed by a period as the director of research at the General Research Corporation, Santa Barbara, California. Later, in 1968 – 1969, he was a senior research associate at NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies. Much of his research during this time is classified, and so the papers attributed to him that are publicly available are only a small portion of the entire catalogue of his papers. Subsequently, Lippmann returned to academia when he was appointed as a professor of physics at NYU in 1969 until his retirement in 1977.

Following his retirement, Lippmann relocated to California, where he served as the manager of the theoretical physics department at the Physics International Company in San Leandro, California, a manufacturer of intense cathode ray generators, as well as a consultant for the Stanford Linear Accelerator. Lippmann died in Palo Alto, California, in 1988, aged 73.

References

Harvard University alumni
1914 births
1988 deaths
University of Michigan alumni
Polytechnic Institute of New York University alumni
Theoretical physicists

Bernard Lippmann


The Pala Empire was a dynasty in control of the northern and eastern Indian subcontinent, mainly the  Bihar and Bengal regions, from the 8th to the 12th century. The name Pala (Modern পাল pal) means "protector" and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs.

List of rulers

Pala Empire


From 1973 to 1981, the Los Angeles Dodgers played a majority of their games with a starting infield consisting of four players: Steve Garvey at first base, Davey Lopes at second, Ron Cey at third, and Bill Russell at shortstop. Beginning on June 23, 1973, and lasting until Game 6 of the 1981 World Series, the quartet set a record in Major League Baseball for the length of time the same four players were designated as starters at those positions—eight-and-a-half years.

Background
On June 13, 1973, the quartet of players, Steve Garvey, Davey Lopes, Ron Cey, and Bill Russell, played together for the first time as an infield, Garvey having entered the game as a substitute in the fourth inning. On June 23, against the Cincinnati Reds at Dodger Stadium, they were the starting infield, and remained as such for a majority of Dodger games through the rest of the 1973 season, plus eight more seasons. This longevity gave the quartet a record in Major League Baseball for the same four players designated as starters for the four infield positions. The identification of the best infield in the history of major league baseball is a perennial topic of discussion. Most discussions focus on particular individual seasons, but the 1970s-era Dodgers players were the greatest as measured by their establishment of an objectively-measured accomplishment: the length of time they played together.

The head scout for the Dodgers, Al Campanis, is credited with bringing the players to the team. The group was put together by manager Walter Alston and third-base coach Tommy Lasorda and had been nurtured by coach Monty Basgall. Garvey was the first baseman, Lopes played second base, while Russell played shortstop and Cey was at third base. Three of the players came to the Dodgers playing at different positions than the ones where they ended up. Initially, Russell and Lopes were both outfielders, while Garvey was a third basemen. On Opening Day of the 1973 Dodgers season, Russell was the only one of the four to start.

With the Dodgers, the four players went on to record a total of 21 All-Star Game appearances while capturing four National League pennants and one World Series championship. Garvey was a four-time Gold Glove recipient, and Lopes received it once.

The last game the four players played together was the Dodgers' victory over the New York Yankees in Game 6 of the 1981 World Series at Yankee Stadium. The longevity of the group is attributed to each of the players playing at their peak, the winning record of the Dodgers, and the similarity in temperament and age of each of the men. According to writer Gary Kelin, "free agency and the sport's evolving financial structure make it improbable that any group will equal its longevity." They are still known among Dodger fans as "The Infield", while W. R. Bill Schroeder, writing in the Baseball Research Journal in 1980, described them as the "Durable Dodger Infield".

Aftermath
Garvey left for the San Diego Padres on a contract of $6.6 million over five years in the winter of 1983. He helped provide a veteran presence for the Padres in four full seasons, plus part of a fifth, with the team while also setting a record for most consecutive games played by a National League player in his first game back at Dodger Stadium. His streak, which had begun in September 1975, lasted until 1983 at 1,207 games, which was third-longest in MLB history at the time. Lopes was sent away by the Dodgers before the 1982 season started due to a trade to the Oakland Athletics that gave rookie Steve Sax the chance to start at second base. The same happen to Cey, who was traded by the Dodgers to the Chicago Cubs in 1983. Russell's career with the Dodgers ended in 1986, having played all 17 years with the team, with his games played being second-most in franchise history and the most since the franchise moved to Los Angeles; he joined the team as a coach in 1994 before being hired to manage them in 1996, where he led them to one playoff appearance in three years.

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Los Angeles Dodgers

Dodger infield of Garvey, Lopes, Cey and Russell


Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire,  (23 July 183324 March 1908), styled Lord Cavendish of Keighley between 1834 and 1858 and Marquess of Hartington between 1858 and 1891, was a British statesman. He has the distinction of having held leading positions in three political parties: leading the Liberal Party, the Liberal Unionist Party and the Conservative Party in either the House of Commons or the House of Lords. After 1886 he increasingly voted with the Conservatives. He declined to become prime minister on three occasions, because the circumstances were never right. Historian and politician Roy Jenkins said he was "too easy-going and too little of a party man." He held some passions, but he rarely displayed them regarding the most controversial issues of the day.

Background and education
Devonshire was the eldest son of William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Burlington, who succeeded his cousin as Duke of Devonshire in 1858, and Lady Blanche Cavendish (née Howard). Lord Frederick Cavendish and Lord Edward Cavendish were his younger brothers. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated as MA in 1854, having taken a Second in the Mathematical Tripos. He later was made honorary LLD in 1862, and as DCL at Oxford University in 1878.

In later life he continued his interests in education as Chancellor of his old university from 1892, and of Manchester University from 1907 until his death. He was Lord Rector of Edinburgh University from 1877 to 1880.

Liberal, 1857–86
After joining the special mission to Russia for Alexander II's accession, Lord Cavendish of Keighley (as he was styled at the time) entered Parliament in the 1857 general election, when he was returned for North Lancashire as a Liberal (his title "Lord Hartington", by which he became known in 1858, was a courtesy title; as he was not a peer in his own right he was eligible to sit in the Commons until he succeeded his father as Duke of Devonshire in 1891). Between 1863 and 1874, Lord Hartington held various Government posts, including Civil Lord of the Admiralty and Under-Secretary of State for War under Palmerston and Earl Russell. In the 1868 general election he lost his seat; having refused the Lord Lieutenancy of Ireland, he was made Postmaster-General, without a seat in the Cabinet. The next year he re-entered the Commons, having been returned for Radnor. In 1870 Hartington reluctantly accepted the post of Chief Secretary for Ireland in Gladstone's first government.

In 1875 – the year following Liberal defeat at a general election — he succeeded William Ewart Gladstone as Leader of the Liberal opposition in the House of Commons, after the other serious contender, W. E. Forster, had indicated that he was not interested in the post. The following year, however, Gladstone returned to active political life in the campaign against Turkey's Bulgarian Atrocities. The relative political fortunes of Gladstone and Hartington fluctuated – Gladstone was not popular at the time of Benjamin Disraeli's triumph at the Congress of Berlin, but the Midlothian Campaigns of 1879–80 marked him out as the Liberals' foremost public campaigner.

In 1880, after Disraeli's government lost the general election, Hartington was invited by the Queen to form a government, but declined – as did the Earl Granville, Liberal Leader in the House of Lords – after Gladstone made it clear that he would not serve under anybody else. Hartington chose instead to serve in Gladstone's second government as Secretary of State for India (1880–1882) and Secretary of State for War (1882–1885).

In 1884 he was instrumental in persuading Gladstone to send General Gordon on a mission to evacuate the Sudan. Despite the repeated objections of consul-general in Egypt Sir Evelyn Baring, the indomitable Gordon was finally sent to Khartoum, where he did exactly the opposite of what he was sent to do, resulting in the siege of the city by the Mahdi and the final massacre of Gordon and 20,000 Arabs. Before the imminent catastrophe, Hartington  persuaded Gladstone to send troops for the relief of Khartoum which arrived two days too late. A considerable number of the Conservative party long held him chiefly responsible for the "betrayal of Gordon". His lethargic manner, apart from his position as war minister, helped to associate him in their minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the government acted "too late"; but Gladstone and Lord Granville were no less responsible than he.

Liberal Unionist, 1886–1908

Hartington became increasingly uneasy with Gladstone's Irish policies, especially after the murder of his younger brother Lord Frederick Cavendish in Phoenix Park. After being elected in December 1885 for the newly created Rossendale Division of Lancashire, he broke with Gladstone altogether. He declined to serve in Gladstone's third government, formed after Gladstone came out in favour of Irish Home Rule (unlike Joseph Chamberlain, who accepted the Local Government Board but then resigned), and after opposing the First Home Rule Bill became the leader of the Liberal Unionists. After the general election of 1886 Hartington declined to become Prime Minister, preferring instead to hold the balance of power in the House of Commons and give support from the back benches to the second Conservative government of Lord Salisbury. Early in 1887, after the resignation of Lord Randolph Churchill, Salisbury offered to step down and serve in a government under Hartington, who now declined the premiership for the third time. Instead the Liberal Unionist George Goschen accepted the Exchequer in Churchill's place.

Having succeeded as Duke of Devonshire in 1891 he entered the House of Lords where, in 1893, he formally moved for the rejection of the Second Home Rule Bill. Devonshire eventually joined Salisbury's third government in 1895 as Lord President of the Council, and from March 1900 was also President of the Board of Education. Devonshire was not asked to become Prime Minister when Lord Salisbury retired in favour of his nephew Arthur Balfour in 1902. He resigned from the government in 1903, and from the Liberal Unionist Association the following spring, in protest at Joseph Chamberlain's Tariff Reform scheme. Devonshire said of Chamberlain's proposals:

I venture to express the opinion that [Chamberlain] will find among the projects and plans which he will be called upon to discuss none containing a more Socialistic principle than that which is embodied in his own scheme, which, whether it can properly be described as a scheme of protection or not, is certainly a scheme under which the State is to undertake to regulate the course of commerce and of industry, and tell us where we are to buy, where we are to sell, what commodities we are to manufacture at home, and what we may continue, if we think right, to import from other countries.

Balfour, trying to juggle different factions, had allowed both Chamberlain and Free Trade supporters to resign from the government, hoping that Devonshire would remain for the sake of balance, but the latter eventually resigned under pressure from Charles Thomson Ritchie and from his wife, who still hoped that he might lead a government including leading Liberals. But in the autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort and spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at Cannes on 24 March 1908.

Military service

He served part-time as captain in the Duke of Lancaster's Own Yeomanry from 1855 to 1873, and was honorary colonel of the 3rd (Militia) Battalion of the Derbyshire Regiment from 1871 and of the 2nd Sussex Artillery Volunteers from 1887.

Personal life

Hartington took great pains to parade his interest in horseracing, so as to cultivate an image of not being entirely obsessed by politics. For many years, the courtesan Catherine Walters ("Skittles") was his mistress. He was married at Christ Church, Mayfair, on 16 August 1892, at the age of 59, to Louisa Frederica Augusta von Alten, widow of the late William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester.

Upon his death, he was succeeded by his nephew Victor Cavendish. He died of pneumonia at the Hotel Metropol in Cannes and was interred on 28 March 1908 at St Peter's Churchyard, Edensor, Derbyshire. A statue of the Duke can be found at the junction of Whitehall and Horse Guards Avenue in London, and also on the Western Lawns at Eastbourne.

Legacy

Upon receiving news of the Duke's death, the House of Lords took the unprecedented step of adjourning in his honour. Margot Asquith said the Duke of Devonshire "was a man whose like we shall never see again; he stood by himself and could have come from no country in the world but England. He had the figure and appearance of an artisan, with the brevity of a peasant, the courtesy of a king and the noisy sense of humour of a Falstaff. He gave a great, wheezy guffaw at all the right things and was possessed of endless wisdom. He was perfectly disengaged from himself, fearlessly truthful and without pettiness of any kind".

Historian Jonathan Parry claimed that "He inherited the whig belief in the duty of political leadership, afforced by the intellectual notions characteristic of well-educated, propertied early to mid-Victorian Liberals: a confidence that the application of free trade, rational public administration, scientific enquiry, and a patriotic defence policy would promote Britain's international greatness—in which he strongly believed—and her economic and social progress...he became a model of the dutiful aristocrat". It has been said that he was "the best excuse that the last half-century has produced for the continuance of the peerages".

With 24 years of government service, Devonshire's is the fourth longest ministerial career in modern British politics.

References

Further reading

 Ferris, Wesley. "The Liberal Unionist Party, 1886–1912" (PhD. Dissertation, McMaster University. 2008). Bibliography pp 397–418. online
 Holland, Bernard Henry. The life of Spencer Compton: eighth duke of Devonshire. (2 vol 1911). online vol 1 and online vol 2

 Rempel, Richard A. Unionists Divided: Arthur Balfour, Joseph Chamberlain and the Unionist Free Traders (Archon Books, 1972).

External links

 Marquess of Hartington (Duke of Devonshire) 1833–1908 biography from the Liberal Democrat History Group

1833 births
1908 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
British Secretaries of State
British Secretaries of State for Education
Chancellors of the University of Cambridge
108
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Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
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Leaders of the Liberal Party (UK)
Lord-Lieutenants of Derbyshire
Lord-Lieutenants of Waterford
Lord Presidents of the Council
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Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Hartington, Spencer Cavendish, Marquess of
Hartington, Spencer Cavendish, Marquess of
Liberal Unionist Party MPs for English constituencies
Rectors of the University of Edinburgh
Hartington, Spencer Cavendish, Marquess of
Hartington, Spencer Cavendish, Marquess of
Hartington, Spencer Cavendish, Marquess of
Hartington, Spencer Cavendish, Marquess of
Hartington, Spencer Cavendish, Marquess of
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Cavendish, Spencer
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A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a manufacturing system that allows the system to react to some changes in the work environments called as Routing Flexibility and Machine Flexibility. Routing Flexibility refers to the system's ability to produce different product types and order of manufacturing operations, while Machine Flexibility represents the ability to use multiple machines to perform the same operations to achieve large-scale volume or capacity of products.

Most FMS mainly consist of four main systems: 1) automated "CNC machines", 2) "Material handling" system to optimize parts flow, 3) "Central Control Computer" which controls material movements and machine flow, and 4) "Computer Communication protocol" that allows short emergency messages (on dangerous machines & robots collision, etc.) to interrupt and have higher priority compared to other trivial messages in the industrial computer networks.

Reference

Manufacturing

Flexible manufacturing system


Crescentine, crescente or tigelle (sing: crescentina, crescenta or tigella) are thin, 10cm round breads from the Apennines in the Modena area of Emilia-Romagna, Northern Italy. They are made from flour, water, salt, and yeast, and traditionally eaten filled with cunza, a spread made from pork lard and flavoured with garlic and rosemary or with cold cuts, boar, rabbit, cheese, salty dressings or sweet spreads. In the Apennines, crescente have long been eaten at home or enjoyed in traditional restaurants, but in the last decade some fast-food and casual restaurants have added crescente to their menus. Similar breads such as piadina, borlengo, gnocco fritto and panigaccio are made in neighbouring areas.

Originally, crescente were baked between tiles called tigelle, a term derived from a Latin word for cover. Later, the name tigella came to be used for the bread itself.  Nowadays, crescente are baked in restaurants using electric griddles while at home, a special aluminium pan called a tigelliera or cottola over a gas cooker is used.

Crescentine have been identified as a Traditional Agribusiness Product by the Italian Ministry of Agriculture.

References

Italian cuisine
Italian breads
Cuisine of Emilia-Romagna

Crescentina modenese


20 (also written as twenty or two ten) is the number that is after nineteen and before twenty-one.

The prime factors of twenty are 2 and 5. (2 * 2 * 5 = 20)

Its factors are: 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, and 20.  As the sum of its factors is more than itself (i.e. 22), it can be referred to as an abundant number.

20 can been used as a number base. Remnants of this system remain in some European languages, for example in the English "score" (20) and the French "quatre-vingts" (80, literally four groups of twenty). The old (pre-decimal) English monetary system had twenty shillings in a pound. The ancient Mayan numerical system – counting on fingers and toes – was a base 20 or "vigesimal" system.

A polyhedron of 20 faces is an icosahedron, one of the five Platonic solids. It is a convex regular polyhedron composed of twenty triangular faces, with five meeting at each of the twelve vertices. It has 30 edges and 12 vertices. Its dual polyhedron is the dodecahedron.

In Japanese tradition, adulthood is established at the age of 20. See seijin not hi (the celebration of adulthood in Japan).

It is the number of milk teeth in an infant's mouth.

In Roman numerals, 20 is written as XX.

Integers

20 (number)


Beastro & Barley, formerly Touchdown Tavern, Town Club Bar or Roper's City Hotel, is a restaurant and bar in a historic hotel building in the Second Empire style at 125 East Main Street in Reedsburg, Wisconsin, United States. The two-storey red brick structure with stone trim and a mansard roof was designed by Edward M. Hackett and constructed in 1886 for $10,000. It includes arched window frames, brick detailing on the facade and a small porch with ornamental metal balustrade on the second floor. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places for Wisconsin in 1984. It was built by the Reedsburg Building & Lumber Co.

The building now houses the Beastro & Barley restaurant and bar downstairs and a single large apartment upstairs. Beastro & Barley is known for its trademarked "Reedsburger", a hamburger prepared with locally sourced Bison. The restaurant also houses the "Agnes Moorehead Lounge", an exhibit of memorabilia from Agnes Moorehead's career in radio, stage, television and movies, including as the witch mother-in-law on the television sitcom Bewitched. Beastro & Barley is one of the venues for Reedsburg's Fermentation Fest.

History
Roper's City Hotel was built in 1886 on Main Street. The hotel had 17 guest rooms, and a main dining room. William Roper retired in 1909, and he sold the building to another family. The new owners remodeled the interior. For the next 40 years, the building would be sold from owner to owner, but they all kept using it as a hotel. In 1945, the building was again remodeled, and renamed to the Reedsburg Hotel. The Reedsburg Hotel kept the same exterior, but only had 13 guest rooms, and a spot for Zobel's Tavern. The Reedsburg Hotel would continue until the 1960s. In the 1960s, the name was changed to Town Club & Bar, and was primarily a bar, and no longer had hotel accommodations. The Town Club & Bar would continue until the 1970s, in which the name was changed to the Town Club Bar. In 1984, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places for Wisconsin.

In the early 2000s, the building was purchased and became the home for the Touchdown Tavern. The restaurant would continue for 15 years, and in 2020 the name was changed to Beastro & Barley. The new restaurant is a continuation of the old Touchdown Tavern, with a focus on a more high quality experience.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Sauk County, Wisconsin

References

External links

 "Beastro & Barley".

1886 establishments in Wisconsin
Buildings and structures in Sauk County, Wisconsin
Hotel buildings completed in 1886
Hotels established in 1886
Hotel buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Wisconsin
Second Empire architecture in Wisconsin
National Register of Historic Places in Sauk County, Wisconsin
Reedsburg, Wisconsin

Beastro & Barley


Admiral David Thomas Norris CB CMG (27 October 1875 – 19 July 1937) was a British Royal Navy officer.

Early life and career
Norris was the son of Mr Justice Norris, a judge of the Calcutta High Court. He was educated at Clifton College, and joined HMS Britannia as a Naval Cadet at the age of 13, being promoted midshipman two years later.

Promoted Lieutenant in November 1896, he specialised in gunnery, and served as gunnery officer in the battleship HMS Vengeance on the China Station. He was promoted commander in December 1907 and in 1908 became flag commander to the Commander-in-Chief China Station. He then served as executive officer of HMS Dominion, followed by HMS Superb, both in the Home Fleet.

First World War and Russian Civil War

Norris was promoted captain shortly before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and took command of the armed merchant cruiser HMS Arlanza with the 10th Cruiser Squadron. After two years he was posted to the Air Department of the Admiralty in London, where he was in charge of naval airships, and in 1918 he was appointed Commodore 2nd Class and Senior Naval Officer of the Persian Gulf division of the East Indies Station, assuming command on 29 March 1918.

In September 1918, he reached Enzeli on the Caspian Sea with a small party of officers and men to establish the British Caspian Flotilla. He set about collecting and arming merchant vessels for use in the Russian Civil War. By the end of October he had four vessels, to which were added some coastal motorboats and an air unit. On 21 May 1919, with six armed merchant vessels, he attacked thirty Bolshevik vessels and destroyed fourteen of them. For his services in the Caspian he was mentioned in dispatches twice, appointed Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) in March 1919 and Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in the 1920 New Year Honours.

Post-war
From 1920 to 1921 he was head of the British Naval Mission to Persia, and in 1922 he became director of the Trade Division of the Naval Staff. In 1924 he took command of the battleship  in the Home Fleet, but in October 1924 he was promoted rear-admiral in the 1st Battle Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet, a position he held until September 1927. He retired on promotion to vice-admiral in October 1929 and was promoted admiral on the retired list in October 1933.

Footnotes

References
 Obituary, The Times, 21 July 1937
 David Norris: Caspian Naval expedition, 1918-1919, in: Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, Vol. 10, Issue 3, 1923, pp. 216–240.

1875 births
1937 deaths
People educated at Clifton College
Royal Navy admirals
Royal Navy officers of World War I
Royal Navy personnel of the Russian Civil War
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Companions of the Order of the Bath

David Norris (Royal Navy officer)