A jengu (pl. miengu) is a water spirit in the traditional beliefs of the Sawabantu groups of Cameroon, like the Duala, Bakweri, Malimba, Subu, Bakoko, Oroko people. Among the Bakweri, the term used is liengu (plural: maengu). Miengu are similar to bisimbi (singular: simbi) in the Bakongo spirituality and Mami Wata. The Bakoko people use the term Bisima.

Described as mermaid-like spirits, they live in rivers and the sea, bringing good fortune to those who worship them. They can also cure disease and act as intermediaries between worshippers and the world of spirits. For this reason, a jengu cult has long enjoyed popularity among the Duala peoples. Among the Bakweri, this cult is also an important part of a young girl's rite of passage into womanhood.

The water spirit

Appearance
The description of miengu varies by ethnic group, but they are typically said to be beautiful, mermaid-like beings with long hair and beautiful gap-teeth.

Beliefs
In the traditional spirituality of Sawabantu-speaking peoples along the coast of Cameroon, a jengu (pl. miengu) is a water spirit that acts as an intermediary between the physical world of the living and the spiritual world of the ancestors. They are said to inhabit both the ocean, rivers and lakes of Cameroon. Similar to a simbi in Kongo religion, a jengu is seen as a guardian of the natural world that acts as a spiritual guide and controls the fates of both human beings, or muntu, and animals in the waterways of Central Africa.

Because Miengu are associated with fate, they are also believed to bring good fortune to those who venerate them. As a results, Sawabantu peoples offer sacrifices to miengu spirits and hold extravagant festivals in their honor. These festivals are determined by the ruling families, who are members of a political body called the Ngondo. Once the Ngondo declare that a jengu festival will commence, an offering is then collected from the villages by jengu spiritualists. Referred to as the banganga in Kongo culture, Sawabantu peoples also have jengu specialists, or "Earth priests," who go through extensive training to learn precise rituals to understand and communicate with miengu. The night before the festivals, these specialists hold a sacred ceremony on Jebalé Islands in the Wouri River. The following day, they display the tribute to the Duala chiefs, who head the Ngondo, at a public ceremony on the beach. After the Ngondo see the tribute, a jengu specialist then swims the offering deep underwater, where they present it to the miengu on behalf of the chiefs. The specialist later returns with a prophetic message from the miengu about the upcoming year.

Jengu cult
The Duala and related groups hold the jengu cult in high importance. The cult may have originated with peoples further west, possibly the Ijo, and then passed from people to people, reaching the Batanga at its most eastward extent. In the earliest days, jengu-worship centred on the water spirits as the source of four boons: crayfish, the end of the rainy season in one of the world's wettest regions, victory in the pirogue races, and protection from epidemics of disease. Among the Duala proper, membership was originally reserved to "free" (pure-blooded) Duala, a stipulation that even excluded members of the prestigious Akwa clan due to one of their ancestors being a Longasse woman (a Cameroonian ethnic group in the Sanaga-Maritime District in the Littoral Region). Observations by European traders and explorers prove that jengu-worship was well established by the early 19th century. Early missionaries largely failed in their attempts to suppress it.

The cult is still active in Cameroon's Littoral and Southwest Provinces. Both males and females are eligible to join, though this openness may be a fairly recent development. Jengu-worship is primarily male among the Duala , Malimba proper, but among the Bakweri, on the other hand, the cult is primarily for women.

Ceremonies and rituals
Jengu worship centres on a secret society led by an individual known as the ekale. This person traditionally wears a mask at all meetings, though this practice all but died out by the mid-20th century. Anyone can supplicate the miengu, however, and the simplest rituals involve nothing more than prayers or sacrifices to the deities before fishing or traveling by water.

Early jengu worshippers performed rituals in pirogues on the Wouri River, its tributaries and estuary, and on nearby islands. The person would first dress in ceremonial garb, a cape, skirt, and headdress of raffia fronds, and carry palm fronds and wooden paddles. He would then summon the miengu and offer them oblations of food and drink. He might also visit a jengu shrine further up the Wouri.

Much jengu worship is related to healing and medicine, and the miengu are called upon when mainstream healing fails. For example, a jengu doctor can treat a patient by first sacrificing a cock and goat. He then administers a vomit-inducing medicine and waves a small stool over the patient's head. The one treated must then follow a series of taboos. Among the Bakweri, this rite is known as Liengu la Vafea.

The highest-profile miengu ceremony today is the annual Ngondo celebration in Douala, first held in 1949. The night before the fête's culmination, members of the jengu cult hold a private ceremony at Jebale Island on the Wouri. There they sacrifice to the water spirits and prepare a package of gifts. The next day, this offering is presented to the miengu during a public ceremony on a beach near Douala. One cult member dives into the sea with the gift and stays down as long as possible. Afterward, he returns with a message from the miengu about the year to come.

The climax of the ngondo festival is the jengu cult. Wherein the traditional diver goes into the river under supervision of the traditional rulers. This undisclosed custodian of tradition, accompanied by a woman and two men, embarks on a ritual boat. He will then submerge himself in the middle of the river and stay underneath the water for three to ten minutes. It is believed that he visits the kingdom of their ancestors (spirits) beneath the waters. He returns with news of the successor of the ngondo presidency and a coded message from the gods of the land in a calabash. One mystery of this ritual is that the calabash, which the diver holds as he re-emerges from underneath the river, is dry.

Induction
The rites observed by the Bakweri people of Mount Cameroon serve as an example of similar rituals among other coastal groups.

Toward the coast, the Bakweri practice two major induction rituals. In the Liengu la Ndiva, cult members take a seizure or collapse as a sign that a young girl is ready for induction. A cult member then speaks to her in a secret liengu language, and if she seems to understand any of it, a traditional healer begins the initiation rites. The girl must live in seclusion for several months, during which she must follow a strict set of taboos and may see visions of spirits. She also receives a secret name and teaching in the secret liengu language. Eventually, the healer releases her into the custody of a group of strong men and a number of women singing in the liengu language. The men take turns carrying her until she reaches the middle of a stream. There, the healer plunges her in, inducting her into the cult. Meanwhile, other cult members attempt to capture a crab from the waters, as this animal represents the liengu spirit. The new member's taboos remain, however, and she must live in seclusion for several more months. Finally, the cult holds a feast in her honour, and the initiation comes to an end. The entire process takes the better part of a year.

An alternate Bakweri initiation ritual is the Liengu la Mongbango. If a young girl disappears into the bush, her female relatives try to track her down by singing to her in the liengu language and carrying cult insignia made of wicker. When they find her, they hide her away for several months (outsiders may visit, however). Afterward, the cult prepares a feast for the girl. She and her sponsor then go alone into the forest. The initiate dresses in traditional regalia of fern fronds and rubs her body with red camwood. She is then led back to the village tied to the middle of a long rope. Two groups play a tug of war over her until the rope breaks, and she collapses. The cult members call to her nine times in the liengu language, which causes her to stand back up. After a few more weeks of taboos, a traditional healer bathes her in a stream, and her initiation ends. This process also takes most of a year.

References

African deities
African goddesses
African legendary creatures
Bantu
African mythology
Bantu religion
Female legendary creatures
Fortune deities
Fortune goddesses
Health goddesses
Nature deities
Nature goddesses
Nature spirits
Religion in Cameroon
Tutelary deities
Tutelary goddesses
Water deities
Water goddesses
Water spirits

Jengu


The La Piedad Institute of Technology is a public university located in La Piedad, Michoacán, Mexico. It was founded in 1990. It is part of the Mexican public education system (SEP) and offers training for several careers. English is taught as a second language at the school.

History

In 1990 the institute started operations in the buildings of another college, Centro de Bachillerato Tecnológico Industrial y de servicios No. 84, with programmes in Industrial Engineering, Business Administration, Computer Systems Engineering and Informatics.

Several years later it added a course of study for Electronics Engineering. Throughout its 17-year history, students at Tec La Piedad have several times won firsts, seconds and third place prizes at creativity contests, amongst institutes of technology from around the country.

The university has been the venue of regional sports tournaments, where the students took part in basketball, tennis, and soccer.

Academics

The institute offers a variety of degree programs:

 Electronic Engineering
 Industrial Engineering
 Business Administration
 Computer Systems Engineering
 Informatics

Featured Engineers

Ing. Miguel Angel Vázquez Jiménez
Ing. Ociel García Padilla

Research publications

Below is a list of published research papers produced by PhD students at the school.
Stray Light in One-cavity Radiation Pyrometers
Corrections of size-of-source effect and distance effect in radiometric measurements of radiance
An embedded language approach to router specification in Curry
An Embedded Language Approach to Router Specification in Curry (Book )
Numerical calculation of the Fresnel diffraction patterns for periodic objects in measurements with a two-aperture radiometer
Hardness measurements of metals with the complex refractive index
Mathematics I. Differential Calculation (in Spanish)

External links
Official Website (in Spanish) Including address and career information.

Universities and colleges in Michoacán
Universities and colleges established in 1990
1990 establishments in Mexico

Instituto Tecnológico de La Piedad


Robert Walker Irwin (January 4, 1844 – January 5, 1925) was an American businessman and the Kingdom of Hawaii's Minister to Japan.  Irwin's most significant accomplishment as Hawaii's top representative to Japan was the 1886 immigration treaty between the two nations that led to significant migration of Japanese nationals to Hawaii.

Early life
Irwin was born in Copenhagen to former Pennsylvania politician and United States Chargé d'affaires to Denmark William W. Irwin. His father had previously served as the Mayor of Pittsburgh (1840–1841) and had served as a Whig member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.

His mother, Sophia Arabella Bache, was the daughter of Richard Bache Jr. and Sophia Burrell Dallas. She was also the granddaughter of Sarah Franklin Bache and Richard Bache and a great-granddaughter of Benjamin Franklin, as well as a niece of George Mifflin Dallas, the 11th Vice President of the United States, serving under James K. Polk.

In 1866, at the age of 22, Robert Irwin arrived in Japan to head the Yokohama office of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. In 1867, the company launched the first regular trans-Pacific steamship service fulfilling a contract with the United States government to provide monthly mail service between San Francisco and Hong Kong via Yokohama.

Kanyaku Imin Immigration
By the 1870s, Hawaii had suffered significant population declines due to the introduction of diseases to which Hawaiian natives had no immunity.

In 1880 Irwin took a position as Kingdom of Hawai'i's Consul-General in Japan.  In March 1881 Hawaii's King Kalakaua visited Japan during which he discussed with Emperor Meiji Hawaii's desire to encourage Japanese nationals to settle in Hawaii.  At that time King Kalakaua appointed Irwin the Hawaiian Minister to Japan.

Irwin arranged for and accompanied the first 943 government-contracted Kanyaku Imin, or Japanese laborers, who arrived in Honolulu aboard the Pacific Mail Steamship Company City of Tokio on February 8, 1885.  After returning to Japan, Irwin received government approval for a second set of 930 government contract laborers who arrived in Hawaii on June 17, 1885.

With the Japanese government satisfied with treatment of the immigrants, Irwin was able to conclude a formal immigration treaty between Hawaii and Japan on January 28, 1886.  The treaty stipulated that the Hawaii government would be held responsible for employers' treatment of Japanese immigrants.

The Kanyaku Imin immigration system that Irwin negotiated concluded in June 1894 with 29,339 Japanese nationals having immigrated to Hawaii.  This government-sponsored immigration was quickly replaced with private immigration.

In 1900, Hawaii's population had reached approximately 154,000 with Japanese immigrants and their descendants representing over 61,000 of that total.

Involvement with Mitsui Zaibatsu
Irwin cultivated a number of business and government contacts in Japan becoming acquainted with Japanese Finance Minister Masuda Takashi in 1872.  He also became good friends with Japanese Count Inoue Kaoru, who had toured the United States with Irwin in 1876 and became a major force for modernization within Japan.

Inoue and Masuda founded the trading company Mitsui Bussan in 1876 with Irwin as an employee at founding.  Mitsui Bussan had grown out of earlier trading enterprises of Inoue's that Irwin had helped the Count start in 1873.

In 1900 Irwin and Masuda Takashi together founded Taiwan Sugar Company.  Taiwan Sugar Company and Mitsui Bussan were later folded into the Mitsui zaibatsu as Masuda began the transformation of Mitsui into one of Japan's four zaibatsu.  Irwin stayed on as an adviser at Taiwan Sugar Company until 1916.

Family
Irwin was married to Takechi Iki on March 15, 1882. This was the first legal marriage between an American and Japanese citizen and was arranged by Inoue Kaoru, then the Japanese Foreign Minister.

Irwin had six children. The eldest, Bella, founded the Irwin Gakuen School in Tokyo. Another daughter, Marian Irwin Osterhout, was a plant physiologist.

In 1891, Irwin purchased a summer home in Ikaho. That residence is a designated Historic Place and is open to the public as a small museum to the Irwin family and Japanese emigration to Hawaii.

References

External links
 Robert Walker Irwin at photoguide.jp
 Japan America Society of Philadelphia
 Irwin Gakuen School

1844 births
1925 deaths
Hawaiian Kingdom politicians
Franklin family

Robert Walker Irwin


Edward Malcolm Korry (January 7, 1922 – January 29, 2003) was an American diplomat during the administrations of Presidents Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon.

Korry, a native of New York, was U.S. Ambassador to Ethiopia (1963-1967) and to Chile (1967–1971). During the Allende administration, the U.S. under Nixon implemented a tougher economic policy toward Chile, decreased economic aid, and prevented access to loans. The US support for the opposition culminated in the September 11th, 1973 coup that overthrew Allende, and resulted in the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet.

Prior to his appointment to Ethiopia by John F. Kennedy, Korry was European editor for Look magazine and a United Press correspondent and European Editor in post-World War II Europe. In 1972 and 1973, he was president of the Association of American Publishers, and later, he was president of the United Nations Association of the United States of America. Korry was also a founding director of the Committee for East-West Relations and a member of the Council on Foreign Relations.

Korry fought to preserve his reputation against widespread press reports, many of them by journalists who had been his peers and friends during his reportorial career, and who colluded or sourced their information from staff members of Senator Church's Committee to the effect that he had played an instrumental role in a military coup to depose and kill Allende, despite Korry's repeated public claims that he had known nothing of the CIA's plans to foment this, nor had he played any role in it. In 1981, The New York Times, in what Time magazine called a "2,300-word correction," wrote that although the CIA had attempted to orchestrate a military takeover in Chile, "none of this, it is now evident, was known to Ambassador Korry".  This "correction" occurred while Korry was teaching a course on International Relations at Connecticut College in New London, CT.

Korry died from cancer on January 29, 2003 in Charlotte, North Carolina.

References

External links

1922 births
2003 deaths
Ambassadors of the United States to Chile
Ambassadors of the United States to Ethiopia
Diplomats from New York City
American male journalists

Edward M. Korry


The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research, both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth's atmosphere. In addition to Earth, many of the other astronomical objects in the Solar System have atmospheres. These include all the gas giants, as well as Mars, Venus and Titan. Several moons and other bodies also have atmospheres, as do comets and the Sun. There is evidence that extrasolar planets can have an atmosphere. Comparisons of these atmospheres to one another and to Earth's atmosphere broaden our basic understanding of atmospheric processes such as the greenhouse effect, aerosol and cloud physics, and atmospheric chemistry and dynamics.

In September 2022, astronomers were reported to have formed a new group, called "Categorizing Atmospheric Technosignatures" (CATS), to list the results of exoplanet atmosphere studies for biosignatures, technosignatures and related.

Planets

Inner planets

Mercury

Due to its small size (and thus its small gravity), Mercury has no substantial atmosphere. Its extremely thin atmosphere mostly consists of a small amount of helium and traces of sodium, potassium, and oxygen. These gases derive from the solar wind, radioactive decay, meteor impacts, and breakdown of Mercury's crust. Mercury's atmosphere is not stable and is constantly being refreshed because of its atoms escaping into space as a result of the planet's heat.

Venus

Venus' atmosphere is mostly composed of carbon dioxide. It contains minor amounts of nitrogen and other trace elements, including compounds based on hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, carbon, and oxygen. The atmosphere of Venus is much hotter and denser than that of Earth, though shallower.  As greenhouse gases warm a lower atmosphere, they cool the upper atmosphere, leading to compact thermospheres. By some definitions, Venus has no stratosphere.

The troposphere begins at the surface and extends up to an altitude of 65 kilometres (an altitude at which the mesosphere has already been reached on Earth). At the top of the troposphere, temperature and pressure reach Earth-like levels. Winds at the surface are a few metres per second, reaching 70 m/s or more in the upper troposphere. The stratosphere and mesosphere extend from 65 km to 95 km in height. The thermosphere and exosphere begin at around 95 kilometres, eventually reaching the limit of the atmosphere at about 220 to 250 km.

The air pressure at Venus' surface is about 92 times that of the Earth. The enormous amount of CO2 in the atmosphere creates a strong greenhouse effect, raising the surface temperature to around 470 °C, hotter than that of any other planet in the Solar System.

Mars

The Martian atmosphere is very thin and composed mainly of carbon dioxide, with some nitrogen and argon. The average surface pressure on Mars is 0.6-0.9 kPa, compared to about 101 kPa for Earth. This results in a much lower atmospheric thermal inertia, and as a consequence Mars is subject to strong thermal tides that can change total atmospheric pressure by up to 10%. The thin atmosphere also increases the variability of the planet's temperature. Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of approximately −140 °C (−220 °F) during the polar winters to highs of up to 20 °C (70 °F) in summers.

Between the Viking and Mars Global Surveyor missions, Mars saw "Much colder (10-20 K) global atmospheric temperatures were observed during the 1997 versus 1977 perihelion periods" and "that the global aphelion atmosphere of Mars is colder, less dusty, and cloudier than indicated by the established Viking climatology," with "generally colder atmospheric temperatures and lower dust loading in recent decades on Mars than during the Viking Mission."  The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, though spanning a much shorter dataset, shows no warming of planetary average temperature, and a possible cooling.  "MCS MY 28 temperatures are an average of 0.9 (daytime) and 1.7 K (night- time) cooler than TES MY 24 measurements."  Locally and regionally, however, changes in pits in the layer of frozen carbon dioxide at the Martian south pole observed between 1999 and 2001 suggest the south polar ice cap is shrinking. More recent observations indicate that Mars' south pole is continuing to melt. "It's evaporating right now at a prodigious rate," says Michael Malin, principal investigator for the Mars Orbiter Camera. The pits in the ice are growing by about 3 meters (9.8 ft) per year. Malin states that conditions on Mars are not currently conductive to the formation of new ice. A web site has suggested that this indicates a "climate change in progress" on Mars. Multiple studies suggests this may be a local phenomenon rather than a global one.

Colin Wilson has proposed that the observed variations are caused by irregularities in the orbit of Mars. William Feldman speculates the warming could be because Mars might be coming out of an ice age. Other scientists state the warming may be a result of albedo changes from dust storms.  The study predicts the planet could continue to warm, as a result of positive feedback.

On June 7, 2018, NASA announced that the Curiosity rover detected a cyclical seasonal variation in atmospheric methane, as well as the presence of kerogen and other complex organic compounds.

Gas giants
The four outer planets of the Solar System are gas giants. They share some atmospheric commonalities. All have atmospheres that are mostly hydrogen and helium and that blend into the liquid interior at pressures greater than the critical pressure, so that there is no clear boundary between atmosphere and body.

Jupiter

Jupiter's upper atmosphere is composed of about 75% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with the remaining 1% consisting of other elements. The interior contains denser materials such that the distribution is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium and 5% other elements by mass. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane, water vapor, ammonia, and silicon-based compounds. There are also traces of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia, possibly underlaid by a thin layer of water.

Jupiter is covered with a cloud layer about 50 km deep. The clouds are composed of ammonia crystals and possibly ammonium hydrosulfide. The clouds are located in the tropopause and are arranged into bands of different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are sub-divided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. The best-known feature of the cloud layer is the Great Red Spot, a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22° south of the equator that is larger than Earth. In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller in size. The feature was named Oval BA, and has been nicknamed Red Spot Junior.

Observations of the Red Spot Jr. storm suggest Jupiter could be in a period of global climate change. This is hypothesized to be part of an approximately 70 year global climate cycle, characterized by the relatively rapid forming and subsequent slow erosion and merging of cyclonic and anticyclonic vortices in Jupiter's atmosphere. These vortices facilitate the heat exchange between poles and equator. If they have sufficiently eroded, heat exchange is strongly reduced and regional temperatures may shift by as much as 10 K, with the poles cooling down and the equator region heating up. The resulting large temperature differential destabilizes the atmosphere and thereby leads to the creation of new vortices.

Saturn
The outer atmosphere of Saturn consists of about 93.2% hydrogen and 6.7% helium. Trace amounts of ammonia, acetylene, ethane, phosphine, and methane have also been detected. As with Jupiter, the upper clouds on Saturn are composed of ammonia crystals, while the lower level clouds appear to be composed of either ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH) or water.

The Saturnian atmosphere is in several ways similar to that of Jupiter. It exhibits a banded pattern similar to Jupiter's, and occasionally exhibits long-lived ovals caused by storms. A storm formation analogous to Jupiter's Great Red Spot, the Great White Spot, is a short-lived phenomenon that forms with a roughly 30-year periodicity. It was last observed in 1990. However, the storms and the band pattern are less visible and active than those of Jupiter, due to the overlying ammonia hazes in Saturn's troposphere.

Saturn's atmosphere has several unusual features. Its winds are among the Solar System's fastest, with Voyager data indicating peak easterly winds of 500 m/s. It is also the only planet with a warm polar vortex, and is the only planet other than Earth where eyewall clouds have been observed in hurricane-like structures.

Uranus

The atmosphere of Uranus is composed primarily of gas and various ices. It is about 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, 2% methane and traces of acetylene. Like Jupiter and Saturn, Uranus has a banded cloud layer, although this is not readily visible without enhancement of visual images of the planet. Unlike the larger gas giants, the low temperatures in the upper Uranian cloud layer, down to 50 K, causes cloud formation from methane rather than ammonia.

Less storm activity has been observed in the Uranian atmosphere than in those of Jupiter or Saturn, due to the overlying methane and acetylene hazes in its atmosphere making the planet look like a bland, light blue globe. Images taken in 1997 with the Hubble Space Telescope showed storm activity in that part of the atmosphere emerging from the 25-year-long Uranian winter. The general lack of storm activity may be related to the lack of an internal energy generation mechanism for Uranus, a feature unique among the gas giants.

Neptune

The atmosphere of Neptune is similar to that of Uranus. It is about 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane. However the weather activity on Neptune is much more active, and its atmosphere is much bluer than that of Uranus. The upper levels of the atmosphere reach temperatures of about 55 K, giving rise to methane clouds in its troposphere, which gives the planet its ultramarine color. Temperatures rise steadily deeper inside the atmosphere.

Neptune has extremely dynamic weather systems, including the highest wind speeds in the Solar System, thought to be powered by the flow of internal heat. Typical winds in the banded equatorial region can possess speeds of around 350 m/s (comparable to the speed of sound at room temperature on Earth viz. 343.6 m/s) while storm systems can have winds reaching up to around 900 m/s, in Neptune's atmosphere. Several large storm systems have been identified, including the Great Dark Spot, a cyclonic storm system the size of Eurasia, the Scooter, a white cloud group further south than the Great Dark Spot, and the Wizard's eye/Dark Spot 2, a southern cyclonic storm.

Neptune, the farthest planet from Earth, has increased in brightness since 1980. Neptune's brightness is statistically correlated with its stratospheric temperature. Hammel and Lockwood hypothesize that the change in brightness includes a solar variation component as well as a seasonal component, though they did not find a statistically significant correlation with solar variation. They propose that the resolution of this issue will be clarified by brightness observations in the next few years: forcing by a change in sub-solar latitude should be reflected in a flattening and decline of brightness, while solar forcing should be reflected in a flattening and then resumed rise of brightness.

Other bodies in the Solar System

Natural satellites
Ten of the many natural satellites in the Solar System are known to have atmospheres: Europa, Io, Callisto, Enceladus, Ganymede, Titan, Rhea, Dione, Triton and Earth's Moon. Ganymede and Europa both have very tenuous oxygen atmospheres, thought to be produced by radiation splitting the water ice present on the surface of these moons into hydrogen and oxygen. Io has an extremely thin atmosphere consisting mainly of sulfur dioxide (), arising from volcanism and sunlight-driven sublimation of surface sulfur dioxide deposits. The atmosphere of Enceladus is also extremely thin and variable, consisting mainly of water vapor, nitrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide vented from the moon's interior through cryovolcanism. The extremely thin carbon dioxide atmosphere of Callisto is thought to be replenished by sublimation from surface deposits.

Moon

Titan

Titan has by far the densest atmosphere of any moon. The Titanian atmosphere is in fact denser than Earth's, with a surface pressure of 147 kPa, one and a half times that of the Earth. The atmosphere is 94.2% nitrogen, 5.65% methane, and 0.099% hydrogen, with the remaining 1.6% composed of other gases such as hydrocarbons (including ethane, diacetylene, methylacetylene, cyanoacetylene, acetylene, propane), argon, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, cyanogen, hydrogen cyanide and helium. The hydrocarbons are thought to form in Titan's upper atmosphere in reactions resulting from the breakup of methane by the Sun's ultraviolet light, producing a thick orange smog. Titan has no magnetic field and sometimes orbits outside Saturn's magnetosphere, directly exposing it to the solar wind. This may ionize and carry away some molecules from the top of the atmosphere.

Titan's atmosphere supports an opaque cloud layer that obscures Titan's surface features at visible wavelengths. The haze that can be seen in the adjacent picture contributes to the moon's anti-greenhouse effect and lowers the temperature by reflecting sunlight away from the satellite. The thick atmosphere blocks most visible wavelength light from the Sun and other sources from reaching Titan's surface.

Triton

Triton, Neptune's largest moon, has a tenuous nitrogen atmosphere with small amounts of methane. Tritonian atmospheric pressure is about 1Pa. The surface temperature is at least 35.6 K, with the nitrogen atmosphere in equilibrium with nitrogen ice on Triton's surface.

Triton has increased in absolute temperature by 5% since 1989 to 1998. A similar rise of temperature on Earth would be equal to about 11 °C (20 °F) increase in temperature in nine years. "At least since 1989, Triton has been undergoing a period of global warming. Percentage-wise, it's a very large increase," said James L. Elliot, who published the report.

Triton is approaching an unusually warm summer season that only happens once every few hundred years. Elliot and his colleagues believe that Triton's warming trend could be driven by seasonal changes in the absorption of solar energy by its polar ice caps. One suggestion for this warming is that it is a result of frost patterns changing on its surface. Another is that ice albedo has changed, allowing for more heat from the Sun to be absorbed. Bonnie J. Buratti et al. argue the changes in temperature are a result of deposition of dark, red material from geological processes on the moon, such as massive venting. Because Triton's Bond albedo is among the highest within the Solar System, it is sensitive to small variations in spectral albedo.

Pluto

Pluto has an extremely thin  atmosphere that consists of nitrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide, derived from the ices on its surface. Two models show that the atmosphere does not completely freeze and collapse when Pluto moves further from the Sun on its extremely elliptical orbit. However, some other models do show this. Pluto needs 248 years for one complete orbit, and has been observed for less than one third of that time. It has an average distance of 39 AU from the Sun, hence in-depth data from Pluto is sparse and difficult to gather. Temperature is inferred indirectly for Pluto; when it passes in front of a star, observers note how fast the light drops off. From this, they deduce the density of the atmosphere, and that is used as an indicator of temperature.

One such occultation event happened in 1988. Observations of a second occultation on August 20, 2002 suggest that Pluto's atmospheric pressure has tripled, indicating a warming of about 2 °C (3.6 °F), as predicted by Hansen and Paige. The warming is "likely not connected with that of the Earth," says Jay Pasachoff.
One astronomer has speculated the warming may be a result of eruptive activity, but it is more likely Pluto's temperature is heavily influenced by its elliptical orbit. It was closest to the Sun in 1989 (perihelion) and has slowly receded since. If it has any thermal inertia, it is expected to warm for a while after it passes perihelion. "This warming trend on Pluto could easily last for another 13 years," says David J. Tholen. It has also been suggested that a darkening of surface ice may also be the cause, but additional data and modeling is needed. Frost distribution on the surface of Pluto is significantly affected by the dwarf planet's high obliquity.

Brown Dwarfs

Brown dwarfs have an atmosphere that produces a spectrum from late M-type, over L-type, T-type and finally arriving at Y-dwarf with decreasing temperature. The atmosphere is hydrogen rich and a brown dwarf is 70% hydrogen by mass. Several chemical compounds are present in the atmosphere of brown dwarfs and their importance in shaping the spectrum changes with temperature. Methane and water vapor for example becomes more prominent for colder brown dwarfs.

The physical properties can influence the atmosphere significantly. A low surface gravity of low-mass brown dwarfs or planetary-mass objects can bring the atmosphere in a chemical disequilibrium. Metallicity can influence the amount of methane in the atmosphere and in the extreme case of WISEA 1810−1010 the methane feature is undetectable.

Several models for clouds in the atmosphere of brown dwarfs exist. Near the L/T transition these clouds consists of iron with varying thickness, or of a patchy silicate cloud layer above a thick iron cloud layer. Late T-dwarfs to early Y-dwarfs on the other hand have clouds made from chromium and potassium chloride, as well as several sulfides. At the lowest temperature of some Y-dwarfs water clouds and possibly ammonium dihydrogen phosphate clouds might exist.

Free-floating brown dwarfs rotate faster than Jupiter and studies have inferred the presence of zonal winds. The brown dwarf 2MASS J1047+21 has a rotation period of 1.77 ± 0.04 hours and it has strong winds with speeds of 650±310 m/s proceeding eastwards.

Exoplanets

Several planets outside the Solar System (exoplanets) have been observed to have atmospheres. At the present time, most atmosphere detections are of hot Jupiters or hot Neptunes that orbit very close to their star and thus have heated and extended atmospheres. Observations of exoplanet atmospheres are of two types. First, transmission photometry or spectra detect the light that passes through a planet's atmosphere as it transits in front of its star.  Second, the direct emission from a planet atmosphere may be detected by differencing the star plus planet light obtained during most of the planet's orbit with the light of just the star during secondary eclipse (when the exoplanet is behind its star).

The first observed extrasolar planetary atmosphere was made in 2001. Sodium in the atmosphere of the planet HD 209458 b was detected during a set of four transits of the planet across its star. Later observations with the Hubble Space Telescope showed an enormous ellipsoidal envelope of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen around the planet. This envelope reaches temperatures of 10,000 K. The planet is estimated to be losing  of hydrogen per second. This type of atmosphere loss may be common to all planets orbiting Sun-like stars closer than around 0.1 AU. In addition to hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, HD 209458 b is thought to have water vapor in its atmosphere. Sodium and water vapour has also been observed in the atmosphere of HD 189733 b, another hot gas giant planet.

In October 2013, the detection of clouds in the atmosphere of Kepler-7b was announced, and, in December 2013, also in the atmospheres of Gliese 436 b and Gliese 1214 b.

In May 2017, glints of light from Earth, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million kilometres away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere. The technology used to determine this may be useful in studying the atmospheres of distant worlds, including those of exoplanets.

Atmospheric composition

In 2001, sodium was detected in the atmosphere of HD 209458 b.

In 2008, water, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and methane were detected in the atmosphere of HD 189733 b.

In 2013, water was detected in the atmospheres of HD 209458 b, XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, and WASP-19b.

In July 2014, NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on three exoplanets (HD 189733b, HD 209458b, WASP-12b) orbiting Sun-like stars.

In September 2014, NASA reported that HAT-P-11b is the first Neptune-sized exoplanet known to have a relatively cloud-free atmosphere and, as well, the first time molecules of any kind have been found, specifically water vapor, on such a relatively small exoplanet.

The presence of molecular oxygen () may be detectable by ground-based telescopes, and it can be produced by geophysical processes, as well as a byproduct of photosynthesis by life forms, so although encouraging,  is not a reliable biosignature. In fact, planets with high concentration of  in their atmosphere may be uninhabitable. Abiogenesis in the presence of massive amounts of atmospheric oxygen could be difficult because early organisms relied on the free energy available in redox reactions involving a variety of hydrogen compounds; on an -rich planet, organisms would have to compete with the oxygen for this free energy.

In June 2015, NASA reported that WASP-33b has a stratosphere. Ozone and hydrocarbons absorb large amounts of ultraviolet radiation, heating the upper parts of atmospheres that contain them, creating a temperature inversion and a stratosphere. However, these molecules are destroyed at the temperatures of hot exoplanets, creating doubt if the hot exoplanets could have a stratosphere. A temperature inversion, and stratosphere was identified on WASP-33b caused by titanium oxide, which is a strong absorber of visible and ultraviolet radiation, and can only exist as a gas in a hot atmosphere.  WASP-33b is the hottest exoplanet known, with a temperature of  and is approximately four and a half times the mass of Jupiter.

In February 2016, it was announced that NASA Hubble Space Telescope had detected hydrogen and helium (and suggestions of hydrogen cyanide), but no water vapor, in the atmosphere of 55 Cancri e, the first time the atmosphere of a super-Earth exoplanet was analyzed successfully.

In September 2019, two independent research studies concluded, from Hubble Space Telescope data, that there were significant amounts of water in the atmosphere of exoplanet K2-18b, the first such discovery for a planet within a star's habitable zone.

On 24 Aug 2022, NASA published the discovery by the James Webb Space Telescope of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of WASP-39b.

Missing Methane Problem
Carbon monoxide should be replaced by methane as the dominant carbon-bearing molecule in the atmosphere of exoplanets at temperatures below 1000 K. While methane is detected in solar system objects, young directly imaged exoplanets and in free-floating brown dwarfs (T/Y-dwarfs), it is rarely detected in transiting exoplanets. This observation was dubbed the Missing Methane Problem. Some studies tried to explain this with a depletion of methane. The most solid detection of methane is in the atmosphere of the warm Jupiter (825 K) WASP-80b, which was detected with NIRCam. This detection is in agreement with models that do not require a strong methane depletion. This detection suggested that other instruments did not have the wavelength coverage or precision needed to detect methane. Non-detection of methane in HD 209458b on the other hand showed that the missing methane problem cannot be resolved for all exoplanets with JWST and an explanation for the missing methane is required. Explanations often involve a high metallicity and a low carbon-to-oxygen ratio.

A similar problem exists for the detection of ammonia. Methane and ammonia is detected in free-floating Y-dwarfs (Teff<400 K), such as WISE 0359−5401. Transiting exoplanets on the other hand do rarely show ammonia. For example the ~300 K exoplanets K2-18b showed a depletion of methane and ammonia and more recent observations with NIRISS and NIRSpec was able to resolve the methane problem for K2-18b. The observations showed strong absorption due to methane, but was not able to detect any ammonia in K2-18b. The research team explained this missing ammonia with an ocean that absorbs certain gases. Other researchers are more cautious about this ocean claim. One problem is that ammonia and methane absorption overlap in the near-infrared. Ammonia absorption could be mistaken as methane and mid-infrared detections of ammonia are much clearer, such as in WISE 0359−5401 with MIRI.

Atmospheric circulation

The atmospheric circulation of planets that rotate more slowly or have a thicker atmosphere allows more heat to flow to the poles which reduces the temperature differences between the poles and the equator.

Winds
Winds of over 2 km/s—which is seven times the speed of sound or 20 times faster than the fastest ever winds known on Earth—have been discovered flowing around the planet HD 189733b.

Clouds

The composition of clouds in gas giants depend on temperature. A cloud layer does "sink" with decreasing temperature. This way one exoplanet might have a cloud layer at a higher pressure (lower altitude) compared to a warmer exoplanet. High altitude clouds often block light coming from deeper layers of the atmosphere, including chemical absorption features. Weaker than normal absorption features is the main method to detect the presence of clouds via transmission spectroscopy. In some cases the absorption from the clouds can be directly observed, such as quatz-clouds on WASP-17b with JWST. One way to predict the appearance of a gas giant is the Sudarsky's gas giant classification. But this classification scheme is over two decades old and more recent models sometimes predict thin clouds for class III and class IV. This classification also does not consider ultra-hot Jupiters, which do have nightside clouds. Relative cloud-free atmospheres also exist.

Similar to brown dwarfs the composition at hotter temperature (class V or >900 K) is a thick iron cloud deck with silicate clouds (quartz, corundum, fosterite and/or enstatite) on top. This top layer can be patchy and cover 70-90% of the planet. At lower temperatures (class III-IV or 400-1,300 K) the iron and silicate clouds sink deep into the atmosphere and thin clouds made of chromium, potassium chloride and especially sulfides (manganese sulfide, sodium sulfide and zink sulfide) become more important. At low temperatures (class II <400 K) water clouds and possibly ammonium dihydrogen phosphate clouds might exist. But lower layers of clouds of sulfides and potassium chloride should exist at this temperature. Jupiter and Saturn-like atmospheres (class I or <150 K) are dominated by ammonia clouds, but lower layers of water clouds might exist.

A newer type of exoplanets, called ultra-hot Jupiters have a temperature above 2,000 K and have a cloud-free dayside with molecules often dissociated into atoms or ions. A wide variety of atomic lines were detected in the transmission spectra of the ultra-hot Jupiters. The nightside can be up to 2,500 K colder than the dayside and in WASP-18b this temperature drop causes clouds to form at the terminator. At the equator of the terminator, which forms clouds on WASP-18b (in the west seen from the dayside) the cloud top is made of thin layers dominated by titanium dioxide, corundum (aluminium oxide), perovskite (calcium titanate) and iron. The majority of the vertical portion of the cloud is made up of clouds of enstatite, fosterite, periclase (magnesium oxide), quartz, iron and inclusion of other material. The cloud bottom changes from quartz dominated, to iron, then corundum and then perovskite dominated. These bottom layers have large particle sizes of about 60 μm. At other positions of the terminator these clouds change their composition and particle size. The cloud-free dayside and the cloudy terminator/nightside would make these ultra-hot Jupiters look similar to an eyeball planet.

In October 2013, the detection of clouds in the atmosphere of Kepler-7b was announced, and, in December 2013, also in the atmospheres of GJ 436 b and GJ 1214 b.

Precipitation
Precipitation in the form of liquid (rain) or solid (snow) varies in composition depending on atmospheric temperature, pressure, composition, and altitude. Hot atmospheres could have iron rain, molten-glass rain, and rain made from rocky minerals such as enstatite, corundum, spinel, and wollastonite. Deep in the atmospheres of gas giants, it could rain diamonds and helium containing dissolved neon.

Abiotic oxygen
There are geological and atmospheric processes that produce free oxygen, so the detection of oxygen is not necessarily an indication of life.

The processes of life result in a mixture of chemicals that are not in chemical equilibrium but there are also abiotic disequilibrium processes that need to be considered. The most robust atmospheric biosignature is often considered to be molecular oxygen () and its photochemical byproduct ozone (). The photolysis of water () by UV rays followed by hydrodynamic escape of hydrogen can lead to a build-up of oxygen in planets close to their star undergoing runaway greenhouse effect. For planets in the habitable zone, it was thought that water photolysis would be strongly limited by cold-trapping of water vapour in the lower atmosphere. However, the extent of H2O cold-trapping depends strongly on the amount of non-condensible gases in the atmosphere such as nitrogen N2 and argon. In the absence of such gases, the likelihood of build-up of oxygen also depends in complex ways on the planet's accretion history, internal chemistry, atmospheric dynamics, and orbital state. Therefore, oxygen, on its own, cannot be considered a robust biosignature. The ratio of nitrogen and argon to oxygen could be detected by studying thermal phase curves or by transit transmission spectroscopy measurement of the spectral Rayleigh scattering slope in a clear-sky (i.e. aerosol-free) atmosphere.

Life

Methane
Detection of methane in astronomical bodies is of interest to science and technology, as it may be evidence of extraterrestrial life (biosignature), it may help provide organic ingredients for life to form, and also, methane could be used as a fuel or rocket propellant for future robotic and crewed missions in the Solar System.

 Mercury – the tenuous atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane.
 Venus – the atmosphere may contain a large amount of methane from  to the surface according to data collected by the Pioneer Venus Large Probe Neutral Mass Spectrometer
 Moon – traces are outgassed from the surface

 Mars – the Martian atmosphere contains 10 nmol/mol methane. The source of methane on Mars has not been determined. Research suggests that methane may come from volcanoes, fault lines, or methanogens, that it may be a byproduct of electrical discharges from dust devils and dust storms, or that it may be the result of UV radiation. In January 2009, NASA scientists announced that they had discovered that the planet often vents methane into the atmosphere in specific areas, leading some to speculate this may be a sign of biological activity below the surface. The Curiosity rover, which landed on Mars in August 2012, can distinguish between different isotopologues of methane; but even if the mission determines that microscopic Martian life is the source of the methane, it probably resides far below the surface, beyond the rover's reach. The first measurements with the Tunable Laser Spectrometer (TLS) indicated that there is less than 5 ppb of methane at the landing site. On 16 December 2014, NASA reported the Curiosity rover detected a "tenfold spike", likely localized, in the amount of methane in the Martian atmosphere. Sample measurements taken "a dozen times over 20 months" showed increases in late 2013 and early 2014, averaging "7 parts of methane per billion in the atmosphere." Before and after that, readings averaged around one-tenth that level. The spikes in concentration suggest that Mars is episodically producing or releasing methane from an unknown source. The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter will perform measurements of methane starting in April 2018, as well as its decomposition products such as formaldehyde and methanol.
 Jupiter – the atmosphere contains 3000 ± 1000 ppm methane
 Saturn – the atmosphere contains 4500 ± 2000 ppm methane
 Enceladus – the atmosphere contains 1.7% methane
 Iapetus
 Titan –  the atmosphere contains 1.6% methane and thousands of methane lakes have been detected on the surface. In the upper atmosphere, methane is converted into more complex molecules including acetylene, a process that also produces molecular hydrogen. There is evidence that acetylene and hydrogen are recycled into methane near the surface. This suggests the presence of either an exotic catalyst or an unknown form of methanogenic life. Methane showers, probably prompted by changing seasons, have also been observed. On October 24, 2014, methane was found in polar clouds on Titan.

 Uranus – the atmosphere contains 2.3% methane
 Ariel – methane is believed to be a constituent of Ariel's surface ice
 Miranda
 Oberon – about 20% of Oberon's surface ice is composed of methane-related carbon/nitrogen compounds
 Titania – about 20% of Titania's surface ice is composed of methane-related organic compounds
 Umbriel – methane is a constituent of Umbriel's surface ice
 Neptune – the atmosphere contains 1.5 ± 0.5% methane
 Triton – Triton has a tenuous nitrogen atmosphere with small amounts of methane near the surface.
 Pluto – spectroscopic analysis of Pluto's surface reveals it to contain traces of methane
 Charon – methane is believed present on Charon, but it is not completely confirmed
 Eris – infrared light from the object revealed the presence of methane ice
 Halley's Comet
 Comet Hyakutake – terrestrial observations found ethane and methane in the comet
 Extrasolar planets – methane was detected on extrasolar planet HD 189733b; this is the first detection of an organic compound on a planet outside the solar system. Its origin is unknown, since the planet's high temperature (700 °C) would normally favor the formation of carbon monoxide instead. Research indicates that meteoroids slamming against exoplanet atmospheres could add hydrocarbon gases such as methane, making the exoplanets look as though they are inhabited by life, even if they are not.
 Interstellar clouds
 The atmospheres of M-type stars.

See also

 Coma (cometary)
 Extraterrestrial sky
 Hydrosphere
 Orbital forcing
 Planetary surface
 Solar cycle
 Stellar atmosphere
 Exometeorology

References

Further reading
   (Hardback);  (Paperback).

Planetary science

Extraterrestrial atmosphere


Gnathifera opsias is a moth in the family Epermeniidae. It was described by Edward Meyrick in 1897. It is found in Australia, where it has been recorded from Tasmania.

The wingspan is 10–14 mm. The forewings are fuscous, suffusedly irrorated (sprinkled) with white and with scattered black scales and sometimes with a small black spot beneath the fold at one-fifth. There are black dots beneath the costa at one-fifth and two-fifths, one in the disc between these, one on the fold before the middle, one in the middle of the disc often forming a short oblique transverse mark, one in the disc beyond the middle, and one at three-fourths. There are also minute black dorsal scale-teeth before and beyond the middle. The hindwings are grey.

References

Epermeniidae
Moths described in 1897
Moths of Australia

Gnathifera opsias


Doświadczalne Warsztaty Lotnicze (DWL) (Experimental Aeronautical Workshops) was the Polish aircraft manufacturer, active in 1933-1939. It was a home of the RWD construction team and manufactured aircraft under a brand RWD.

History

The RWD construction team was organized of students of Warsaw University of Technology around 1928. They built their first designs in workshops of the Aviation Section of Students' Mechanical Club, in University buildings. In 1930 the workshops moved to new buildings near Okęcie airport in Warsaw, founded by the LOPP organization. In March 1933 the workshops separated from the Aviation Section and the University, and there was created a company Doświadczalne Warsztaty Lotnicze to manufacture RWD aircraft.

Main designers were Stanisław Rogalski and Jerzy Drzewiecki of the RWD team, other designers were Bronisław Żurakowski, Tadeusz Chylinski, Leszek Dulęba and Andrzej Anczutin and several engineers, including Henry Millicer. A company director was Jerzy Wędrychowski.

First RWD designs manufactured in the DWL were the Polish basic trainer RWD-8 and the sports plane RWD-9 (the winner of Challenge 1934 international contest). Due to limited capabilities of DWL, only some 80 RWD-8s were made in the DWL, and about 470 licence-built in Podlaska Wytwórnia Samolotów (PWS). Also, a reconnaissance plane RWD-14 Czapla was licence-built in Lubelska Wytwórnia Samolotów (LWS) only.

The plane manufactured in biggest number in DWL was a touring plane RWD-13 (about 100). Other important designs were the RWD-10 aerobatic plane (1933), RWD-17 aerobatic-trainer plane (1937) and RWD-21 light sports plane (1939). World War II prevented further development and serial production of later RWD designs, and put an end to the DWL workshops.

Aircraft

DWL operated as the factory of RWD. As such, once testing was completed and design was finalized by the latter, it would be passed to the former for mass production.

References

Footnotes

Bibliography

External links
 RWD / Doświadczalne Warsztaty Lotnicze – Samoloty w Lotinctwie Polskim

Aircraft manufacturers of Poland
Science and technology in Poland

Doświadczalne Warsztaty Lotnicze


Lav or Lava, in Hindu mythology, was the son of the deity and hero Rama (see the classical Indian epic poem Ramayana) and his wife, Sita. According to legend, Lav founded the ancient South Asian city of Lahore, now in Pakistan; while his brother Kash, or Kashava, founded the nearby city of Kasur.

Hindu mythology

Lav


The Anta do Alto da Toupeira, also called the Anta da Toupeira or the Anta de Salemas, is a Neolithic dolmen, or megalithic tomb, situated in the parish of Lousa in the municipality of Loures, in the Lisbon District of Portugal. It dates back to the Chalcolithic.

The Anta is hidden by a clump of trees about 100 metres to the south of the Cave of Salemas. It is one of several archaeological sites within the same area, including the cave. Although probably identified by the 19th-century Portuguese archaeologist, Carlos Ribeiro, it was first studied and drawn on 17 January 1944 by the German archaeologists, Georg and Vera Leisner, but no excavations were carried out until November 1959 when Vera Leisner and O. V. Ferreira made some limited excavations and corrected the previous plan. These led them to describe the dolmen as a polygonal chamber necropolis without the usual entrance corridor associated with similar dolmens in the area. They estimated its dimensions as being 5.5 metres by 5 metres, with a maximum height of two metres. Five limestone slabs of the Late Cretaceous epoch survive on the site, one of which is believed to have been the roof of the tomb. Although further research has yet to be carried out, other archaeologists believe that further excavation could result in the discovery of an access corridor.

Excavations have yielded a number of findings but archaeologists are confused as to whether these came from the Anta, from the cave, or, indeed, from a second Anta, which appears to be referred to by the Leisners but has not since been identified. Items found have included a cylindrical idol, an axe of amphibole, a copper chisel, a copper arrowhead, and a pendant. These items are kept at Lisbon's Geological Museum (Museu Geológico).

References

Megalithic monuments in Portugal
Prehistoric sites in Portugal
Dolmens in Portugal
Loures

Anta do Alto da Toupeira


Lexicon was a text editor / word processor MS-DOS program that was extremely popular in the Soviet Union and Russia at the end of 1980s and in 1990s. Some estimate that Lexicon was illegally installed on 95% of all Russian PCs. The last version for MS-DOS was 1.4. Later Windows versions were developed, but they were not popular, due to easily available pirated copies of Microsoft Word.

Lexicon was originally developed at the Computing Center of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR by Ye. N. Veselov.

Lexicon could produce and edit plain text files; at the same time, it could enrich them with various formatting codes (which all started with the character 255 (0xFF)). Lexicon also included a spell checker.

Lexicon supported operations with linear and rectangular blocks; it also had convenient means for drawing tables with box drawing characters.

Lexicon could work with both osnovnaya (primary) and alternativnaya (alternative) character sets. It also included its own screen and printer fonts and keyboard drivers for use with non-russified computers.

References

See also
List of word processors

Windows text editors
Word processors
DOS text editors

Lexicon (program)


Johannes (Hans) Blokland (born 5 March 1943 in Oegstgeest, South Holland) is a former Dutch politician and former Member of the European Parliament. He is a member of the ChristianUnion, former treasurer of the Independence and Democracy group, and former vice-chair of the European Parliament's Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety.

He is also a former member of the Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs, a former substitute for the Committee on Transport and Tourism, a former member of the delegation to the EU–Armenia, EU–Azerbaijan and EU–Georgia Parliamentary Cooperation Committees, a former member of the delegation to the EU–Kazakhstan, EU–Kyrgyzstan and EU–Uzbekistan Parliamentary Cooperation Committees, and for relations with Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Mongolia, and a former substitute for the delegation for relations with the People's Republic of China.

Career
 Higher degree in economics (1970)
 Doctorate in economics (1976)
 Researcher, Netherlands Economic Institute (1969–1976)
 Lecturer, Erasmus University (1971–1988)
 Head of the planning department, National Land Use Planning Agency (1976–1980)
 Head of the research department, Central Statistical Office (1980–1982)
 Member of the Advisory Committee on Foreigners, Ministry of Justice (1987–2000)
 Vice-Chairman of the GPV local party (1973–1974)
 Member of the executive, GPV provincial party (1976–1977)
 provincial chairman, GPV (1977–1981)
 Member of the GPV administrative committee (1978–1984)
 Chairman of the GPV (1984–1994)
 Member of the Capelle aan den IJssel Municipal Council (1974–1994)
 Alderman of Capelle aan den IJssel (1982–1986)
 Member of the South Holland Provincial Council (1982–1995)
 Member of the European Parliament (1994–2009)
 Co-Chairman of the EDN Group (1997–1999)
 Co-Chairman of the EDD Group (1999–2004)
 Vice-Chairman and Treasurer of the IND/DEM Group (?–2009)

References
  Parlement.com biography

External links
  European Parliament biography

1943 births
Living people
Aldermen in South Holland
People from Capelle aan den IJssel
Christian Union (Netherlands) MEPs
Dutch economists
Members of the Provincial Council of South Holland
Municipal councillors in South Holland
Erasmus University Rotterdam alumni
Academic staff of Erasmus University Rotterdam
MEPs for the Netherlands 1994–1999
MEPs for the Netherlands 1999–2004
MEPs for the Netherlands 2004–2009
Party chairs of the Netherlands
People from Oegstgeest
Reformed Political League MEPs

Hans Blokland (politician)


James Jean Parks (born November 16, 1968) is an American actor.

Parks was born in Ojai, California. His roles include Texas Ranger Edgar McGraw in From Dusk Till Dawn 2: Texas Blood Money, Kill Bill: Volume 1, Kill Bill: Volume 2, Death Proof and Machete. Earl McGraw, the father of Edgar McGraw, is played by James's real life father, Michael Parks. He portrayed Deputy Gilber in the French horror film Rubber. Parks also acted alongside his father again in Kevin Smith's 2011 horror film, Red State, and appeared in Quentin Tarantino's films Django Unchained (as a tracker) and The Hateful Eight (as O.B. Jackson).

In 2006, Parks played Sheriff Dawes on Bones the Television series season 1 episode 17 "The Skull in the Desert"

In 2008, Parks had a small role on the hit HBO television series True Blood playing Mack Rattray.

Filmography

External links

1968 births
American male film actors
Living people
Male actors from California
People from Ventura County, California

James Parks (actor)


Common knowledge is a special kind of knowledge for a group of agents. There is common knowledge of p in a group of agents G when all the agents in G know p, they all know that they know p, they all know that they all know that they know p, and so on ad infinitum. It can be denoted as .

The concept was first introduced in the philosophical literature by David Kellogg Lewis in his study Convention (1969).  The sociologist Morris Friedell defined common knowledge in a 1969 paper.  It was first given a mathematical formulation in a set-theoretical framework by Robert Aumann (1976). Computer scientists grew an interest in the subject of epistemic logic in general – and of common knowledge in particular – starting in the 1980s.  There are numerous puzzles based upon the concept which have been extensively investigated by mathematicians such as John Conway.

The philosopher Stephen Schiffer, in his 1972 book Meaning, independently developed a notion he called "mutual knowledge" () which functions quite similarly to Lewis's and Friedel's 1969 "common knowledge". If a trustworthy announcement is made in public, then it becomes common knowledge; However, if it is transmitted to each agent in private, it becomes mutual knowledge but not common knowledge. Even if the fact that "every agent in the group knows p" () is transmitted to each agent in private, it is still not common knowledge: . But, if any agent  publicly announces their knowledge of p, then it becomes common knowledge that they know p (viz. ). If every agent publicly announces their knowledge of p, p becomes common knowledge .

Example

Puzzle

The idea of common knowledge is often introduced by some variant of induction puzzles (e.g. Muddy children puzzle):

On an island, there are k people who have blue eyes, and the rest of the people have green eyes. At the start of the puzzle, no one on the island ever knows their own eye color. By rule, if a person on the island ever discovers they have blue eyes, that person must leave the island at dawn; anyone not making such a discovery always sleeps until after dawn. On the island, each person knows every other person's eye color, there are no reflective surfaces, and there is no communication of eye color.

At some point, an outsider comes to the island, calls together all the people on the island, and makes the following public announcement: "At least one of you has blue eyes". The outsider, furthermore, is known by all to be truthful, and all know that all know this, and so on: it is common knowledge that he is truthful, and thus it becomes common knowledge that there is at least one islander who has blue eyes (). The problem: finding the eventual outcome, assuming all persons on the island are completely logical (every participant's knowledge obeys the axiom schemata for epistemic logic) and that this too is common knowledge.

Solution

The answer is that, on the kth dawn after the announcement, all the blue-eyed people will leave the island.

Proof
The solution can be seen with an inductive argument. If k = 1 (that is, there is exactly one blue-eyed person), the person will recognize that they alone have blue eyes (by seeing only green eyes in the others) and leave at the first dawn. If k = 2, no one will leave at the first dawn, and the inaction (and the implied lack of knowledge for every agent) is observed by everyone, which then becomes common knowledge as well (). The two blue-eyed people, seeing only one person with blue eyes, and that no one left on the first dawn (and thus that k > 1; and also that the other blue-eyed person does not think that everyone except themself are not blue-eyed , so another blue-eyed person ), will leave on the second dawn. Inductively, it can be reasoned that no one will leave at the first k − 1 dawns if and only if there are at least k blue-eyed people. Those with blue eyes, seeing k − 1 blue-eyed people among the others and knowing there must be at least k, will reason that they must have blue eyes and leave.

For k > 1, the outsider is only telling the island citizens what they already know: that there are blue-eyed people among them. However, before this fact is announced, the fact is not common knowledge, but instead mutual knowledge.

For k = 2, it is merely "first-order" knowledge (). Each blue-eyed person knows that there is someone with blue eyes, but each blue eyed person does not know that the other blue-eyed person has this same knowledge.

For k = 3, it is "second order" knowledge (). Each blue-eyed person knows that a second blue-eyed person knows that a third person has blue eyes, but no one knows that there is a third blue-eyed person with that knowledge, until the outsider makes their statement.

In general: For k > 1, it is "(k − 1)th order" knowledge (). Each blue-eyed person knows that a second blue-eyed person knows that a third blue-eyed person knows that.... (repeat for a total of k − 1 levels) a kth person has blue eyes, but no one knows that there is a "kth" blue-eyed person with that knowledge, until the outsider makes his statement. The notion of common knowledge therefore has a palpable effect. Knowing that everyone knows does make a difference. When the outsider's public announcement (a fact already known to all, unless k=1 then the one person with blue eyes would not know until the announcement) becomes common knowledge, the blue-eyed people on this island eventually deduce their status, and leave.

In particular:
  is free (i.e. known prior to the outsider's statement) iff .
 , with a passing day where no one leaves, implies the next day .
  for  is thus reached iff it is reached for .
 The outsider gives  for .

Formalization

Modal logic (syntactic characterization)

Common knowledge can be given a logical definition in multi-modal logic systems in which the modal operators are interpreted epistemically. At the propositional level, such systems are extensions of propositional logic. The extension consists of the introduction of a group G of agents, and of n modal operators Ki (with i = 1, ..., n) with the intended meaning that "agent i knows." Thus Ki  (where  is a formula of the logical calculus) is read "agent i knows ." We can define an operator EG with the intended meaning of "everyone in group G knows" by defining it with the axiom

By abbreviating the expression  with   and defining , common knowledge could then be defined with the axiom

There is, however, a complication. The languages of epistemic logic are usually finitary, whereas the axiom above defines common knowledge as an infinite conjunction of formulas, hence not a well-formed formula of the language. To overcome this difficulty, a fixed-point definition of common knowledge can be given. Intuitively, common knowledge is thought of as the fixed point of the "equation" . Here,  is the Aleph-naught. In this way, it is possible to find a formula  implying  from which, in the limit, we can infer common knowledge of .

From this definition it can be seen that if  is common knowledge, then  is also common knowledge ().

This syntactic characterization is given semantic content through so-called Kripke structures. A Kripke structure is given by a set of states (or possible worlds) S, n accessibility relations , defined on , intuitively representing what states agent i considers possible from any given state, and a valuation function  assigning a truth value, in each state, to each primitive proposition in the language. The Kripke semantics for the knowledge operator is given by stipulating that  is true at state s iff  is true at all states t such that . The semantics for the common knowledge operator, then, is given by taking, for each group of agents G, the reflexive (modal axiom T) and transitive closure (modal axiom 4) of the , for all agents i in G, call such a relation , and stipulating that  is true at state s iff  is true at all states t such that .

Set theoretic (semantic characterization)

Alternatively (yet equivalently) common knowledge can be formalized using set theory (this was the path taken by the Nobel laureate Robert Aumann in his seminal 1976 paper).  Starting with a set of states S.  An event E can then be defined as a subset of the set of states S.  For each agent i, define a partition on S, Pi.  This partition represents the state of knowledge of an agent in a state.  Intuitively, if two states s1 and s2 are elements of the same part of partition of an agent, it means that s1 and s2 are indistinguishable to that agent. In general, in state s, agent i knows that one of the states in Pi(s) obtains, but not which one. (Here Pi(s) denotes the unique element of Pi containing s. This model excludes cases in which agents know things that are not true.)

A knowledge function K can now be defined in the following way:

That is, Ki(e) is the set of states where the agent will know that event e obtains. It is a subset of e.

Similar to the modal logic formulation above,  an operator for the idea that "everyone knows can be defined as e".

As with the modal operator, we will iterate the E function,  and .  Using this we can then define a common knowledge function,

The equivalence with the syntactic approach sketched above can easily be seen: consider an Aumann structure as the one just defined. We can define a correspondent Kripke structure by taking the same space S, accessibility relations  that define the equivalence classes corresponding to the partitions , and a valuation function such that it yields value true to the primitive proposition p in all and only the states s such that , where  is the event of the Aumann structure corresponding to the primitive proposition p. It is not difficult to see that the common knowledge accessibility function  defined in the previous section corresponds to the finest common coarsening of the partitions  for all , which is the finitary characterization of common knowledge also given by Aumann in the 1976 article.

Applications

Common knowledge was used by David Lewis in his pioneering game-theoretical account of convention. In this sense, common knowledge is a concept still central for linguists and philosophers of language (see Clark 1996) maintaining a Lewisian, conventionalist account of language.

Robert Aumann introduced a set theoretical formulation of common knowledge (theoretically equivalent to the one given above) and proved the so-called agreement theorem through which: if two agents have common prior probability over a certain event, and the posterior probabilities are common knowledge, then such posterior probabilities are equal. A result based on the agreement theorem and proven by Milgrom shows that, given certain conditions on market efficiency and information, speculative trade is impossible.

The concept of common knowledge is central in game theory. For several years it has been thought that the assumption of common knowledge of rationality for the players in the game was fundamental. It turns out (Aumann and Brandenburger 1995) that, in two-player games, common knowledge of rationality is not needed as an epistemic condition for Nash equilibrium strategies.

Computer scientists use languages incorporating epistemic logics (and common knowledge) to reason about distributed systems. Such systems can be based on logics more complicated than simple propositional epistemic logic, see Wooldridge Reasoning about Artificial Agents, 2000 (in which he uses a first-order logic incorporating epistemic and temporal operators) or van der Hoek et al. "Alternating Time Epistemic Logic".

In his 2007 book,  The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature, Steven Pinker uses the notion of common knowledge to analyze the kind of indirect speech involved in innuendoes.

In popular culture

The comedy movie Hot Lead and Cold Feet has an example of a chain of logic that is collapsed by common knowledge.
The Denver Kid tells his allies that Rattlesnake is in town, but that he [the Kid] has "the edge": "He's here and I know he's here, and he knows I know he's here, but he doesn't know I know he knows I know he's here."
So both protagonists know the main fact (Rattlesnake is here), but it is not "common knowledge". Note that this is true even if the Kid is wrong: maybe Rattlesnake does know that the Kid knows that he knows that he knows, the chain still breaks because the Kid doesn't know that.
Moments later, Rattlesnake confronts the Kid. We see the Kid realizing that his carefully constructed "edge" has collapsed into common knowledge.

See also

 Global game
 Mutual knowledge (logic)
 Pluralistic ignorance
 Stag hunt
 Stephen Schiffer
 Two Generals' Problem for the impossibility of establishing common knowledge over an unreliable channel

Notes

   See the textbooks Reasoning about knowledge by Fagin, Halpern, Moses and Vardi (1995), and Epistemic Logic for computer science by Meyer and van der Hoek (1995).
   A structurally identical problem is provided by Herbert Gintis (2000); he calls it "The Women of Sevitan".

References

Further reading

 Aumann, Robert (1976)  "Agreeing to Disagree" Annals of Statistics 4(6): 1236–1239.
 Aumann Robert and Adam Brandenburger (1995) "Epistemic Conditions for Nash Equilibrium" Econometrica 63(5): 1161–1180.
 Clark, Herbert (1996) Using Language, Cambridge University Press
 .
 Lewis, David (1969) Convention: A Philosophical Study  Oxford: Blackburn.
 J-J Ch. Meyer and W van der Hoek Epistemic Logic for Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, volume 41, Cambridge Tracts in Theoretical Computer Science,  Cambridge University Press, 1995.
 . See Chapter 3.
 . See Section 13.4; downloadable free online.
 Gintis, Herbert (2000) Game Theory Evolving Princeton University Press.
 Gintis, Herbert (2009) The Bounds of Reason Princeton University Press.

External links

 Prof. Terence Tao's blog post (Feb 2008)
 Carr, Kareem. "In the Long Run We Are All Dead", "In the Long Run We Are All Dead II" at The Twofold Gaze. Detailed description of the blue-eyed islander problem, with solution.
 physics.harvard.edu "Green-eyed Dragons Problem", "Green-eyed Dragons Solution" (Sept 2002)

Game theory
Concepts in logic
Fixed points (mathematics)
Knowledge transfer
Social epistemology
Epistemic logic
Concepts in epistemology

Common knowledge (logic)


Han Solo is a fictional character in Star Wars played by Harrison Ford. He appears for the first time in Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope as a pirate and smuggler with his Wookiee friend, Chewbacca. He was voted as the second greatest Star Wars character, behind Darth Vader.

At first, Solo and his companion Chewbacca are hired by Jedi Luke Skywalker and Obi-Wan Kenobi to get Skywalker and Kenobi aboard the Death Star to save Princess Leia. While Solo seems to be interested only in being paid at first, he comes back to save Luke. Solo later falls in love with Leia.

In Star Wars: The Force Awakens, it is revealed that Solo and Leia have a son called Ben Solo (known as Kylo Ren) who falls to the First Order. Solo is killed by Ren towards the end of the movie after being stabbed by a lightsaber through the chest and falling to a deep shift.

A spin-off movie about Solo was released in 2018.

References

Other websites
  at
Han Solo  at The World of Star Wars

Fictional characters introduced in 1977
Star Wars Anthology characters
Star Wars characters
Star Wars Skywalker Saga characters

Han Solo


Glyceria fluitans  (syns Festuca fluitans, Poa fluitans, Panicularia fluitans), known as  floating sweet-grass and water mannagrass, is a species of perennial grass in the genus Glyceria native to Europe, the Mediterranean region and Western Asia and occurring in wet areas such as ditches, riverbanks and ponds.

It has a creeping rootstock, a thick stem which rises to one metre.  The leaves are long, narrow and pale green, rough on both sides, often folded at the keel which lies on the surface of the water.

The species epithet fluitans is Latin for "floating".

History
Before the 19th century, the grains were widely harvested in Central Europe and Sweden, and traded as far as England. It was cooked and eaten as gruel.

Flood tolerance
When a shoot is submerged in floodwater there is a strong reduction of diffusion of gases which limits oxygen and carbon dioxide availability. To handle the poor gas exchange while submerged, Glyceria fluitans forms a gas film around the leaves. The gas film allows to increase the gas exchange since the diffusion of gas within the film is rapid. Glyceria fluitans has two kind of leaves: floating leaves and aerial leaves. Floating leaves form a gas film only on the adaxial side, instead aerial leaves form it on both sides. The formation of a gas film is caused from the superhydrophobicity of the leaves, which is provoked by the special structure of the leaves. Indeed, they have a plicate shape with ridges and grooves, on the microscale they have convex papillose epidermal cells forming papillae and three-dimensional epicuticular waxes. A gas film vanishes typically after 2–6 days of submergence because the leaves become hydrophilic. Regarding the beneficial trait of the gas film development, it can be said that Glyceria fluitans through it enhances the gas exchange and therefore the photosynthesis under flood conditions, but it is seen as a short term strategie.

Environmental conservation
Glyceria fluitans is a component of purple moor grass and rush pastures, a type of Biodiversity Action Plan habitat in the UK. This habitat occurs on poorly drained neutral and acidic soils of the lowlands and upland fringe. It is found in the South West of England, especially in Devon.

At the Great Fen, researchers are running trials with Glyceria fluitans in order to assess its physical and financial viability as a crop in wet farming systems. Glyceria fluitans was chosen because it has been consumed by humans for a long time and because of its tolerance to a wide range of growing conditions. This tolerance originates from the fact that Glyceria fluitans is to some extent self-sterile and therefore outbreeding, which allows for adaptation.

Farming techniques
The use and cultivation of Glyceria fluitans disappeared little by little during the 19th and 20th century due to its long gathering time and the disappearance of wetlands. For these reasons, known farming techniques are old and not very applicable to today's production systems anymore.

Harvest and postharvest treatments
Glyceria fluitans is harvested in the second half of June or early July. The maturation and harvest time of Glyceria fluitans were interesting for farmers in the past centuries because it preceded the wheat and rye harvest by 1 month, a period of significant cereal shortage. The grains of Glyceria fluitans were harvested with a sieve at the morning dew. The sieves  were described with long handles and only strong people could use them. After the harvest, grains were dried out and grinded in a mortar filled with straw at the bottom so that the shells could be removed. The reasons why Glyceria fluitans grains were harvested at the morning dew are the following: firstly, grains tend to stick better to the sieves when humid. Secondly, the grains of dry plants tend to fall more easily on the ground at the smallest movement causing yield loses.

However, these harvest techniques are not suitable for today's agricultural production and new cultivars through  genetic breeding should be developed.

Sowing
The sowing of Glyceria fluitans takes place in summer. The seeding density is 8 to 12 lbs per acre.

As a food
Glyceria fluitans grains were popular in Poland, Germany, Hungary and other European countries for their sweet taste and nutrient richness. In Poland, foods containing Glyceria fluitans were pointed out as specialities of the local cuisine. Originally, Glyceria fluitans was used to prepare dishes as sweet cakes, flatbreads, dumplings, with butter or boiled milk, broths and soups, with oriental spices, as well as in sausages as binding additive.

Due to its healthy properties, between the 17th and 18th century, its consume was advised by pharmacopoeias to people with debilitating diseases as well as malnourished young people.

Nutrition

Nutrient content
100 g of Glyceria fluitans grains (endosperm, ca. 13.5% water content) contain about: 9.69% of protein, 0.43% of total fat, 75.06% of carbohydrate (starch and sugar), 0.21% of dietary fiber and 0.61% of ash.

Gallery

References

 pages 22–23 of The Observer's Book of Grasses, Sedges & Rushes by Francis Rose,1974, published by Frederick Warne & Co

External links
USDA PLANTS Profile

fluitans
Grasses of Asia
Grasses of Europe

Glyceria fluitans


Power walking or speed walking is the act of walking with a speed at the upper end of the natural range for the walking gait, typically 7 to 9 km/h (4.5 to 5.5 mph). To qualify as power walking as opposed to jogging or running, at least one foot must be in contact with the ground at all times (see walking for a formal definition).

History and technique

In 1999, the Berlin Marathon included a Power Walking division.

Power walking is often confused with racewalking.

Power walking techniques involve the following:
 The walker must walk straight
 The walker must walk doing an alternating movement of feet and arms
 The walker must walk with one foot in permanent contact with the ground
 The leading leg must be bent
 Each advancing foot strike must be heel to toe at all times
 The walker must walk not doing an exaggerated swivel to the hip
 The arms spread completely from the elbows and these move back

Competitions and world records
Competitions are held for power walking competitions, with world records held in categories including 5 km, 10 km, half marathon, 30 km, marathon, and multiday distances.

Health and fitness

Power walking has been recommended by health experts such as Kenneth H. Cooper as an alternative to jogging for a low-to-moderate exercise regime, for instance 60–80% of maximum heart rate (HRmax). At the upper range, walking and jogging are almost equally efficient, and the walking gait gives significantly less impact to the joints.

Early bodybuilding champion Steve Reeves was an early advocate and wrote the book Powerwalking about his experiences with it and its health benefits.

A 2021 study, where post coronary angioplasty patients were introduced power walking based on their ejection fraction, VO2 max calculation, heart rate monitoring and pedometer counts. Those participants in power walking group benefited significantly on quality of life and various physiological parameters.

Physiologically, a normal adult walking at a speed of 4–6 km/h has the least aerobic requirement and low exercise intensity. Running is preferred over walking at a speed equal to or greater than 8 km/h, since running at a higher speed consumes less oxygen than walking. When running is a significant problem, particularly in patients with post-coronary angioplasty with or without stents, power walking was recommended. Power walking with 6-8 km/h speed, patients can achieve the benefits of running i.e., significant improvement in V02 Max., maximal aerobic capacity. To put simply power walking is augmented with speed of walking.

References

Sources

 Reeves, Steve. (1982) Power Walking, Bobbs-Merrill.

External links
 World Ranking -National and World Race Walking

Walking

Power walking


Two Scent's Worth is a 1955 Warner Bros. Merrie Melodies short directed by Chuck Jones. The short was released on October 15, 1955, and stars Pepé Le Pew.

Plot
In the small village of Nasty Pass, within the French Alps, a man (in fact a bank robber) visits a fishmonger to buy a sardine, and then returns to a remote flat. The man then uses the sardine as bait, catching a cat (Penelope Pussycat) who is lured by the fish. The man then paints a white stripe on her back to make her look like a skunk to scare away the patrons in a nearby bank. The bank robber makes off with the money and comes across Pepé Le Pew, mistaking him for Penelope at first until Pepé's odor proves otherwise, causing the burglar to run back to the village and turn himself in.

As Penelope wanders out the bank, Pepé sees her and falls in love. He chases her out of the village and into a cable car, which Penelope accidentally activates. Trying to get away from Pepé, she travels along the cable up to a ski jump and is sent flying when she stands on a stray ski, Pepé follows on his own pair of skis until he hits a tree. While Penelope continues on her own ski, Pepé swings across the trees to catch up with her and reunite with his own skis in the process.

A chase across the snow follows with Pepé slowly gaining, so Penelope speeds her ski up, but when she sees a cliff edge, she has to slow down and comes to a stop just inches above the edge. Pepé crashes into her and they go off the edge. Penelope holds onto him tight, more concerned with the fall than his odor but Pepé deploys a heart-shaped parachute, telling the audience that "A true gentleman must be prepared for anything". The cartoon ends with a heart-shaped iris-out to a red background.

References

External links

1955 films
1955 animated films
1955 short films
1950s English-language films
1950s Warner Bros. animated short films
Merrie Melodies short films
Films scored by Milt Franklyn
Warner Bros. short films
Warner Bros. Cartoons animated short films
Short films directed by Chuck Jones
Animated films about cats
Films set in France
Pepé Le Pew films
Films set in the Alps
Penelope Pussycat films

Two Scent's Worth


Asbury & West United Church is a United Church of Canada church in the Bathurst and Lawrence area of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The congregation has one of the longest continual histories of any in Toronto. It traces its history back to 1812 and meetings of small groups of Methodist settlers in what was an area being newly settled by Europeans. The first services were held in the farmhouse of Henry Mulholland, a veteran of the War of 1812 and the Battle of Lundy's Lane. He first came to Canada from Ireland in 1806, settling in the area that would later be named Henry Farm after him. He later moved further west to what is now the Bathurst and Lawrence area.

The original small congregation was served by circuit preachers who rode out of the small nearby village of Eglinton, Ontario. In 1817 the congregation began to hold services in a new one room schoolhouse. Mulholland began to clear land for a permanent church building, but he died in the 1833 sinking of the Lady of the Lake. His widow, Jane, donated the land that was being cleared to the church, and a small wooden chapel was erected. The church was named after Francis Asbury, an early Methodist leader. This chapel was destroyed by fire in 1898, and a new brick church was built. In 1925 Asbury Methodist joined the United Church of Canada upon its formation, becoming Asbury United Church.

In 1947 the church merged with West United Church.  This congregation began its ministry as West Presbyterian Church (in connection with the Free Church of Scotland) in 1860. It was started as a Sunday School from Knox's Free Church, and first met in a hall on Brock Street. A small building was erected in 1864 at Denison (between Spadina and Bathurst) and Queen Street West. In 1879, they constructed a new church building further north of Queen on Denison. In 1910, they moved, to College and Montrose (west of Bathurst), where they became West United Church in 1925 (voting 298-195 on February 27, 1925). In 1928 it was joined by the former Methodist congregation from nearby Clinton Street. By 1947, however, West United's congregation had shrunk, and merged with Asbury to the north. Its original site was sold in 1911 to the O'Keefe family and became St. Stanislaus Polish Catholic congregation in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toronto. The College/Montrose corner is now home to a Spiritualist building that was constructed after West's departure.

While long the church for a small rural community, the area around the Asbury congregation changed dramatically with the rise of the suburbs as the Bathurst and Lawrence became part of the rapidly growing suburbs of North York. In the 1950s it was decided that with the families from the former West Congregation, and many newcomers to the community, a new larger church was needed, and the current structure was constructed in that decade.

See also
List of United Church of Canada churches in Toronto

References

"War of 1812 veteran cleared land for Asbury church." Harold Hilliard. Toronto Star. Jun 2, 1987. pg. N.10

United Church of Canada churches in Toronto
Gothic Revival architecture in Toronto
Burned buildings and structures in Canada
Gothic Revival church buildings in Canada
20th-century United Church of Canada church buildings

Asbury & West United Church