A paper chase (also known as a chalk chase or as hare and hounds) is an outdoor racing game with any number of players.

Method of play
At the start of the game, one or two players are designated the 'hares' and are given a bag of small paper clippings known as the 'scent'. Other members of the group are the 'hounds' who will pursue them.

The 'hare' is given a head start of five to fifteen minutes, and runs ahead periodically throwing out a handful of paper shreds, which represent the scent of the hare. Just as scent is carried on the wind, so too are the bits of paper, sometimes making for a difficult game. After some designated time, the hounds must chase after the hare and attempt to catch them before they reach the ending point of the race.

The game is generally played over distance of several miles, but shorter courses can be set, or the game played according to a time limit. If the hare makes it to the finish line, they get to choose the next hare, or to be the hare themselves. Similarly, the person who catches the hare gets to choose the next hare.

The game may also be played with a piece of chalk instead of paper, where the hares leave marks on walls, stones, fence posts or similar surfaces.

History
A game called "Hunt the Fox" or "Hunt the Hare" was played in English schools since at least the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Shakespeare appears to make reference to it in Hamlet, when he eludes the guards at Elsinore he cries "Hide, fox, and all after". Around 1800 the game was organised at Shrewsbury School into an outdoor game called "the Hunt" or "the Hounds", to prepare the young gentlemen for their future pastime of fox hunting. The two runners making the trail with paper were called "foxes", those chasing them were called "hounds".

Hare coursing rather than fox hunting was used as an analogy when the game spread to Bath School, so the trail-makers were called "hares". This term was made popular by the paper chase scene in Tom Brown's School Days and is still used in modern hashing and in club names like Thames Hare and Hounds, but Shrewsbury continues to use fox hunting terms as evidenced in The Way of All Flesh by Samuel Butler- "in this case the hare was a couple of boys who were called foxes".

The Royal Shrewsbury School Hunt is the oldest cross-country club in the world, with written records going back to 1831 and evidence that it was established by 1819. The club officers are the Huntsman, Senior and Junior Whips whilst the runners are Hounds, who start most races paired into "couples"; the winner of a race is said to "kill". The main inter-house cross-country races are still called the Junior and Senior Paperchase, although no paper is dropped and urban development means the historical course can no longer be followed.

In 1938, British immigrants founded the Hash House Harriers in Kuala Lumpur based on this game.

Literary and cinema references

Thomas Hughes' 1857 novel Tom Brown's School Days depicts a meet by the Big-Side Hare and Hounds. Students busily tear up old newspapers copybooks and magazines into small pieces to fill four large bags with the paper 'scent'. Forty or fifty boys gather and two good runners are chosen as hares who carry the bags and start across the fields laying the trail. When a member of the pack finds the paper scent they call "Forward!" (hashers now call "ON! ON!"). In the story, members of the pack work together finding scent and strain to keep up with the hare.

In chapter 39 of his semi-autobiographical novel The Way of All Flesh of 1903, Samuel Butler describes a school based on his alma mater of Shrewsbury. The main protagonist's favourite recreation is running with "the Hounds" so "a run of six or seven miles across country was no more than he was used to".

In the book The Railway Children, written by Edith Nesbit in 1906, the children observe a game of paper chase. The book was made into a television series four times and into a movie twice, the most recent of which was in 2000.

In the novel Daddy Long Legs, written in 1912 by Jean Webster, the girls play a game of paper chase where the hares cheat: they leave a paper trail indicating they entered a locked barn through a high window, while in actuality they went around the building.

In by H.P. Lovecraft's novella At the Mountains of Madness, first published in 1936, the narrator references the game when using paper to blaze a trail through an unexplored city: "Fortunately we had a supply of extra paper to tear up, place in a spare specimen bag, and use on the ancient principle of hare and hounds for marking our course in any interior mazes we might be able to penetrate."

In the 1946 Orson Welles movie, The Stranger, Rankin's students are in the midst of a paper chase through the woods as Rankin kills his former colleague. Rankin misdirects the "hounds" to keep them from finding the body by moving the shreds of paper.

In the 1954 memoir by Vyvyan Holland, Son of Oscar Wilde, he describes playing paper chase at Neuenheim College in Heidelberg, Germany in 1896.  "[W]hen the river was frozen and the snow lay thick upon the ground, so that it was impossible either to row or to play football, paper chases were organised by the master in charge of games.  No form of exercise is quite so utterly pointless and boring as a paper chase, and we used to try to slink off and get lost and find our way home by ourselves; though this, if discovered, was apt to lead to a painful interview with the games master."

In the 1975 Disney movie, One of Our Dinosaurs Is Missing, the nannies notice a trail of paper scraps on the ground while trying to hide a dinosaur skeleton in a wood. They remark that it must be a paper chase at which point a group of schoolboys crash through the wood following the trail.

A 1986 episode of the animated television series The Wind in the Willows is called "Paperchase", and  the focus is of that game.

References

Outdoor locating games
Children's games

Paper chase (game)


C'est la liste des villes, villages et hameaux du comté de Durham.

A
Aislaby, Allensford, Annfield Plain, Archdeacon Newton,Auckland Park Aukside, Aycliffe Village

B
Barmpton, Barnard Castle, Barningham, Beamish, Bearpark, Beaumont Hill, Bedburn, Belmont, Benfieldside, Bildershaw, Billingham, Billy Row, Binchester, Bishop Auckland, Bishop Middleham, Bishopsgarth, Bishopton, Blackhall Colliery, Blackhall Rocks, Blackhill, Blackwell, Bolam, Boldron, Bournmoor, Bowbank, Bowburn, Bowes, Bowlees, Bradbury, Brafferton, Brancepeth, Brandon, Branksome, Bridge End, Bridgehill, Brierton, Brignall, Broom Hill, Broompark, Brotherlee, Browney, Burnhope, Burnopfield, Butterknowle, Butterwick, Byers Green

C
Carlbury, Carlton, Carrville, Cassop, Castle Eden, Castleside, Catchgate, Causey, Chester Moor, Chester-le-Street, Chilton, Chilton Lane, Cleatlam, Close House, Clough Dene, Coal Bank, Cockerton, Cockfield, Cold Hesledon, Consett, Copley, Copthill, Cornforth, Cornriggs, Cornsay, Cornsay Colliery, Cotherstone, Coundon, Coundon Grange, Coundongate, Cowpen Bewley, Cowshill, Coxhoe, Craghead, Craigside, Crawleyside, Crimdon Park, Crook, Crookgate Bank, Crookhall, Croxdale, Cleadon

D
Daddry Shield, Dalton Piercy, Dalton-le-Dale, Darlington, Dawdon, Deaf Hill, Dean Bank, Delves Lane, Deneside, Dent Bank, Denton, Dipton, Dragonville, Durham

E
Eaglescliffe, Easington, Easington Colliery, East Blackdene, East Briscoe, East Hedleyhope, East Kyo, East Law, East Stanley, Eastbourne, Eastgate, Ebchester, Eden Vale, Edmondsley, Edmundbyers, Egglesburn, Egglescliffe, Eggleston, Eldon, Eldon Lane, Elstob, Elton, Elwick, Embleton, Escomb, Esh, Esh Winning, Esperley Lane Ends, Etherley Dene, Ettersgill, Evenwood, Evenwood Gate

F
Fairfield, Faverdale, Ferryhill, Ferryhill Station, Finchale Priory, Fir Tree, Firth Moor, Fishburn, Fleming Field, Flint Hill, Forest-in-Teesdale, Foxton, Framwelgate, Framwellgate Moor, Frosterley

G
Gainford, Garmondsway, Gilesgate, Gilesgate Moor, Gilmonby, Grange Hill, Grange Villa, Grassholme, Great Burdon, Great Chilton, Great Lumley, Great Stainton, Greatham, Greencroft, Greenhill, Greta Bridge, Grindon

H
Hallgarth, Hamsterley (Bishop Auckland), Hamsterley (Consett), Hardwick, Harelaw, Harperley, Harrowgate Hill, Harrowgate Villa, Hart, Hart Station, Hartburn, Hartlepool, Hartlepool Abbey, Harwood, Haswell, Haswell Moor, Haswell Plough, Haughton-le-Skerne, Haverton Hill, Hawthorn, Headlam, Healeyfield, Hedley Hill, Heighington, Helmington Row, Hesleden, Hett, High Coniscliffe, High Dyke, High Etherley, High Forge, High Friarside, High Grange, High Haswell, High Hesledon, High Shincliffe, High Stoop, High Throston, High Urpeth, High Westwood, Hill End, Hill Top (Stanley), Hill Top (Teesdale), Hilton, Hobson, Holmside, Holwick, Horden, Horsleyhope, Houghall, Houghton Bank, Houghton-le-Side, Howden-le-Wear, Hummersknott, Hunderthwaite, Hunstanworth, Hunwick, Hurworth Place, Hurworth-on-Tees, Hury, Hutton Henry, Hutton Magna

I
Ingleton, Inkerman, Ireshopeburn, Iveston

K
Kelloe, Kepier, Killerby, Kimblesworth, Kinninvie, Kip Hill, Kirk Merrington, Knitsley

L
Laithkirk, Lanchester, Lanehead, Langdon Beck, Langley Moor, Langley Park, Langton, Lartington, Leadgate, Leamside, Leasingthorne, Leeholme, Lingfield, Lintz, Lintzgarth, Little Newsham, Little Stainton, Little Thorpe, Littletown, Longnewton, Low Coniscliffe, Low Dinsdale, Low Etherley, Low Walworth, Low Westwood, Lowes Barn, Ludworth, Lumley Thicks

M
Maiden Law, Mainsforth, Meadowfield, Medomsley, Merrybent, Metal Bridge, Mickleton, Middle Side, Middlestone, Middlestone Moor, Middleton (Hartlepool), Middleton-in-Teesdale, Middleton One Row, Middleton St George, Middridge, Moor End, Moorside, Mordon, Morley, Morton Tinmouth, Mount Pleasant (Spennymoor), Mount Pleasant (Stockton-on-Tees), Mowden, Muggleswick, Murton

N
Neasham, Nettlesworth, Neville's Cross, New Brancepeth, New Coundon, New House, New Hunwick, New Kyo, Newbiggin (Lanchester), Newbiggin (Teesdale), Newfield (Bishop Auckland), Newfield (Chester-le-Street), Newton Aycliffe, Newton Bewley, Newton Hall, Newton Ketton, No Place, North Bitchburn, North Close, North End, Northlea, Norton

O
Oak Tree, Oakenshaw, Old Cassop, Old Durham, Old Eldon, Old Quarrington, Old Stillington, Old Wingate, Ornsby Hill, Ouston, Ovington, Owton Manor, Oxhill

P
Page Bank, Parkside, Pelton, Pelton Fell, Perkinsville, Peterlee, Phoenix Row, Pickering Nook, Piercebridge, Pittington, Pity Me, Plawsworth, Pontop Pike, Port Clarence, Portrack, Preston-le-Skern, Preston-on-Tees

Q
Quaking Houses, Quarrington Hill, Quebec

R
Rainton Gate, Ramshaw (Bishop Auckland), Ramshaw (Consett), Redmarshall, Redworth, Rift House, Rise Carr, River Wear, River Tees, Roddymoor, Romaldkirk, Rookhope, Roseworth, Royal Oak, Rushyford,

S
Sacriston, Sadberge, Satley, Scargill, School Aycliffe, Seaham, Seaton, Seaton Carew, Sedgefield, Shadforth, Sheep Hill, Sheraton, Sherburn, Sherburn Hill, Shield Row, Shildon, Shincliffe, Shotley Bridge, Shotton (Peterlee), Shotton (Sedgefield), Shotton Colliery, Skerne Park, Snaisgill, Sockburn, South Church, South Hetton, South Moor, South Pelaw, South Side, South Stanley, South Wingate, Spennymoor, St Helen Auckland, St John's Chapel, Staindrop, Stainton, Stainton Grove, Stanhope, Stanhope and Tyne Railway, Stanley, Stanley Crook, Startforth, Station Town, Stillington, Stockton-on-Tees, Stockton and Darlington Railway, Stony Heap, Summerhouse, Sunderland Bridge, Sunniside, Sunny Brow

T
Tan Hills, Tanfield, Tantobie, The Dene, The Grove, The Headland, The Middles, The Slack, Thinford, Thornley (Durham), Thornley (Weardale), Thorpe Larches, Thorpe Thewles, Thringarth, Tindale Crescent, Todhills, Toft Hill, Toronto, Tow Law, Town Kelloe, Townfield, Trimdon, Trimdon Colliery, Trimdon Grange, Tudhoe, Tudhoe Grange, Tursdale, The Nook

U
Urlay Nook, Urpeth, Ushaw Moor

W
Wackerfield, Waldridge, Wall Nook, Walworth, Walworth Gate, Waskerley, Waterhouses, Weardale, Weardale Railway, Wearhead, West Auckland, West Blackdene, West Cornforth, West Kyo, West Lea, West Park (Darlington), West Park (Hartlepool), West Pasture, West Pelton, West Rainton, , Western Hill, Westerton, Westgate, Westwick, Wheatley Hill, Whinfield, White-le-Head, Whitton, Whitworth, Whorlton, Willington, Wingate, Winston, Witton Gilbert, Witton Park, Witton-le-Wear, Wolsingham, Wolviston, Woodham, Woodland, Woodside, Wycliffe

Royaume-Uni

Liste des villes du comté de Durham


Mūza Rubackytė (born May 19, 1959) is a Lithuanian pianist, currently residing in Vilnius, Paris and Geneva. Rubackytė has been awarded the Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas, Lithuanian Muzes, and has been named as the National Artist of Lithuania.

After diplomas at the Tchaikovsky Conservatory of Moscow, she was a prize-winner at the All Union Competition in St. Petersburg. In 1981 she won the Grand Prix at the Liszt-Bartok International Piano Competition in Budapest. Member of the Lithuanian resistance, she was only able to leave the USSR in 1989. In Paris she won First Prize at the Concours international Les Grands Maîtres Français, of the Triptyque Association, created by Ravel, Dukas and Roussel. In France, Mūza is invited to the prestigious festivals and concert places: Fêtes Romantiques- Nohant, Radio France-Montpellier, Musique en côte Basque, Festival Chopin-Paris, Bagatelle, Lisztomanias, Tons voisins… Gaveau, Champs Elysées, Unesco, Opéra Bastille, Capitole-Toulouse... Lisztienne in heart, she was one of the first pianists to perform the entire Liszt's Years of Pilgrimage in three concerts on the same day, alone or in the company of renowned actors.

She is also very welcome on the different stages around the world: London Wigmore Hall, Ópera de Santiago, Grand Rex, Opéra et Teatro Colón (Buenos Aires), Montevideo Sodre, Geneva Victoria Hall, Amsterdam Concertgebouw, Cairo and Alexandria Opéra, Bonn Beethoven Haus, St. Petersburg Philharmonic, Moscow Tchaikovsky Hall, Peking, Shanghai, New Zealand, Bermudes, Japan, Africa and South America.

Mūza is performing together with renowned conductors as Gergiev, Kogan, Kachidze, Jordania, Lano, Bay, Schermerhorn, Zimmermann, Segal, Slatkin, Nelson, Davis, Haendel, Fedoseyev, … and accompanied by Lausanne, Teatro Colon, Santiago Opera, Auckland National, Russian State, Capitole, Garde Républicaine, Ensemble Orchestral de Paris, Bretagne, Auvergne, Douai, Lorraine orchestras, as well as following orchestras from USA : Newport, Portland, Houston, Nashville, North Carolina, Canton, Austin, Virginia, Detroit, San Juan and Washington…

In 2012, she performed Resurrection - K. Penderecki's Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (homage to victims of 11 September 2001) in Puerto Rico, and again in 2013 at the opening of the 3rd Vilnius Piano Festival and in Warsaw for the master's 80th anniversary. In 2016, at Bogota Teatro Mayor, she performed the Concerto directed by Maestro K. Penderecki himself.

Mūza is regularly invited to be a member in the International competitions' jury: Liszt Competition in Utrecht and Weimar, Venice Piano Competition, Unisa in Pretoria, competitions in Minsk, Vilnius …

Professor of Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theater, teaching takes large place in her field of all activities. She also gives numerous masterclasses around the world and in particular – at the Liszt Academies in Budapest and Weimar.

In Lithuania, the President of the Republic awarded her with the Legion of Honor for her actions for independence and several decorations for her commitment as a cultural ambassador. In 2018, Mūza received Commander's Grand Cross of Order of Vytautas the Great. She is a founder and artistic director of Vilnius Piano Festival (founded for Vilnius – European Capital of Culture in 2009), which 6th edition was in November 2019. She is also holding the St. Christopher's award of Vilnius city.

Mūza, always up for the latest challenge, played complete Years of Pilgrimage at the Bayreuth Festival and Liszt Festival in Raiding, complete 24 Preludes and Fugues by Shostakovich at the Festival Radio-France-Montpellier, and F. Liszt's 12 Transcendental Etudes at the Radio France Montpelier Festival…

Her discography of more than 30 titles includes complete Years of Pilgrimage by Liszt (Lyrinx), 24 Preludes and Fugues by Shostakovich (Brilliant Classics), concertos for piano and orchestra by Beethoven, Liszt, Shostakovich, Prokofiev, Schnittke, Saint-Saëns for Great Lithuanian live recordings series (2015, Doron), works for piano solo by Louis Vierne (2015), as well as with string quartet and voice (2016, Brilliant Classics). In 2017, she released sonatas by Julius Reubke for piano and organ with Olivier Vernet (Ligia), and album De la Valse à l'Abîme by Schubert, Schubert/Liszt with Lyrinx. In 2019, two new CDs came to daylight: 6th Great Lithuanian live recordings with works for piano and orchestra by Bartok, Liszt and Schubert/Liszt (Doron) and album together with string quartet Mettis – Dramatic Russian Legacy – homage to Shostakovich and Weinberg (Ligia).

She holds various teaching positions at a number of educational institutions, including the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theater in Vilnius, Conservatoire Rachmaninoff in Paris, Tchaikovsky Conservatory in Moscow, Messiaen Academy of Music in the Netherlands. She has also been a judge at the Lithuanian International Piano Competition and International F. Liszt Piano Competition (Utrecht).

A native of Lithuania, Mūza Rubackytė was born into a family of musicians. At the age of 7, she made her professional debut in the capital city of Vilnius performing Haydn's D Major Piano Concerto with the Lithuanian National Chamber Orchestra. Six years later, she won the first prize in the National Young Artists Competition. The victory opened the doors to the Moscow Tchaikovsky Conservatory, where she studied under Yakov Flier, Mikhail Voskressensky and Bela Davidovitch. During her conservatoire period, she won the first prize in the Tallinn (Estonia) Piano Competition and shortly thereafter was awarded the Conservatory's first prize in solo piano, chamber music and accompaniment.

During the Soviet period, Mūza Rubackytė was not allowed to travel outside the Communist Bloc but performed with orchestras of the Baltic states, Ukraine, Armenia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Belarus, as well as the great ensembles of Moscow, Vilnius and St. Petersburg.  She has lived in Paris since 1991.

Selected recordings
 Camille Saint-Saëns, Piano concerto n°5, Mūza Rubackyté piano, the Lithuanian National Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Hanns-Martin Schneidt and Piano concerto n°2 (conducted by Alain Pâris). Live record. CD Doron music 2014

References

External links
 Lithuanian National Symphony Orchestra
 Lithuanian State Symphony Orchestra, official site
 Mūza Rubackytė homepage
 Interview with Mūza Rubackytė, October 20, 2005

Living people
Lithuanian music educators
Lithuanian classical pianists
Lithuanian women pianists
Recipients of the Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas
1959 births
Musicians from Vilnius
Academic staff of the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre
21st-century classical pianists
Lithuanian women music educators
Women classical pianists
21st-century women pianists

Mūza Rubackytė


Haplotype convergence is the unrelated appearance of identical haplotypes in separate populations, through either convergent evolution or random chance.

Description
Haplotype convergence is rare, due to the sheer odds involved of two unrelated individuals independently evolving exactly the same genetic sequence in the site of interest. Thus, haplotypes are shared mainly between very closely related individuals, as the genetic information in two related individuals will be much more similar than between unrelated individuals. Substitution bias further increases the likelihood of haplotype convergence, as this increases the probability of mutations occurring at the same site. Sequences may also diverge from the same original sequence and then revert, converging in this manner. Convergence through convergent evolution in two unrelated groups is much less common, as derived traits may arise through dramatically different pathways.

Erroneously determining two individuals do be identical due to haplotype convergence becomes much less likely when more genetic markers are tested, since that would require a larger amount of extremely rare coincidences. With modern high-throughput sequencing approaches, sequencing a large set of markers, or even the entire genome, is much more feasible and greatly minimizes these issues.

Examples
In some regions, due to low diversity in the Y-STR gene (often used to study surname origin), haplotype convergence may confuse analyses, concluding unrelated individuals to be very closely related.

Similarly, a study of New World mitochondrial DNA haplogroups observed that similarities in haplotypes between Native Americans and Asians were a result of the hypervariability of the HVSI region in mitochondrial DNA, rather than common ancestry.

As an example of haplotype convergence due to convergent evolution in more distantly related groups, threespine stickleback in blackwater environments similar to that of the ancient bluefin killifish and black bream independently evolved the same haplotype in the SWS2 gene, which promotes better eyesight in those conditions.

References

Evolutionary biology
Genetic genealogy

Haplotype convergence


The Czechoslovak passport was issued to citizens of Czechoslovakia for international travel. After Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the two countries started issuing their own passports.

History
Czechoslovak passport holders were required to obtain an exit visa starting 23 February 1948. In the summer of 1948, the directive was temporarily suspended;

In autumn 1951, however, the government mandated that all passports be confiscated, necessitating them to be sent to the Ministry for State Security in Prague. This move left thousands of Czechoslovaks around the world effectively stateless as their documents were confiscated by their local embassy/consulate-general. Thereon, passports were only issued to people who the Communist government saw fit to possess one. The Czechoslovak ambassador in the Soviet Union, Bohuslav Laštovička, protested the sudden change in policy.

Travelling outside of the Eastern Bloc became a near-impossibility as Czechoslovak identity cards were only valid for travel inside the Iron Curtain and obtaining a passport through legitimate means was practically impossible. In 1963, however, Czechoslovak citizens were given authorization to visit relatives in the West, and subsequently, the 1965 Act No. 63 on Passports made for a more liberal passport issuance regime.

See also
 Czech passport
 Slovak passport

References

Defunct passports
Foreign relations of Czechoslovakia

Czechoslovak passport


Ferroelectric ceramics is a special group of minerals that have ferroelectric properties: the strong dependence of the dielectric constant of temperature, electrical field, the presence of hysteresis and others.

The first widespread ferroelectric ceramics material, which had ferroelectric properties not only in the form of a single crystal, but in the polycrystalline state, i.e. in the form of ceramic barium titanate was BaO•TiO2, which is important now. Add to it some m-Liv not significantly change its properties. A significant nonlinearity of capacitance capacitor having ferroelectric ceramics materials, so-called varikondy, types of VC-1 VC-2, VC-3 and others.

References
 Гірничий енциклопедичний словник: в 3 т. / За ред. В. С. Білецького. — Донецьк: Східний видавничий дім, 2001–2004.

Materials science
Ceramic materials
Ferroelectric materials

Ferroelectric ceramics


In college athletics in the United States, schools typically join together in conferences for regular play.

National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)

National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA)

Other collegiate sports associations

In general
Association of Christian College Athletics (ACCA)
Central Plains Athletic Conference (CPAC)
Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC)
Liga Atletica Interuniversitaria de Puerto Rico (LAI)
Midwest Christian College Conference
National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA)
Northern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference
Pacific Christian Athletic Conference
United States Collegiate Athletic Association (USCAA)
Penn State University Athletic Conference
Yankee Small College Conference
Wisconsin Collegiate Conference

Boxing
National Collegiate Boxing Association (NCBA)

Cycling
Eastern Collegiate Cycling Conference (ECCC)

Gymnastics
East Atlantic Gymnastics League (EAGL) (women)
Eastern Intercollegiate Gymnastics League (EIGL) (men)

Lacrosse
See: :Category:College lacrosse leagues in the United States

Rowing
Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges (EARC) (men)
Eastern Association of Women's Rowing Colleges (EAWRC)

Sprint football
Collegiate Sprint Football League (CSFL)
Midwest Sprint Football League (MSFL) – starts play in 2022

Volleyball
Eastern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (EIVA) (men)
North East Collegiate Volleyball Association (men)

Water polo
Western Water Polo Association

Wrestling
Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association (EIWA)
National Collegiate Wrestling Association
Mid-Atlantic – Teams from Tennessee, the Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware
North Central – Teams from Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin
Northeast – Teams from New York, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Vermont
Northwest – Teams from Washington and British Columbia
Southeast – Teams from Florida, Alabama, Georgia and Mississippi
Southwest – Teams from Texas, Colorado, New Mexico, Louisiana, and Kansas
West – Teams from California, Nevada, Utah and Arizona

Junior colleges

National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA)
Alabama Community College Conference
Arizona Community College Athletic Conference
Arrowhead Conference
Bi-State Conference
Carolinas Junior College Conference
Eastern Pennsylvania Collegiate Conference
Garden State Athletic Conference
Georgia Junior College Athletic Association
Great Rivers Athletic Conference
Illinois N4C Conference
Illinois Skyway Collegiate Conference
Iowa Community College Athletic Conference
Kansas Jayhawk Community College Conference
Maryland Junior College Athletic Conference
Michigan Community College Athletic Association
Mid-Florida Conference
Mid Hudson Athletic Conference
Mid-State Athletic Conference
Mid-West Athletic Conference
Midwest Football Conference (NJCAA)
Minnesota College Athletic Conference
Mississippi Association of Community & Junior Colleges
MISS-LOU Junior College Conference
Missouri Community College Athletic Conference
Mon-Dak Conference
Mountain Valley Conference
NJCAA Region 9
Ohio Community College Athletic Conference
Nebraska Community College Athletic Conference
Northeast JC Football Conference
Panhandle Conference
Pennsylvania Collegiate Athletic Association
Southern Florida Conference
Scenic West Athletic Conference
Southwest Junior College Football Conference
Tennessee Junior & Community College Athletic Association
Western Junior College Athletic Conference
Western New York Athletic Conference
Western Pennsylvania Collegiate Conference
Western States Football League
Wisconsin Technical College Conference
Wyoming Community College Athletic Conference

Northwest Athletic Association of Community Colleges

Charter members
Centralia College - Centralia, Washington
Clark College - Vancouver, Washington
Everett Community College - Everett, Washington
Grays Harbor College - Aberdeen, Washington
Lower Columbia College - Longview, Washington
Mt. Vernon Junior College (now Skagit Valley College) - Mt. Vernon, Washington
Olympic College - Bremerton, Washington
Skagit Valley College (formerly Mt. Vernon Junior College)
Wenatchee Valley College - Wenatchee, Washington
Yakima Valley Community College - Yakima, Washington

Region members

Northern Region
Bellevue College - Bellevue, Washington
Douglas College - New Westminster, British Columbia
Edmonds Community College - Lynnwood, Washington
Everett Community College - Everett, Washington
North Seattle Community College - Seattle, Washington
Olympic College - Bremerton, Washington
Peninsula College - Port Angeles, Washington
Shoreline Community College - Shoreline, Washington
Skagit Valley College - Mount Vernon, Washington
Whatcom Community College - Bellingham, Washington

Southern Region
Chemeketa Community College - Salem, Oregon
Clackamas Community College - Oregon City, Oregon
Lane Community College - Eugene, Oregon
Linn-Benton Community College - Albany, Oregon
Mt. Hood Community College - Gresham, Oregon
Portland Community College - Portland, Oregon
Southwestern Oregon Community College - Coos Bay, Oregon
Umpqua Community College - Roseburg, Oregon

Eastern Region
Big Bend Community College - Moses Lake, Washington
Blue Mountain Community College - Pendleton, Oregon
Columbia Basin College - Pasco, Washington
Community Colleges of Spokane - Spokane, Washington
Treasure Valley Community College - Ontario, Oregon
Walla Walla Community College - Walla Walla, Washington
Wenatchee Valley College - Wenatchee, Washington
Yakima Valley Community College - Yakima, Washington

Western Region
Centralia College - Centralia, Washington
Clark College - Vancouver, Washington
Grays Harbor College - Aberdeen, Washington
Green River Community College - Auburn, Washington
Highline Community College - Des Moines, Washington
Lower Columbia College - Longview, Washington
Pierce College - Lakewood, Washington
South Puget Sound Community College - Olympia, Washington
Tacoma Community College - Tacoma, Washington

California Community College Athletic Association
Bay Valley Conference
Big Eight Conference (California)
Central Valley Conference
Coast Conference
Foothill Athletic Conference
Golden Valley Conference
Orange Empire Conference
Pacific Coast Conference (California)
South Coast Conference
Western State Conference

Sports lists

List of college athletic conferences


A Turkish name consists of an ad or an isim (given name; plural adlar and isimler) and a soyadı or soyisim (surname). Turkish names exist in a "full name" format. While there is only one soyadı (surname) in the full name there may be more than one ad (given name). Married women may carry both their maiden and husband's surnames. The soyadı is written as the last element of the full name, after all given names (except that official documents related to registration matters often use the format "Soyadı, Adı").

Given names

At least one name, often two but very rarely more, are given to a person at birth. Newly given names are allowed up to three words. Most names are gender-specific: Oğuz is strictly for males, Tuğçe only for females. But many Turkish names are unisex. Many modern given names (such as Deniz, "sea"; or Ülkü, "ideal") are given to newborns of either sex.

Among the common examples of the many unisex names in Turkey include Aytaç, Deniz, Derya, Evren, Evrim, Özgür, and Yücel. Unlike English unisex names, most Turkish unisex names have been traditionally used for both genders. However, some unisex names are used more for one gender (Derya is used more for girls, whereas Aytaç is used more for boys). Names are given to babies by their parents and then registered in "The Central Civil Registration System" (MERNIS) while preparing the baby's identity document at the birth registration office of the district's governorship.

Turkish names are often words with specific meanings in the Turkish language.

Most Turkish names can easily be differentiated from others, except those of other Turkic nations, particularly Azerbaijan (see Azerbaijani name), especially if they are of pure Turkic origin. The Law on the Adoption and Implementation of the Turkish Alphabet of 1928, in force as decreed by article 174 of the Constitution of Turkey, prescribes that only letters in the Turkish alphabet may be used on birth certificates. As the Turkish alphabet has no Q, W, X, or other symbols, names including those be cannot be officially given unless they are transliterated into Turkish.

Ideological concerns of the families can also affect naming behaviour. Some religious families give second names of Arabic origin, which can be names of important figures in the religion of Islam such as Muhammed and Ali. Some of these names have evolved in time, differentiating from the Arabic original, as in the case of Mehmet (although the original name [Muhammed] also began to be used after the switch to the Latin alphabet distinguished the two spellings). Another change is for linguistic reasons such as in the case of Vahdettin (from Vahideddin), Sadettin (from Sa'adeddin), or Nurettin (from Nureddin). In some cases, usage of names such as Deniz and Devrim may imply left-wing political views of parents (Deniz as a reference to revolutionary figure Deniz Gezmiş and Devrim literally meaning 'revolution').

Some Turkish people with a middle name are commonly referred to with just one of these names, while others are referred to with both. For example, the writer Ferit Orhan Pamuk is commonly known simply as Orhan Pamuk, but another writer, Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, is known with both given names. Many Turkish people with more than one given name, like Orhan Pamuk, are often known and called by the name preceding their surname, as opposed to Western naming conventions.

Some of the given names from earlier periods are still in use such as Öner.

Surnames

Until the introduction of the Surname Law in 1934, as part of Atatürk's Reforms, ethnic Turks who were Turkish citizens had no surnames. The law required all citizens of Turkey to adopt an official surname. Before that, male Turks often used their father's name followed by -oğlu ("son of"), or a nickname of the family, before their given name (e.g. Mustafa-oğlu Mehmet, Köselerin Hasan) before the modern era. The Turks who descended from a ruling house used -zade ("descendant in the male line"), e.g. Sami Paşazade Mehmet Bey ("Mehmet Bey, descendant/son of Sami Pasha").

The surname (soyad, literally "lineage name" or "family name") is an ancestry-based name following a person's given names, used for addressing people or the family. The surname (soyadı) is a single word according to Turkish law. It is not gender-specific and has no gender-dependent modifications. The soyadı is neither patronymic nor matronymic. Surnames in Turkey are patrilineal: they pass in the male line from father to his legal children without any change in form. Turkey has abolished all notions of nobility; thus, there is no noble form or type of surname.

Since 2014, women in Turkey are allowed to keep their birth names alone for their whole life instead of using their husbands' names. Before this date, the Turkish Code of Civil Law Article 187 required a married woman to compulsorily obtain her husband's surname after the marriage; or otherwise, to use her birth name in front of her husband's name by giving a written application to the marriage officer or the civil registry office. In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that prohibiting married women from retaining only maiden names is a violation of their rights.
After divorce, the woman returns to her pre-marriage surname. The court may grant a woman the right to keep her ex-husband's surname after divorcing; the court's decision must consider both the man's and the woman's situations. A woman may have only two surnames due to marriage. Thus, a woman who continues to use a double surname after divorcing, cannot take a third surname by marrying again.
The child of a family takes the "family name", which is his or her father's surname. A child takes their mother's surname if the mother is not married, or if the father is unknown.

Turkish citizens may change their surnames according to Turkish Civil Law and Turkish Law on Population Services via court decision of "civil court of first instance".

Most common names

Male

Female

Surnames

See also
 Azerbaijani name

References

External links
A mapping of the Turkish digital Diaspora, from recognizing Turkish names on Twitter (2013)
1020 Turkish names for boys in 2021
781 Turkish names for girls in 2021
Turkish Names
Behind the Name: Turkish Names, date of last access: August 9, 2008

Names by culture
Turkish language

Turkish name


Clássico dos Clássicos () is a derby between two crosstown football teams in the Brazilian city of Recife: Clube Náutico Capibaribe and Sport Club do Recife. It is the third oldest derby in Brazilian football (1909), just after Clássico dos Milhões and Grenal.

Background
Sport was created in 1905 by a falling out between Náutico members, renegade members leaving Náutico to create the new club.  The series of matches began in 1909.  A newspaper item in 1945 led to the current name for the derby.

The rivalry between the two clubs is intense and is reflected in part by the opposing teams' colors: the principal colors of Clube Náutico Capibaribe are red and white; those of Sport Club do Recife are red and black. The competitiveness has sometimes given rise to conflicts between the supporters of the teams, especially among organized members of the teams' fan clubs. Security has been a significant concern for the local authorities, involving large numbers of police and firefighters.

Statistics

Náutico has scored 644 and Sport has scored 704 goals.

Titles comparison

Highest attendance
1) Náutico 0 x 2 Sport, 80,203, March 15, 1998. Arruda Stadium.

References

External links
Official site
Official website

Football derbies in Brazil

Clássico dos Clássicos


WESTLOCK Interlocking is a Computer-based interlocking (CBI) product now sold and maintained by Siemens Mobility Limited, following their purchase of Westinghouse Rail Systems.

Westlock builds on many of the features that made SSI popular in the United Kingdom. This includes re-use of SSI's programming language and its track-side hardware.

In addition to backwards compatibility with SSI, Westlock provides additional capacity. This is currently estimated to be around four times that of an SSI, giving it the capability to control over 300 Signalling Equivalent Units (SEUs).

Leamington Spa was the test site for Westlock, and was its first operational site. It was also SSI's test site more than 20 years earlier.

Hardware

A Westlock system is divided into a number of components, called the Central Interlocking Processor (CIP), Trackside Interface (TIF) and Technicians Workstation (TW).

The hardware used by the TIF and CIP is similar, based around  a 2-out-of-3 architecture, whereby all safety-critical functions are performed in three separate processing lanes and the results voted upon. This provides some fault tolerance whereby a single module can fail and the system can continue operating in 2-out-of-2 mode.

Central Interlocking Processor (CIP)
A CIP consists of 3 main processor modules which perform the safety-critical interlocking functionality. In addition it possesses two communications modules which provide redundant Ethernet connectivity (duplicated for availability) and two digital input modules (duplicated for availability) which can service up to 32 local inputs.

Trackside Interface (TIF)
A TIF also contains 3 main processor modules and two Ethernet communications modules, but additionally has two SSI communications modules, which are used to interface to an SSI compatible data links. The TIF itself does not perform any interlocking functionality, it operates only as a protocol converter.

Technicians Workstation (TW)
The TW is provided to diagnose faults in the track-side equipment and also within the Westlock equipment. It provides a graphic interface which includes a map of the area of Railway under control and operates on an industrial PC platform.

References

Railway signalling control
Interlocking systems

Westlock Interlocking


Codiaeum is a genus of plants under the family Euphorbiaceae first described as a genus in 1824. It is native to insular Southeast Asia, northern Australia and Papuasia.

They are shrubs with leathery leaves and often confused with the genus Croton. Some species, especially Codiaeum variegatum, are cultivated as houseplants.

Species

formerly included
moved to other genera: Austrobuxus Baloghia Blachia Fontainea Sphyranthera Trigonostemon

References

Codiaeae
Euphorbiaceae genera

Codiaeum


Irvin Joel Vigo Guzmán (born November 24, 1984) is a Dominican professional baseball player. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Los Angeles Dodgers and Tampa Bay Devil Rays and in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) for the Chunichi Dragons.

Career

Los Angeles Dodgers
Guzmán signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers as an international free agent on July 2, 2001. He was signed for $2.25 million, a franchise record signing bonus. Guzmán worked his way through the minor leagues, becoming a top prospect. He was named the Dodgers Minor League Player of the Year in 2004 and was elected to the Florida State League All-Star Game. In 2005, he was named a Southern League All-Star, and ranked the fifth-best overall prospect by Baseball America. Guzmán also played in the All-Star Futures Game twice, in 2004 and 2006. With a jump to the Major League level predicted for the 2006 season, Dodgers manager Grady Little converted Guzmán to left field during spring training. With Rafael Furcal, César Izturis, and Oscar Robles already playing shortstops on the Dodgers major league roster, the position change was made in an attempt to give Guzmán increased opportunity to play with the Dodgers in 2006. He made his major league debut on June 1 of that year, as a defensive replacement in the eighth inning of a game against the Philadelphia Phillies. Guzmán grounded into a double play in his first at-bat in the bottom half of the inning.

Tampa Bay Rays
Guzmán was traded on July 31, 2006, to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays with Sergio Pedroza for Julio Lugo. He spent most of the 2007 season with the Triple-A Durham Bulls, but made his Devil Rays debut on August 19 against the Cleveland Indians. Guzmán recorded his first major league hit, a walk-off single off of Rafael Pérez, that day.

Minor league journeyman
He became a free agent at the end of the season and signed a minor league deal with the Washington Nationals on December 13, 2008. On February 4, 2010, the Baltimore Orioles signed Guzmán to a minor league deal, and he completed the 2010 season at the AA level playing for the Bowie Baysox. In December 2010 it was announced that he signed a deal to play in Japan for the Chunichi Dragons in 2011. He signed a minor league contract with the Cincinnati Reds for the 2012 season, and was released in June.

Guzmán played in the Mexican League in 2012 and 2013 and after not playing in 2014, he signed with the Camden Riversharks of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball for 2015.

Guzmán signed with the York Revolution of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball for the 2016 season.  He was released from the York Revolution on June 11, 2017.

References

External links

1984 births
Living people
Bowie Baysox players
Camden Riversharks players
Chunichi Dragons players
Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in Japan
Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in Mexico
Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in the United States
Durham Bulls players
Estrellas Orientales players
Great Falls Dodgers players
Gulf Coast Dodgers players
Harrisburg Senators players
Jacksonville Suns players
Las Vegas 51s players

Leones del Escogido players
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Major League Baseball players from the Dominican Republic
Major League Baseball third basemen
Mexican League baseball first basemen
Mexican League baseball right fielders
Nippon Professional Baseball first basemen
Nippon Professional Baseball right fielders
Olmecas de Tabasco players
Pensacola Blue Wahoos players
Saraperos de Saltillo players
South Georgia Waves players
Syracuse Chiefs players
Sugar Land Skeeters players
Tampa Bay Devil Rays players
Vaqueros Laguna players
Vero Beach Dodgers players
York Revolution players

Joel Guzmán


Current affairs is a type of broadcast

that analyzes and discusses recent News stories. This can include news that is still happening. Most of the discussion is on why, where, and how a story has happened.it tells you about the recent happenings
 This is different from normal news programs that report news stories as quickly as they can. They usually do not have as much analysis as current affairs programs. It is also different from the magazine show format, where events are discussed immediately. Current affairs shows are becoming less popular. The audience for these shows is usually over age 50.

References

Mass media
Journalism

Current affairs


Iron filings are very small pieces of iron that look like a dark gray powder. They are a common by-product of metalworking. Iron filing are often used in schools to show magnetic field lines. When filings are placed in a magnetic field, they become small magnets. This is because iron is a ferromagnetic material. The south pole of each particle attracts the north poles of its neighbors. In this way filings create chains parallel to the direction of the magnetic field.

Iron

Iron filings


Wild Fire is a 2006 novel by American author, Nelson DeMille. It is the fourth of DeMille's novels to feature Detective John Corey, now working as a contractor for the fictional FBI Anti-Terrorist Task Force in New York City. The novel is the sequel to Night Fall and takes place approximately one year later. Wild Fire is followed by DeMille's 2010 novel, The Lion.

Plot

Welcome to the Custer Hill Club—a men's club set in a luxurious Adirondack hunting lodge whose members include some of America's most powerful business leaders, military men, and government officials. Ostensibly, the club is a place to relax with old friends. But one fall weekend, the club's Executive Board gathers to talk about the tragedy of 9/11—and finalize a retaliation plan, known only by its codename: Wild Fire.

That same weekend, a member of the Federal Anti-Terrorist Task Force is found dead. Soon it's up to Detective John Corey and his wife, FBI Agent Kate Mayfield, to unravel a terrifying plot that starts with the Custer Hill Club and ends with American cities locked in the crosshairs of a nuclear device. Corey and Mayfield are the only ones who can stop the button from being pushed, and global chaos from being unleashed...

External links

Novels by Nelson DeMille
2006 American novels
Sequel novels
Warner Books books

Wild Fire (novel)


Juan Carlos Da Costa (1944—1976) was a Paraguayan writer, politician, activist, and leader of the clandestine Political Military Organization (OPM), created in the mid 1970s against General Alfredo Stroessner's dictatorship. He died fighting the police on 3 April 1976.

Youth and studies

Da Costa was born in Asunción in 1944, the son of a Bolivian mother and a Paraguayan father, Juan Da Costa, who took her to Asunción to live with him. He studied in the Colegio Nacional de la Capital, from which he was expelled in 1956. During his youth, he had was briefly active in the Liberal Party, and contributed to cultural magazines including Pendulum and Criterion.

He was imprisoned for the first time in August 1967, due to his resistance to the regime of President Alfredo Stroessner, who had taken power of the Republic of Paraguay in 1954 through a coup d'état. Da Costa was tortured in prison, and remained there until 1971 when he was deported to Argentina. Once in Argentina, he continued his attempts to create an organization to lead a revolution in Paraguay.

Exile

In Argentina, Da Costa established relations with many socialist organizations, mostly Montoneros. In 1973, he travelled to Salvador Allende's Chile and met with leaders of the Unidad Popular and the Revolutionary Left Movement. During those years, he began living with Nidia González Talavera, who would be his companion during the rest of the revolutionary struggle. In 1974 he entered Paraguay in secret, and began contacting and organising the first members of the organization that would become the OPM. The movement defined its political views as "revolutionary nationalism", a euphemism for a Leninist movement, which was willing to use guerrilla warfare to fight the dictatorship.

The OPM

Da Costa's leadership was fundamental to the growth of the organization in the capital and in certain farmer groups, many of them previously associated with the Ligas Agrarias Cristianas movement. During the next few years, the OPM grew unexpectedly quickly, but was unable to carry out much activity, though in the first few months of 1976 the organization was led by a small number of Paraguayans students who had studied in Corrientes, Argentina.

Death
In March 1976, OPM student activist Carlos Brañas was caught by border police in Encarnación, surprising the OPM as well as the police. After an investigation, the police learned about the OPM and its members, and the government responded with harsh repressive measures in which every OPM operative discovered led them to the next. On the night of 4 April 1976, the police intercepted Da Costa, Mario Schaerer Prono and his wife, Guillermina Kannonikoff, important leaders of the OPM, at a house in the Herrera neighbourhood of Asunción. The police entered the property and Da Costa died in the ensuing gunfight, after shooting the police commissioner, Alberto Buenaventura Cantero, in the chest. Shaerer Prono and Kannonikoff escaped through the back door of the house and hid in a nearby school where they both used to teach, but were turned in to police by a priest, with the promise that they would not be tortured. Years later, information from the Archives of Terror established that the police had tortured the prisoners nonetheless; Mario Shaerer Prono was tortured to death in the Department of Investigations, and Guillermina gave birth to their son during her imprisonment.

Legacy

The repression against the OPM continued during the next weeks, leaving 20 people dead and more than 1,500 people in jail, many of whom had no knowledge of the OPM. The events were labelled in the press as the "Painful Easter".

Juan Carlos Da Costa remained largely unknown to the public until the discovery of the Terror Archives in 1992. These previously classified documents detailed the repression and torture perpetrated by the police, as well as information about the many Paraguayan resistance activists who had been killed or imprisoned during this period.

References

 BOCCIA PAZ, Alfredo, "La década inconclusa. Historia real de la OPM", Editorial El Lector, Asunción, 1997
 BOCCIA PAZ, Alfredo, GONZALEZ, Myriam y PALAU, Rosa. "Es mi informe. Los archivos secretos de la Policía de Stroessner". Centro de Documentación y Estudios, Asunción, 1994.
 CAMPOS, Daniel y BORDA, Dionisio. "Las organizaciones campesinas en la década de los ochenta. Sus respuestas ante la crisis". CIPAE, Asunción, 1992.

External links
 La profecía autocumplida.
 Organización Política Militar Primero de Marzo

1944 births
1976 deaths
Paraguayan activists
Paraguayan politicians
Paraguayan non-fiction writers
Paraguayan male writers
Deaths by firearm in Paraguay
People shot dead by law enforcement officers
20th-century non-fiction writers
Male non-fiction writers

Juan Carlos Da Costa


Akhund (akhoond, akhwand, akhand) () is a Persian title or surname for Islamic scholars, common in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Azerbaijan. Other names for similar Muslim Scholar include Sheikh and Mullah.

The Standard Chinese word for Imam (), used in particular by the Hui people, also derives from this term. Other similar Chinese terms ( and ) also exist.

Duty
Akhunds are religious and spiritual leaders. They lead the prayers in the mosques, deliver religious sermons, perform religious ceremonies such as marriage rituals, birth rituals etc. Many of them were magistrates or justices of Sharia courts who also exercised extrajudicial functions, such as mediation, guardianship over orphans and minors, and supervision and auditing of public works. They also often teach in Islamic schools known in Iran as hawzas and in other countries as madrasas.

Akhunds will usually have completed higher studies on Islamic subjects such as Sharia, Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), Quran etc. They commonly dress in religious attire.

Old usage
In Iran, they are also called mullah, molavi, sheikh, haj-agha, or ruhani. The word ruhani means "spiritual, holy". Ruhani is considered a more polite term for Muslim clerics, used by Iranian national television and radio and by devout Muslim families. Akhund is increasingly outmoded in Iran, usually with only the older clerics having the title as part of their name. It has not been used widely as a title since the Qajar dynasty.

In Afghanistan, and among the Pashtuns of the Afghan-Pakistan border region, the term is still current in its original sense as an honorific.

Use in personal names
The Azerbaijani surname Akhundov (as in e.g. Mirza Fatali Akhundov) is formed from the word akhund.

Akhand is used as a surname among Bengalis.

Zeeshan Akhwand Khattak also uses this title with their personal name. Zeeshan Akhwand is a journalist and social worker from Karak, Pakistan.

See also
 Akhund Abdul Ghaffur
 Clericalism in Iran
 Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists
 Kyai, similar term in Indonesia
 Ulama
 Seghatoleslam

References

Further reading

External links

Islamic honorifics
Islamic Persian honorifics
Religious leadership roles
Titles in Afghanistan
Titles in Azerbaijan
Titles in Iran
Titles in Pakistan

Akhund


Theria (; ) is a subclass of mammals amongst the Theriiformes. Theria includes the eutherians (including the placental mammals) and the metatherians (including the marsupials) but excludes the egg-laying monotremes and various extinct mammals evolving prior to the common ancestor of placentals and marsupials.

Characteristics
Therian mammals give birth (see viviparity) to live young without a shelled egg. This is possible thanks to key proteins called syncytins which allow exchanges between the mother and its offspring through a placenta, even rudimental ones such as in marsupials. Genetic studies have suggested a viral origin of syncytins through the endogenization process.

The marsupials and the placental mammals evolved from a common therian ancestor that gave live birth by suppressing the mother's immune system. While the marsupials continued to give birth to an underdeveloped fetus after a short pregnancy, the ancestors of placental mammals gradually evolved a prolonged pregnancy.

Therian mammals no longer have the coracoid bone, unlike their cousins, monotremes.

Pinnae (external ears) are also a distinctive trait that is a therian exclusivity, though some therians, such as the earless seals, have lost them secondarily.

Evolution
The earliest known therian mammal fossil is Juramaia, from China's Late Jurassic (Oxfordian stage).  However, the age estimates of the site are disputed based on the geological complexity and the geographically widespread nature of the Tiaojishan Formations. Further, King and Beck in 2020 argue for an Early Cretaceous age for Juramaia sinensis, in line with similar early mammaliaformes.

A recent review of the Southern Hemisphere Mesozoic mammal fossil record has argued that triosphenic mammals arose in the Southern Hemisphere during the Early Jurassic, around 50 million years prior to the clade's earliest undisputed appearance in the Northern Hemisphere.

Molecular data suggests that therians may have originated even earlier, during the Early Jurassic. Therian mammals began to diversify 10-20 million years before the dinosaur extinction.

Taxonomy

The rank of "Theria" may vary depending on the classification system used.  The textbook classification system by Vaughan et al. (2000) gives the following:

In the above system Theria is a subclass.  Alternatively, in the system proposed by
McKenna and Bell (1997) it is ranked as a supercohort under the subclass Theriiformes:

Another classification proposed by Luo et al. (2002) does not assign any rank to the taxonomic levels, but uses a purely cladistic system instead.

See also
 Marsupials
 Marsupionta
 Monotremes
 Placental mammals

References

External links

 Theria — supercohort — Tree of Life

Mammal taxonomy
Extant Middle Jurassic first appearances
Taxa described in 1897
Taxa named by William Aitcheson Haswell

Theria


Sahadeva (Sanskrit: सहदेव) was the youngest of the Pandava brothers, the five principal protagonists of the epic Mahabharata. He and his twin brother, Nakula, were blessed to King Pandu and Queen Madri by invoking the twin gods Ashvins. Trained by Drona, Kripa and Brihaspati, Sahadeva is described to be skilled in swordsmanship and astrology, and also Neeti Sastra. He went on a war campaign to southern part of India to subjugate kingdoms for the Rajasuya sacrifice, after crowning his Pandava brother Yudhishthira as the emperor of Indraprastha. He was exiled for 13 years along with his Pandava brothers, when Yudhishthira lost all his possessions, his brothers, and their common wife Draupadi to Duryodhana of Kuru Kingdom of Hastinapura during a dice game played by the wily Shakuni, the maternal uncle of Duryodhana. During his one year incognito living, as part of 13 years exile, he disguised as a cowherd and served in the Kingdom of Virata.  During the 18-days Kurukshetra War, he slew many warriors including Shakuni. After the war, Yudhishthira appointed Sahadeva as the king of southern Madra. During his final journey of pilgrimage to the Himalayas, he succumbed en route, after Draupadi.

Etymology
The word sahadeva is derived from two Sanskrit words saha (सह) and deva (देव). Saha means with and deva is a Hindu term used for deity. So literally, Sahadeva means with Gods. Another meaning is thousand Gods. Sahadeva and his brother Nakula, are both called as Ashvineya (आश्विनेय), as they were born from Ashvins. In southern India, he was regarded as a very accomplished astrologer, a face reader and all other forms of intuitive perception, but because of his secretive nature in revealing anything though full knowing the situation he is called "Sahadeva" colloquially.

Birth and early years
Due to Pandu's inability to bear children (because of the curse of rishi Kindama), Madri had to use the boon given to Kunti by sage Durvasa to give birth, who invoked the Ashvini Kumaras to beget Nakula and Sahadeva. Though they were twins, they had altogether different charchterstics, physically and mentally. Nakula was born at sunrise while Sahadeva was born at sunset. Sahadeva was an occultist and Nakula was an Ayurvedic physician but both very valiant in warfare in archery and deft use of swords. When Nakula and Sahadeva were born, a divine voice had proclaimed: "[t]hese virtous and accomplished sons will transcend in energy and beauty even their celestial fathers."

Later, Pandu died due to his Kindama's curse when he attempted to make love with his wife. Madri handed over her children to Kunti and committed sati. Kunti raised him along with his brothers in Hastinapura with love and care. It is believed that Sahadeva was Kunti's favourite Pandava, in spite of not being her biological son.

The Pandava brothers along with their mother Kunti were escorted from their forest dwelling by Bhishma to Hastinapura to live with their uncle King Dhritarashtra who ruled over the Kuru Kingdom.

There is also a story that Pandu, father of Pandavas, when he was about to die had a premonition of his death revealed to his sons that his years of abstinence and meditation in the forest had blessed him with immense knowledge which is imbibed in his body. He instructed his sons saying: "When I die, eat my flesh and you will be blessed with all great knowledge. That shall be your true inheritance." But Pandu was cremated and hence Pandavas could not follow his instructions. Suddenly at the crematorium, Sahadeva saw ants crawling out with a piece of his father's body and he grabbed the ants and swallowed them. From then on Sahadeva imbibed knowledge of "everything of the past and even of future events". Eagerly, he went to his mother and his brothers to convey the knowledge he had acquired from his father. But he met a stranger, who was none other than Krishna, who advised him not to tom-tom or boast about the knowledge he had acquired. Sahadeva thus "knowing everything but is never able to tell anyone". Following this incident, Sahadeva acquired knowledge of various mystical sciences that helped him to predict future events. Even today, a secretive man who never reveals anything despite having full knowledge of a situation is colloquially referred as 'Sahadeva'.

In Hastinapura, Sahadeva and Nakula were instructed in the gurukula for 16 years by guru Dronacharya and Kripa in warfare and use of weapons such as bow and arrows and martial art. He also mastered his skills in fencing and axe fighting. At the end, Sahadeva alone also acquired the knowledge of Neeti Sastra (Essence of Statesmanship), astronomy and astrology, economics, and civil administration from Brihaspati, guru of the Devas during a two years travel through southern India.

Marriage and children
When the Pandavas and their mother, Kunti were in hiding after the event of Lakshagriha, Arjuna won Draupadi's hand in marriage. Sahadeva married her along with his brothers and had a son, Shrutasena who was killed by Ashwatthama in the Kurukshetra War.

He also married Vijaya the daughter of Dyutimata of Madra, who bore him one son, Suhotra.

Conquest and Rajasuya Yagna

Sahadeva was sent south by the eldest Pandava, Yudhishthira, to subjugate kingdoms for the Rajasuya sacrifice, after being crowned as the emperor of Indraprastha. He was specifically chosen for the southern campaign because of his expertise with the sword, and because Bhishma opined that Southerners are skilled with sword-fighting in general. A verse in the scriptures also mention that Sahadeva before his invasion south of Indraprastha, had forced tribute from Antioch, Rome and the City of the Greeks. His twin brother Nakula is said to have conquered the Huns along with Chinese to give tribute at the Rajasuya Yagna. The brothers including Sahadeva went for out in four directions for sbjugating other kingdoms and rulers and collected huge bounties which enriched the treasury of Indraprastha Kingdom immensely. The Mahabharata mentions several kingdoms to the south of Indraprastha which were conquered by Sahadeva. Some of them are as under:
Surasenas
Pandyan Dynasty
Matsya, the king Dantavakra, kings Sukumara, Sumitra, other Matsyas and Patacharas.
Kings of Lanka who claimed to be descendants of Vibhishana, the king of Lanka and brother of Ravana. He offered him diverse kinds of jewels and gems, sandalwood, celestial ornaments, costly apparel and valuable pearls.
At Kishkindha, the monkey-kings Mainda and Dwivida were defeated in a 7-day war.
City of Mahishmati, which was ruled by King Nila. Since the kingdom had the blessings of Agni, a huge fire obstructed the army when Sahadeva tried to invade; later prayer to Agni enabled Sahadeva to complete the conquest.
 King Rukmi of Vidarbha and territories of Bhojakata
Nishadas, the hill of Gosringa and King Sreenimath.
 Navarashtra, under King Kunti-Bhoja
 King Jamvaka, on the banks of the river Charmanwati.
 Territories lying on the banks of the Venwa.
 Kingdoms that lay on the banks of the Narmada.
 Avanti, kings called Vinda and Anuvinda, a town of Bhojakata
 King of Kosala
 King of Tripura
 King of Saurashtra
 Surparaka kingdom, Talakatas and Dandakas
 Mlechchha tribe living on the sea coast, Nishadas, the cannibals, Karnapravarnas, and the Kalamukhas (a cross between human beings and Rakshasas) and the whole area of the Cole mountains.
 Surabhipatna and the island called the Copper island, and a mountain called Ramaka.
 The town of Timingila and a wild tribe is known by the name of the Kerakas who were men with one leg.
 The town of Sanjayanti, countries of the Pashandas, Karahatakas, Paundrayas, Dravidas, Udrakeralas, Andhras, Talavanas, Kalingas and Ushtrakarnikas, Sekas and Yavanas
 Paurava kingdom

The venue and other aspects related to the conduct of the Rajasuya Yagna was elaborately done under the stewardship of Bhishma. He ordained that the person who deserves the honour of the first sacred arghya of the Yagnya would be Krishna who commands the qualities of a Brahma and Kshatra, of a rishi, a yogi and a king. He immediately signalled to Sahadeva to begin the proceedings by washing the feet of Krishna as the first recipient to receive sacred arghya, in form of the water of the Sarasvati. Sahadeva was too happy to perform this task. He went to Krishna, placed his feet lovingly in a flat vessel and poured the holy water of the Saraswati river mixed with five sacred herbs on Krishna's feet, he then touched his feet to his forehead and proceeded to dry them with a towel. After drying he proceed to apply sandal paste to them and to venerate him with a form of worship offered to the first among equals in a yagna.

Exile
Following Yudhishthira's loss in the game of dice meant that all Pandavas including Draupadi had to live in exile for 13 years with last year in Agnatavas (incognito). p. 214

As the Pandavas departed Hastinapura, the entire populace of the city had lined along the streets in grief. Sahadeva had then smeared his face with mud thinking "none should recognise me in this hour of calamity". Nakula covered himself with ashes. Arjuna scattered sands to symbolize the countless arrows he would let loose in battle, Bhima walked with his hands outstretched to indicate to people that no one could equal him, and Yudhishthira had covered his face. Kunti had appealed to Draupadi to take care of her son Sahadeva as he holds a special place in her heart; Draupadi had left Hastinapura along with the Pandavas wearing a single safron cloth with her hair disheveled. p. 214

During their exile, travelling on pilgrimage from place to place, Sahadeva and his brothers were living at Vadarika (also known to be Badarikasrama). A rakshasa named Jatasura was also living amidst them in disguise of a learned Brahmin, and enjoying their hospitality. Suddenly, when Bhima was away from the camp on a hunting trip, Jatasura assumed the form of a demonic rakshasa and forcibly abducted Yudhishthira, Nakula, Sahadeva, and Draupadi, with the objective of seizing their weapons. Sahadeva somehow extricated himself from the clutches of Jatasura and attacked him with his sword, and at the same time calling out to Bhima for help. Jatasura also counter attacked Sahadeva. A long fight ensued between them, and Sahadeva initially felled Jatasura to the ground. Sahadeva had then thrown his axe at him but Jatasura rose up and gave a hard slap to Sahadeva and threw him to the ground; Yudhisthira, Nakula and Draupadi were distressed and told Jatasura that his death was near. Sahadeva and Jatasura continued the fight by uprooting trees and throwing them at each other, and at one stage, Sahadeva by throwing his axe had cut off the Jata or hair tuft by which the rakshasa was known as Jatasura, which infuriated him further. The rakshasa then, with magical powers, as a mayavi, had assumed immense proportions and relentlessley attacked and injured Sahadeva. But then Bhima appeared on the scene eventually, and challenged Jatasura, asking his brothers to keep away. In a very fierce fight, Bhima hit Jatasura's head with his mace and slayed him. Sahadeva and his brother Nakula with their brothers Bhima and Yudhishthira then trekked to a nearby lake, which was surrounded by a herbal forest, where they nursed their wounds.

In the 13th year, Pandavas collectively decided that the Virata Kingdom of king Virata would be an ideal place for them to hide in disguise. The day after Draupadi's entrance into Virata's palace as Sairandhri, 'an expert maid', in the name of Malini, employed by Queen Shudeshna, Sahadeva made his way into the city dressed as a cowherd. He arrived at one cow posture in the region of Virata's palace. The king happened to be visiting his herd and was present when he saw a handsome well built man clad in a cowherd's dress, and speaking the dialects of the cowherds. Beholding him the king was struck with amazement. He asked Sahadeva, "To whom dost though belong" and whence though come; What work dost though seek: I have never seen thee before." Sahadeva replied saying that he was a Vaisya, Arishtinemi by name, and was earlier in the employment of Kuru King Yudhishthira, the eldest of the five sons of Pandu and had tended to eight hundred thousand cattle and that people used to call him 'Tatripala' (Pandavas however called him Jayadbala), and that he knew the present, the past and the future of all kine (cows) living within ten yojanas (). He also told the king the means by which kine population could be multiplied in a short time, and that he liked the work of taming, milking and breeding cattle. Impressed with the resume narrated by Sahadeva, King Virata employed him in his palace as the chief cowherd who supervised the maintenance and upkeep of all cows in his kingdom, while his elder brothers assumed different roles in disguise to work in Virata's court. Yudhishthira assumed the identity of game entertainer to the king and called himself Kanka, Bhima was the cook Ballava, Arjuna taught dance and music as eunuch Brihannala and dressed as a woman, and Nakula tended horses as Granthika. In Virata's kingdom, the Pandavas in disguise had a very hilarious but entertaining time but also a mini war erupted when Duryodhana was trying to locate them so that he could send them back to exile again, which ultimately revealed their identity at the end of the Agnyatavasa period of one year. p. 606.

With the all powerful brother-in-law of King Virata, Kichaka's death at the hands of Bhima due to his lascivious behaviour towards Sairanadri (Draupadi), Virata was weakened. Then scenting that Pandavas were hiding in the Virata's court, Susharma, King of Trigatas and the Kauravas invaded Matsya Kingdom successively, not only captured Virata but also robbed him of his immense cattle wealth. Virata, with the help of the four Pandavas in his employment, Yudhisthira, Bhima, Nakula and Sahadeva defeated Susharma and freed King Virata. Meanwhile, the Kurus in cohets with Susharma, robbed Virata's kingdom of sixty thousand cattle. However, they were defeated by Arjuna, with Prince Uttara, son of Virata as a charioteer. The Kurus, including Karna, were humiliated and returned the cattle to Virata and went back to Hastinapura. It was also the last day of the one year agnyatavasa of the Pandavas, and when they revealed their true identity to King Virata and Kauravas.

Role in the Kurukshetra War
With the Pandavas finishing their Agnyatavasa in Virata's Kingdom and King Virata welcoming them heartily as his allies, and assuring them all help to get back their territory from the Kauravas, the issue of division of the Kuru Kingdom became a matter of deep debate concern. Krishna, Yudhishthira and his mother Kunti wanted the issue of sharing the Kingdom of Hastinapura with Kauravas be negotiated by Krishna and as a last resort propose to Duryodhna and his father Dhritarashtra to at least give them five provinces – Kushasthal, Vrikosthal, Asanti, Varnavat and any other of their choice if they do not agree to part with Indrapratha kingdom which the Pandavas had established and had lost it to Duryodhana in an unfair dice game. None of the Pandavas were hopeful of a solution and each had an axe to grind against the Kauravas and felt that war was inevitable. But Sahadeva told Krishna in a cynical way, with 'tongue in cheek'  to first break Shakuni's dice and kill Shakuni or cut-off Draupadi's hair as she would have nothing to tie up and her vow would be futile or even tie up Krishna up so that he will not be up to his tricks. Krishna's mission for mediation failed and there was even an attempt by Duryodhana to imprison him.

Then Duryodhana declared that war was the only course left and meets his father to fix an auspicious date and muhurtha to start the war at Kurukshetra. He first asks his uncle Shakuni to tell him the right time to start the war but he is unable to do it. Then Shakuni suggests the name of Sahadeva as the best astrologer in the country to be consulted. Before the war, Duryodhana went to the camp of Pandavas near the battle ground, on the advice of Shakuni, approached Sahadeva seeking the right time (muhurta) to start the Mahabharata war so that the Kauravas would be victorious. Duryodhana offered to spare the life of Sahadeva and his twin after the war, and make them kings in exchange and promised them Indraprastha as their kingdom. Sahadeva declined his offer but disclosed the date for the war in spite of knowing that Kauravas were their enemy, as Sahadeva was known to be very honest in his profession. Then, Krishna planned to create an eclipse much before the beginning of the war. In the meantime, both Sun and Moon got shocked by Krishna's thoughts and appeared before Krishna stating that this will create a huge imbalance in the entire Universe temporarily; as the appearance of the Moon would happen as an illusion a day earlier. Then, Krishna declared that as Earth, Moon and Sun are together in one place, this in itself was an eclipse. Even before the great war, Duryodhana would always ask Sahadeva about his future and Sahadeva would tell his future. He was the most favourite Pandava of Duryodhana. When King Dhritarashtra asked his devoted advisor Sanjay, who had the gift of seeing events at a distance (divya-drishti) right in front of him, about the credentials of Sahadeva, Sanjaya described Sahadeva as the "non-demanding, non-egoistic, non-covetous bhakth".

As the Pandavas assembled an army of seven akshouhinis for the war, seven generals were considered to select a Chief of this army – Drupad, Virata, Dhristadyumna, Shikandi, Satyakim Chekitana, Ghatotkacha and Bhima. Then Sahadeva, the wise diplomat, was asked for his opinion. He suggested the name of King Virata of Matsya Kingdom for this honour as he considered him a valiant king skilled in weaponry who could stand up to Bhishma and other Maharathis in the Kaurava army. Arjuna suggested the name of Dhristadyumna who was a very colourful warrior, mighty-armed, and radiant who could challenge Bhishma. In the end, Yudhishthira and Arjuna opted for Dhristadyumna.

Just before the Kurukshetra war started, another tragic event that took place on the bank of a river was of Karna donating his Kavach (breast plate armour) and Kundala (ear-rings) that were glued to his chest since birth, as a protection of immortality, and made him an invincible warrior; an old Brahmin appeared before Karna on the river bank and had asked Karna to give his Kavach and Kundala as a gift; the old Brahmin was none other than demi-god Indra, in disguise. This act was done intentionally to weaken the strength of Karna in the ensuing war against Arjuna. But as a compensation, Indra gave him a weapon, a missile, called 'Vassavi Shakthi' that could only be used once and would kill any mortal or immortal.

Because of forcible peeling of the kavacha from Karna's chest, his chest started bleeding and he collapsed into an unconscious state. Kunti, who was watching this numbing incident, rushed to help Karna, and Karna's foster parents, Adhiratha and Radha, also reached there. Radha insisted that Kunti should call her sons who were proficient in Ayurvedic herbal treatment to cure Karna. Kunti then sent messengers to fetch Nakula and Sahadeva to come and help. They came and saw Karna in a distressful state but were hesitant to help Karna as he was in their enemy camp and had resolved to kill their brother Arjuna. They even wondered why Kunti should be helping him at all as if he was her own son. On Kunti's pleadings, Sahadeva relented and prepared an herbal paste and applied to the wound and also gave an oral decoction to drink which Kunti forced on her unconscious son. With this treatment Karna soon regained consciousness and was taken to his house in Hastinapura. Karna's mother Radha prostrated to Sahadeva and thanked him for helping Karna. Then, Dhriatrashtra coming to know of this incident through the vision of his advisor Sanjay, called Sahadeva to his palace and thanked him, and also enquired him about his Divya drishti.

As a warrior, Sahadeva slew prominent warriors of the enemy side. The flag of Sahadeva's chariot bore the image of a silver swan. His conch was called Manipushpaka which he blew at the beginning of the war. The bow which he used in the war was known as Ashwina. He defeated 40 brothers of Duryodhana while fighting them simultaneously. On the 13th day, his advance into the Chakravyuha was stopped and repelled by Jayadratha. On the night of the 14th day, Sahadeva was defeated by Karna but his life was spared as Karna had made a promise to Kunti that he would only kill Arjuna.

During the gambling loss, Sahadeva took an oath of slaying Shakuni. He accomplished this task successfully on the 18th day of battle. While the war was in full swing, and Sahadeva was fighting Kripa, he saw Shakuni attacking the Pandava army. His fury revived, he first killed Shakuni's son Uluka and he called out to Shakuni and challenged him to a fight. Shakuni in grief on the loss of his son, and in great fury attacked Sahadeva with three arrows and also threw a scimitar at him. Sahadeva responded relentlesly and was even hurt. Then when faced with ferocios occult powers, Shakuni created illusory magical tricks played by Shakuni, when Sahadeva was in loosing stage, he had no alternatiave but to call for Krishna who was steering fight of Arjuna in another front. Krishna then remotely foiled Shakuni's magical strikes.

At this stage of the war, Draupadi in her ferocious look with loose tresses and clad in blood-red cloth made an illusory presence before Shakuni in his chariot which chilled him to the bone. Shakuni found to his utter dismay that his dice had turned to ashes. He was numbed with terror. Thus, Draupadi had marked him for death.

Then Shakuni was pursued relentlessly and slayed by Sahadeva, recalling to him of his dastardly act of the dice game engineered by him which resulted in humiliation of Draupadi in the court, by an attempt to disrobe her. He severed Shakuni's head with a broad headed arrow made of hard iron which was capable of penetrating every armour. There was great rejoicing in the Pandava camp as Shakuni was the chief villain of the Mahabharata war.

With Shakuni's death at the hands of Sahadeva, Duryodhana runs away in fear from the battle field and hides in a lake. Then Sahadeva calls to Duryodhana to come out of the lake and take the armour (kavacha) sent by his mother through him with her blessings. He tells him to wear it before his fight with Bhima.

Later life and death

After the war, Yudhishthira appointed Nakula as king of Northern and Sahadeva as the Kings of southern Madra. Suhotra, son of Sahadeva from his wife Vijaya, would eventually be crowned as the heir to the Madra Kingdom.

Upon the onset of the Kali Yuga and the departure of Krishna, the Pandavas retired. Giving up all their belongings and ties, the Pandavas, accompanied by a dog, made their final journey of pilgrimage to the Himalayas seeking heaven. Except for Yudhishthira, all of the Pandavas grew weak and died before reaching heaven. Sahadeva was the second one to fall after Draupadi. When Bhima asked Yudhishthira why Sahadeva fell, Yudhishthira replied that Sahadeva took much pride in his wisdom.

Associated temples

Thrikodithanam Mahavishnu Temple is one of the five ancient shrines in the Kottayam-Alappuzha-Pathanamthitta area of Kerala, connected with the legend of Mahabharata, where the five Pandavas are believed to have built one temple each. This temple has in it the Vishnu image consecrated by Sahadeva. It is one of the 108 Divya Desam temples dedicated to Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, who is worshipped as Mahavishnu.

In the media
In Mahabharat (1988 TV series), Sanjeev Chitre acted as Sahadeva
 In 2013 version of the Mahabharata, Sahadeva was portrayed by Lavanya Bhardwaj
In the TV show Suryaputra Karn, Suchit Vikram Singh acted as Sahadeva
In Radhakrishn (2018–) tv show, Sahadeva was portrayed by Vikas Singh

References

Characters in the Mahabharata
Pandavas

Sahadeva


American pioneers were European American and African American settlers who migrated westward from the Thirteen Colonies and later the United States to settle in and develop areas of North America that were occupied by Native Americans.

The pioneer concept and ethos greatly predate the migration to the Western United States, with which they are commonly associated, and many places now considered "East" were settled by pioneers from even further east. For example, Daniel Boone, a key figure in American history, settled in Kentucky, when that "Dark and Bloody Ground" was still undeveloped.

One important development in the Western settlement was the Homestead Act, which provided formal legislation for the settlers which regulated the settlement process with little concern for the Native inhabitants on the land.

Etymology
The word "pioneer" originates with the Middle French pionnier (originally, a foot soldier, or soldier involved in digging trenches), from the same root as peon or pawn. In the English language, the term independently evolved a sense of being an innovator or trailblazer. As early as 1664, Englishman John Evelyn used the term with a self-effacing "workman" meaning when he wrote in his treatise on planting, Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees: "I speak now in relation to the Royal Society, not my self, who am but a Servant of it only and a Pioneer in the Works".

Pioneers

Various figures in American folklore and literature typify the pioneer.  James Fenimore Cooper's The Deerslayer (1841) became the most successful of his early series, the Leatherstocking Tales, about pioneer life in the Province of New York.  Laura Ingalls Wilder's Little House on the Prairie series, published a century later in 1932–1943 but set in the 1870s and 1880s, typified later depictions of pioneer families. Daniel Boone (1734–1820) and Davy Crockett (1786–1836) became two real-life icons of pioneer history.

Historic details and episodes

History of settlement efforts

The first westward migrations  occurred as members of the Thirteen Colonies sought to expand their respective colonies westward. Those whose original royal charters did not specify a western limit simply extended their lands westward indefinitely.

After the United States was officially formed upon the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, federal coordination and legislation began to give settlement a more unified approach.

The Land Ordinance of 1785 was the first official action by the federal government in deciding how political organization of new territories would be handled. Then in 1787 the Northwest Ordinance declared that states could not individually claim new lands, and that westward expansion would be handled by the federal government. In implementing the Land Act of 1804, the government took its first steps towards legislating the manner in which land would be individually claimed by and distributed to settlers.

One federal effort to encourage western travel and settlement was the publication of The Prairie Traveler in 1859, three years before the Homestead Act was passed. Randolph B. Marcy, Captain of the U.S. Army, was commissioned by the War Department to provide a guide for those moving west. It provided not only mileage and stopping points during travel, but also gave advice about what to take on the journey, how to interact with Native Americans and also how to respond to threatening situations such as encounters with bears.

There were many other forms of this process, such as land runs including the Land Run of 1889, when parts of the territory of Oklahoma were first made available to settlers on a first-come, first-serve basis.

Details of pioneer efforts and actions
As western settlement grew, certain trends began to emerge. Most pioneers traveled in wagon trains with their families and other settlers, banding together for defense and to spread the workload.

Pioneers in the East often had to clear the land, owing to lush forests there. In the Midwest, the task was to bring agricultural fertility to the Great Plains.

Some pioneers moved westward with the intent of claiming land for their families. Others, such as trappers, moved west for commercial reasons, and then remained there when their businesses proved to be profitable.

Popular culture and folklore

The figure of the pioneer has historically played a role in American culture, literature and folklore. The pioneer is similar to other iconic figures involved in stories of the "settlement of the West," such as the cowboy, trapper, prospector, and miner; however, the pioneer is distinct in that he represents those who went into unexplored territory in search of a new life, looking to establish permanent settlement.

Various figures in American folklore and literature typify the pioneer. The Deerslayer was the most successful of an early series, the Leatherstocking Tales, about pioneer life in New York.  Little House on the Prairie, a century later, typified a later series of novels describing a pioneer family. Daniel Boone and Davy Crockett are two real-life icons of pioneer history.

See also

 American frontier
 American pioneers to the Northwest Territory
 American West
 Donation Land Claim Act of 1850
 Frontiersman
 Land Act of 1804
 Manifest Destiny
 Military Tract of 1812
 Mormon pioneers
 Preemption Act of 1841
 Public Land Survey System

References

History of United States expansionism

American pioneer


In chemistry, a salt is any neutral chemical compound made of cations (positive ions) attached to anions (negative ions). The main kind of salt is sodium chloride with the chemical formula NaCl. It is formed when hydrochloric acid is added in sodium hydroxide. The reaction is as follows
HCl+NaOH2 gives NaCl+H20+heat

Mixtures of salts in water are called electrolytes. Electricity is able to pass through electrolytes, as well as molten salts.

Salts can melt ice, because salts lower the temperature needed for liquid to freeze. Because of that, streets are sometimes treated with salt in winter, if the temperature is only a little below freezing.

A salt can also be explained as an ionic compound which dissociates, forming a positive ion other than hydrogen ion, and a negative ion other than hydroxyl ion.

History
Because many germs cannot live in salt, it has been used to preserve food. Its use as a food preservative helped large amounts of food to be stored, sent a long way, and eaten all through the year. This helped populations to grow, cities to develop, and soldiers in wars to be fed. Salt was probably used in Egypt as long ago as 4000 BC. In ancient times, salt was more valuable than it is now, because it was hard to get in many places, and could be used not only to give foods flavor, but also to make them last longer. It allowed food to be kept past its season, and taken on long trips.

People often traded salt for other things. It was of high value in China, Turkey, the Middle East, and Africa. In the Mediterranean area, including Ancient Rome, salt was even used for money. The word salary comes from the Latin word for salt, because they paid people in salt. After people learned how to get salt from the ocean, salt became cheaper. The Phoenicians were some of the first to figure out how to do this, by pouring seawater on dry land. Then when it dried, they collected the salt and sold it.

Another use of salt was in war, as a way to punish a city by ruining its crops. This is called "salting the Earth". The Assyrians are said to have been one of the first to have done this to their neighbours.

Looks

Color
Salts can be found in all different colours: yellow (sodium chromate), orange (potassium dichromate), red (mercury sulphide), mauve (cobalt chloride hexahydrate), blue (copper sulfate pentahydrate, ferric hexacyanoferrate), green (nickel oxide), colorless (magnesium sulphate), white (titanium dioxide), and black (manganese dioxide). Most minerals and inorganic pigments, as well as many synthetic organic dyes, are salts.

See also Table salt

References

Basic English 850 words
Sodium compounds
Chemical compounds

Salt


Venetian Snares x Daniel Lanois is a collaborative album by breakcore musician Aaron Funk (aka Venetian Snares) and guitarist–producer Daniel Lanois released on May 4, 2018, by Timesig.

Background
Lanois discovered Funk's music through the 2005 album Rossz Csillag Alatt Született and was intrigued by his music. Lanois was motivated to reach out to Funk because he realised "he knew something I didn't and I always like to work with people who know how to do something I don't."

Venetian Snares x Daniel Lanois was recorded during three sessions in Lanois' Toronto studio in a largely improvisational style. Lanois said that whilst putting together the album, he and Funk listened through the improvised recordings and looked for "magic sections, made note of them, hooked them up with another magic section and built an arrangement with that process [...] Cut the crap and keep the great." Regarding the creation of the album, Lanois stated that he "really believed when we were making this record that we were pushing the envelope of convention."

In March 2017, Funk announced via Facebook that he and Lanois were working on a collaborative album and would be performing together later in the year. In February 2018, the album name and track listing were announced and the release date was confirmed to be May 4, 2018.

Critical reception

Venetian Snares x Daniel Lanois received generally favourable reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 76, based on ten reviews.

In a positive review for AllMusic, Paul Simpson described the album as "an uneasy but fascinating soundclash, with Funk's modular synthesizers and tumultuous breakbeats offset by Lanois' soothing pedal steel vistas." He praised the track "Mothors Pressroll P131," for containing "the hardest, nastiest breaks Funk has delivered in years" and "Night MXCMPV1 P74" for its "soothing guitar and synths forming a blanket around the scattered yet controlled micro-breaks." The review concludes: "At 33 minutes, the album is an intense but abrupt ride, with both musicians soaring into bold new territories." Daryl Keating of Exclaim! called the album a "beautiful, symbiotic relationship" and praised the album for its mixture of traditional instruments and electronics stating "The woozy pedal steel guitar that Lanois wields seems to be puttering away in the background for a while, but eventually you begin to realize that those unassuming melodies are the driving force behind all the tracks." Andy Beta of Pitchfork praised moments on the album where "humanly impossible rhythms are melded to melodic yet melancholic undercurrents" and concludes "Lanois and Funk demonstrate that even the briefest pause can reveal a more becalmed state of being lying just beneath all the noise and bustle."

Many critics argued that Lanois and Funk's differing styles complemented one another on Venetian Snares x Daniel Lanois. Writing for PopMatters, John Garratt calls the collaboration a "beautifully deadly combination" and notes "Even if Lanois and Funk are seemingly working towards opposite ends, the sonic marriage of the two becomes easier to process with each listening. If you are new to breakbeat, Venetian Snares x Daniel Lanois is more likely to plant a glitch seed in your brain rather than convert you overnight." Ben Devlin of musicOMH gave the album four stars out of five but critiqued its short runtime: "the brevity of Venetian Snares X Daniel Lanois is a tad disappointing, as several of these tracks could have been extended. It is, however, a surprisingly cohesive listen and the sound design is at a typically high standard for both artists. Lanois and Snares are an unorthodox pairing, and the former's fans may have mixed reactions to the latter's noisy beats, but they complement each other well, and what could have been just a niche curiosity is instead a real treat."

However, Tristan Kneschke of Tiny Mix Tapes described the album as "unsavoury" arguing that "each artist's style comes from a different planet, and those styles don't mix well when thrown together." He goes on to write that the resulting sound is "schizophrenic" and concludes "Their pairing is like eating apple pie topped with cheddar cheese: some are sure to find enjoyment in the combination, but for the rest of us, these pairings are best avoided." Philippa Nicole Barr of Drowned in Sound opines that "rather than [the album] being a true collaborative effort [...] they have both brought together their own sounds and layered them on top of one another" and that "the moments of unity sound accidental and haphazard". Similarly, Andy Beta of Pitchfork writes of the album "Given their drastically different approaches to space, the album doesn't quite balance out as a true collaboration", however, he argues that "as an overlay of their sensibilities, it still provides for some striking moments".

Year-end lists

Track listing
Track listing adapted from Apple Music.

Pre-order bonus disc

References

Further reading

External links

 Bandcamp

2018 albums
Breakcore albums
Venetian Snares albums
Daniel Lanois albums
Planet Mu albums

Venetian Snares x Daniel Lanois