Antonio de Morga Sánchez Garay (29 November 1559 – 21 July 1636) was a Spanish soldier, lawyer and a high-ranking colonial official for 43 years, in the Philippines (1594 to 1604), New Spain and Peru, where he was president of the Real Audiencia for 20 years.

He was also a historian. After being reassigned to Mexico, he published the book Sucesos de las islas Filipinas in 1609, considered one of the most important works on the early history of the Spanish colonization of the Philippines. As Deputy Governor in the Philippines, he restored the audencia. He took over the function of judge or oidor. He also took command of Spanish ships in a 1600 naval battle against Dutch corsairs, but suffered defeat and barely survived.

His history was first published in English in 1868; numerous editions have been published in English, including a 1907 edition that is online at the Gutenberg Project. It has also been reprinted in Spanish and other languages.

Education and service in the Philippines
Antonio de Morga Sánchez Garay was born in Seville.  He graduated from the University of Salamanca in 1574 and in 1578 received a doctorate in canon law. He taught briefly in Osuna, and then returned to Salamanca to study civil law. In 1580 he joined the government service as a lawyer. Among other positions in Spain, he held that of auditor general of the galleys. In 1582 he was serving as mayor of Baracaldo in Vizcaya when he first married, to Juana de Briviesca de Munotones.

In August 1593 he was notified that he had been selected as Lieutenant to the Governor-General of the Philippines, starting what would become 43 years of colonial service. He traveled accompanied by his family, 14 servants, three black slaves and his collection of books. Following the route of that time, he sailed from Cadiz in February 1594, arriving in Mexico in May. During the following period of preparation for the Pacific voyage, he heard two important cases, and supervised the supplying of the two ships to be used. He also recruited 200 soldiers for the garrison in Manila. They departed Acapulco on March 22, 1595, reaching Manila on June 11, 1595. He had the second-most powerful position in the colony.

He first served under Governor-General Luis Pérez Dasmariñas, who was interim after his father's death. Francisco Tello de Guzmán soon succeeded him, and Morga reported to him during most of his time in the colony. In his account of the colonial Philippines published in 1609, Morga noted the miserable condition suffered by  many of the Spanish/Mexican soldiers, who were young, ill-paid and suffered in that unfamiliar environment. Few wanted to settle in Manila, and higher-level government officials also sought to leave the colony in a few years. His first two reports to the Crown covered a wide variety of topics, mentioning Japan, Mindanao, and China, in addition to civil, military and ecclesiastical activities within the colony.

He issued regulations for administrative reform, known as the Ordenzas. Among his reforms was to restore the audencia. In 1598 he resigned as lieutenant governor to assume the office of oidor, or judge, in the newly re-established Audiencia of Manila. The position required his removal from much public life.

During this period, Morga encouraged the growth in trade between Spain and China, known as the galleon trade. Chinese ships came to Manila to trade. From there, the Spanish sent galleons to Acapulco, where goods were shipped to Mexico City and then to Veracruz, for transportation to Spain. They were paid for with Spanish/Mexican silver, which became a currency in China.

While stationed in Manila, Morga noted many of the wares imported from the Ming dynasty of China. He mentioned porcelain only once, although at this time it was becoming one of the greatest export items, along with silk, to Europe from China. From his observation of textiles in the Manila inventory, the Spanish were buying:
...raw silk in bundles...fine untwisted silk, white and of all colors...quantities of velvets, some plain and some embroidered in all sorts of figures, colors, and fashions, with body of gold and embroidered with gold; woven stuff and brocades, of gold and silver upon silk of various colors and patterns...damasks, satins, taffetas...

Other goods that de Morga mentioned as being exported in the galleon trade were:
...musk, benzoin and ivory; many bed ornaments, hangings, coverlets and tapestries of embroidered velvet...tablecloths, cushions, and carpets; horse-trappings of the same stuffs, and embroidered with glass beads and seed-pearls; also pearls and rubies, sapphires and crystals; metal basins, copper kettles and other copper and cast-iron pots. . .wheat flour, preserves made of orange, peach, pair, nutmeg and ginger, and other fruits of China; salt pork and other salt meats; live fowl of good breed and many fine capons...chestnuts, walnuts...little boxes and writing cases; beds, tables, chairs, and gilded benches, painted in many figures and patterns. They bring domestic buffaloes; geese that resemble swans; horses, some mules and asses; even caged birds, some of which talk, while others sing, and they make them play innumerable tricks...pepper and other spices.

De Morga closed his inventory list by stating that there were "rarities which, did I refer to them all, I would never finish, nor have sufficient paper for it."

Combat with Dutch corsairs
In 1600 Dutch corsairs under Olivier van Noort were preying on shipping entering Manila harbor. According to Morga's account, Governor Francisco de Tello de Guzmán and the Audiencia appointed Morga to go to Cavite and assemble, equip, and supply a fleet to attack the Dutch (31 October 1600). The ships available were the San Diego, the San Bartolomé, and some smaller vessels. Some refitting was necessary, since both the San Diego and the San Bartolomé were cargo ships. According to Morga, this was done without drawing on the colonial treasury (i.e., at his own expense, perhaps with other private contributions).

Morga had had some military experience, having been general of a Spanish fleet some time previously and lieutenant of the captain general of the Philippines for some years, but he had never seen combat.

On 1 December 1600, Governor Tello appointed Morga captain general of the fleet, with orders to attack the two Dutch ships. The two forces met on 14 December 1600. The Spanish also had two ships, and one sailed off in pursuit of one of the Dutch ships. Unable to fire – the gunports were closed because they were under the waterline, because he had allowed the ship to be dangerously overloaded – Morga ordered the San Diego to ram the Mauritius and grapple it. Thirty soldiers and some sailors boarded the Mauritius, taking possession of the forecastle and after-cabin and capturing the Dutch standard. The main and mizzen masts were stripped of sails and rigging. The Dutch retreated to the bow, where at first it seemed they were about to surrender. However, they soon renewed the fight with muskets and artillery.

An intense, six-hour hand-to-hand battle ensued, and many were killed on each side. The Dutch were said to have very few men left, and then the Mauritius caught fire. Fearing the fire, the San Diego recalled its men and cast off. However, the Spanish ship was taking on water and sinking, either from the ramming or from the artillery of the Mauritius. (Accounts differ.)

The Dutch took this opportunity to extinguish the fire and set sail with the foresail, the only sail remaining, and with a skeleton crew. They eventually reached Borneo. The other Dutch ship, however, was captured by the San Bartolome. It was taken to Manila, where captain Biesmann and 25 surviving sailors were hanged.

The San Diego sank so quickly that the men for the most part were unable to disarm or abandon ship. Perhaps 350 men were lost. Morga swam for four hours, holding on to the Dutch standard, and made it to a small deserted island, where a few others of the ship's company also arrived.

This is based on the account of Morga, as published in his 1609 Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. He blamed the captain of the San Bartolome for the loss of the San Diego, because he had pursued the other Dutch ship rather than attacking the Mauritius. The Dutch account of these events was very different, accusing Morga of incompetence and cowardice.

In 1992, French explorers led by Franck Goddio excavated the sunken San Diego with its treasure.  Because of the large number of artifacts found with it (over 34,000), this was hailed as a great archaeological discovery. The artifacts included Chinese porcelain, celadon ware, Japanese katanas, Spanish morions, Portuguese cannons, and Mexican coins. An MV San Diego warship museum has been constructed on Fortune Island to display and interpret many of the artifacts. This was the island reached by Morga and the other survivors of the San Diego.

In New Spain and Peru
On 10 July 1603, Morga was reassigned to Mexico, in command of the ships sailing that year for New Spain. He became alcalde of criminal causes in the Royal Audiencia of Mexico City. He was also advisor to the viceroy on military matters and counsel for the Holy Office of the Inquisition. He served in Mexico until 1615, publishing his history of the Philippines in 1609, which has become noted for its account of the early colonial years and has been translated into numerous languages and published in many editions.

In 1615 he was named president of the Audiencia of Quito, within the Viceroyalty of Peru. He arrived in Guayaquil on 8 September 1615, having narrowly escaped falling into the hands of Dutch corsairs off the island of Santa Clara. He took up his office in Quito on 30 September 1615. During his administration, the textile industry advanced and the University of San Gregorio Magno was founded. It was a time of confrontation between the civil and ecclesiastic powers, as well as disputes between the Creole and Peninsular monks for control of the religious orders. Although Morga was widely known to gamble extensively, have affairs with women, and conduct other questionable activities, he still achieved bureaucratic reforms, as well as of the liturgy, and helped improve treatment of the native peoples.

In 1625 de Morga was investigated for corruption and arrested. On 18 September 1627, he was cleared of the charges and his offices were restored to him. He died in 1636. Except for the period 1625–27, he held the position of president of the Audiencia of Quito for 20 years, from 1615 until the year of his death. Most presidents of the Audencia served about 5 years. Even as he aged, Morga pursued women. Shortly before his death in 1636, he was relieved of his duties. He was fined 2000 gold ducats for "having lewd relationships with much publicity and with many women".

History of the Philippine Islands

Morga suffered important failures in both his military and political capacities. The same cannot be said for his work as historian. In 1609, he published the work for which he is now remembered – Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Events in the Philippine Isles). This work, perhaps the best account of Spanish colonialism in the Philippines written during that period, is based partly on documentary research, partly on keen observation, and partly on Morga's personal involvement and knowledge.

The history was published in two volumes, both in 1609 by Casa de Geronymo Balli, in Mexico City. (The work had circulated for years before this in manuscript form.) New Spain Viceroy Luis de Velasco (hijo) authorized the publication and granted Morga the sole right to publish it for ten years, on 7 April 1609. On the same date, Fray García Guerra, archbishop of Mexico, approved the publication of the work. The history covers the years from 1493 to 1603. Political, social, and economic phases of life, both among the natives and their conquerors, are treated. Morga's official position allowed him access to many government documents.

The work greatly impressed Philippine independence hero José Rizal (1861–96), himself a man of letters and of action. He decided to annotate it and publish a new edition. He began work on this in London, completing it in Paris in 1890. He wrote:

If the book (Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas) succeeds to awaken your consciousness of our past, already effaced from your memory, and to rectify what has been falsified and slandered, then I have not worked in vain, and with this as a basis, however small it may be, we shall be able to study the future.About Rizal's Morga

The first English translation was published in London in 1868. Another English translation by Blair and Robertson was published in Cleveland in 1907, (it is available online at the Gutenberg Project) and an edition edited by J.S. Cummins was published by the Hakluyt Society in 1971 ().

Works

References

Brook, Timothy. (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press.  (Paperback).

External links

de Morga, Dr. Antonio. History of the Philippine Islands, Vols. 1 and 2 (1609/1907), (Translated and Annotated in English), Ed. E.H. Blair and J.A. Robertson, J.A. (editors). Cleveland, Ohio: The Arthur H. Clark Company
 Some biographical details
 * Another account of the battle
 Some notes on his responsibilities in Manila, Zamboanga
 Federico González Suárez, Chap: 11, "El presidente don Antonio de Morga," Historia general de la República del Ecuador

1559 births
1636 deaths
Colonial Mexico
Colonial Peru
17th-century Spanish historians
Spanish expatriates in the Philippines
Authors of Spanish ethnographic accounts of the Philippines in the 16th century
Foreign relations of the Ming dynasty
University of Salamanca alumni

Antonio de Morga


Geraldine "Geri" Donnelly (born 30 November 1965) is a Canadian former soccer player. A midfielder, she represented Canada at the 1995 and 1999 editions of the FIFA Women's World Cup and was named Canadian Player of the Year in 1996 and 1999. Donnelly was part of the Canadian squad who won the 1998 CONCACAF Women's Championship. She was selected as a member of the Canadian Soccer Hall of Fame in 2014.

Club career
Born in London, Donnelly played street soccer with local boys before her family moved to Port Moody, British Columbia when she was eight.

Donnelly played with Vancouver Angels in the Women's Premier Soccer League (WPSL), remaining with the club when they moved to the W-League and were amalgamated into Vancouver Whitecaps, after playing the transitional 2001 W-League season as Vancouver Breakers.

Aged 43, she retired from soccer in 2009 after guiding Surrey United to six consecutive provincial titles.

International career
In Canada's second-ever match, two days after their first, Donnelly made her debut. She scored both goals in a 2–1 win over the United States on 9 July 1986 at the National Sports Center, Blaine, Minnesota. The goals were Canada's first ever, as they had been beaten 2–0 by the United States in the first game.

Donnelly played at a time when women's soccer in Canada was in its infancy. Port Moody Soccer Club, the town's Rotary Club and a local Safeway supermarket raised $1,500 to enable Donnelly to join the first national team tour, to Taiwan in 1987. She also played for Canada in the 1988 FIFA Women's Invitation Tournament, where they lost 1–0 to Sweden in the quarter-finals.

At the 1995 FIFA Women's World Cup, Donnelly scored in Canada's first two games: an injury time consolation in Canada's opening 3–2 defeat against the land of her birth England and the second in a 3–3 draw with Nigeria. She played 90 minutes in the final group match, as Canada were spanked 7–0 by eventual champions Norway.

Canada qualified for the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup by winning the 1998 CONCACAF Women's Championship, in the absence of the United States who had qualified automatically as hosts. Donnelly was named in the squad for the finals, while attached to the Metro-Ford Soccer Club. Donnelly played in a 1–1 draw with Japan, a 7–1 defeat to Norway and a 4–1 defeat by Russia as the Canadians suffered another first round elimination. She retired from national team play after the tournament, as Canada's record appearance holder with 71 caps.

References

External links

 / Canada Soccer Hall of Fame

1965 births
Living people
English emigrants to Canada
Naturalized citizens of Canada
Canadian people of English descent
Canada Soccer Hall of Fame inductees
Canadian women's soccer players
Canada women's international soccer players
Women's association football midfielders
Soccer people from British Columbia
1995 FIFA Women's World Cup players
1999 FIFA Women's World Cup players
USL W-League (1995–2015) players
Footballers from Greater London
Vancouver Whitecaps FC (women) players
Simon Fraser University alumni
Simon Fraser Red Leafs women's basketball players

Geri Donnelly


Edgartown Harbor Light is a lighthouse located in Edgartown, Massachusetts, United States, where it marks the entrance to Edgartown Harbor and Katama Bay. It is one of five lighthouses on the island of  Martha's Vineyard. The first lighthouse, a two-story wooden structure that also served as the keeper's house, was constructed in 1828. It was demolished, and replaced by the current cast-iron tower, in 1939. Originally located on an artificial island 1/4 miles (~ 400 meters) from shore, the lighthouse is now surrounded by a beach formed, since 1939, by sand accumulating around the stone causeway connecting it to the mainland.

History
The Edgartown Harbor Light was the first lighthouse constructed at the Edgartown Harbor entrance. The first light was built in 1828 when Congress appropriated $5,500 so the federal government could purchase a plot of land from Seth Vincent for $80, and build a light at the entrance of Edgartown Harbor. The necessity for a lighthouse at this location was precipitated by the large number of vessels frequenting the harbor during the whaling boom of the late 1700s and early 1800s.

The original Edgartown Light was a wooden, Cape Cod Style, two-story Keeper's house built on wood spiles a short distance offshore in shallow water. For the first two years of service, this offshore location required the Keeper to row a short distance. In 1830 Congress approved $2,500 for a wooden causeway to be constructed. This wooden causeway was colloquially known as the "Bridge of Sighs." A term that reflected the emotions of island people as they stood on the walkway watching whaling ships depart for voyages that lasted up to five years.
The initial Edgartown lighthouse featured a glass lantern room protruding from the middle of the gabled roof of the Keeper's residence. This lantern room contained a fixed white light that was visible for about 14 miles. In 1850 Congress appropriated $5,000 for construction of a new causeway with a walkway on top. In 1856, after the Keeper's house was damaged by fire, the house was rebuilt, and the light replaced with a fourth-order Fresnel lens. During the 1860s – multiple repairs and renovations were done, including: rooms re-papered, 2 iron smokestacks raised, sills of the keeper's house were replaced and the house was whitewashed, the walkway was repaired. In the 1890s, the fuel and storehouse were built; a new oil house was constructed; a fence was built around the pier, and a new well was dug.
This first Edgartown Light was destroyed in the Hurricane of 1938. In 1939, the United States Coast Guard demolished the existing buildings and installed an 1881 vintage cast-iron tower relocated from Ipswich Rear Range Light. When reconstructed at the mouth of Edgartown Harbor, the relocated conical tower was fitted with the fourth-order Fresnel lens, electrified, and automated.

Rescued from destruction
From 1939 through to the early 1980s, the automated Edgartown Harbor Light was maintained by the United States Coast Guard. Due to U. S. Coast Guard Congressional funding shortages through the 1970s and early 1980s, various lighthouses around the United States were destroyed or designated for destruction. Such designation was due to the high expense of maintaining the structures, and because the lights no longer served as vital aids to navigation. This obsolete status of the lighthouses was facilitated by enhanced satellite GPS and other electrical maritime navigation aids. Documentation of lighthouses destroyed in recent history is available from Lighthouse Digest, which maintains a record of destroyed lighthouses as well as a "Doomsday List" of threatened lights. According to the 2012 "Doomsday List" published by Lighthouse Digest, there are currently 43 lighthouses in the U.S. listed for destruction in the near future. Due to such funding shortages, the Edgartown Harbor Light and two other Martha's Vineyard lighthouses (Gay Head Light and East Chop Light) were designated for destruction by the federal government in the early 1980s. As in other similar lighthouse removal projects, the United States Coast Guard would dismantle or raze the existing lighthouse and often replace the light with a low-maintenance iron spindle structure top-mounted with a strobe light.

The three threatened lights on Martha's Vineyard were saved through federal petition and Congressional testimony by Vineyard Environmental Research, Institute's (VERI) founding board member and President, William Waterway Marks, and, Chair, John F. Bitzer, Jr. VERI was a nonprofit organization co-founded in 1984 by William Waterway Marks and Fairleigh S. Dickinson, Jr., to undertake cutting-edge environmental research of acid rain; sea-level rise; shellfish resources; coastal erosion; Great Pond, wetland, and barrier beach ecosystem dynamics, and aquifer (groundwater) protection. During and after the Congressional hearings, VERI's effort to save the island's three iconic lighthouses received support from Congressman Gerry Studds, and Senator Ted Kennedy. Shortly after the Congressional hearings, the United States Coast Guard issued a 35-year license for the three lights to VERI in 1985.

This was the first time in U.S. history that control of  "active" lighthouses was transferred to a civilian organization.  On similar note, this was the first time in the history of Martha's Vineyard that control of any of its five lighthouses was in the hands of an island organization. After receiving the lighthouse license, the Institute undertook a series of fundraising activities that engaged the community of Martha's Vineyard, including local supporters and celebrities such as co-founding board member, Fairleigh S. Dickinson, Jr., and board members, Jonathan Mayhew, whose whaling family ancestor's were the Vineyard's first European settlers; Vineyard Gazette co-owner, Jody Reston; philanthropist, Flipper Harris; Margaret K. Littlefield; the actress, Linda Kelsey; WHOI Director, Derek W. Spencer, and John F. Bitzer, Jr..  Speakers and performers appearing at these lighthouse events were renowned historian, David McCullough; Senator Ted Kennedy; Caroline Kennedy; Edward M. Kennedy, Jr.; Congressman Gerry Studds; singer/songwriter, Carly Simon; Kate Taylor; Livingston Taylor; Hugh Taylor; Dennis Miller from Saturday Night Live; Bill Styron's wife, Rose Styron - who read one of her original lighthouse poems; United States Navy Rear Admiral, Richard A. Bauman; renowned photographer, Alfred Eisenstaedt and comedian, Steve Sweeney. The proceeds from the lighthouse benefits were applied to a major restoration of the Edgartown Harbor Light. In 1988, the light's exterior was restored to its previous white-dressed elegance, and the dysfunctional double-barreled fog horn was removed. In 1990, the fourth-order Fresnel was replaced with a smaller red plastic lens, and the light was converted from grid electric power to solar power.

From bridge to barrier beach
From the Edgartown lighthouse's initial construction in 1828 until its demise in 1938, the Edgartown Harbor Light was accessible to guests and visiting public. During its first year, the Cape Cod Style two-story Keeper's house with its lighthouse lantern room was accessible only by rowing a boat from nearby waterfront land. In 1830, Congress approved funds to construct a new lantern room along with a wooden bridge for easier access (see photo - right). This wooden causeway eventually became known as the infamous "Bridge of Sighs." In 1847 this wooden bridge was replaced by a rap and stone causeway. Prior to 1830, the lighthouse Keeper; his family; guests; and visiting public had to row a short distance to access the lighthouse.

The 1908 USGS topographic map below depicts conditions of the Eel Pond barrier beach located northwest of the Edgartown Light. This same 1908 illustration shows how the Edgartown lighthouse is surrounded by water except for the wooden access causeway. In the 1950s, due to a series of hurricanes, the barrier beach stretching between Eel Pond and Nantucket Sound was destroyed. A large volume of the destabilized Eel Pond barrier beach sand was carried southeasterly by prevailing littoral drift toward the Edgartown Light area. Eventually, the sands dropped out of suspension and created a barrier beach surrounding Edgartown Harbor Light. This so-called "Lighthouse Beach" surrounding Edgartown Harbor Light continues to exist today, and serves as a barrier beach between Nantucket Sound and Lighthouse Pond.

As depicted in the photograph to right, the first Edgartown lighthouse (constructed 1828) featured a glass lantern room protruding from the middle of the gabled roof of the Keeper's residence. This lantern room contained a fixed white light that was visible for about 14 miles. This same basic structure, with attached Keeper's house, served as the Edgartown lighthouse from 1828 to 1938.

In 1938, as a result of the Hurricane of 1938 - the Edgartown Harbor Light was closed to public access due to severe structural damage caused to the lighthouse and its access causeway. In 1939, the new conical cast-iron tower from Ipswich was installed and automated. Due to automation and related removal of the resident lighthouse Keeper, there was no longer a built-in system for accommodating public access. Subsequently, the Edgartown lighthouse was closed to public access from 1938 to 1988.

August 1991, Hurricane Bob caused severe damage to the rap and stone public access causeway to the Edgartown Light. VERI initiated restoration of the causeway by raising funds from property owners abutting Lighthouse Pond. VERI board member, Fairleigh S. Dickinson, Jr., who owned a home abutting Lighthouse Pond, was instrumental in organizing donations from his fellow neighbors. The donated funds were applied toward engineering and permitting efforts, as well as structural rebuilding of the causeway. Necessary engineering; permit applications; public hearings; material acquisition, and reconstruction oversight was performed at no cost to VERI or the community by Vineyard Environmental Protection, Inc.(VEP). An important component of the new causeway's engineering design was the addition of a second culvert to facilitate tidal flushing of Lighthouse Pond. The rebuilding of the public access causeway was completed in November 1991.

October 29, 2012 - storm surge from Hurricane Sandy struck Martha's Vineyard during two full-moon tidal cycles. The photograph to right was taken at approximately 6:00 PM on 29 October 2012 prior to the peak of the 8:30 PM tidal cycle. This photo depicts the Edgartown Harbor Light being surrounded by storm surge flood waters generated during the Hurricane Sandy event. During "normal" conditions, the lighthouse is surrounded by acres of vegetated sandy beach. The hurricane's velocity currents, wave overwash, and flooding caused damage to the lighthouse's public access causeway.

Preservation and public access
In 1985, the Edgartown Light was licensed by the United States Coast Guard to Vineyard Environmental Research, Institute (VERI). In 1987, while under VERI management, the Edgartown Harbor Light was placed on the National Register of Historic Places as Edgartown Harbor Light. The following year (1988), after completion of its restoration, VERI opened the lighthouse to limited public access for the first time in fifty-five years, using local volunteers to staff it on weekends and for special events. Under VERI's management, the lighthouse became a site for community events such as  July 4 fireworks and the decorating the light with a large wreath - created community cultural events at the Edgartown Harbor Light that continue to take place annually. Public access to the light room and balcony, however, were severely limited because of the physical challenges of climbing the near-vertical wrought iron ladder inside the tower that provided the only means of reaching them.

Stewardship of the lighthouse was transferred from VERI to the Martha's Vineyard Historical Society, now the Martha's Vineyard Museum, in 1994. Between 2005 and 2007 the Museum, with the help of a $250,000 contribution from the Town of Edgartown, rebuilt the stone foundation of the lighthouse as a children's memorial and installed a spiral staircase to provide access to the light room and balcony. The Edgartown Harbor Light is now open to the public weekends from late May to early October, as well as weekdays in July and August.

In May 2011, the Edgartown Harbor Light was declared by the United States Coast Guard (USCG) to be no longer critical to its mission of safeguarding lives and property at sea. The lighthouse was listed for disposal as excess property. The Town of Edgartown began the process of acquiring it under the National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act, presenting its bid to the federal government's General Services Administration in January 2013. The transfer process was completed a year later, and in January 2014, the town officially took possession of the lighthouse, paying the government the symbolic sum of one dollar. The Martha's Vineyard Museum has continued to act as steward of the lighthouse, as it does for the East Chop Light, and to provide public access during the summer months.

Edgartown Harbor Light keepers
 Jeremiah Pease (Principal Keeper 1828-1841 and 1843–1849)
 Sylvanus Crocker (Principal Keeper 1841-1843 and 1849–1853)
 William Vinson (Principal Keeper 1853-1855)
 James Blankenship (Principal Keeper 1855-1861),
 William Vincent (Principal Keeper 1861-1866)
 Zolmond Steward (Principal Keeper 1866- 1870)
 Benjamin Huxford (Principal Keeper 1870-1919)
 Joseph H. Barrus (Principal Keeper 1919-1931)
 Henry L. Thomas (Principal Keeper 1931-1938)
 Fred Vidler (Principal Keeper 1938)
 William Waterway Marks (Principal Keeper 1985–1994)
 Fairleigh S. Dickinson, Jr. (Principal Keeper 1985-1994); Lane Lovell  (Assistant Keeper 1986-1994)
 Wade Johnson (Principal Keeper 2009–present).

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Dukes County, Massachusetts

References

External links

NPS.gov
Martha's Vineyard Museum
Lighthouse Friends

Tourist attractions in Edgartown, Massachusetts
Lighthouses completed in 1828
Lighthouses completed in 1939
Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Dukes County, Massachusetts

Edgartown Harbor Light


Kosgei, also written Kosgey and Koskei, is a surname of Kenyan origin that may refer to:

Politicians
Felix Koskei (born 1964), Kenyan politician and Cabinet Secretary for Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries. He is currently on suspension following corruption claims against him.
Henry Kosgey (born 1947), Kenyan politician and Chairman of the Orange Democratic Movement
Sally Kosgei, Kenyan politician and National Assembly Member for the Orange Democratic Movement

Runners
Abraham Kosgei Chebii (born 1979), Kenyan long-distance runner and World Cross Country medallist
Anne Kosgei (born 1980), Kenyan marathon runner and Venice Marathon winner
Benjamin Kimutai Koskei (born 1971), Kenyan marathon runner and 2002 Amsterdam Marathon winner
Brigid Kosgei (born 1994), Kenyan long-distance runner and 2019 London Marathon winner
Christopher Koskei (born 1974), Kenyan steeplechase runner and 1999 world champion
Elijah Kosgei (born 1986), Kenyan 800 metres runner competing for Qatar as Majed Saeed Sultan
Hosea Kosgei (born 1989), Kenyan long-distance track runner competing for Bahrain as Aadam Ismaeel Khamis
Irene Jerotich Kosgei (born 1974), Kenyan marathon runner and 2010 Commonwealth Games champion
James Koskei (born 1968), Kenyan road runner competing mainly in American races
Japhet Kosgei (born 1968), Kenyan marathon runner and 2000 Tokyo Marathon winner
John Kosgei (born 1973), Kenyan steeplechase runner and 1998 Commonwealth Games champion
Jonathan Kosgei Kipkorir (born 1982), Kenyan marathon runner and two-time Venice Marathon winner
Joseph Kosgei (born 1974), Kenyan cross country runner
Mark Kosgey Kiptoo (born 1976), Kenyan long-distance track runner and 2012 African champion
Michael Kosgei Rotich (born 1982), Kenyan marathon runner and 1992 Paris Marathon winner
Paul Malakwen Kosgei (born 1978), Kenyan long-distance runner and 2002 world champion in the half marathon
Reuben Kosgei (born 1979), Kenyan steeplechase runner and 2000 Olympic champion
Rose Kosgei (born 1981), Kenyan road runner
Salina Kosgei (born 1976), Kenyan marathon runner and 2009 Boston Marathon winner
Sammy Koskei (born 1961), Kenyan 800 metres runner and 1984 African champion
Samuel Kiplimo Kosgei (born 1986), Kenyan road runner and former 25K world record holder
Shadrack Kosgei (born 1984), Kenyan cross country runner
Stephen Kosgei Kibet (born 1986), Kenyan half marathon runner
Vincent Kiplangat Kosgei (born 1985), Kenyan Olympic 400 metres hurdler
Wilson Kosgei Kipketer (born 1972), Kenyan 800 metres runner and three-time world champion for Denmark

Activist
Ian Kosgei Misigo (born 1995), Social justice activist

See also
Kipkosgei, name meaning "son of Kosgei"
Chepkosgei, name meaning "daughter of Kosgei"
Mohammed Al-Salhi (born 1986), Kenyan 800 metres runner competing for Saudi Arabia whose former name was Kosgei

Kalenjin names

Kosgei


Mabel Frances Wickham (1901 in Fleet, Hampshire – 1992) was a British artist and landscape painter. She studied art at the Clapham High School from 1919 to 1923  and went on to teach art at Lord Digby's School, Sherborne. By the early 1930s she had opted to teach part-time so as to develop her own painting. For some 14 years Wickham attended summer landscape painting courses run by Reginald St Clair Marston. She was made an associate of the Society of Women Artists in 1936 and elected to the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1938. Wickham was a member of the Sherborne Art Club. She moved to Weymouth, Dorset where she ran her own summer art courses. There was a retrospective at Chesil Gallery, Chiswell in 1988 and an exhibition at Dorset County Museum, Dorchester, who hold several of her studio works.

References

1901 births
1992 deaths
20th-century English painters
People from Fleet, Hampshire

Mabel Wickham


Peat () is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter. It is unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs. Sphagnum moss, also called peat moss, is one of the most common components in peat, although many other plants can contribute. The biological features of sphagnum mosses act to create a habitat aiding peat formation, a phenomenon termed 'habitat manipulation'. Soils consisting primarily of peat are known as histosols. Peat forms in wetland conditions, where flooding or stagnant water obstructs the flow of oxygen from the atmosphere, slowing the rate of decomposition. Peat properties such as organic matter content and saturated hydraulic conductivity can exhibit high spatial heterogeneity.

Peatlands, particularly bogs, are the primary source of peat;
although less common, other wetlands, including fens, pocosins, and peat swamp forests, also deposit peat. Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants including Sphagnum moss, ericaceous shrubs, and sedges. Because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years, peat deposits provide records of past vegetation and climate by preserving plant remains, such as pollen. This allows the reconstruction of past environments and the study of changes in land use.

Peat is used by gardeners and for horticulture in certain parts of the world, but this is being banned in some places. By volume, there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world. Over time, the formation of peat is often the first step in the geological formation of fossil fuels such as coal, particularly low-grade coal such as lignite. The peatland ecosystem covers  and is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet, because peatland plants capture carbon dioxide (CO2) naturally released from the peat, maintaining an equilibrium. In natural peatlands, the "annual rate of biomass production is greater than the rate of decomposition", but it takes "thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of , which is the average depth of the boreal [northern] peatlands", which store around 415 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon (about 46 times 2019 global CO2 emissions). Globally, peat stores up to 550 Gt of carbon, 42% of all soil carbon, which exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world's forests, although it covers just 3% of the land's surface.

Peat is not a renewable source of energy, due to its extraction rate in industrialized countries far exceeding its slow regrowth rate of  per year, and as it is also reported that peat regrowth takes place only in 30–40% of peatlands. Centuries of burning and draining of peat by humans has released a significant amount of  into the atmosphere, and much peatland restoration is needed to help limit climate change.

Formation

Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of wetland vegetation: principally bog plants including mosses, sedges, and shrubs. As it accumulates, the peat holds water. This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges, and raised bogs. The characteristics of some bog plants actively promote bog formation. For example, sphagnum mosses actively secrete tannins, which preserve organic material. Sphagnum also have special water-retaining cells, known as hyaline cells, which can release water ensuring the bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production.

Most modern peat bogs formed 12,000 years ago in high latitudes after the glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age. Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year. The estimated carbon content is  (northern peatlands),  (tropical peatlands) and  (South America).

Types of peat material
Peat material is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed.

Phragmites peat are composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis, and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat.

Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil is problematic because it exhibits poor consolidation properties – it cannot be easily compacted to serve as a stable foundation to support loads, such as roads or buildings.

Peatlands distribution
In a widely cited article, Joosten and Clarke (2002) described peatlands or mires (which they claim are the same) asthe most widespread of all wetland types in the world, representing 50 to 70% of global wetlands. They cover over  or 3% of the land and freshwater surface of the planet. In these ecosystems are found one third of the world's soil carbon and 10% of global freshwater resources. These ecosystems are characterized by the unique ability to accumulate and store dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species, as peat, under conditions of almost permanent water saturation. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients. Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic. Peatlands occur on all continents, from the tropical to boreal and Arctic zones from sea level to high alpine conditions.

A more recent estimate from an improved global peatland map, PEATMAP, based on a meta-analysis of geospatial information at global, regional and national levels puts global coverage slightly higher than earlier peatland inventories at 4.23 million square kilometres (1.63 million square miles) approximately 2.84% of the world land area. In Europe, peatlands extend to about . About 60% of the world's wetlands are made of peat.

Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, including northern Europe and North America. The North American peat deposits are principally found in Canada and the Northern United States. Some of the world's largest peatlands include the West Siberian Lowland, the Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Mackenzie River Valley.
There is less peat in the Southern Hemisphere, in part because there is less land. The world's largest tropical peatland is located in Africa (the Democratic Republic of Congo). In addition, the vast Magellanic Moorland in South America (Southern Patagonia/Tierra del Fuego) is an extensive peat-dominated landscape. Peat can be found in New Zealand, Kerguelen, the Falkland Islands, and Indonesia (Kalimantan [Sungai Putri, Danau Siawan, Sungai Tolak], Rasau Jaya (West Kalimantan), and Sumatra). Indonesia has more tropical peatlands and mangrove forests than any other nation on earth, but Indonesia is losing wetlands by  per year.. A catalog of the peat research collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth provides references to research on worldwide peat and peatlands.

About 7% of all peatlands have been exploited for agriculture and forestry. Under certain conditions, peat will turn into lignite coal over geologic periods of time.

General uses

Fuel
Peat can be used as fuel once dried. Traditionally peat is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun. In many countries, including Ireland and Scotland, peat was traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating. This tradition can be traced back to the Roman period. For industrial uses, companies may use pressure to extract water from the peat, which is soft and easily compressed.

Agriculture

In Sweden, farmers use dried peat to absorb excrement from cattle that are wintered indoors. The most important property of peat is retaining moisture in container soil when it is dry while preventing the excess of water from killing roots when it is wet. Peat can store nutrients although it is not fertile itself – it is polyelectrolytic with a high ion-exchange capacity due to its oxidized lignin. Peat is discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, since 2003. While bark or coir-based peat-free potting soil mixes are on the rise, particularly in the UK, peat remains an important raw material for horticulture in some other European countries, Canada, as well as parts of the United States.

Drinking water
Peatland can also be an important source of drinking water providing nearly 4% of all potable water stored in reservoirs. In the UK, 43% of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands, with the number climbing to 68% in Ireland. Catchments containing peatlands are the main source of water for large cities, including Dublin.

Metallurgy
Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of metallurgical importance in the Early Middle Ages, being the primary source of bog iron used to create swords and armour.

Flood mitigation
Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation, with any overflow being absorbed by the peat, provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires.

Freshwater aquaria
Peat is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria. It is seen most commonly in soft water or blackwater river systems such as those mimicking the Amazon River basin. In addition to being soft in texture and therefore suitable for demersal (bottom-dwelling) species such as Corydoras catfish, peat is reported to have a number of other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger; it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants, and for the reproductive health of fishes. Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat often stains the water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins.

Balneotherapy
Peat is widely used in balneotherapy (the use of bathing to treat disease). Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of peloids. Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries including Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Austria. Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today. The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds, poultices, and suspension baths.

Peat archives
Authors Rydin and Jeglum in Biology of Habitats described the concept of peat archives, a phrase coined by influential peatland scientist Harry Godwin in 1981.

In Quaternary Palaeoecology, first published in 1980, Birks and Birks described how paleoecological studies "of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present (locally and regionally), what time period each community occupied, how environmental conditions changed, and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place."

Scientists continue to compare modern mercury (Hg) accumulation rates in bogs with historical natural-archives records in peat bogs and lake sediments to estimate the potential human impacts on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury, for example. Over the years, different dating models and technologies for measuring date sediments and peat profiles accumulated over the last 100–150 years, have been used, including the widely used vertical distribution of 210Pb, the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-SMS), and more recently the initial penetration (IP).

Bog bodies

Naturally mummified human bodies, often called "bog bodies" have been found in various places in Scotland, England, Ireland, and especially northern Germany and Denmark. They are almost perfectly preserved by the tanning properties of the acidic water, as well as by the antibiotic properties of the organic component sphagnan. A famous example is the Tollund Man in Denmark. Having been discovered in 1950 after being mistaken for a recent murder victim, he was exhumed for scientific purposes and dated to have lived during the 4th century BC. Prior to that, another bog body, the Elling Woman, had been discovered in 1938 in the same bog about 60 m (200 ft) from the Tollund Man. She is believed to have lived during the late 3rd century BC and was a ritual sacrifice. In the Bronze and Iron Ages, people used peat bogs for rituals to nature gods and spirits.

Environmental and ecological issues

The distinctive ecological conditions of peat wetlands provide a habitat for distinctive fauna and flora. For example, whooping cranes nest in North American peatlands, while Siberian cranes nest in the West Siberian peatland. Palsa mires have a rich bird life and are an EU-red listed habitat, and in Canada riparian peat banks are used as maternity sites for polar bears. Natural peatlands also have many species of wild orchids and carnivorous plants. For more on biological communities, see wetland, bog or fen.

Around half of the area of northern peatlands is permafrost-affected, and this area represents around a tenth of the total permafrost area, and also a tenth (185 ± 66 Gt) of all permafrost carbon, equivalent to around half of the carbon stored in the atmosphere. Dry peat is a good insulator (with a thermal conductivity of around 0.25 Wm-1K-1) and therefore plays an important role in protecting permafrost from thaw. The insulating effect of dry peat also makes it integral to unique permafrost landforms such as palsas and permafrost peat plateaus. Peatland permafrost thaw tends to result in an increase in methane emissions and a small increase in carbon dioxide uptake, meaning that it contributes to the permafrost carbon feedback. Under 2°C global warming, 0.7 million km2 of peatland permafrost could thaw, and with warming of +1.5 to 6°C a cumulative 0.7 to 3 PgC of methane could be released as a result of permafrost peatland thaw by 2100. The forcing from these potential emissions would be approximately equivalent to 1% of projected anthropogenic emissions.

One characteristic of peat is the bioaccumulation of metals concentrated in the peat. Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern.

Peat drainage
Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry, and peat extraction (i.e. through canals). This process is taking place all over the world. This not only destroys the habitat of many species but also heavily fuels climate change. As a result of peat drainage, the organic carbon – which built over thousands of years and is normally underwater – is suddenly exposed to the air. It decomposes and turns into carbon dioxide (), which is released into the atmosphere. The global  emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1,058 Mton in 1990 to 1,298 Mton in 2008 (a 20% increase). This increase has particularly taken place in developing countries, of which Indonesia, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea are the fastest-growing top emitters. This estimate excludes emissions from peat fires (conservative estimates amount to at least 4,000 Mton/-eq./yr for south-east Asia). With 174 Mton/-eq./yr the EU is after Indonesia (500 Mton) and before Russia (161 Mton) the world's second-largest emitter of drainage-related peatland  (excl. extracted peat and fires). Total  emissions from the worldwide 500,000 km2 of degraded peatland may exceed 2.0 Gtons (including emissions from peat fires) which is almost 6% of all global carbon emissions.

Peat fires

Peat can be a major fire hazard and is not extinguished by light rain. Peat fires may burn for great lengths of time, or smoulder underground and reignite after winter if an oxygen source is present.

Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by the presence of a heat source (e.g., a wildfire penetrating the subsurface), it smoulders. These smouldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years, and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer.

Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs are naturally subject to wildfires and depend on the wildfires to keep woody competition from lowering the water table and shading out many bog plants. Several families of plants including the carnivorous Sarracenia (trumpet pitcher), Dionaea (Venus flytrap), Utricularia (bladderworts) and non-carnivorous plants such as the sandhills lily, toothache grass and many species of orchid are now threatened and in some cases endangered from the combined forces of human drainage, negligence, and absence of fire.

The recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, with their large and deep growths containing more than  of carbon, has contributed to increases in world carbon dioxide levels. Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be destroyed by 2040.

It is estimated that in 1997, peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between  of carbon; equivalent to 13–40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning, and greater than the carbon uptake of the world's biosphere. These fires may be responsible for the acceleration in the increase in carbon dioxide levels since 1998. More than 100 peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra have continued to burn since 1997; each year, these peat fires ignite new forest fires above the ground.

In North America, peat fires can occur during severe droughts throughout their occurrence, from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades. Once a fire has burnt through the area, hollows in the peat are burnt out, and hummocks are desiccated but can contribute to Sphagnum recolonization.

In the summer of 2010, an unusually high heat wave of up to  ignited large deposits of peat in Central Russia, burning thousands of houses and covering the capital of Moscow with a toxic smoke blanket. The situation remained critical until the end of August 2010.

In June 2019, despite some forest fire prevention methods being put in place, peat fires in the Arctic emitted of CO2, which is equal to Sweden's total annual emissions. The peat fires are linked to climate change, as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect.

Erosion: Peat hags
Peat "hags" are a form of erosion that occurs at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat or, sometimes in isolation. Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface. Once the peat is exposed in these ways, it is prone to further erosion by wind, water, and livestock. The result is overhanging vegetation and peat. Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself, so they continue to erode unless restorative action is taken.

Protection

In June 2002, the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for 5 years, and brings together the efforts of various non-government organisations.

In November 2002, the International Peatland (formerly Peat) Society (IPS) and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published guidelines on the "Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands – Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision-making". The aim of this publication is to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage, to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind.

In June 2008, the IPS published the book Peatlands and Climate Change, summarising the currently available knowledge on the topic. In 2010, IPS presented a "Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management", which can be applied worldwide for decision-making.

Restoration

Characteristics and uses by nation

Finland

The climate, geography, and environment of Finland favours bog and peat bog formation. Thus, peat is available in considerable quantities. It is burned to produce heat and electricity. Peat provides around 4% of Finland's annual energy production.

Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO2 annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland. The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000 years. Furthermore, it is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew. This leads to lower levels of CO2 storage than the original peat bog.

At 106 g CO2/MJ, the carbon dioxide emissions of peat are higher than those of coal (at 94.6 g CO2/MJ) and natural gas (at 56.1). According to one study, increasing the average amount of wood in the fuel mixture from the current 2.6% to 12.5% would take the emissions down to 93 g CO2/MJ. That said, little effort is being made to achieve this.

The International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) in 2006 urged the local and national governments of Finland to protect and conserve the remaining pristine peatland ecosystems. This includes the cessation of drainage and peat extraction in intact mire sites and the abandoning of current and planned groundwater extraction that may affect these sites. A proposal for a Finnish peatland management strategy was presented to the government in 2011, after a lengthy consultation phase.

Sweden

About 15% of the land in Sweden is covered by peatlands. While nowadays the main use of such soils is for forestry, peat-rich lands have been historically exploited to produce energy, agricultural land and horticultural substrates.The most common method to extract peat during the 19th and 20th centuries was peat cutting, a process where the land is cleared of forest and subsequentially drained. Peat cores are then extracted under dry wheather conditions and stored on stacks to let the residual moisture evaporate. Today, clear cutting for horticultural peat (of which Sweden is an important producer in Europe) is limited to some areas of Sweden and strictly regulated by the Swedish Environmental Code to prevent that significant groundwater storages and carbon sinks areas are altered and compromised by human activities. At the same time, restoration of drained peatlands through rewetting is urged by national and international policies to exploit the peat-rich soil properties in mitigating climate change effects.

Ireland

In the Republic of Ireland, a state-owned company called  was responsible for managing peat extraction. It processed the extracted peat into milled peat which was used in power stations and sold processed peat fuel in the form of peat briquettes which are used for domestic heating. These are oblong bars of densely compressed, dried, and shredded peat. Peat moss is a manufactured product for use in garden cultivation. Turf (dried out peat sods) is also commonly used in rural areas.

In January 2021 Bord na Móna announced that it had ceased all peat harvesting and cutting operations and would be moving its business to a climate solutions company.

In 2022 the sale of peat for burning was prohibited, but some people are still allowed to cut and burn it.

Russia

Use of peat for energy production was prominent in the Soviet Union, especially in 1965. In 1929, over 40% of the Soviet Union's electric energy came from peat, which dropped to 1% by 1980.

In the 1960s, larger sections of swamps and bogs in Western Russia were drained for agricultural and mining purposes.

Netherlands
2,500 years ago, the area now named the Netherlands was largely covered with peat. Drainage, causing compaction and oxidation and excavation have reduced peatlands (> peat) to about  or 10% of the land area, mostly used as meadows. Drainage and excavation have lowered the surface of the peatlands. In the west of the country dikes and mills were built, creating polders so that dwelling and economic activities could continue below sea level, the first polder probably in 1533 and the last one in 1968.
Harvesting of peat could continue in suitable locations as the lower peat layers below current sea level became exposed. This peat was deposited before the rise of the sea level in the Holocene. As a result, approximately 26% of the area and 21% of the population of the Netherlands are presently below sea level. The deepest point is in the Zuidplaspolder,  below average sea level.

In 2020, the Netherlands imported 2,156 million kg of peat (5.39 million m3 (400 kg/m3 dry peat) ): 44.5% from Germany (2020), 9.5% from Estonia (2018), 9.2% from Latvia (2020), 7.2% from Ireland (2018), 8.0% from Sweden (2019), 6.5% from Lithuania (2020), 5.1% from Belgium (2019) and 1.7% from Denmark (2019)); 1,35 million kg was exported. Most is used in gardening and greenhouse horticulture.

Since the Netherlands did not have many trees to use as firewood or charcoal, one use the Dutch made of the available peat was to fire kilns to make pottery.   During World War II, the Dutch Resistance came up with an unusual use for peat.  Since peat was so available in the fields, resistance fighters sometimes stacked peat into human-sized piles and used the piles for target practice.

Estonia
After oil shale in Estonia, peat is the second most mined natural resource. The peat production sector has a yearly revenue of around €100 million and it is mostly export-oriented. Peat is extracted from around .

India

Sikkim
The mountains of the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau contains pockets of high-altitude wetlands. Khecheopalri is one of the Sikkim's most famous and diverse peatlands in the eastern Indian territory of Sikkim, which includes 682 species representing 5 kingdoms, 196 families, and 453 genera.

United Kingdom

England
England has around 1 million acres of peatland. Peatland in England store 584m tonnes of carbon in total but emit around 11m tonnes of  every year due to degradation and draining. In 2021 only 124 people owned 60% of England's peat land.

The extraction of peat from the Somerset Levels began during the Roman times and has been carried out since the Levels were first drained. On Dartmoor, there were several commercial distillation plants formed and run by the British Patent Naphtha Company in 1844. These produced naphtha on a commercial scale from the high-quality local peat.

Fenn's, Whixall and Bettisfield Mosses is an element of a post-Ice Age peat bog that straddles the England–Wales border and contains many rare plant and animal species due to the acidic environment created by the peat. Only lightly hand-dug, it is now a national nature reserve and is being restored to its natural condition.

Industrial extraction of peat occurred at the Thorne Moor site, outside Doncaster near to the village of Hatfield. Government policy incentivised commercial removal to peat for agricultural use. This caused much destruction of the area during the 1980s. The removal of the peat resulted in later flooding further downstream at Goole due to the loss of water retaining peatlands. Recently regeneration of peatland has occurred as part of the Thorne Moors project, and at Fleet Moss, organised by Yorkshire Wildlife Trust.

Northern Ireland
In Northern Ireland, there is small-scale domestic turf cutting in rural areas, but areas of bogs have been diminished because of changes in agriculture. In response, afforestation has seen the establishment of tentative steps towards conservation such as Peatlands Park, County Armagh which is an Area of Special Scientific Interest.

Scotland

Some Scotch whisky distilleries, such as those on Islay, use peat fires to dry malted barley. The drying process takes about 30 hours. This gives the whiskies a distinctive smoky flavour, often called "peatiness".
The peatiness, or degree of peat flavour, of a whisky, is calculated in ppm of phenol. Normal Highland whiskies have a peat level of up to 30 ppm, and the whiskies on Islay usually have up to 50 ppm. In rare types like the Octomore, the whisky can have more than 100 ppm of phenol. Scotch Ales can also use peat roasted malt, imparting a similar smoked flavor.

Because they are easily compressed under minimal weight, peat deposits pose major difficulties to builders of structures, roads, and railways. When the West Highland railway line was built across Rannoch Moor in western Scotland, its builders had to float the tracks on a multi-thousand-ton mattress of tree roots, brushwood, earth and ash.

Wales
Wales has over 70,000 hectares of peatlands. Most of it is blanket peat bog in the highlands, but there are a few hundred hectares of peatland in lowland areas. Some peatland areas in Wales are in poor condition.  In 2020, the Welsh Government established a five-year peatland restoration initiative, which will be implemented by Natural Resources Wales (NRW).

Canada
Canada is the top exporter of peat by value. In 2021, top exporters of peat (including peat litter), whether or not agglomerated, were Canada ($580,591.39K, 1,643,950,000 kg), European Union ($445,304.42K, 2,362,280,000 kg), Latvia ($275,459.14K, 2,184,860,000 kg), Netherlands ($235,250.84K, 1,312,850,000 kg), Germany ($223,414.66K, 1,721,170,000 kg).

See also

 Acid sulfate soil
 Acrotelm
 Climate change mitigation#Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks
 Gytta
 Histosols
 Irish Peatland Conservation Council
 List of bogs
 Peat Cutting Monday
 Tropical peat
 Turbary
 Unified Soil Classification System
 :Category:Peat-fired power stations

Notes

References

External links

 International Peatland Society
 International Mire Conservation Group
 Irish Peatland Conservation Council
 Gardening without peat Royal Horticultural Society
 Peat-free gardens RSPB
 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change From The New Scientist
 Peatlands articles on the BBC
 Meadowview Biological Research Station
 Peat and Peatlands Bibliography

Coal
Solid fuels
Sediments
Balneotherapy
Soil improvers
Types of soil
Non-timber forest products
Soil-based building materials
Wetlands

Peat


The Coelopidae or kelp flies are a family of Acalyptratae flies (order Diptera), they are sometimes also called seaweed flies, though both terms are used for a number of seashore Diptera. Fewer than 40 species occur worldwide. The family is found in temperate areas, with species occurring in the southern Afrotropical, Holarctic, and Australasian (which has the most species) regions.

Family characteristics

Coelopids are small to medium-sized (, usually ), robust flies, predominantly with a flat body and darkly coloured. Coelopidae species are usually densely bristly or hairy. Their eyes are small. The arista is bare to pubescent. Ocelli and ocellar bristles are present. The postvertical bristles are parallel or converge. The two pairs of frontal bristles curve outward and scattered interfrontal setulae are present. Vibrissae are absent, but strong bristles occur near the vibrissal angle. The mesonotum is flat and the prothorax is separated from the propleuron by a membrane. The legs bear strong bristles and soft, dense hairs and the tibiae have subapical bristles. The wing is unmarked. The costa is entire, without interruptions. The subcosta is complete, crossvein BM-Cu is present, and the anal cell (cell cup) is closed. Legs usually densely hairy.

Biology
Coelopids are found in the wrack zone of temperate seashores where the larvae feed on rotting seaweed. They are sometimes very abundant in this habitat. They go through several generations a year. The females lay their eggs in small batches into fresh alga banks. Three larval instars occur. Larvae feed in a bacteria-laden mass. Pupation is seldom in the algal substrate that soon collapses, but more frequently in the highest sand layers. Larvae are also found in winter wrack heaps as bacteria raise temperatures to 20-30 °C even if the heap is superficially frozen. Larvae and pupae have numerous predators, including birds and the staphylinid Aleochara and suites of parasites confined to algal banks.

Classification
, following Mathis and McAlpine's taxonomy, Coelopidae consists of two subfamilies: Coelopinae, with three tribes, twelve genera, and twenty-eight species, and Lopinae, consisting of just one monospecific genus.
Subfamily Coelopinae Hendel, 1910
Tribe Coelopini Hendel, 1910
Genus Coelopa Meigen, 1830
Subgenus Coelopa Meigen, 1830
Subgenus Fucomyia Haliday, 1837
Subgenus Neocoelopa Malloch, 1933
Tribe Coelopellini McAlpine, 1991
Genus Amma McAlpine, 1991
Genus Beaopterus Lamb, 1909
Genus Coelopella Malloch, 1933
Genus Icaridion Lamb, 1909 Halteres absent and the wings are reduced to strips. New Zealand.
Genus Rhis McAlpine, 1991
Genus This McAlpine, 1991
Tribe Glumini McAlpine, 1991
Genus Chaetocoelopa Malloch, 1933
Genus Coelopina Malloch, 1933
Genus Dasycoelopa Malloch, 1933
Genus Gluma McAlpine, 1991
Genus Malacomyia Haliday in Westwood, 1840 (sometimes placed in Dryomyzidae)
Subfamily Lopinae McAlpine, 1991
Genus Lopa McAlpine, 1991

Other
Coelopa frigida (Fabricius) has been reared in the laboratory and used for genetic studies.

See also
 Chaetocoelopa littoralis

References

Further reading

External links

 Tree of Life Coelopidae
 Family Coelopidae at EOL
 Diptera.info Images
 BugGuide images

 Image of pupa

Identification
 Hennig. 1937. Coelopidae.In: Lindner, E. (Ed.). Die Fliegen der Paläarktischen Region 5, 52, 1-38.Keys to Palaearctic species but now needs revision (in German).
Malloch, J.R. 1933. The genus Coelopa Meigen (Diptera, Coelopidae). Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) 11: 339-50.
McAlpine, David K. (1991). "Review of the Australian Kelp Flies (Diptera: Coelopidae)" (Print). Systematic Entomology 16: 29-84.
Séguy, E. (1934) Diptères: Brachycères. II. Muscidae acalypterae, Scatophagidae. Paris: Éditions Faune de France 28. virtuelle numérique
Shtakel'berg, A.A. Family Coelopidae in Bei-Bienko, G. Ya, 1988 Keys to the insects of the European Part of the USSR Volume 5 (Diptera) Part 2 English edition.Keys to Palaearctic species but now needs revision .

Species lists
West Palaearctic and Russia
Nearctic
 Australasian/Oceanian
 Japan

Brachycera families

Coelopidae


The Mass in E, Op. 5, is a choral work by American composer Amy Beach. It was the first mass written by an American woman and Beach's first widely acclaimed large-scale composition. The Mass is a 75-minute work for chorus, quartet, organ, and orchestra.

Composition
Beach began work on her Mass in E-flat in 1886.

The Handel and Haydn Society premiered the Mass in Boston in 1892. The same group had performed Luigi Cherubini's Deuxième Messe Solenelle in D minor in 1883 and played selections from Bach's Mass in B minor in 1887. There are parallels in overall structure, and in some phrases, between Beach's Mass and Cherubini's. Beach's Mass was not performed again until the 1980s. It has been recorded (see Discography).

The Mass is in five sections: Kyrie, Gloria in 4 movements, Credo in 4 movements, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei. Written in a Romantic style, the Mass is rich in harmony and tonality. It was praised for its contrast in instrumentation and the solos for harp, cello, English horn, and oboe.

Beach was apparently unfamiliar with how Latin is stressed, as accents in the music may not agree with those in expected in words such as 'altissimus'.

Influences

In movements of the Gloria, most prominently in the "Quoniam," Beach uses double-dotted rhythms that also appear in Cherubini's Kyrie.  These rhythms give a march-like quality to the movement. They are paired with trumpets and drums to evoke a sense of the Church Militant. Beach's frequently modulates to third-related keys, as in "Laudamus te", in which she uses the keys of E major, G major, E minor, and C major. Beach frequently uses C major to indicate heaven or light; here, it refers to divinity.

Reception
The premiere in 1892 was reviewed in 27 newspapers, 18 in Boston and 9 "out of town." One criticism was that the opening solo trio in the "Laudamus te" had "pitch and ensemble problems."  These may have been due to insufficient instrumental support, or the fact that this was a first performance. In general, critics agreed that the work placed Beach "among the foremost rank of American composers."

One recording of Beach's Mass, by the Michael May Festival Chorus in 1989, was made without a full orchestra. The performance was criticized for inaccurate tempos, inappropriate rearrangements, and overall interpretation. No scholarly reviews have been made of the other recording, from 1995, by the Stow Festival Chorus and Orchestra.

Discography
Amy Beach: Grand Mass in E major. Performed by the Michael May Festival Chorus. Compact disc, 1989, Newport Classic 60008
Amy Beach: Grand Mass in E major. Performed by the Stow Festival Chorus and Orchestra. Albany Records, 1995, TROY 179

References

Sources
Fried Block, Adrienne:  Amy Beach, Passionate Victorian: The Life and Work of an American Composer, 1867-1944.  New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Fried Block, Adrienne: "St. Peter: an oratorio and Grand Mass in E Major" (in Record Reviews)  American Music, Vol. 10, No. 2  (Summer, 1992), pp. 229–232. (St. Peter: an Oratorio is a work by John Knowles Paine, 1839–1906)

External links

1886 compositions
Beach
Compositions by Amy Beach

Mass in E-flat (Beach)


Manfredi Nicoletti (16 June 1930 – 29 October 2017) was an Italian architect. He was born in Rieti, Italy. He was known for his projects Fontvieille, Monaco, the cancelled Helicoidal Skyscraper in New York City, the Catania–Fontanarossa Airport, Millennium Park in Abuja, Courthouse of Arezzo, the Kazakhstan Central Concert Hall and the Millennium Tower.

Nicoletti died on 29 October 2017 at the age of 87.

References

Other websites

1930 births
2017 deaths
Italian architects

Manfredi Nicoletti


Echoes in a Shallow Bay is an EP by Scottish alternative rock band Cocteau Twins, released on 4AD.  The EP featured four non-album tracks. It was issued on 29 November 1985, two weeks after another EP, Tiny Dynamine. The two EP sets, which featured complementary artwork, were also released as a combined double EP in a gatefold cover, and as an eight-track CD. The EP was reissued in 1991 as part of The Box Set and in 2005 as part of the singles/EP collection Lullabies to Violaine. A new vinyl version, sourced from digital files created from a new transfer of the original analogue tapes, was released in 2015, combined with the Tiny Dynamine EP.

Background
The band did not originally intend to release these songs to the general public, presumably explaining the decision to release the material on EPs, rather than as what would have been their fourth album.  The tracks on Tiny Dynamine and Echoes in a Shallow Bay were initially recorded to test the production capacities of a new studio. When the band decided the material was strong enough for release, they completed the recording process and issued the finished product on two EPs.

"Pale Clouded White" was performed live. A remastered version of the song appeared on the 2000 compilation Stars and Topsoil.

Several of the titles on the two EPs have some link with Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths). The great spangled fritillary is a butterfly, and while there is no pale clouded white, there is a pale clouded yellow (as well as several groups of butterflies commonly known as whites), while mellonella is the specific name of the wax moth Galleria mellonella. The lyrics of this track consist of Fraser reciting the scientific names of the families of British moths. Lepidoptera eggs do not have shells, though.

Track listing
All songs written by Cocteau Twins.

 "Great Spangled Fritillary" – 4:02
 "Melonella" – 4:05
 "Pale Clouded White" – 4:59
 "Eggs and Their Shells" – 3:06

Personnel
Elizabeth Fraser – vocals
Robin Guthrie – guitar
Simon Raymonde – bass guitar

Produced by Cocteau Twins.

Charts

References

External links

Cocteau Twins albums
1985 EPs
4AD EPs
UK Independent Singles Chart number-one singles

Echoes in a Shallow Bay


Oliver Hardy (January 18, 1892 - August 7, 1957) was an American actor, comedian and director. His father was veteran of American civil war,he died on November 22 1892. In fall semester of 1912, he signed up for a course or two at University of Georgia as a law major just to play football. He never missed a game.

He is most famous for his 1926 - 1957 partnership with comedy legend Stan Laurel. Before Laurel he partnered with comedian Bobby Ray.

Career
Born in Harlem, Georgia, U.S.. His solo career includes the short films Outwitting Dad (1914), Cupid's Target (1915), A Maid to Order (1916), The Fly Cop (1917), The Midnight Cabaret (1923), They All Fall (1925). He leaps to fame when he formed a duo with Stan Laurel, they formed the most successful comedy groups of all time. Laurel and Hardy shot many short films and feature much success Hats Off (1927), They Go Boom! (1929). One of his best films was The Midnight Patrol (1934), where two police officers. And the classics of comedy as Sons of the Desert (1933), Way Out West (1937), The Flying Deuces (1939), Saps at Sea (1940), are of the best comedy of all time.

Oliver Hardy also worked with John Wayne in Western movies, The Fighting Kentuckian (1949), and Bing Crosby in Frank Capra film Riding High (1950).

References

The Laurel and Hardy Magazine Website
Official Laurel and Hardy Website
The Laurel and Hardy Forum
Free clip from Bouncing Baby (1916), made available for public use by the State Archives of Florida

Oliver Hardy's obituaries in the Los Angeles Times and Los Angeles Mirror-News

1892 births
1957 deaths
Actors from Georgia (U.S. state)
American silent movie actors
Comedians from Georgia (U.S. state)
Deaths from cerebral thrombosis
Movie directors from Georgia (U.S. state)

Oliver Hardy


WinDVD (owned by Corel Corporation which bought InterVideo in 2006) is a commercial video player and music player software for Microsoft Windows. It enables the viewing of DVD-Video movies on the user's PC. DVD-Video backups stored on hard disk (created using software such as DVD Decrypter) can also be played. The player also can be used to play video and audio files in other formats encoded with different codecs, such as DivX, Xvid, Windows Media Video (video), MP3 and AAC (audio). WinDVD Pro 12 is the latest version with the most features and accommodations. However, competitors such as VLC have completely replaced WinDVD due to the lack of modern features WinDVD provides.

Features and Functions
Features and functions supported by InterVideo WinDVD version 8.0 during video/movie and audio/music playback.
Supported video formats/codecs: MPEG-1, MPEG-2 (including HD support), MPEG-TS, DVD-Video, MiniDVD, MPEG-4 ASP (like Xvid and DivX, including DivX Pro), H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, VC-1, WMV HD, DVD-VR, DVD+VR, 3GPP and 3GPP2, QuickTime, RealMedia/RealVideo
Supported audio formats/codecs: WAV, MP3, AAC, LPCM, MLP Lossless, Dolby Digital (5.1) and Dolby Digital (2.0), Dolby Digital EX, DTS 2.0 and 5.1, DTS Neo:6, DTS 96/24, DTS-ES Discrete, RealMedia/RealAudio

Video Playback
 TrimensionDNM  interpolates frames to give smooth playback
 Smooth Reverse Playback  smooth reverse/rewind playback without dropping frames
 Video Desktop  display subpanel to let the movie play in the background, just like a Windows wallpaper
 Software Video Deinterlacing  ensures a smoother and clearer video image on progressive displays
 Dynamic range compression and SRS  offers modes suited to Quiet, Noisy and Normal listening environments
 Instant Replay  Replay a specific part of a DVD again
 "Boss Key"  One click hides the player out of the way from the desktop
 9X Digital Zoom
 Closed captioning support provides closed captioning for the deaf and hard of hearing
 Video Bookmarks enable quick access to a user's favorite movie scenes
Saved as a file with ".bmk" extension for later use or export for use on another computer
 Resume playback   allows users to play a DVD from the last scene prior to stopping
 Screen snapshots can be captured with a user-defined aspect ratio
 External subtitle support allows playback via AVI, DivX and WMV files
Supports SRT, SUB, SSA, ASS, PSB, SMI extensions and XSUB (DivX embedded subtitles)
Allows you to adjust the placement, subtitle color and size of subtitles
 On-screen display (OSD) lets users define where video information is located
 Color Themes lets users personalize the look of the player to match their mood or their desktop
 Low Frequency Effects (LFE) mixes the LFE channel (bass) with front speaker channels
 Dolby Pro Logic IIx  2.0 - 5.1 => 7.1 audio-channels expansion technology (upsample anything from 2.0 to 7.1 surround sound)
 Dolby Headphone  Virtual surround sound on 2-channel (stereo) headphones

Music Playback
 Dynamic range compression and SRS  offers modes that boost bass tones of your music

General Features

 Playlist playback and creation support  for audio or video files from DVDs, VCDs, SVCDs and CDs
 "Movie Encyclopedia" is a feature of WinDVD that enables users to access a movie database for details on movies, actors and directors, (similar to IMDb).
 UPnP Control Point (UPnP-client)  Play videos from any UPnP AV MediaServer device in your home network
 UPnP UPnP AV MediaServer (UPnP-server)  allows other UPnP Control Point devices in your home network to stream audio/video files from WinDVD

See also
Comparison of video player software
LinDVD
WinDVD Recorder

References

External links
WinDVD at Corel

1998 software
Software Blu-ray players
Software DVD players
Windows media players

WinDVD


Ferb Fletcher is a fictional character in the animated television series Phineas and Ferb. Ferb comes from Great Britain but moved to the United States after his father Lawrence Fletcher married an American woman named Linda Flynn who already had two children Candace Flynn who is older than Ferb is and Phineas Flynn who is about the same age as Ferb is. Unlike Phineas, Ferb rarely talks and is "more of a man of action".

Television characters

Ferb Fletcher


Amazon Freevee is an American ad-supported video-on-demand (VOD) streaming service owned by Amazon, with original and licensed programming.

Functionality
Freevee content is presented to Amazon Prime Video users within Prime's smart TV app interface; aside from the commercial breaks an absence of Prime's "X-ray" cast list information, the interface, features, and navigation are identical to the Prime user experience. Freevee also functions as a standalone app for use by non-Prime users.

History

Amazon Freevee launched as a free, ad-supported video channel by the Amazon-owned online database IMDb in January 2019, under the name IMDb Freedive, before becoming IMDb TV five months later; it was rebranded to its current name on April 28, 2022.

The service is available in the United States, as well as the UK and Germany through Amazon and IMDb's websites as well as on all Amazon Fire devices.

On June 17, 2019, IMDb Freedive announced its rebranding to IMDb TV. Signing new deals with Warner Bros., Sony Pictures Entertainment and MGM Studios (which parent company Amazon later acquired on March 17, 2022), the streaming service began offering new content. Amazon announced that it would be moving IMDb TV's content team to within Amazon Studios on February 20, 2020, with the goal of developing original programming under new IMDb TV co-heads.

In September 2021, Amazon announced the launch of IMDb TV in the United Kingdom; before then, it was available only in the United States.

On April 13, 2022, it was announced that the service would be rebranded as Amazon Freevee beginning on April 27. It was also announced that it would launch in Germany later that year, and would expand its original programming by 70% in 2022. The rebrand occurred on April 28, 2022. Its first announced moves post-rebrand included renewing Bosch: Legacy pre-premiere as well as Top Class, ordering America's Test Kitchen: The Next Generation and a new series adaptation of Black Beauty and expanding Play-Doh: Squished beyond its holiday special.

On August 3, 2022, Amazon Freevee was launched in Germany.

Content

Original programming

A revival of the 2008 crime drama series Leverage was ordered by IMDb TV, making it the first major original series for the streaming service.

On October 3, 2019, IMDb TV announced it licensed the Canadian animated series Corner Gas Animated as a branded original series, joining the live-action comedy franchise Corner Gas and the feature film Corner Gas: The Movie, which were both on the streaming platform.

IMDb TV acquired the rights to Eleventh Hour Films and Sony Pictures Television's young-adult espionage series Alex Rider, premiering a series adaptation on November 13, 2020.

On October 29, 2020, Amazon Studios announced it would produce for the service the successor program to Judge Judy, entitled Judy Justice and still starring former Manhattan Family Court Judge Judith Sheindlin. Production on Judy Justice began as CBS's long-running Judge Judy ended on July 23, 2021. Judy Justice premiered on IMDb TV on November 1, 2021. With significantly high stakes in the program, Amazon ordered 120 episodes for the first season alone which concluded on April 15, 2022, and served as the largest initial order package for a streaming series. Amazon has bargained on Sheindlin to attract her legions of viewers and fanfare from Judge Judy over to their streaming service for Judy Justice. Towards the end of the first season, Judy Justice was granted a second season after it was hailed as a big hit for Freevee with record viewership hours for the streaming service (viewership results measured by hours watched as opposed to rating numbers as Nielsen ratings does not cover streaming services).

Sheindlin's personal production team will bring another court show to Freevee, entitled Tribunal Justice. The program will feature her longtime Judge Judy program bailiff, Petri Hawkins-Byrd. The series will be presented in the form of a 3-judge panel, like Hot Bench (another production from Sheindlin, only for CBS). Tribunal will be presided over by now former Hot Bench judges, Tanya Acker and Patricia DiMango, along with Sheindlin's son, former district attorney Adam Levy.

On February 22, 2021, it was announced that Norman Lear had set up two projects at IMDb TV, half-hour long comedy Clean Slate and hour-long drama Loteria.

On April 13, 2022, it was announced that a spinoff of the Prime Video series Bosch, titled Bosch: Legacy, would premiere on the service on May 6, 2022, and that the coming-of-age series High School, based on the memoir by Tegan and Sara and adapted by Clea DuVall, would premiere in 2022.  It was also announced that the service would add original films to its slate, beginning with the romantic comedy Love Accidentally, starring Brenda Song and Aaron O'Connell.

Third-party content
IMDb TV announced it would begin streaming the NBC drama Chicago Fire on December 6, 2019, making the deal the biggest single licensing pact to date for the streaming service. In addition, IMDb TV announced it would also begin streaming all five seasons of Universal Television's Friday Night Lights starting on December 31, 2019.

In February 2020, IMDb TV acquired the rights to more than twenty scripted TV titles controlled by Walt Disney Direct-to-Consumer & International division and began streaming several Star Trek films in June and July 2020. Starting July 15, 2020, IMDb TV began streaming all 92 episodes of the AMC series Mad Men after completing a licensing deal with Lionsgate.

In July 2021, Amazon and Universal Pictures reached a multi-year deal to bring Universal's films to IMDb TV. As part of the deal, titles from Universal's library would become available, making films including The Invisible Man eligible to stream on IMDb TV for free. Most of the studio's titles will be also available ad-free on Prime Video, including future theatrical releases following their first pay window and four months after being released on Peacock.

On November 3, 2021, IMDb TV UK began streaming content from FilmRise, MovieSphere, MagellanTV and SPI's Docustream, along with program-themed channels based on shows Deadly Women, Are We There Yet?, Bridezillas, Unsolved Mysteries, This Old House, MythBusters, and Hell's Kitchen.

In November 2022, it was announced the company was entering a partnership with Fremantle, to launch a revival of soap opera  Neighbours, which will go into filming on April 17, 2023 and broadcast on September 18, 2023.

In May 2023, Amazon announced it would make over 100 Amazon Original series and films from Amazon Prime Video available on Freevee. Some shows will also be available in full while others will only have a selection of episodes.

References

Amazon (company)
Internet television streaming services
Television channels and stations established in 2019
Television networks in the United States

Amazon Freevee


Air Commodore James Lloyd Findlay  (6 October 1895 – 17 March 1983) was a New Zealand soldier and air force officer who served in both World Wars.

Early life and family
Findlay was born in Wellington, New Zealand in 1895, the second son of Sir John Findlay, and was educated at Wellington College.

First World War
Findlay had been studying in England at the outbreak of the First World War and was commissioned as an officer in the East Surrey Regiment. He distinguished himself during the Battle of Loos in September 1915 and the Battle of the Somme in July 1916, and was decorated with the Military Cross and mentioned in despatches. Findlay was also awarded the Croix de Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur by France in recognition of his gallantry. Findlay was wounded during the opening stages of the Battle of the Somme, but after recuperating joined the Royal Flying Corps as a pilot in March 1917.

His brother, Second Lieutenant Ian Calcutt Findlay, 2nd Battalion York and Lancaster Regiment had died of wounds at the 16th Field Ambulance Advanced dressing Station, Belgium on 10 August 1915, aged 18.

Findlay served with the Royal Flying Corps throughout the war, but after transferring to the Royal Air Force on inception in 1918 he was demobilised in August 1921.

Inter-war period
Findlay was married on 17 August 1921 in London to Ruby Violet Finch, youngest daughter of Thomas Alexander Finch of Trinity College, Dublin, after which they both returned to New Zealand.

In June 1923 Findlay was one of the first officers to enlist in the New Zealand Permanent Air Force and commanded Base Wigram from 1926 to 1938.

During his time in Christchurch he played cricket during the 1925–1926 season for Canterbury. He was a right-handed batsman and slow left-arm orthodox bowler.

He was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal in 1935 and the Coronation Medal in 1937. Findlay was promoted to wing commander in January 1938 and proceeded for attachment to the Royal Air Force as an exchange officer.

Second World War
Attached to the RAF at the beginning of the Second World War he commanded No. 48 Squadron and RAF Hooton Park until recalled to New Zealand. After service at the New Zealand Air Department as Deputy Chief of the Air Staff he was appointed Air Officer Commanding Central Group in September 1942. Findlay was subsequently posted as New Zealand Head of the Joint Staff Mission and RNZAF Representative to Combined Chiefs of Staff, Washington DC, USA. He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1944 King's Birthday honours, and for his services in the United States he was awarded the United States Legion of Merit on 7 November 1946.

His son, Ian Thomas Findlay, was a spitfire pilot killed in action over Yugoslavia on 12 Jan 1944.

Post-war
Findlay retired as an air commodore in 1954 after 10 years service as New Zealand Air Attaché in Washington DC. He died at Richmond, Surrey, England on 17 Mar 1983.

References

1895 births
1983 deaths
New Zealand recipients of the Military Cross
New Zealand Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Knights of the Legion of Honour
New Zealand recipients of the Legion of Honour
East Surrey Regiment officers
Royal Flying Corps officers
Royal Air Force personnel of World War I
Royal New Zealand Air Force personnel
New Zealand commanders
New Zealand people of World War I
New Zealand military personnel of World War I
New Zealand military personnel of World War II
New Zealand military personnel
Foreign recipients of the Legion of Merit
People educated at Wellington College (New Zealand)
Canterbury cricketers
New Zealand cricketers

James Lloyd Findlay


Tanycolagreus is a genus of coelurosaur theropod from the Upper Jurassic of North America.

The fossil holotype  was donated to science by an anonymous benefactor. It is part of the collection of Thanksgiving Point Institute, and displayed in the North American Museum of Ancient Life at Lehi, Utah. It includes an incomplete skull and mandible (lower jaws) and much of the postcranial skeleton, i.e. the parts behind the head. The size of this specimen suggests a size in life of about 3.3 meters (11 feet) long.

Habitat
The fossil was found in the Morrison Formation, where originally there was a great variety of life. This environment  a savannah with many rivers. Along the rivers were conifer forests, with  ginkgos, cycads, tree ferns, and horsetails rushes.

Insects were very similar to modern species, with termites building 30 m (100 ft.) tall nests. Along the rivers, there were fish, frogs, salamanders, lizards, crocodiles, turtles, pterosaurs, crayfish, clams, and monotremes (prototherian mammals, the largest of which was about the size of a rat). The dinosaurs were most likely along the rivers as well. Hundreds of dinosaur fossils have been discovered.

According to radiometric dating, the Morrison Formation dates from 156.3 ± 2 million years old (mya) at its base, to 146.8 ± 1 mya at the top, so it lasted just under 10 million years.

Phylogeny
Carpenter and his co-workers said that this genus most closely resembles Coelurus, though it has some more "primitive" features. Although a 2007 analysis suggested it was a basal Tyrannosaur, later work showed once again its basal position in the Coelurosauria.

References

Jurassic dinosaurs
Coelurosaurs

Tanycolagreus


Secondary colors are colors made from two primary colors. In RYB, the secondary colors are orange, mixed from red and yellow, green, mixed from yellow and blue, and purple, mixed from red and blue. In RGB, the secondary colors are yellow, mixed from red and lime, cyan, mixed with lime and blue, and magenta, mixed from red and blue. The secondary colors from RYB are known as OGP, and from RGB, it is CMYK.

When mixed with primary colors, it makes a teritary color.

Color

Secondary color


Fergus Pyle (17 March 1935 – 11 April 1997) was an Irish journalist, and editor of The Irish Times from 1974–1977.

He was born in Dublin and educated at Aravon School in Bray, Campbell College, Belfast and Trinity College, Dublin, where he read Latin and French. He went on a scholarship to the University of Freiburg, and spent a year as a stagiaire to the United Nations in New York City. Following this, he worked in London where he edited Tuairim magazine. Notably, he interviewed Conor Cruise O'Brien in the immediate aftermath of the Congo Crisis, on the strength of which he recruited by The Irish Times.

His father William Pyle MRIA was an academic in the English Department in Trinity College Dublin. Fergus Pyle married to Mary Burrows, daughter of the  actress Rachel Burrows.

In 1967, he opened the Belfast office of The Irish Times, and then opened the Paris office in 1971 prior to Ireland's entry into the Common Market, when he moved to Brussels in 1973. He took over editorship of the paper in 1974 and remained until 1977 when he left to become Information Officer at Trinity College, Dublin.

He re-joined The Irish Times during Conor Brady's editorship. He spent some time in Belfast as Northern Editor. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall, he spent six months in Berlin. On his return from Germany, he became chief editorial writer. He remained with The Irish Times until his death in 1997.

References

1935 births
1997 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Irish magazine editors
The Irish Times editors
People educated at Campbell College

Fergus Pyle