Shea Gordon (born February 22, 1946 in Miami, FL) is an American artist whose work focuses on ecofeminism, symbolism, synchronicity, and spirituality. Her work has been exhibited nationally in New York City, Washington, DC, Miami, FL, Kansas City, MO, and internationally in England, Paris, South America, Israel, Australia and New Zealand. Gordon's work is in the permanent collections of Exeter Press, NY, The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, The Museum of Modern Art, Buenos Aires, Argentina, Milwaukee Museum of Art and the Nerman Museum of Contemporary Art.

Early life and career
Born in 1946, Shea Gordon was the third of four girls. Her father was the mayor of Dade County in Miami, Florida. Her mother's ecological and feminist concerns influenced Gordon from an early age.

Shea Gordon studied Art at the University of Miami in 1964, and Finch College in New York City in 1965.  After graduating, she became the studio assistant for Greek artist, Takis Vassilakis in his studio in the Chelsea Hotel in 1967. In 1971, Gordon relocated to Washington, DC where she became the assistant director to conceptual gallerist Max Protech. In 1976 Gordon moved to Kansas City, MO. where she began incorporating numerical systems, notions of synchronicity and coincidence as well as Jungian archetypal symbolism into her work. Shea is married to neurology doctor and researcher Barry Festoff.

Major projects
Gordon lives and works in Kansas City, Missouri, while traveling, performing and exhibiting her work around the world.  Her processes include drawing, painting, sculpture, books, performance art, sound art and digital imaging. She works from her studio in the Crossroads Arts District in downtown Kansas City. Her art career spans nearly 50 years.

Artist Books and Musical Scores (1972–1991)
Gordon's earliest books recorded her work with numerical interpretations such as "The Numerical Interpretation of the Declaration of Independence," and "The Numerical Interpretation of Some Highways in the United States," both from 1977. These books were hand-crafted using mixed-media.

In 1986 Gordon began creating experiential sound art by translating the Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution and other documents into a numerical system. Later she worked in collaboration with Dr. James Mobberley and Joel Boyer at the Conservatory of Music, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, turning the numbers into digital musical scores.

The Dead Sea Projects (1982–present)
Gordon is best known for her Dead Sea Projects. She has taken the embryonic shape of the landlocked body of salt water located at the birthplace of the Judaeo, Christian and Islamic tradition, as a feminist archetype manifesting itself in paintings, drawings, sculptures, performance and sound art, and jewelry. For Gordon, the Dead Sea is a symbol of birth, death and regeneration.

Personal life
Gorden married neuroscientist Barry Festoff and has one daughter.

Selected solo exhibitions
 2014 – "Under the Influence: The Work of Shea Gordon, 1967–2014," Heidmann Art Salon, Kansas City, MO
 2004 – "Floating the Gold Standard," St. Anne's College, Oxford University, Oxford, England, Curated by Dr. Alison Denham
 1989 – "The Dead Sea: A Theory of Everything," University of Missouri-Kansas City Art Gallery, Kansas City, MO, Curated by Craig Subler
 1983 – "Walking the Line: Seed Tapes = Pierced Tapes," Paintings, Drawings,   Books, Douglas Drake Gallery, Kansas City, MO
 1977 – Artist Books "Synchronicities: Numerological Portraits," Franklin Furnace, New York, NY

References

1946 births
Living people
20th-century American women artists
21st-century American women artists
Artists from Miami
University of Miami alumni

Shea Gordon (artist)


438 "City of Montreal" Tactical Helicopter Squadron (French: ) is a unit of the Royal Canadian Air Force. The squadron operates the Bell CH-146 Griffon tactical helicopter from the Hartland de Montarville Molson Hangar of CFB St. Hubert in Quebec, Canada.  Its tasks include armed and unarmed tactical utility transport, training aircrew personnel in basic and advanced aviation tactics, technical training of groundcrew personnel and flight engineers and the periodic maintenance of CH-146 fleet aircraft.  They also include as residual capabilities search and rescue, reconnaissance and support to federal, provincial and local law enforcement agencies.  A "total force" unit composed of members of the Regular Force, and both full time and part time reservists, the squadron is part of 1 Wing at CFB Kingston Ontario.

The motto "Going Down" was adopted during the Second World War when operating Hawker Typhoon fighter bombers over occupied Europe. This was the flight leader's instruction to begin diving attacks with bombs, cannons or both.

The unit badge is the wildcat and described in heraldic terms as: "d'Argent, the head of a wildcat affront Gules, langued Azure".  The wildcat was chosen as the emblem as it represents the squadron's nickname.

Pre-war

Formation
The formation of the Squadron is due to the sustained efforts of Adélard Raymond, Montreal businessman and veteran pilot of the First World War, and La Presse journalist Lionel Saint-Jean who was the president of the Quebec Aviation League. These men worked closely together from May 1934 onwards to formulate a formal request aimed at the formation of a reserve aviation squadron attached to the militia, like the already existing ones in Toronto, Winnipeg, and Vancouver, but composed of francophones. This official request was presented on 18 June 1934 in the form of a letter to Brigadier-General W.W.P. Gibsone, commander of Military District 4 and included the signatures of several local businessmen and politicians. It contained (translated from the original text in French):

"We are particularly proud to declare that the group we represent is French Canadian. We, French-speaking Canadians, want to affirm once again our patriotism towards our country. We want this squadron to be made up of French Canadians ..."

On 27 July, Group Captain G.M. Croil, senior officer of the RCAF, met with Mr. St-Jean and a dozen other signatories. From a list of 31 qualified pilots, including several veterans of 1914–18, he selected 14 who would form the initial nucleus of the new unit. It was on 1 September 1934 that the unit was authorized in Montreal, Quebec as No. 18 Bomber Squadron (Auxiliary). It will initially have an authorized strength of 66 members and will be under the temporary administrative command of Squadron Leader C.E. Trudeau, a regular member personally recommended by Brigadier-General Gibsone.

First flights
Following the recruitment and training of the cadre personnel forming the basic structure of the Squadron, flight training operations began in May 1936 from St-Hubert on the south shore of Montreal following the reception of the first two of four de Havilland DH.60 Moths. Squadron leader Marcel Dubuc, a veteran pilot with recognized qualities, was appointed its first commanding officer in May 1936. The unit was renumbered No. 118 (Bomber) Squadron on November 17, 1937 as part of a restructuring of RCAF squadrons.  Two additional aircraft arrived in 1938 and the size of the squadron was increased to 114 members.

Second World War

Coastal Artillery Cooperation

The unit was redesignated No.118 (Coast Artillery Cooperation) Squadron on 1 September 1939, activated for voluntary wartime service on 3 September, and moved to Saint John, New Brunswick on 28 October.  117 (Aux) Sqn from St-John N.B. was simultaneously absorbed into the unit along with personnel transferred in from No. 2 (AC) Sqn with their Atlas aircraft.  These reinforcements formed a new A flight that would operate out of Halifax airport until 31 March 1940 when they moved to RCAF Station Dartmouth.

The squadron was reequipped with Westland Lysanders and Blackburn Sharks better suited to this new role which consisted of patrolling the coast for enemy naval activity and directing coastal artillery batteries when/if required.  Westland Wapiti aircraft borrowed from No.10 (B) Sqn were also used for a few months until more Atlases became available.

After nearly a year of coastal sweeps, the occasional patrol for convoys close inshore, dive-bombing exercises with army batteries and naval anti-aircraft gunners, air gunnery training and aerial photographic duties, the squadron was temporarily deactivated on 27 September 1940 pending redesignation and the arrival of more modern aircraft.

Atlantic Coast defence

The squadron was reactivated at Rockliffe, Ontario on 13 January 1941 with the new designation No.118 (Fighter) Squadron and reequipped with the Grumman Goblin, an American biplane design which were licence built in Canada by Canadian Car and Foundry .  The unit moved to Dartmouth, Nova Scotia in July being at that time, the sole fighter squadron available for East Coast defence.  In October 1941 the more capable Curtiss Kittyhawk replaced the obsolete Goblin.

The RCAF was facing a serious shortage of frontline fighters, having sent its Hawker Hurricanes off to the UK with No. 1 (F) Squadron, it was having a hard time procuring additional fighters to meet its needs.  For these reasons, 50 Canadian built Sea Hurricanes destined for the British Royal Navy were retained in Canada.  All were placed on strength of 118 Sqn in November 1941.

These brand new fighters were test flown by 118 squadron pilots upon arrival or reassembly. Many were put in temporary storage, the few others still leaving with the RAF were also test flown by 118 pilots prior to fitting to catapult equipped merchant vessels. 118 Sqn formed a "Hurricane Flight" and more than a dozen were regularly flown by squadron personnel. 118 was operating a full complement of Kittyhawks, Sea Hurricanes, and a few Harvards, and was still flying its Goblins well into January 1942. These catapult spool and arrestor hook equipped Sea Hurricanes were painted in the British Fleet Air Arm paint scheme of dark greys with 'Royal Navy' painted on the fuselage, looking oddly out of place on an RCAF ramp.
On 27 April 1942, the Sea Hurricanes, many of which with their naval modifications now removed, along with many 118 Sqn personnel from the "Hurricane Flight" formed the nucleus of the newly formed 126 (F) Sqn also at Dartmouth.    This new unit would be temporarily under the command of Flight Lieutenant Arthur Yuile who had previously been in charge of the flight.
On January 16, 1942, when two 118 Squadron Kittyhawks spotted and attacked a surfaced German U-boat approximately 10 miles off the coast between Halifax and Sydney.  Flying Officer W.P. Roberts in Kittyhawk AK851 was able to fire six bursts and obtain a number of hits around the conning tower before the submarine dove underwater and disappeared from sight.

The squadron code displayed on all unit aircraft was "RE" from January 1941 to May 1942 when it changed to "VW".

Fighter - Pacific Coast

With the entry of the United States into the war following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour, the Canadian Government of Prime Minister Mackenzie King offered military naval and air support to the then limited American capabilities facing Japanese expansion in the Aleutian Islands.  Two fighter and light bomber wings were formed for service on the Pacific coast, X and Y Wings composed of Kittyhawk fighters and Bristol Bolingbroke light bombers under the RCAF Western Air Command.  118 Sqn and  115 Squadron formed Y Wing.

For the historic cross-continent flight of 4,000 miles, 118 was led by Flight Lieutenant Yuile.  Squadron Leader Hartland Molson, 118 Squadron's commanding officer and a eteran Hurricane pilot of the Battle of Britain, remained in Dartmouth to assume command of 126 (F) Sqn.

The squadron left Dartmouth on the morning of 6 June 1942 for Annette Island, Alaska.  Th squadon made refuelling stops at Penfield Ridge, New Brunswick, Saint-Hubert, Quebec, North Bay, Ontario, Porquis Junction, Ontario, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Edmonton, Alberta, and Prince George, British Columbia.  They arrived on 21 June; A Flight was armed and refuelled ready for action within 15 minutes of landing.  The squadron moved to Sea Island British Columbia on 20 August 1943 and would remain there until ordered overseas.

Five pilots died in non-combat-related crashes during this period of home defence.

Fighter bombers in Europe

Leaving their Kittyhawks behind, the 142 strong squadron crossed Canada by rail embarking on 2 November 1943 in Halifax for the sea voyage to the United Kingdom.  The squadron was once again redesignated, this time as No.438 (Fighter Bomber) Squadron upon arriving at Royal Air Force Station Digby, Lincolnshire on 18 November.  RCAF squadrons were renumbered between 400 and 449 to avoid confusion with other British Empire units also operating from the United Kingdom. under RAF operational control. Its new squadron code was "F3" which was retained until the end of hostilities in Europe.  The squadron moved to RAF Ayr II (Healthfield) in Scotland on 10 January 1944 where the pilots learnt to fly the Hawker Hurricane first to ease  conversion to the powerful Hawker Typhoon.  438 Squadron was now one of three RCAF Typhoon squadrons forming No. 143 Wing RCAF within the RAF Second Tactical Air Force (2TAF).

In mid March, 438 squadron began cross-channel offensive operations against pre-invasion targets flying from RAF Hurn and RAF Funtington.  After D-Day, its main task was close support to allied ground forces by dive-bombing and strafing enemy strong-points, bridges, rail and road traffic.  The front lines moving further inland, on 27 June the squadron moved to forward airfield B-9 at Lantheuil in France.  This base was still well within the range of German artillery and on 15 July Flying Officer Ross Johnson, a 21 year old pilot was killed during a barrage directed at his motor transport.  The Wildcats moved from airfield to airfield following the advance of the front lines deeper into Europe. They were at  B.24 St André on 31 August, B.48 Glisy on 3 September, and at  B.58 Melsbroek on 6 September to participate in support of Operation Market Garden.  It moved into the airfield at Eindhoven, Netherlands on 26 September; the base had just been recently vacated by the enemy as a result of the operation.  There they lost their new commanding officer Acting Squadron Leader Peter Wilson on the very day he took command, 1 January 1945, during the Luftwaffe's Operation Bodenplatte attacks on allied airfields.

On 19 March 1945, after nearly 6 months in Eindhoven, with the end of the war in sight, the squadron was pulled from combat operations and sent back to RAF Warmwell for rocket firing training, ironic considering the RCAF Typhoon squadrons did not use this weapon in combat preferring bombs earning them the nickname "Bombphoons".  It is during this Armament Practice Camp that their latest CO, Squadron Leader James Easson Hogg DFC, a seasoned veteran, failed to pull out of a dive and crashed into the channel dying instantly.  The squadron returned to the fight on 3 April in Germany proper this time to B.100 Goch, to B.150 Hustedt on 21 April and finally to B.166 Flensburg on 29 May, the squadron was disbanded there on 26 August.

A typical squadron action in 1944: "September 10 produced four missions.  At 1520 hours S/L Beirnes led nine Typhoons to the area of Turnhout-Venlo-Eindhoven to strafe four trains, each with 10-20 cars.  In each case the locomotive was destroyed.  The flight landed at 1630 and was off again at 1930, this time with 500-pounders to blast shipping at Hoedekenskerke.  All bombs were on target, hitting either ships or docks.  One ship, apparently carrying ammunition, blew up in spectacular fashion and another vessel was left smoking."

In its sixteen months of front line combat service from March 1944 to May 1945, 438 Squadron flew 4022 sorties, dropped 2070 tons of bombs and is credited with 430 rail cuts, 184 vehicles destroyed (+169 damaged), 12 tanks destroyed (+3 damaged), 5 locomotives destroyed (+73 damaged), 101 rail cars destroyed (+532 damaged), 1 barge sunk (+38 damaged), and 5 bridges destroyed.  The cost for these successes was high, during the same timeframe, the squadron lost 38 aircraft, 31 pilots, of whom 17 were killed, 5 missing, 6 were captured by the enemy after bailing out and 3 successfully evaded capture after abandoning their aircraft.

The Disney connection
On February 10, 1944, 438 Squadron pilot and veteran of Alaska, Flight Lieutenant Ross Reid DFC, wrote a letter to Walt Disney requesting a squadron emblem design that could adorn their aircraft.  While serving at Annette Island alongside his USAAF colleagues, Reid had noticed the many American military aircraft bearing such intricate designs.  Reid received a letter from the Disney Studios dated March 30, 1944 containing the design below that was immediately adopted and painted on the side of the squadron's Typhoons with the addition of a maple leaf as a background.  At the end of the war while at Flensburg, Germany awaiting repatriation, squadron members commissioned a unit pin from a local jeweler based on the Disney design (see photo below). The popular Disney design was once again chosen to adorn both aircraft and uniforms of squadron personnel in 1981 following a series of crests worn through the decades. A special CH-146 Griffon nose panel also bears the crest, to be used for special occasions. It is still the emblem of choice for the Wildcats.

Post-war

Reformation in the auxiliaries

438 Squadron was reformed at Montreal on April 15, 1946 as an Auxiliary (reserve) unit once again operating from its old base at St-Hubert.  It was equipped with North American Harvard trainers.  Its main task was the retention of flying qualifications for newly repatriated aircrew and the training of new personnel. The important population of the greater Montreal area offered a great number of new potential recruits and also attracted a large number of veteran pilots wishing to remain in uniform, albeit on a part-time basis.  The new squadron commander, Wing Commander Claude Hébert, D.F.C. managed to bring in many World War 2 combat veterans to fill the ranks. As a result, like in some other newly reformed auxiliary squadrons, a great percentage of the early post-war period pilots were some of the most highly decorated wartime members of the RCAF.  The new squadron identifier code is "BQ".

The jet age

On April 1, 1947, 438 Squadron regained its wartime designation as 438 (Fighter) Squadron in preparation for its soon-to-arrive new aircraft.  The Wildcats became one of the first units to be operational on jet fighters when they began operations on the British designed and built de Havilland Vampire in April 1948.  October 1949, the Wildcats of 438 Squadron, alongside their colleagues of 401 Squadron also on Vampires, participated in Operation Metropolis, a large scale joint USAF/RCAF air exercise where the two RCAF jet fighter squadrons, with the assistance of No.1 RCAF mobile radar unit were to defend the greater New York area from formations of American Martin B-26 Marauder bomber squadrons.

On May 1, 1950, the squadron designation was once again amended, this time to include "City of Montreal" making it 438 "City of Montreal" (Fighter) Squadron.  This was in recognition of the wartime sponsorship of the Wildcats by the city.  The Squadron also received the Freedom of the City of Montreal on October 1 of the same year to officialize the event with a large parade on the Field of Mars.

1954 saw the arrival of the Canadair CT-133 Silver Star, the most modern jet trainer of the era, replacing the Vampires.  The "T-birds" as they were commonly called by RCAF personnel, were retained until September 1958 and were used to train new pilots converting to jets, more precisely the Sabre which began arriving at the squadron in October 1956.  The Wildcats would keep flying fighters until November 1958 when the role of the auxiliary units was once again reviewed and amended.

Light transport & utility
On November 1, 1958, 438 Squadron lost its "Fighter" role and received the simpler new designation 438 Squadron.  With changing times causing increases in the cost of modern weapons, the complexity of their upkeep, technical advances and new air defence doctrines, Auxiliary squadrons were assigned to mostly secondary support roles.  Now equipped with the Beechcraft Expeditor MK.III and relegated to light utility transport, most remaining fighter pilots simply left the service in protest giving the unit a completely new look with a membership of reserve air and ground crews mostly borne from the civilian airline and local aircraft industries.

On May 5, 1961, the unit received its Squadron Standard for 25 years of service from the Queen's representative, the Honourable Gaspard Fauteux, Lieutenant Governor of Quebec.  This most noteworthy of events in the life of a squadron was done with a large solemn parade on the ramp at the St-Hubert airbase.

The Expeditor would be retained in squadron service until March 1964.  For a few years beginning in September 1960, it would share the load with the latest aircraft type assigned to the Wildcats, the sturdy Canadian designed and built de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter.  To the utility transport role was added Search and Rescue with this new slow but stable platform that could operate from short fields and from bodies of water when fitted with floats.

On February 1, 1968 the squadron was integrated into the new now unified Canadian Armed Forces.  On January 1, 1969 it was once again redesignated, this time as 438 Air Reserve Squadron.

The squadron was heavily involved in air operations and airspace security over the greater Montreal area during the 1976 Olympic games.  The main Air Operations Center was located within the unit's main hangar and under the command of Colonel Al Gamble, the ex-commanding officer of 438 Squadron.  Squadron personnel also serviced multiple fighter aircraft and helicopters also involved in security operations.

Light observation helicopter

438 Squadron's role radically changed when its first 4 Bell CH-136 Kiowa light observation helicopters (LOH) arrived in January 1981.  The last 438 Squadron Otter was retired in February and helicopter conversion training began in earnest.  The squadron would receive a further 5 Kiowas by September of that year, this number would eventually grow to 13 in 1991 with the redistribution of 444 Squadron's aircraft following its deactivation in Germany.

Tactical helicopters working in close relation with the Army, the squadron now mostly flew operations in support of the ground forces and as such, regularly trained with them in yearly brigade and divisional level exercises such as "Rendez-Vous" (RV) or "Noble Lion".  Under the overall command of 10 Tactical Air Group and flying the same aircraft as the many Regular Force squadrons under the same command structure, 438 reserve personnel were now poised to offer an ever-increasing domestic and operationally deployed support to these units.  Wildcats, both aircrew and groundcrew deployed to Egypt, Honduras, and Haiti as augmentees.  These opportunities to serve full time at home and abroad for predetermined time periods would multiply exponentially over the coming years.

Another visible change at the squadron was the application of the term "tactical", the unit had to be mobile and operate away from base.  A fleet of specialised vehicles soon arrived and all personnel had to familiarize themselves with them and get used to working in the field away from its main infrastructures.  These skills were developed and honed during the many exercises alongside the ground forces.

The unit was only officially redesignated 438 Tactical Helicopter Squadron on April 1, 1993.

Recent history

Arrival of the Griffon
1995 brought the new CH146 Griffon with its increased capabilities.  Squadron cadre aircrews and technicians were sent to the Bell Training Academy in Fort Worth, Texas to get qualified on this new platform.  This training has since been received at 403 Helicopter Operational Training Squadron.  The Wildcats began receiving their nine aircraft one at a time over the summer months.
1996 brought the biggest changes to date.  No.1 Tactical Aviation Support Squadron, an air maintenance unit co-located in St-Hubert, was absorbed by 438 Squadron, as was 401 Squadron which had been the CH-136 Kiowa Operational Training Unit.  Although only officially disbanded on 1 January 1998, 401 Squadron only remained active on paper.  With 401 Squadron came the Field Tactical Training Flight, formerly the 3 Field Tactical Training Unit moved to St-Hubert from CFB Bagotville the year before.  This technical school currently located within the Ecole Nationale d'Aerotechnique also located on the St-Hubert airfield, offers all Griffon related technical training for technicians, maintenance managers, and flight engineers.

All of these unit mergers changed the face of the squadron now composed of nearly as many members of the Regular Force as reservists.  Simultaneously, 10 Tactical Air Group was also disbanded and all Tactical helicopter squadrons now found themselves under 1 Wing HQ at CFB Kingston.

Operations
Now flying the same aircraft as other 1 Wing units and able to rely on a greater number of full-time personnel, 438 Squadron was called upon to more actively participate in many domestic and international operations, not merely as augmentees but now also as a unit.  Since operating on the Griffon, in addition to exercises and their normal duties to ground forces, the Wildcats have regularly flown domestically in support of drug enforcement agencies, in the Canadian Arctic from CFS Alert, played a major role during the 1998 Ice Storm, in relief efforts following floods or forest fires in British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and the Maritimes, in support of the 2002 royal visit to Canada, the G8 summit in Alberta, and in Search and rescue support in Quebec and Ontario, among many other missions in support to the Canadian population.

As early as 1997, 438 Squadron personnel were deployed to Haiti.  1998 saw the Wildcats begin arriving in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a co-deployment with 430 Tactical Helicopter Squadron where the Wildcats led a few of the rotations, a first for the unit.  Wildcats remained present in Bosnia and Kosovo until late 2001 either with 438 or as augmentees with other 1 Wing units.

Afghanistan
2002 saw the arrival of the CU-161 Sperwer drone, a new capability within the RCAF.  Cadre squadron personnel were trained in France. The Wildcats would lead 2 rotations in Afghanistan on this reconnaissance platform and would send augmentees to other units during theirs. RCAF CH-146 Griffons and CH-147 Chinooks began operating in combat over Afghanistan in support of ground troops in January 2009.  Although not deployed operationally as a Griffon unit to this conflict, 438 Squadron provided both air and ground crews, operations, and logistical personnel during the entire length of operations of all three platforms.  In fact, Wildcats were in theatre during 16 of the 17 rotations sent to Afghanistan in Kabul and Kandahar between 2003 and 2011.

The aircraft maintenance echelon of 438 Squadron modified the twelve Griffons chosen for operations over Afghanistan during December 2008, prepared them for shipping, and loaded them on RCAF CC-177s for the long trip.  They were also responsible for the heavy maintenance and the 60 periodic inspections required over the years to keep the CH-146 flying in theatre.  Many unit reservists left their civilian jobs and accepted temporary full-time employment during this time period to ensure the unit met this demanding task with rigid timeframes.  When taking into consideration the relatively small size of the unit, it is worthy of mention that even with personnel on duty abroad and domestic operations still running, that all deadlines were met. The end of operations in Afghanistan brought all the Wildcats back home to their normal garrison duties in St-Hubert with returning personnel manning the now almost yearly domestic operations, such as drug enforcement, Arctic resupply, and flood relief.

Arctic rescue

On 25 June 2013, two 438 Squadron Griffons operating out of Eureka, Nunavut as part of Op Nevus, were diverted to assist in what would become one of the largest Arctic rescue missions in Canadian history. Two groups, the first composed of some twenty international tourists and guides, the second composed of eleven Inuit hunters, became stranded on an ice floe in Admiralty Inlet, near Arctic Bay, Baffin Island. Aware of the peril they were in, drifting erratically on a deteriorating ice raft, both groups independently triggered their GPS rescue beacons.

The RCAF Joint Rescue Coordination Centre at CFB Trenton Ontario sprang into action launching a CC-130 Hercules from 424 Transport and Rescue Squadron out of 8 Wing Trenton.  A CH-149 Cormorant helicopter from 103 Search and Rescue Squadron out of 9 Wing Gander Newfoundland began the trip North to assist with the extraction in the event that hoist capabilities were required.  Seven hours after the initial call for help, the Hercules appeared over the group and dropped three 20-man covered life rafts, survival gear, and satellite phones from its tail gate, and its crew measured the size of the shrinking ice island.
Flying conditions, however, were poor, horizontal rain, sleet, fog, low cloud and high winds delayed any air rescue, grounding the CH-149 Cormorant helicopter at Hall Beach, and the two CH-146 Griffon helicopters at Grise Fiord.  The weather cleared enough the next day for the Griffons to reach the two groups and extract all 31 people safely in multiple round trip flights to Arctic Bay. A rescue for which 438 Squadron would later receive a commendation from the commander of the Canadian Joint Operations Command.

New flights

2015 brought new challenges to 438 Squadron when the Aviation Tactics Flight (ATF) was transferred from 403 Squadron.  Its mandate is to conduct advanced training at different levels of air tactics preparing future Flight Commanders and Operations Officers for key flying and decision-making positions during operational deployments.  The academic portion of the training is followed by an extensive flying phase in the field at bases with large exercise areas.  The Wildcats now coincidentally and regularly hone their fieldcraft abilities through their continued support to these successive courses.

The summer of 2016 saw yet another flight arriving from 403 Squadron, the Land Aviation Test and Evaluation Flight (LATEF).  Its mandate is to conduct, on behalf of 1 Wing, operational and tactical testing of land aviation helicopter systems and support equipment, and to propose operational and tactical doctrine where applicable. It is integrally involved in the testing and improvement of CH-146 Griffon and CH-147F Chinook systems.  Although still operating within the 438 Squadron infrastructure and relying on logistical and technical support from the Wildcats, LATEF was transferred to 434 Squadron, reactivated as a test and evaluation unit in May 2018 and headquartered at CFB Trenton.

NATO Mission Iraq
The fall of 2018 brought a surprise to the Wildcats.  The squadron would lead and man two consecutive 6-month-long operational deployments to Iraq in the form of a Tactical Aviation Detachment (TAD) composed of 3 CH-146 Griffons as part of Operation Impact in support of the new Canadian led NATO Mission Iraq.  Following intense pre-deployment training in Canada, the advanced party of the initial rotation (Roto 0) arrived at their new base of operations in early November, Camp Taji just north of Baghdad, closely followed by the main body at the end of the same month.

Through ingenuity, initiative, and risk management, the Wildcats were able to begin flying operations within a mere two weeks of hitting the ground.  Tactical air transport being the only safe means of travel between the multiple training areas, this Canadian asset was crucial to the initial phases and remained critical to the success of this multinational endeavor.  Roto 1 took over from Roto 0 in mid-June 2019 and faced the high summer desert heat.  During their near 13 months in theatre, the Wildcats airlifted over 3,100 personnel and 21,000 lbs of cargo. 408 Squadron from CFB Edmonton took over the reins of the TAD from 438 in December with the last Wildcat returning home on the 21st.

438 Squadron Band
Since the very beginning, albeit with a lull during the war years, military music has been present in the activities of the Wildcats.  From a small bugle and drum corps in the 1930s, to a brass and reed band in the 1960s, to the present full 35 piece professional military band.  Their reserve status notwithstanding, the members of the 438 Squadron Band are all professional musicians with many possessing remarkable academic achievements in their field.

They have over the years, and continue to offer to this day, countless highly praised concerts and have also performed in high-profile media events varying from the televised openings of professional football and hockey games to the official opening ceremony of the new Samuel de Champlain bridge in Montreal in 2019.

Commanding officers

 Squadron Leader Marcel C. Dubuc (12 May 1936 - 31 August 1939)
 Squadron Leader Adelard Raymond, C.B.E. (1 September 1939 - 29 July 1940)
 Flight Lieutenant Guy Vadeboncoeur (30 July 1940 - 27 September 1940)
 Flight Lieutenant Eric Walter Beardmore (13 December 1940 - 4 April 1941)
 Wing Commander Ernest Archibald McNab O.B.E., D.F.C. (5 April 1941 - 22 July 1941)
 Squadron Leader Hartland de Montarville Molson, O.C., O.B.E., Q.C. (23 July 1941 - 14 June 1942)
 Squadron Leader Arthur McLeod Yuile (15 June 1942 - 27 February 1943)
 Squadron Leader Frank George Grant, D.S.O., D.F.C., Croix de Guerre (France), Airman's Cross (Netherlands) (28 February 1943 - 28 July 1944)
 Squadron Leader Jack Rife Beirnes, D.F.C. & Bar (29 July 1944 - 13 October 1944)
 Squadron Leader Ross Frederick Reid, D.F.C. (14 October 1944 - 30 December 1944)
 Acting Squadron Leader Peter Wilson (31 December 1944 - KIA 1 January 1945)
 Squadron Leader Ross Frederick Reid, D.F.C. (1 to 19 Janvier 1945)
 Squadron Leader James Easson Hogg, D.F.C. (20 Janvier 1945 - KIA 23 March 1945)
 Flight Lieutenant Robert Edward Spooner, D.F.C. (23 March 1945 - 5 April 1945)
 Squadron Leader Jack Rife Beirnes, D.F.C. & Bar (6 April 1945 - KIA 1 June 1945)
 Squadron Leader Paul Bissky (4 June 1945 - 26 August 1945)
 Wing Commander Claude Hebert, D.F.C. (15 April 1946 - 14 May 1950)
 Wing Commander Andre Rene Morrissette, A.F.C. (15 May 1950 - 14 February 1952)
 Wing Commander Guy Valois (15 February 1952 - 14 February 1955)
 Wing Commander Al Gauthier, C.D. (15 February 1955 - 14 November 1960)
 Wing Commander Laurent Gagne, C.D. (15 November 1960 - 31 October 1963)
 Wing Commander James Fischer, C.D. (1 November 1963 - 30 August 1967)
 Wing Commander Al Gamble, C.D. (31 August 1967 - 31 January 1968)
 Lieutenant Colonel John Perodeau, C.D. (1968 - 1973)
 Lieutenant Colonel Herb Laviolette, C.D. (1973 - 1974)
 Lieutenant Colonel Gerry McDougall, C.D. (1974 - 1977)
 Lieutenant Colonel Peter Carver, C.D. (1977 - 1979)
 Lieutenant Colonel Jean Cadorel, C.D. (1979 - 6 December 1981)
 Lieutenant Colonel Ed McKeogh, C.D. (6 December 1981 - 1 October 1983)
 Lieutenant Colonel Pierre Beauchamp, C.D. (1 October 1983 - 19 January 1986)
 Lieutenant Colonel John Guimond, C.D. (19 January 1986 - 31 March 1990)
 Lieutenant Colonel Henri Cardinal, C.D. (31 March 1990 - 13 June 1993)
 Lieutenant Colonel Gilles Trepanier, C.D. (13 June 1993 - 23 April 1994)
 Major Daniel Poirier, C.D. (3 April 1994 - 22 June 1996)
 Lieutenant Colonel Jean-Marc Hivon, C.D. (22 June 1996 - 20 March 1999)
 Lieutenant Colonel Jean Egan, C.D. (20 March 1999 - 18 August 2001)
 Lieutenant Colonel Michel Desgroseillers, C.D. (18 August 2001 - 27 August 2005)
 Lieutenant Colonel Luc Martineau, C.D. (27 August 2005 - 14 August 2010)
 Lieutenant Colonel Rene Therrien, C.D. (14 August 2010 - 15 June 2012)
 Lieutenant Colonel Pierre Barma, C.D. (15 June 2012 - 27 June 2014)
 Lieutenant Colonel Gilbert L. McCauley, MSM, C.D. (27 June 2014 - 23 June 2016)
 Lieutenant Colonel Martin Pesant, C.D. (23 June 2016 – 24 May 2018)
 Lieutenant Colonel Martin Houle, C.D., (24 May 2018 to 7 July 2020)
 Lieutenant Colonel Stéphane St-Onge, C.D., (7 July 2020 to 29 June 2023)
 Lieutenant Colonel Dominique Bertrand, C.D., (29 June 2023 to present)

Squadron aircraft
 de Havilland DH.60 Moth (May 1936 - September 1939)
 Blackburn Shark (October 1939–September 1940)
 Armstrong Whitworth Atlas (October 1939–September 1940)
 Westland Lysander (October 1939–September 1940)
 Westland Wapiti (October 1939-January 1940)
 Grumman Goblin (December 1940–December 1941)
 Curtiss Kittyhawk Mk.I (October 1941–October 1943)
 Hawker Sea Hurricane (November 1941-April 1942)
 Hawker Hurricane (November 1943–March 1944)
 Hawker Typhoon Mk.IB (January 1944–August 1945)
 North American Harvard (November 1941-October 1943 and November 1946–March 1948)
 de Havilland Vampire (April 1948–September 1954)
 Canadair CT-133 Silver Star (November 1954–September 1958)
 Canadair Sabre (October 1956–November 1958)
 Beechcraft Expeditor (November 1958–March 1964)
 CSR-123 Otter (September 1960 – 1981)
 CH-136 Kiowa (1981–1995)
 CH-146 Griffon (1995 to present)
 Sagem CU-161 Sperwer (2002 - 2009)

See also

 Royal Canadian Air Force
 History of the Royal Canadian Air Force
 List of Royal Canadian Air Force squadrons
 Military history of Canada

References

External links

Military units and formations of Quebec
Canadian Forces aircraft squadrons
Royal Canadian Air Force squadrons
Helicopter units and formations
1934 establishments in Quebec
Military units and formations established in 1934
Military units and formations of Canada in World War II

438 Tactical Helicopter Squadron


Helmut Braunlich (born 19 May 1929 in Brünn, Moravia; d. 24 May 2013) was a German-American violinist, composer, and musicologist.

Education
He received his formal musical education at the Mozarteum in Salzburg, where he studied violin with Christa Richter-Steiner, composition with Egon Kornauth, and music history with Eberhard Preußner. After his immigration (1951) to the United States in 1951 he played with various professional symphony orchestras and became a member of the U.S. Air Force Symphony Orchestra. He studied composition at the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C., where one of his teachers was the great organist, Prof. Conrad Bernier. After earning his master's degree in composition with a concerto for two violins and orchestra, he pursued doctoral studies, earning his Ph.D. in Musicology.

Career
Here he taught numerous courses in composition, music theory, and performance practice. In 1988 he was promoted to Professor.  In 1989 the state government of Bavaria, awarded him the "Sudetendeutscher Kulturpreis" in composition. He served as the chairperson of the Composition Department at the Benjamin T. Rome School of Music at the Catholic University of America, until he became Professor Emeritus in 1999. From then on he devoted his time mostly to composition and performance, but also taught selected graduate students.

Compositions
During his career he received commissions from a variety of organizations. Among them are the Contemporary Music Forum, the Montgomery County Youth Symphony Orchestra, the Catholic University Wind Ensemble, and the Friday Morning Music Club Foundation. As a member of the Society of Composers, Prof. Braunlich devotes his efforts to the promotion of composition, performance, understanding and dissemination of new and contemporary music. Compositions by Helmut Braunlich include works for orchestra, chamber music, works for various solo instruments, and songs. Several chamber music works have been published by McGinnis & Marx and by Tap Music Sales. His recordings are available on Educo Records, Opus One Records, and Centaur Compact Disc.

References

Braunlich, Helmut. "Satire in Music, 1900–1920." Ph.D. dissertation, Musicology, Catholic University of America, 1966. 160 p.
Braunlich, Helmut. "Johann Peter Kellner's Copy of the Sonatas and Partitas for Violin Solo by J. S. Bach." Bach xii/2 (Apr 1981), 2–10.
Bonnie Hedges and Bonlyn Hall, compilers. Twentieth-Century Composers in the Chesapeake Region: A Bio-Bibliography and Guide to Library Holdings. Richmond, Virginia: Chesapeake Chapter Music Library Association, 1994, 168 p.
, Bernadette, ed. Composer's Forum. The Directory [1989]. New York: Composers' Forum, 1989, p. 47.

External links
http://www.cua.edu
http://pipl.com/directory/people/HelmutBraunlich

1929 births
German male classical composers
German classical composers
American male classical composers
American classical composers
20th-century classical composers
Mozarteum University Salzburg alumni
German emigrants to the United States
Benjamin T. Rome School of Music, Drama, and Art alumni
Benjamin T. Rome School of Music, Drama, and Art faculty
2013 deaths
20th-century German composers
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
Catholic University of America alumni

Helmut Braunlich


Charles Edward Capel Martin (21 April 1913 – 19 February 1998) was an auto racing driver from Wales. He was born in Abergavenny, Monmouthshire and died in Chelsea, London.

Early career

Martin started racing at Southport sands on the Lancashire coast in 1932 moving on to circuit racing driving an MG, also racing in Bugattis and Alfa Romeos at Donington Park and throughout Europe at Pau and Deauville in Grand Prix gaining wins at Brooklands in 1936.

1930s Grand Prix racing driver
Martin participated in the inaugural Hungarian Grand Prix in 1936, driving an Alfa Romeo.

He lived in Notting Hill, London.

Towards the end of his life he served as the Vice-President of the Brooklands Society.

References

1913 births
1998 deaths
Welsh racing drivers
Grand Prix drivers
Sportspeople from Abergavenny

Charlie Martin


Clarkson is a home rule-class city in Grayson County, Kentucky, United States. The population was 933 at the 2020 census, up from 875 at the 2010 census,  Once called "Grayson Springs Depot" after a nearby resort, the name was changed in 1882 to honor the resort's owner, Manoah Clarkson.

Clarkson is known for its Honeyfest and is home to The Walter T. Kelley Company, a manufacturer of beekeeping equipment.

Geography
Clarkson is located directly east of Leitchfield along U.S. Route 62 and the Western Kentucky Parkway.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which , or 1.13%, is water.

Demographics

2020
As of the census of 2020, there were 933 people, 406 households, and 226 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 456 housing units. .

There were 353 households.

The median income for a household in the city was $24,118.

2000
As of the census of 2000, there were 794 people, 353 households, and 226 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 394 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 97.86% White, 1.01% Asian, and 1.13% from two or more races.

There were 353 households, out of which 30.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.6% were married couples living together, 17.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.7% were non-families. 32.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.74.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.4% under the age of 18, 12.3% from 18 to 24, 26.8% from 25 to 44, 22.3% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 82.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.0 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $21,625, and the median income for a family was $28,000. Males had a median income of $27,308 versus $19,861 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,888. About 20.0% of families and 21.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.4% of those under age 18 and 21.4% of those age 65 or over.

Events
In 1926, Pauline Bell of Clarkson won the 2nd Scripps National Spelling Bee.

On March 15, 2006, Governor Ernie Fletcher signed Kentucky House Bill 46 into law, making the Clarkson Honeyfest the "Official State Honey Festival of Kentucky".

References

External links
City of Clarkson official website

Cities in Kentucky
Cities in Grayson County, Kentucky

Clarkson, Kentucky


Wŏnhyo (; ; 617 – 686, meaning: "Dawnbreak") was one of the most important philosophers and commentators in East Asian Buddhism and the most prolific scholar in Korean Buddhism. As one of the most eminent scholar-monks in East Asian history, his extensive literary output runs to over 80 works in 240 fascicles. His most influential commentaries are those on buddha-nature texts like the *Vajrasamādhisūtra, the Awakening of Faith, and the Mahāparinivāṇasūtra. These works became classics widely respected throughout Korea, China and Japan.

Wonhyo's work was foundational for all of Korean Buddhism and also influenced Buddhism in other East Asian nations. Chinese masters who were heavily influenced by Wonhyo include Huayan masters like Fazang, Li Tongxuan, and Chengguan. The Japanese monks Gyōnen, Zenshu and Joto of the Kegon school were also influenced by him.

Biography

Wonhyo was born in Amnyang (押梁), (modern Gyeongsan, South Korea). Wonhyo spent the earlier part of his career as a monk studying under various Korean Buddhist teachers and living in Hwangnyongsa Temple.

One of the most famous episodes of Wonhyo's life, found in various hagiographical accounts, is the story of his aborted attempt to travel to Tang China to study the Yogācāra teachings of the school of Xuanzang (602–664). The hagiographies of Wohnyo explain that what kept him from leaving Korea was an enlightenment experience.

The story says that in 661 Wonhyo and a close friend called Uisang (625–702) were traveling to China, when, somewhere in the region of Baekje, the pair were caught in a heavy downpour and forced to take shelter in what they believed to be an earthen sanctuary. During the night Wonhyo was overcome with thirst, and reaching out grasped what he perceived to be a gourd, and drinking from it was refreshed with a draught of cool, refreshing water. Upon waking the next morning, however, the companions discovered much to their amazement that their shelter was in fact an ancient tomb littered with human skulls, and the vessel from which Wonhyo had drunk was a human skull full of brackish water. Startled by the experience of believing that a gruesome liquid was a refreshing treat, Wonhyo was astonished at the power of the human mind to transform reality. As he reflected on this, he had a deep insight into how the world is a creation of mind and directly experienced the Yogacara principle of "mind-only" (cittamatra). Due to this insight, he did not feel it necessary to travel to China since all phenomena are ultimately not outside our own mind.

The sources also state that at that time he proclaimed: "Because of the arising of thought, various phenomena arise; since thought ceases, a cave and a grave are not two. Since there are no dharmas outside of the mind, why should I seek them somewhere? I will not go to the Tang." This statement refers to a passage in the Awakening of Faith.

Wonhyo left the priesthood after an affair with a princess named Yoseok. He then turned to spreading Buddhism among the common people as a layman, calling himself a "Layman of Minor Lineage." He was known not only for his extensive writings and commentaries, but also for his unconventional behaviors. Wonhyo became famous for visiting towns and villages and performing songs and dances to teach Buddhism. He is also said to have visited bars and brothels, played the lute and slept in the homes of common people. While the orthodox Buddhist tradition discouraged such behaviors, his songs and dances were seen as upaya, or skillful means, meant to help save all sentient beings. At other times he lived alone in the mountains or along rivers, wrote various works and gave lectures on Buddhism and taught the people to chant the Buddha's name.

Because of this aspect of his character, Wonhyo ended up becoming a popular folk hero in Korea. Wohnyo later married and had a son, Seol Chong, who is considered to be one of the great Confucian scholars of Silla.

Wonhyo died while staying at Hyeolsa in 686 at the age of 70. His remains were interred by his son at Bunhwangsa.

Influence

Wohnyo's work influenced all of East Asian Buddhism. His commentaries on various texts were widely respected by Buddhist scholars in Korea, China and Japan. As noted by Hee-Sung Keel:

Wohnyo's collaboration with Uisang directly led to the establishment of the influential Hwaeom (Korean Huayan) school as a major stream of thought in Korea.

Wohnyo is also thought to have founded Korea's lone riverside temple, Silleuksa, in the late 600s. While Wonhyo was in Bunhwangsa (in modern Guhwang-dong, Gyeongju), he wrote a number of books. For such strong association with Wonhyo, a research center and a shrine named Bogwangjeon hall dedicated to Wonhyo's legacy are located in Bunhwangsa.

Philosophy
Wonhyo's career last from the end of Korea's Three Kingdoms era to the dawn of the Unified Silla kingdom (668–935). Wonhyo extensive work was vital for the reception of Mahayana Buddhism in Korea and as such he is a central figure in the development of Korean Buddhism. Wonhyo was especially influenced by Buddha-nature literature, East Asian Yogācāra, Huayan thought and the philosophy of Essence-Function (). His work is widely cited by later scholarly works from China, Korea and Japan.

In his extensive scholarly works, composed mostly as commentaries and a few treatises, he developed a unified Mahayana Buddhist philosophy drawing on all the different Chinese Buddhist traditions (including Sutra Studies, Pure Land, Huayan, Sanlun, Yogacara, Vinaya, Logic).

Wonhyo never associated himself with any specific Buddhist tradition and drew on a wide variety of Mahayana sources. Wonhyo's main focus was on Yogacara and Buddha-nature texts like the *Vajrasamādhisūtra, the Awakening of Faith, and the Mahāparinivāṇasūtra. His most influential writings include commentaries on these three texts, all of which were widely respected thoughtout East Asia.

Harmonization of disputes
A key project of Wonhyo was to harmonize the various Buddhist teachings and traditions all of which he saw as non-contradictory. As such, the 'harmonization of disputes' (hwajaeng; 和諍) is central for Wonhyo's philosophical outlook. Wohnyo's works often seek to harmonize the various seemingly contradictory Buddhist teachings found in all of the Buddhist texts by showing how they are based on a single deeper principle.

Wonhyo's harmonization methodology is found in almost all his works and often expresses itself in a deep investigation of the root of seemingly conflicting Buddhist doctrines and positions. Wonhyo's generally seeks to show that these variant doctrines often arise from things like the background, biases and motivations of particular authors of doctrinal positions. This approach to doctrinal harmonization is quite different than that of most Chinese commentators who instead rely on hierarchical doctrinal classification schemas (Chinese: panjiao, Korean: pangyo 判教) which placed only some teachings at the top of a doctrinal hierarchy. Instead of creating a hierarchy, Wonhyo's method seeks to show how the various Buddhist teachings are mutually interconnected in a harmonious whole. As such, Wonhyo criticized thinkers who hierarchically classificed the Dharma like Zhiyi. Wohnyo writes:You should know that the Buddha's meaning is deep and profound without limit. So if you want [like Chih-i] to divide the scriptural meaning into four teachings, or limit the Buddha's intent with five periods, then this is like using a snail shell to scoop out the ocean, or trying to see the heavens through a narrow tube.  Wonhyo's "Hwajaeng theory" (harmonization of disputes) was summarized in his work Ten Approaches to the Reconciliation of Doctrinal Disputes (Simmun hwajaeng non 十門和諍論, 십문화쟁론). Wonhyo often traces the origin of intra-Buddhist doctrinal conflict to a misunderstanding of linguistic conventions like difference and sameness, and affirmation and negation. Ultimately, Wohnyo's analysis of conflicting interpretations of Buddhist doctrine and doctrinal disputes is thus centered on language and on the relationship between names and meanings (which are neither identical nor remain static/fixed). According to Wohnyo, disputes among Buddhist schools often arise due to grasping at literal meaning of words. For him, all Buddhist teachings point to a single truth. As such, Wohnyo writes: "If you take a sentence literally, it could be disagreed with. If you focus on its meaning, you could understand it."

In his Reconciliation of Doctrinal Disputes, Wonhyo proceeds to draw on numerous Buddhist philosophical systems and on the Mahayana sutras like the Lotus Sutra, Nirvana Sutra and Prajñāpāramitā to resolve doctrinal conflicts and demonstrate the compatibility of all of Mahayana Buddhist teachings. For Wohnyo, all Mahayana doctrines are metaphors which point to the same ultimate truth.

Another element of his harmonization method was to draw on Huayan metaphysics of interpenetration to demonstrate how all Buddhist teachings are ultimately in a state of non-obstruction. Thus one can say that Wohnyo saw all Buddhist doctrines as a harmonious interpenetrating reality, and as such he often called his philosophy "interpenetrated Buddhism" (t'ong pulgyo, 通佛教).

One-mind and essence-function thought
Wonhyo's philosophy is centered on the "One Mind theory" (Ch: yixinshixiang, 一心思想; Korean: 일심사상). Wŏnhyo's worldview sees the one mind as the ultimate reality which manifests in two aspects:

 "true-thusness", which is intrinsically pure and unchanging Thusness (Tathātā, 眞如), the ultimate reality, the true nature of the mind, which is without concepts or discrimination, without arising or ceasing.
 "arising-and-ceasing", which is impure, impermanent, subject to cause and effect and manifests as all forms of samsara and delusion. This is the mind of everyday reality, the mind of suffering (dukkha) and the mind of the six realms.

As such, the One Mind is the non-dual source of all phenomena, the source of both samsara and nirvana, and it contains both purity and ignorance and defilement.

The one mind (一心) theory is drawn from the influential treatise The Mahayana Awakening of Faith (大乘起信論; pinyin: Dàshéng Qǐxìn Lùn) and is discussed in Wonhyo's numerous commentaries. This doctrine is a synthesis of the Mahayana doctrines of the ālayavijñāna (storehouse consciousness) and buddha-nature. The importance of the Awakening of Faith's theories for Wonhyo is proved by the fact that he wrote nine commentaries on this text (only two are extant). The Awakening of Faith's One Mind teaching is one of the central principles which Wonhyo uses to harmonize the various Buddhist teachings.

Another important and related doctrine which Wonhyo relies and expands upon is the Chinese theory of essence-function (體用, Chinese pinyin: tǐ yòng, Korean: che-yong) which is also found in the Awakening of Faith. Essence here refers to pure Suchness, the ultimate reality, i.e. the One Mind; while function refers to all relative phenomena (dharmas). These two aspects are seen by Wonhyo as non-dual, as part of a harmonious whole.

Original enlightenment and Buddhist practice
Wonhyo also wrote on and developed the related theory of original enlightenment (Chinese: 本覺; pinyin: běnjué, Korean: bongak), which sees enlightenment as immanent in the mind, though it has to be discovered through purifying the mind and practicing the six paramitas. Indeed, for Wohnyo, the ultimate principle (Dharma), the essence or One Mind, is nothing but the principle of enlightenment itself which penetrates the minds of all sentient beings.

According to Wohnyo, liberation or enlightenment means to truly know that all phenomena are the One Mind which is already immanent within the mind of sentient beings. It is thus to understand that we already are enlightenment. As such, enlightenment is also called "returning to the original source". Thus, for Wohnyo, nothing new is attainment in enlightenment, one merely recognizes what is already there.

How does one reach or return to the original enlightenment? For Wohnyo, this happens through the process of "actualizing enlightenment" through which a Buddhist practitioner can move away from the state of non-enlightenment towards the enlightened source (though in reality, these two states are non-dual, not completely separate, but are like waves and the ocean). To actualize enlightenment and let go of ignorance and duality, religious practice is required. As one practices, original enlightenment reveals itself as ignorance and the defilements are gradually eliminated. Indeed, it is through the power of original enlightenment itself that the mind is purified in the process of actualizing enlightenment.

Wonhyo's held that it was possible to apply these deep principles in one's personal everyday life. As such, he met with commoners and elites alike and taught people according to their needs. For the commoners he generally taught a flexible teaching which included Buddhist metaphysics and the simple Pure Land practice of reciting the name of Amitabha with a sincere mind intent on bodhicitta.

Works
Wonhyo was a very prolific author with a broad mastery of the Buddhist canon. He is said to have composed 80 texts in over 200 fascicles. Only twenty two are extant. As noted by Charles Muller "except for the works of the extraordinarily prolific translators such as Kumārajīva (344–413) and Hsüan-tsang (596–664), this is probably the largest literary output by a single scholar in East Asian Buddhist history."

His life's work includes writings on all the key Mahayana Buddhist topics of the day, including Prajñāpāramitā, Madhyamaka, Nirvana Sutra, Buddha-nature, Lotus Sutra, Vinaya, Pure Land, Yogācāra, State Protection, Huayan, and Buddhist Logic. Most of Wonhyo's writings are commentaries on classic Mahayana Buddhist works. His commentaries are often holistic ones, which, according to Robert Buswell, "seek to demonstrate, first, how each section, part, and division of the scripture resonates with the rest of the sections, parts, and divisions of the text; and second, how the text that is the focus of his commentary reticulates within the entire fabric of the Buddhist scriptural teachings...he attempts nothing less than to demonstrate that the entirety of Mahayana Buddhism is revealed in the single sūtra that is the focus of his exegesis."

Some of his key texts include:

 Doctrinal Essentials of the Great Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra (Daehyedo gyeong jong-yo 大慧度經宗要)
 Doctrinal Essentials of the Lotus Sutra (Beophwa jong-yo 法華宗要)
 Expository Notes to the Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith
 Praise of Amitabha's Realization of His Nature
 System of the Two Hindrances
 Commentary to the Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith
 Doctrinal Essentials of the Sutra on the Ascension of Maitreya
 Commentary on the Discrimination between the Middle and the Extremes
 Doctrinal Essentials of the Great Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra
 Critique of Inference
 Doctrinal Essentials of the Sutra of Immeasurable Life  (Muryangsugyeong jong-yo 無量壽經宗要)
 Doctrinal Essentials of the Nirvana Sutra (Yeolban jong-yo 涅槃宗要)
 Exposition of the Vajrasamādhi-sūtra.
 Commentary on the Flower Ornament Sutra (Hwaeom- gyeong so byeong seo 華嚴經疏并序)
 Doctrinal Essentials of the Flower Ornament Sutra

 Commentary on the Amitâbha Sūtra (Amitagyeong so, 阿彌陀經疏)
 Personal Notes on the Fundamentals of Bodhisattva Precepts in the Brahmā's Net Sutra
 Essentials of Observing and Transgressing the Code of Bodhisattva Precepts

Wonhyo's twenty-three extant works are currently in the process of being translated into English as a joint project between Dongguk University and Stony Brook University. The University of Hawaii Press is publishing them in five volumes. There are currently two volumes of this project published:

 Wonhyo's Philosophy of Mind, Edited by A. Charles Muller and Cuong T. Nguyen (2012)
 Cultivating Original Enlightenment: Wonhyo's Exposition of the Vajrasamadhi-Sutra, Translated with an introduction by Robert E. Buswell Jr. (2007)

Legacy
The International Taekwon-Do Federation pattern "Won-Hyo" is named in Wonhyo's honor. This pattern consists of 28 movements.

The World Taekwondo Federation has a Hyeong or pattern named Ilyeo for 9th Dan black belt which means the thought of the Buddhist priest of Silla Dynasty, Wonhyo.

Wonhyo Bridge across the Han River in Seoul is named after him.

Wonhyo Pilgrimage Project
In 2011, retired Canadian journalist Tony MacGregor walked across the Korean Peninsula in an attempt to understand the awakening experience of Wonhyo. Legend says that Wonhyo walked across the peninsula in the 7th century and found enlightenment in a cave on the western side of the peninsula. MacGregor's journey, which involved staying at mountain monasteries and talking to monks, was the first in over 1,000 years to honor Wonhyo's accomplishment. A documentary film of the walk was completed  and a project to establish a permanent pilgrimage trail is currently being developed.

Notes

Further reading
Buswell, Robert E., Jr. "The Biographies of the Korean Monk Wŏnhyo (617-686): A Study in Buddhist Hagiography." Peter H Lee, ed. Biography as Genre in Korean Literature. Berkeley: Center for Korean Studies, 1989.
Buswell, Robert E., Jr. Cultivating Original Enlightenment: Wonhyo's Exposition of the Vajrasamādhi-Sūtra. University of Hawaii Press, 2007.
Kim, Jong-in. Philosophical contexts for Wŏnhyo's interpretation of Buddhism. Seoul: Jimoondang, 2004.
Muller, A. Charles; Nguyen, Cuong T. Wŏnhyo's Philosophy of Mind. University of Hawaii Press, 2012
Muller, A. Charles(ed.) Wonhyo: Selected works. Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism, 2012
Muller, A. Charles (2007). "Wonhyo's Reliance on Huiyuan in his Exposition of the Two Hindrances". In: Imre Hamar, ed., Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism, Harrassowitz Verlag, pp. 281–295
Muller, A. Charles (2002). "Wŏnhyo's Interpretation of the Hindrances". International Journal of Buddhist Thought and Culture. Vol. 2, 2003. pp. 123–135.Source:  (accessed: January 7, 2008)
Muller, A. Charles (2000). "On Wŏnhyo's Ijangui (二障義)." Journal of Korean Buddhist Seminar, Vol. 8, July 2000, p. 322-336.Source:  (accessed: January 7, 2008)
Muller, A. Charles (1995). "The Key Operative Concepts in Korean Buddhist Syncretic Philosophy; Interpenetration and Essence-Function in Wŏnhyo, Chinul and Kihwa",Bulletin of Toyo Gakuen University, vol. 3 (1995), pp. 33–48.
Sung-bae Park (2008). 'Wonhyo: Coming to the West―Yet No One Recognizes Him.', International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 10, 7–18.

7th-century Korean philosophers
Korean scholars of Buddhism
Silla Buddhist monks
Hwaeom Buddhists
617 births
686 deaths
Muism

Wonhyo


Colonization is a trilogy of alternate history books  by American writer Harry Turtledove. It is a series continuation of the situation set up in the Worldwar tetralogy, projecting the situation between humanity and The Race (the bipedal lizard-like invaders and settlers from Worldwar) nearly twenty years afterward, in the mid-1960s.

The Race has settled and plans to colonize nearly half the surface of the Earth, including Africa, Australia, China, southern Asia, Mexico, Central America, South America, Spain, Portugal, and Poland (prewar Poland and East Prussia). The United States, Canada, the Soviet Union, the Greater German Reich (Germany and the territories that it occupied during World War II), the United Kingdom, and Japan are the only other powers when the Race's colonization fleet of 80–100 million settlers arrives. Humanity and The Race still jockey for advantages over each other.

Novels
Books of the Colonization trilogy are:

 Colonization: Second Contact (1999)
 Colonization: Down to Earth (2000)
 Colonization: Aftershocks    (2001)

A follow-up novel to this series, Homeward Bound, was released in 2004.

Political situation
The Race has taken over half of the planet. With the exception of the Greater German Reich, the Soviet Union, the Japanese Empire, the British Isles, the US, and some nations that are allied to the major powers, mostly in the Northern Hemisphere, the Race rules most of the Earth. The Race spends its time trying to adapt to conditions on Earth (for example, the aliens release species from Home on Earth, causing environmental trouble). The Soviet Union supplies weapons to Mao Zedong's Communist Party. The Greater German Reich attacks Race-held Poland and fails, resulting in the death of Führer Ernst Kaltenbrunner, his top officials, the nuclear destruction of much of Greater Germany, the removal of Nazi space installations, the German capital being relocated to Flensburg, and Walter Dornberger becoming the new Führer. France regains its independence under a new Fourth Republic. The United States is led by President Earl Warren. The Soviet Union is ruled by ex-Foreign Commissar Vyacheslav Molotov.

Technology
The Race's initial invasion has benefited the technology of humanity. With the end to the second round of fighting, alien technology is being rapidly absorbed by humanity. Although the Race remains superior in technology, it is swiftly losing ground as human technology advances.

By the end of Colonization: Aftershocks, the United States and the Greater German Reich already have spacecraft floating among the asteroid belt. The Americans have also launched two human starships. The Soviet Union, the United States, and the Greater German Reich have established a moon base, and Germany then the US put a man on Mars.

Literary criticism and reception
A writer from the Irish Independent called the Colonization series one of the best of Turtledove's works.

References

American alternate history novels
Novels by Harry Turtledove
Science fiction book series
Worldwar and Colonization series
Alien invasions in novels

Colonization (series)


Lucario is a character of the Pokémon anime and video game series. It is also known as the Aura Pokémon. This pokemon has the ability to feel the auras of things. It is a Fighting and Steel Pokémon. It is seen in the games Pokémon Diamond and Pearl, and in the movie Lucario and the Mystery of Mew. In an interview with Pokémon Diamond and Pearl director Junichi Masuda, he said that Lucario's name was one of the hardest to make. This was because they wanted to make it work for both the Japanese and Americans.

Characteristics
Lucario is a jackal-like Pokémon that's around four feet in height. Lucario's hands are black and have one white spike on each arm on the top of its wrists, and there's a third spike on Lucario's chest. Lucario's nose and ears are longer since it evolved from Riolu. Lucario has a furry yellow body, and its hips are in the shape of what looks like blue shorts. It has the ability to sense the aura in all living things, and can use telepathic human speech. By catching the Aura coming from others, it can read their thoughts. A well-trained one can sense auras of creatures over half a mile away.

Appearances

Games
Lucario is a Pokémon that appears in the Nintendo DS versions of Pokémon Diamond and Pearl; Lucario is used by Maylene, the third Sinnoh Gym Leader, a tag-team partner known as Riley, and by Cynthia, Sinnoh's Elite Four Champion. In Pokémon Mystery Dungeon Lucario is seen as the greatest rescue leader of all time, and earning 15,000 Rescue Points will put the player in the top rank - the Lucario rank - and the Lucario statue will be put outside the rescue base.

It is a fighter in Super Smash Bros. Brawl, and uses attacks like Aura Sphere, Force Palm, ExtremeSpeed, Double Team, and its final smash, Aura Storm. Lucario was confirmed to be a playable character in Super Smash Bros. Brawl due to a leak. After seeing their mistake they quickly fixed it. Lucario and Jigglypuff can no longer be seen but there are many YouTube videos which show proof of the leak, as well as screen shots.

In Pokémon X and Y, the player receives a free Lucario from Korrina. It can Mega Evolve into Mega Lucario using the Lucarionite.

Anime
Lucario's main role in the anime is his appearance in the eighth Pokémon movie, Pokémon: Lucario and the Mystery of Mew. In the movie, Lucario is a servant to Sir Aaron in a Renaissance-themed city called Cameron Palace. Aaron had trained this Lucario to use aura. Lucario thinks of Sir Aaron as both his master and close friend. After Aaron traps him in a magic staff at the film's start, Lucario begins questioning any Pokémon-human relationship. The Lucario in the movie, can also speak human languages without psychic powers. Lucario sacrificed himself in order to save the Tree of Beginning, though the credits showed him with Sir Aaron eating a chocolate bar.

Maylene in the anime, like in the games, has a Lucario and it was seen in four episodes. It was first seen battling with Maylene in their training. Lucario used Aura Sphere to stop the battle of Electabuzz, Piplup, and Pikachu, and is seen battling Paul's Pokémon in a flashback. Lucario was seen again where it battled in Dawn's gym battle with Maylene, where it defeated Dawn's Ambipom and Piplup. Then, in the next episode, it battled in Ash's gym battle against Maylene. It defeated Ash's Staravia and Chimchar, but was knocked out along with Ash's Buizel, which ended in a tie. Finaly, Lucario was seen when it helped Ash and the others defeat Saturn and Team Galactic.

Manga
In the Pokémon Adventures manga, like in games, it appears under the ownership of Riley who was on a boat heading to the Battle Frontier. Diamond meets Riley at Iron Island, and Byron asks Riley to help Diamond sharpen his Pokémon battle skills before Diamond goes to Lake Verity. In Pokémon Diamond and Pearl Adventure! the main character, Hareta, gained a Riolu egg which hatched into a Riolu later on in that chapter and then evolved in to Lucario.

Reception
UGO described Lucario as "a new breed of Pokémon, with a cooler, more dangerous look. It's quick and possesses a damaging set of attacks", yet called it lame due to its status as a Pokémon. IGN called its presence in Super Smash Bros. Brawl "a bit on the head scratching side" in light of more familiar characters in the title such as Pikachu. Although another editor stated that it would make sense for Pokémon to be represented by a fighting-type Pokémon, since Super Smash Bros Brawl is a fighting game. GamesRadar described it as an "all-around bad-ass" and "the Bruce Lee of Pokémon", suggesting its design as similar to the Egyptian God Anubis. Beckett Pokémon Unofficial Collector editor Sean Cooper stated that Lucario had grown popular in recent years due to his starring role in Lucario and the Mystery of Mew and his appearance in Super Smash Bros. Brawl.

References

Fictional characters introduced in 2005
Pokémon monsters

Lucario


Bulky waste or bulky refuse is a technical term taken from waste management to describe  waste types that are too large to be accepted by the regular waste collection. It is usually picked up regularly in many countries from the streets or pavements of the area. This service is provided free of charge in many places, but often a fee has to be paid.

Bulky waste items include discarded furniture (couches, recliners, tables), large appliances (refrigerators, ovens, TVs), and plumbing fixtures (bathtubs, toilets, sinks). A large amount (30-60%, depending on area) of bulky waste is picked up by scavengers before it is collected. Branches, brush, logs and other green waste are also categorized as bulky waste, although they may be collected separately for shredding and/or composting.

Grapple trucks, also known as knuckleboom loaders, are often used to collect bulky waste. In the UK, refuse collection vehicles (RCVs) or crushers are being increasingly phased out as more bulky waste is diverted for re-use and recycling.

See also
Automotive shredder residue
Civic amenity site (CA site)

References

Waste

Bulky waste


Friedrich Franz Xaver Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (31 May 1757 – 6 April 1844) was an Austrian general. He joined the Austrian military and fought against the Kingdom of Prussia, Ottoman Turkey, and the First French Republic. He was promoted to the rank of general officer during the French Revolutionary Wars. During the Napoleonic Wars, he led a division in 1805 and an army corps in 1809. He was Proprietor (Inhaber) of an Austrian cavalry regiment from 1802 to 1844.

Early career

Born into the princely family of Hohenzollern-Hechingen near Maastricht on 31 May 1757 in the modern-day Netherlands, Hohenzollern first joined the Dutch army in 1775. A year later, he entered the Habsburg service in his uncle's regiment, the Friedrich Anton of Hohenzollern-Hechingen Cuirassiers # 4. He later fought in the War of the Bavarian Succession. In 1783 he married Maria Theresia von Wildenstein. He served in the Austro-Turkish War (1787-1791), becoming a Major in 1788. After fighting at Belgrade he was elevated in rank to Oberst-Leutnant in 1790.

French Revolutionary Wars

War of the First Coalition
In 1793 Hohenzollern received promotion to Oberst (colonel) and fought at the battles of Neerwinden and Wattignies. The following year he was involved in the sieges of Landrecies and Charleroi. In 1795 he fought in the Army of the Upper Rhine.

In 1796, Hohenzollern became a General-Major and transferred to the Italian theater. During the Battle of Borghetto on 30 May, he rallied the defeated soldiers and mounted a counterattack on the French in Valeggio sul Mincio. This action won time for the army commander, Johann Beaulieu to organize an orderly retreat. During the Castiglione campaign, he commanded a brigade in the column of Johann Mészáros.

In the third relief attempt of the Siege of Mantua, Hohenzollern commanded the army's advance guard. He led his troops in a hard-fought victory over Napoleon Bonaparte during the Second Battle of Bassano on 6 November. At the Battle of Caldiero on 12 November, Bonaparte attacked Hohenzollern's advance guard with two French divisions. Though initially outnumbered two-to-one, he managed to repulse repeated enemy attacks until Austrian reinforcements arrived and drove the French back into Verona. He played a lesser role in the Battle of Arcole, after which the Austrians were forced to retreat. In April 1797, the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa was awarded to him.

War of the Second Coalition
During the War of the Second Coalition, Hohenzollern again served in Italy. He commanded a brigade under Pál Kray in a battle at Legnago on 26 March 1799. He fought at the Battle of Magnano where he temporarily commanded a division. He besieged the Milan citadel starting on 30 April and received its surrender on 24 May. On 12 June, with 4,300 soldiers, he attempted to block Jacques MacDonald's much larger French force at the Battle of Modena but was defeated with heavy losses. He also fought at the battles of Trebbia and Novi. He won promotion to Feldmarschal-Leutnant in October 1799.

Hohenzollern defeated Nicolas Soult at La Bochetta near Genoa on 9 April 1800 and at Sassello on 10 April. He participated in the Siege of Genoa under the overall command of Peter Ott. On 13 May, Hohenzollern defeated and captured Soult at Monte Creto, ending a series of successful French sorties. After the fall of Genoa in early June, Ott appointed him commander of the captured port. After Bonaparte's decisive victory at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June, Genoa passed into French hands again. Hohenzollern fought at the Battle of Pozzolo in December 1800. In 1802, he became the proprietor of Chevau-léger Regiment Nr. 2 and held the position until his death.

Napoleonic Wars

War of the Third Coalition

During the War of the Third Coalition, Hohenzollern led a division in the corps of Franz von Werneck in Archduke Ferdinand's army. Deployed in southern Germany, the Austrian army was enveloped by Emperor Napoleon's Grand Army and crushed in the Ulm Campaign. Werneck tried to escape on the north bank of the Danube, but Marshal Joachim Murat launched a relentless pursuit. Hohenzollern's division fought on 16 October at Langenau and 17 October at Herbrechtingen. Murat caught up with the Austrians and surrounded them on 18 October 1805. When Werneck capitulated, Hohenzollern refused to obey the order to lay down his arms. Instead, he escaped into Bohemia with Archduke Ferdinand, Karl Schwarzenberg, and ten cavalry squadrons. His noble rank was raised from Graf to Prince in 1806, though he was not the reigning prince.

War of the Fifth Coalition
At the beginning of the War of the Fifth Coalition, Hohenzollern received appointment to the command of III Armeekorps in the south German theater. He led his corps at the Battle of Teugen-Hausen on 19 April 1809. He also fought at the Battle of Eckmühl on 22 April. After having traded corps with Johann Kollowrat, he led the II Armee Korps in the Austrian victory at the Battle of Aspern-Essling on 21–22 May. This was the third time that Hohenzollern participated in a defeat of Napoleon, a rare distinction in 1809. In the climactic Battle of Wagram, he continued to lead his corps. In August 1809, Emperor Francis II promoted him to General of Cavalry (full general).

1812-1815
Hohenzollern commanded a corps in Galicia in 1812. During the latter part of 1813, he led a reserve corps, so he missed the campaign ending in the Battle of Leipzig and the 1814 campaign. When Europe mobilized against France during the Hundred Days, Hohenzollern received command of the II Armeekorps in Schwarzenberg's army but he saw little action.

Later career

Hohenzollern sat as President in the deliberations of the Hofkriegsrat (Aulic Council) from 1825 to 1830. He became a Feldmarschall on 18 September 1830. His wife Maria died in 1835. They had four children, Friedrich Franz Anton (1790-1847), Julia Fredericke (1792-1864), Friedrich Adalbert (1793-1819), and Josephine Fredericke (1795-1878). He died on 6 April 1844 in Vienna.

References

Bibliography
 Bowden, Scotty & Tarbox, Charlie. Armies on the Danube 1809. Arlington, Texas: Empire Games Press, 1980.
 Boycott-Brown, Martin. The Road to Rivoli. London: Cassell & Co., 2001.
 Chandler, David. The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: Macmillan, 1966.
 Smith, Digby. The Napoleonic Wars Data Book. London: Greenhill, 1998.

External links
 Friedrich F. X. Hohenzollern by Digby Smith, compiled by Leopold Kudrna
 Battle of Magnano by J. Rickard

1757 births
1844 deaths
People from Maastricht
Austrian generals
Field marshals of Austria
Austrian Empire military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
Military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
Austrian Empire commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
Friedrich Franz Xaver
Friedrich Franz Xaver
Generals of the Holy Roman Empire
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Austria
Commanders Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa

Prince Friedrich Franz Xaver of Hohenzollern-Hechingen


The Problems of Philosophy is a 1912 book by the philosopher Bertrand Russell, in which the author attempts to create a brief and accessible guide to the problems of philosophy. He introduces philosophy as a repeating series of (failed) attempts to answer the same questions: Can we prove that there is an external world? Can we prove cause and effect? Can we validate any of our generalizations? Can we objectively justify morality? He asserts that philosophy cannot answer any of these questions and that any value of philosophy must lie elsewhere than in offering proofs to these questions.

Focusing on problems he believes will provoke positive and constructive discussion, Russell concentrates on knowledge rather than metaphysics: If it is uncertain that external objects exist, how can we then have knowledge of them but by probability. There is no reason to doubt the existence of external objects simply because of sense data.

Russell guides the reader through his famous 1910 distinction between knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description and introduces important theories of Plato, Aristotle, René Descartes, David Hume, John Locke, Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and others to lay the foundation for philosophical inquiry by general readers and scholars alike.

External links

1912 non-fiction books
Books by Bertrand Russell
English-language books
English non-fiction books

The Problems of Philosophy


The trolley problem is a series of thought experiments in ethics and psychology, involving stylized ethical dilemmas of whether to sacrifice one person to save a larger number.  The series usually begins with a scenario in which a runaway tram or trolley is on course to collide with and kill a number of people (traditionally five) down the track, but a driver or bystander can intervene and divert the vehicle to kill just one person on a different track.  Then other variations of the runaway vehicle, and analogous life-and-death dilemmas (medical, judicial etc.) are posed, each containing the option to either do nothing, in which case several people will be killed, or intervene and sacrifice one initially "safe" person to save the others.

Opinions on the ethics of each scenario turn out to be sensitive to details of the story that may seem immaterial to the abstract dilemma.  The question of formulating a general principle that can account for the differing judgments arising in different variants of the story was raised in a 1967 philosophy paper by Philippa Foot, and dubbed "the trolley problem" by Judith Jarvis Thomson in a 1976 article that catalyzed a large literature.  Thus, in this subject the trolley problem refers to the meta-problem of why different judgements are arrived at in particular instances, which are called trolley cases, examples, dilemmas, or scenarios.

The most basic version of the dilemma, known as "Bystander at the Switch" or "Switch", goes:

There is a runaway trolley barreling down the railway tracks. Ahead, on the tracks, there are five people tied up and unable to move. The trolley is headed straight for them. You are standing some distance off in the train yard, next to a lever. If you pull this lever, the trolley will switch to a different set of tracks. However, you notice that there is one person on the side track. You have two (and only two) options:

 Do nothing, in which case the trolley will kill the five people on the main track.
 Pull the lever, diverting the trolley onto the side track where it will kill one person.

Which is the more ethical option? Or, more simply: What is the right thing to do?

Philippa Foot introduced this genre of decision problems in 1967 as part of an analysis of debates on abortion and the doctrine of double effect. Philosophers Judith Thomson, Frances Kamm, and Peter Unger have also analysed the dilemma extensively. Thomson's 1976 article initiated the literature on the trolley problem as a subject in its own right.  Characteristic of this literature are colorful and increasingly absurd alternative scenarios in which the sacrificed person is instead pushed onto the tracks as a weight to stop the trolley, has his organs harvested to save transplant patients, or is killed in more indirect ways that complicate the chain of causation and responsibility.

Earlier forms of individual trolley scenarios antedated Foot's publication. Frank Chapman Sharp included a version in a moral questionnaire given to undergraduates at the University of Wisconsin in 1905. In this variation, the railway's switchman controlled the switch, and the lone individual to be sacrificed (or not) was the switchman's child.  German philosopher of law Karl Engisch discussed a similar dilemma in his habilitation thesis in 1930, as did German legal scholar Hans Welzel in a work from 1951. In his commentary on the Talmud, published long before his death in 1953, Avrohom Yeshaya Karelitz considered the question of whether it is ethical to deflect a projectile from a larger crowd toward a smaller one. Similarly, in The Strike, a television play broadcast in the United States on June 7, 1954, a commander in the Korean War must choose between ordering an air strike on an encroaching enemy force at the cost of his own 20-man patrol unit, or calling off the strike and risking the lives of the main army made up of 500 men.

Beginning in 2001, the trolley problem and its variants have been used in empirical research on moral psychology. It has been a topic of popular books. Trolley-style scenarios also arise in discussing the ethics of autonomous vehicle design, which may require programming to choose whom or what to strike when a collision appears to be unavoidable.

Original dilemma
Foot's version of the thought experiment, now known as "Trolley Driver", ran as follows:

A utilitarian view asserts that it is obligatory to steer to the track with one man on it. According to classical utilitarianism, such a decision would be not only permissible, but, morally speaking, the better option (the other option being no action at all). This fact makes diverting the trolley obligatory. An alternative viewpoint is that since moral wrongs are already in place in the situation, moving to another track constitutes a participation in the moral wrong, making one partially responsible for the death when otherwise no one would be responsible. An opponent of action may also point to the incommensurability of human lives. Under some interpretations of moral obligation, simply being present in this situation and being able to influence its outcome constitutes an obligation to participate. If this is the case, then doing nothing would be considered an immoral act.

Empirical research

In 2001, Joshua Greene and colleagues published the results of the first significant empirical investigation of people's responses to trolley problems. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, they demonstrated that "personal" dilemmas (like pushing a man off a footbridge) preferentially engage brain regions associated with emotion, whereas "impersonal" dilemmas (like diverting the trolley by flipping a switch) preferentially engaged regions associated with controlled reasoning. On these grounds, they advocate for the dual-process account of moral decision-making. Since then, numerous other studies have employed trolley problems to study moral judgment, investigating topics like the role and influence of stress, emotional state, impression management, levels of anonymity, different types of brain damage, physiological arousal, different neurotransmitters, and genetic factors on responses to trolley dilemmas.

Trolley problems have been used as a measure of utilitarianism, but their usefulness for such purposes has been widely criticized.

In 2017, a group led by Michael Stevens performed the first realistic trolley-problem experiment, where subjects were placed alone in what they thought was a train-switching station, and shown footage that they thought was real (but was actually prerecorded) of a train going down a track, with five workers on the main track, and one on the secondary track; the participants had the option to pull the lever to divert the train toward the secondary track. Most of the participants did not pull the lever.

Survey data
The trolley problem has been the subject of many surveys in which about 90% of respondents have chosen to kill the one and save the five. If the situation is modified where the one sacrificed for the five was a relative or romantic partner, respondents are much less likely to be willing to sacrifice the one life.

A 2009 survey by David Bourget and David Chalmers shows that 68% of professional philosophers would switch (sacrifice the one individual to save five lives) in the case of the trolley problem,  8% would not switch, and the remaining 24% had another view or could not answer.

Criticism
In a 2014 paper published in the Social and Personality Psychology Compass, researchers criticized the use of the trolley problem, arguing, among other things, that the scenario it presents is too extreme and unconnected to real-life moral situations to be useful or educational.

Brianna Rennix and Nathan J. Robinson of Current Affairs go even further and assert that the thought experiment is not only useless, but also downright detrimental to human psychology. The authors opine that to make cold calculations about hypothetical situations in which every alternative will result in one or more gruesome deaths is to encourage a type of thinking that is devoid of human empathy and assumes a mandate to decide who lives or dies. They also question the premise of the scenario. "If I am forced against my will into a situation where people will die, and I have no ability to stop it, how is my choice a "moral" choice between meaningfully different options, as opposed to a horror show I've just been thrust into, in which I have no meaningful agency at all?"

In her 2017 paper, Nassim JafariNaimi lays out the reductive nature of the trolley problem in framing ethical problems that serves to uphold an impoverished version of utilitarianism. She argues that the popular argument that the trolley problem can serve as a template for algorithmic morality is based on fundamentally flawed premises that serve the most powerful with potentially dire consequences on the future of cities.

In 2017, in his book On Human Nature, Roger Scruton criticises the usage of ethical dilemmas such as the trolley problem and their usage by philosophers such as Derek Parfit and Peter Singer as ways of illustrating their ethical views. Scruton writes, "These 'dilemmas' have the useful character of eliminating from the situation just about every morally relevant relationship and reducing the problem to one of arithmetic alone." Scruton believes that just because one would choose to change the track so that the train hits the one person instead of the five does not mean that they are necessarily a consequentialist. As a way of showing the flaws in consequentialist responses to ethical problems, Scruton points out paradoxical elements of belief in utilitarianism and similar beliefs. He believes that Nozick's experience machine thought experiment definitively disproves hedonism. In his 2017 article The Trolley Problem and the Dropping of Atomic Bombs, Masahiro Morioka considers the dropping of atomic bombs as an example of the trolley problem and points out that there are five "problems of the trolley problem", namely, 1) rarity, 2) inevitability, 3) safety zone, 4) possibility of becoming a victim, and 5) the lack of perspective of the dead victims who were deprived of freedom of choice.

In a 2018 article published in Psychological Review, researchers pointed out that, as measures of utilitarian decisions, sacrificial dilemmas such as the trolley problem measure only one facet of proto-utilitarian tendencies, namely permissive attitudes toward instrumental harm, while ignoring impartial concern for the greater good. As such, the authors argued that the trolley problem provides only a partial measure of utilitarianism.

Related problems

Trolley problems highlight the difference between deontological and consequentialist ethical systems. The central question that these dilemmas bring to light is on whether or not it is right to actively inhibit the utility of an individual if doing so produces a greater utility for other individuals.

The basic Switch form of the trolley problem also supports comparison to other, related dilemmas:

The Fat Man

Resistance to this course of action seems strong; when asked, a majority of people will approve of pulling the switch to save a net of four lives, but will disapprove of pushing the fat man to save a net of four lives. This has led to attempts to find a relevant moral distinction between the two cases.

One possible distinction could be that in the first case, one does not intend harm towards anyone – harming the one is just a side effect of switching the trolley away from the five. However, in the second case, harming the one is an integral part of the plan to save the five. This solution is essentially an application of the doctrine of double effect, which says that one may take action that has bad side effects, but deliberately intending harm (even for good causes) is wrong. So, the action is permissible even if the harm to the innocent person is foreseen, so long as it is not intended. This is an argument which Shelly Kagan considers (and ultimately rejects) in his first book The Limits of Morality.

Implications for autonomous vehicles
Variants of the original Trolley Driver dilemma arise in the design of software to control autonomous cars. Situations are anticipated where a potentially fatal collision appears to be unavoidable, but in which choices made by the car's software, such as into whom or what to crash, can affect the particulars of the deadly outcome. For example, should the software value the safety of the car's occupants more, or less, than that of potential victims outside the car.

A platform called Moral Machine was created by MIT Media Lab to allow the public to express their opinions on what decisions autonomous vehicles should make in scenarios that use the trolley problem paradigm. Analysis of the data collected through Moral Machine showed broad differences in relative preferences among different countries. Other approaches make use of virtual reality to assess human behavior in experimental settings. However, some argue that the investigation of trolley-type cases is not necessary to address the ethical problem of driverless cars, because the trolley cases have a serious practical limitation. It would need to be top-down plan in order to fit the current approaches of addressing emergencies in artificial intelligence.

Also, a question remains of whether the law should dictate the ethical standards that all autonomous vehicles must use, or whether individual autonomous car owners or drivers should determine their car's ethical values, such as favoring safety of the owner or the owner's family over the safety of others. Although most people would not be willing to use an automated car that might sacrifice themselves in a life-or-death dilemma, some believe the somewhat counterintuitive claim that using mandatory ethics values would nevertheless be in their best interest. According to Gogoll and Müller, "the reason is, simply put, that [personalized ethics settings] would most likely result in a prisoner's dilemma."

In 2016, the German government appointed a commission to study the ethical implications of autonomous driving. The commission adopted 20 rules to be implemented in the laws that will govern the ethical choices that autonomous vehicles will make. Relevant to the trolley dilemma is this rule:
8. Genuine dilemmatic decisions, such as a decision between one human life and another, depend on the actual specific situation, incorporating "unpredictable" behaviour by parties affected. They can thus not be clearly standardized, nor can they be programmed such that they are ethically unquestionable. Technological systems must be designed to avoid accidents. However, they cannot be standardized to a complex or intuitive assessment of the impacts of an accident in such a way that they can replace or anticipate the decision of a responsible driver with the moral capacity to make correct judgements. It is true that a human driver would be acting unlawfully if he killed a person in an emergency to save the lives of one or more other persons, but he would not necessarily be acting culpably. Such legal judgements, made in retrospect and taking special circumstances into account, cannot readily be transformed into abstract/general ex ante appraisals and thus also not into corresponding programming activities. …

See also

 Lesser of two evils principle
 Lifeboat ethics
 Omission bias
 R. v. Dudley and Stephens

 Tunnel problem
 Violinist (thought experiment)
 Virtue ethics

References

External links

 Forced-choice decision-making in modified trolley dilemma situations: a virtual reality and eye tracking study

1967 introductions
Dilemmas
Metaphors referring to objects
Moral psychology
Philosophical problems
Thought experiments in ethics
Virtue ethics

Trolley problem


Propylketobemidone is an opioid analgesic that is an analogue of ketobemidone. It was developed in the 1950s during research into analogues of pethidine and was assessed by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime but was not included on the list of drugs under international control, probably because it was not used in medicine or widely available.

Propylketobemidone is so named because it is the propyl ketone analogue of bemidone (hydroxypethidine). The more commonly used ethyl ketone ("ethylketobemidone") is simply called ketobemidone, as it is the only drug of this family to have been marketed.

Presumably propylketobemidone produces similar effects to ketobemidone and other opioids, such as analgesia and sedation, along with side effects such as nausea, itching, vomiting and respiratory depression which may be harmful or fatal.

References

 UNODC Bulletin on Narcotics 1954

Opioids
4-Phenylpiperidines
Phenols
Ketones
Mu-opioid receptor agonists

Propylketobemidone