The history of cosmetics spans at least 7,000 years and is present in almost every society on earth. Cosmetic body art is argued to have been the earliest form of a ritual in human culture. The evidence for this comes in the form of utilised red mineral pigments (red ochre) including crayons associated with the emergence of Homo sapiens in Africa. Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament—2 Kings 9:30 where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and the book of Esther describes various beauty treatments as well.

Cosmetics were also used in ancient Rome, although much of Roman literature suggests that it was frowned upon. It is known that some women in ancient Rome invented make up including lead-based formulas, to whiten the skin, and kohl to line the eyes.

Across the globe

Africa

Egypt

One of the earliest cultures to use cosmetics was ancient Egypt, where both Egyptian men and women used makeup to enhance their appearance. The first cosmetics appeared 5,000 years ago in Egypt. To achieve a pleasant smell and softness of the skin, incense oils were used, and women applied white to protect their faces from the sun. The Egyptians were also the first to use black antimony-based paint as eyeliner. And to create a natural blush, crushed flowers were used.

The use of cosmetics in Ancient Egypt is well documented. Kohl has its roots in north Africa. The use of black kohl eyeliner and eyeshadows in dark colours such as blue, red, and black was common, and was commonly recorded and represented in Egyptian art, as well as being seen in Egyptian hieroglyphs. Ancient Egyptians also extracted red dye from fucus-algin, 0.01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, but this dye resulted in serious illness. Lipsticks with shimmering effects were initially made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales, which are still used extensively today. Despite the hazardous nature of some Egyptian cosmetics, ancient Egyptian makeup was also thought to have antibacterial properties that helped prevent infections. Remedies to treat wrinkles contained ingredients such as gum of frankincense and fresh moringa. For scars and burns, a special ointment was made of red ochre, kohl, and sycamore juice. An alternative treatment was a poultice of carob grounds and honey, or an ointment made of knotgrass and powdered root of wormwood. To improve breath the ancient Egyptians chewed herbs or frankincense which is still in use today. Jars of what could be compared with setting lotion have been found to contain a mixture of beeswax and resin. These doubled as remedies for problems such as baldness and greying hair. They also used these products on their mummies, because they believed that it would make them irresistible in the after life.

Madagascar
Women of the Sakalava and Vezo peoples in Madagascar began wearing masonjoany, a decorative paste made from ground wood, in the 9th century C.E. It is worn on the face as sunscreen and insect repellent, as well as decoration, with women painting flowers, leaves and stars in white and yellow pastes. The practice is derived from cultural exchange between Malagasy people and Arab merchants in the Northwest coastal region of the island.

Middle East
Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament, such as in 2 Kings 9:30, where the biblical figure Jezebel painted her eyelids (approximately 840 BC). Cosmetics are also mentioned in the book of Esther, where beauty treatments are described.

Both sexes used cosmetics throughout the pre-Islamic Near East, going back to the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, and Iran. Cosmetics, especially eye makeup in the form of kohl, were used in Persia and what today is Iran from ancient periods. Kohl is a black powder that was used widely across the Persian Empire. It was used as a powder or smeared to darken the edges of the eyelids similar to eyeliner.

Cosmetics were also used throughout the Middle East and Near East after the advent of Islam. Women used cosmetics widely in the private sphere, while only female slaves and singers tended to use them in public. Ointments, powders, and pastes were used as skin-lightening agents to comply with the era's beauty standards. Perfumed creams were also used on the face, as were sandalwood-based pastes to protect the skin from sunlight. Decorative henna was used during wedding celebrations to beautify the bride. Men and children used kohl on their eyes and henna as a natural dye for their hair, but rarely used other cosmetic items.

Asia

China

Flowers play an important decorative role in China. Legend has it that once on the 7th day of the 1st lunar month, while Princess Shouyang, daughter of Emperor Wu of Liu Song, was resting under the eaves of Hanzhang Palace near the plum trees after wandering in the gardens, a plum blossom drifted down onto her fair face, leaving a floral imprint on her forehead that enhanced her beauty further. The court ladies were said to be so impressed, that they started decorating their own foreheads with a small delicate plum blossom design. This is also the mythical origin of the floral fashion, meihua zhuang (梅花妝; literally "plum blossom makeup"), that originated in the Southern dynasties (420–589) and became popular amongst ladies in the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) dynasties.

Mongolia
Women of royal families painted red spots on the center of their cheeks, right under their eyes. However, it is a mystery why. They said that red cheeks (Face Blush) are a reason of happy queen. Blusher helps to enhance the face shape to bring out the cheek bones to lift the makeup look.

Japan

In Japan, geisha wore lipstick made of crushed safflower petals to paint the eyebrows and edges of the eyes as well as the lips, and sticks of bintsuke wax, a softer version of the sumo wrestlers' hair wax, were used by geisha as a makeup base. Rice powder colors the face and back; rouge contours the eye socket and defines the nose.[unreliable source?] Ohaguro (black paint) colours the teeth for the ceremony, called Erikae, when maiko (apprentice geisha) graduate and become independent. The geisha would also sometimes use bird droppings to compile a lighter color. The beginning of the modern Japanese cosmetic industry began after the Meiji Restoration in 1868. New products began appearing in the markets for skin care and dermatology due to new ingredients and technologies.

Europe

Cultures to use cosmetics include the ancient Greeks and the Romans. In the Roman Empire, the use of cosmetics was common amongst prostitutes and rich women. Such adornment was sometimes lamented by certain Roman writers, who thought it to be against the castitas required of women by what they considered traditional Roman values; and later by Christian writers who expressed similar sentiments in a slightly different context. Pliny the Elder mentioned cosmetics in his Naturalis Historia, and Ovid wrote a book on the topic.

Pale faces were a trend during the European Middle Ages. In the 16th century, women would bleed themselves to achieve pale skin. Spanish prostitutes wore pink makeup to contrast pale skin. 13th century Italian women wore red lipstick to show that they were upper class. Use of cosmetics continued in Middle Ages, where the face was whitened and the cheeks rouged; during the later 16th century in the West, the personal attributes of the women who used makeup created a demand for the product among the upper class. Cosmetics continued to be used in the following centuries, though attitudes towards cosmetics varied throughout time, with the use of cosmetics being openly frowned upon at many points in Western history. In the 19th century, Queen Victoria publicly declared makeup improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors, with many famous actresses of the time, such as Sarah Bernhardt and Lillie Langtry using makeup.

19th-century fashion ideals of women appearing delicate, feminine and pale were achieved by some through the use of makeup, with some women discreetly using rouge on their cheeks and drops of belladonna to dilate their eyes to appear larger. Though cosmetics were used discreetly by many women, makeup in Western cultures during this time was generally frowned upon, particularly during the 1870s, when Western social etiquette increased in rigidity. Teachers and clergy were specifically forbidden from the use of cosmetic products.

Americas and Australia
Some Native American tribes painted their faces for ceremonial events or battle. Similar practices were followed by Aboriginals in Australia.

Latin America

Pre-Columbian era
Beauty standards varied by tribes. Cosmetics was typically describing an individual's social class. These tribes tend to have the product on their bodies in addition to their face. In Colombia, cosmetic products used oil or petroleum with various colors for the face and vermillion for the body. More color indicates the woman of higher class. For Nicaragua, the arms were painted on the arm with a mixture consisting of wool and the individual's blood. Like the Colombian women, the petroleum is used with the exception of the breasts to prevent interference with child development.

The Maya utilized the color red to represent social class and also used the color in funeral processes. The pigment was produced with mercury, lead, and arsenic. Other products to make the red color includes animals and plants. These items helped create more variety of reds with various tones, intensity, and sheen. Different shades of red determine a person's social status as red was represented luxury. Other colors in Maya society were blue and green made with Indigofera, malachite, azurite, veszelyite, and copper-containing minerals. Similar to red, the colors were also used in funerals and used to represent royalty. Orange and yellow were used with the same purpose of prestige being produced with hematite, goethite, and limonite.

The body was considered as their portrait to the Maya with various images of plants, animals, and humans being common images. Other designs include personal designs using geometry.

The Chinchorro culture in northern Chile followed the same principle as the Mayans regarding the significance of the color red with it being found in mummies.

19th century
During the late 1800s, the Western cosmetics industry began to grow due to a rise in "visual self-awareness", a shift in the perception of color cosmetics, and improvements in the safety of products. Prior to the 19th century, limitations in lighting technology and access to reflective devices stifled people's ability to regularly perceive their appearance. This, in turn, limited the need for a cosmetic market and resulted in individuals creating and applying their own products at home. Several technological advancements in the latter half of the century, including the innovation of mirrors, commercial photography, marketing and electricity in the home and in public, increased consciousness of one's appearance and created a demand for cosmetic products that improved one's image.

Face powders, rouges, lipstick and similar products made from home were found to have toxic ingredients, which deterred customers from their use. Discoveries of non-toxic cosmetic ingredients, such as Henry Tetlow's 1866 use of zinc oxide as a face powder, and the distribution of cosmetic products by established companies such as Rimmel, Guerlain, and Hudnut helped popularize cosmetics to the broader public. Skincare, along with "face painting" products like powders, also became in-demand products of the cosmetics industry. The mass advertisements of cold cream brands such as Pond's through billboards, magazines, and newspapers created a high demand for the product. These advertisement and cosmetic marketing styles were soon replicated in European countries, which further increased the popularity of the advertised products in Europe.

20th century

During the early 1900s, makeup was not excessively popular. In fact, women hardly wore makeup at all. Make-up at this time was still mostly the territory of prostitutes, those in cabarets and on the black & white screen. Face enameling (applying actual paint to the face) became popular among the rich at this time in an attempt to look paler. This practice was dangerous due to the main ingredient often being arsenic. Pale skin was associated with wealth because it meant that one was not out working in the sun and could afford to stay inside all day. Cosmetics were so unpopular that they could not be bought in department stores; they could only be bought at theatrical costume stores. A woman's "makeup routine" often only consisted of using papier poudré, a powdered paper/oil blotting sheet, to whiten the nose in the winter and shine their cheeks in the summer. Rouge was considered provocative, so was only seen on "women of the night." Some women used burnt matchsticks to darken eyelashes, and geranium and poppy petals to stain the lips. Vaseline became high in demand because it was used on chapped lips, as a base for hair tonic, and soap. Toilet waters were introduced in the early 1900s, but only lavender water or refined cologne was admissible for women to wear. Cosmetic deodorant was invented in 1888, by an unknown inventor from Philadelphia and was trademarked under the name "Mum". Roll-on deodorant was launched in 1952, and aerosol deodorant in 1965.

Around 1910, make-up became fashionable in the United States of America and Europe owing to the influence of ballet and theatre stars such as Mathilde Kschessinska and Sarah Bernhardt. Colored makeup was introduced in Paris upon the arrival of the Russian Ballet in 1910, where ochers and crimsons were the most typical shades. The Daily Mirror beauty book showed that cosmetics were now acceptable for the literate classes to wear. With that said, men often saw rouge as a mark of sex and sin, and rouging was considered an admission of ugliness. In 1915, a Kansas legislature proposed to make it a misdemeanor for women under the age of forty-four to wear cosmetics "for the purpose of creating a false impression." The Daily Mirror was one of the first to suggest using a pencil line (eyeliner) to elongate the eye and an eyelash curler to accentuate the lashes. Eyebrow darkener was also presented in this beauty book, created from gum Arabic, Indian ink, and rosewater. George Burchett developed cosmetic tattooing during this time period. He was able to tattoo on pink blushes, red lips, and dark eyebrows. He also was able to tattoo men disfigured in the First World War by inserting skin tones in damaged faces and by covering scars with colors more pleasing to the eye. Max Factor opened up a professional makeup studio for stage and screen actors in Los Angeles in 1909. Even though his store was intended for actors, ordinary women came in to purchase theatrical eye shadow and eyebrow pencils for their home use.

In the 1920s, the film industry in Hollywood had the most influential impact on cosmetics. Stars such as Theda Bara had a substantial effect on the makeup industry. Helena Rubinstein was Bara's makeup artist; she created mascara for the actress, relying on her experiments with kohl. Others who saw the opportunity for the mass-market of cosmetics during this time were Max Factor Sr. and Elizabeth Arden. Many of the present day makeup manufacturers were established during the 1920s and 1930s. Lipsticks were one of the most popular cosmetics of this time, more so than rouge and powder, because they were colorful and cheap. In 1915, Maurice Levy invented the metal container for lipstick, which gave license to its mass production. The Flapper style also influenced the cosmetics of the 1920s, which embraced dark eyes, red lipstick, red nail polish, and the suntan, invented as a fashion statement by Coco Chanel. The eyebrow pencil became vastly popular in the 1920s, in part because it was technologically superior to what it had been, due to a new ingredient: hydrogenated cottonseed oil (also the key constituent of another wonder product of that era Crisco Oil). The early commercial mascaras, like Maybelline, were simply pressed cakes containing soap and pigments. A woman would dip a tiny brush into hot water, rub the bristles on the cake, remove the excess by rolling the brush onto some blotting paper or a sponge, and then apply the mascara as if her eyelashes were a watercolor canvas. Eugène Schueller, founder of L'Oréal, invented modern synthetic hair dye in 1907 and he also invented sunscreen in 1936. The first patent for a nail polish was granted in 1919. Its color was a very faint pink. It's not clear how dark this rose was, but any girl whose nails were tipped in any pink darker than a baby's blush risked gossip about being "fast." Previously, only agricultural workers had sported suntans, while fashionable women kept their skins as pale as possible. In the wake of Chanel's adoption of the suntan, dozens of new fake tan products were produced to help both men and women achieve the "sun-kissed" look. In Asia, skin whitening continued to represent the ideal of beauty, as it does to this day.

In the time period after the First World War, there was a boom in cosmetic surgery. During the 1920s and 1930s, facial configuration and social identity dominated a plastic surgeon's world. Face-lifts were performed as early as 1920, but it wasn't until the 1960s when cosmetic surgery was used to reduce the signs of aging. During the twentieth century, cosmetic surgery mainly revolved around women. Men only participated in the practice if they had been disfigured by the war. Silicone implants were introduced in 1962. In the 1980s, the American Society of Plastic Surgeons made efforts to increase public awareness about plastic surgery. As a result, in 1982, the United States Supreme Court granted physicians the legal right to advertise their procedures. The optimistic and simplified nature of narrative advertisements often made the surgeries seem hazard-free, even though they were anything but. The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery reported that more than two million Americans elected to undergo cosmetic procedures, both surgical and non-surgical, in 1998, liposuction being the most popular. Breast augmentations ranked second, while numbers three, four, and five went to eye surgery, face-lifts, and chemical peels.

During the 1920s, numerous African Americans participated in skin bleaching in an attempt to lighten their complexion as well as hair straightening to appear whiter. Skin bleaches and hair straighteners created fortunes worth millions and accounted for a massive thirty to fifty percent of all advertisements in the black press of the decade. Oftentimes, these bleaches and straighteners were created and marketed by African American women themselves. Skin bleaches contained caustic chemicals such as hydroquinone, which suppressed the production of melanin in the skin. These bleaches could cause severe dermatitis and even death in high dosages. Many times these regimens were used daily, increasing an individual's risk. In the 1970s, at least five companies started producing make-up for African American women. Before the 1970s, makeup shades for Black women were limited. Face makeup and lipstick did not work for dark skin types because they were created for pale skin tones. These cosmetics that were created for pale skin tones only made dark skin appear grey. Eventually, makeup companies created makeup that worked for richer skin tones, such as foundations and powders that provided a natural match. Popular companies like Astarté, Afram, Libra, Flori Roberts and Fashion Fair priced the cosmetics reasonably due to the fact that they wanted to reach out to the masses.

In addition, Black women joined the consumer market in America for hair care. Due to innovations in technology in the 1940s and 1950s, Black women were given more options in hair straightening techniques. In 1954, George E. Johnson started the Johnson Product Company and introduced a safe straightening hair care system that could be purchased in stores and done at home. As America shifted into the 1960s and 1970s, the afro became a popular hairstyle and required a new set of beauty demands. The afro became a symbol of naturalness, and rose with the "Black is Beautiful Movement," as well as Black nationalism. Johnson Product Company created various hair care products to upkeep the Afro look. Products like Afro Sheen and Ultra Sheen became popular amongst Black consumers. As Black consumerism grew, White owned companies tried to make their way into the Black hair care industry. Clairol created products and advertisements that were aimed to support Black hair.

From 1939 to 1945, during the Second World War, cosmetics were in short supply. Petroleum and alcohol, basic ingredients of many cosmetics, were diverted into war supply. Ironically, at this time when they were restricted, lipstick, powder, and face cream were most desirable and most experimentation was carried out for the post war period. Cosmetic developers realized that the war would result in a phenomenal boom afterwards, so they began preparing. Yardley, Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and the French manufacturing company became associated with "quality" after the war because they were the oldest established. Pond's had this same appeal in the lower price range. Gala cosmetics were one of the first to give its products fantasy names, such as the lipsticks in "lantern red" and "sea coral."

During the 1960s and 1970s, many women in the western world influenced by feminism decided to go without any cosmetics. In 1968 at the feminist Miss America protest, protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine products into a "Freedom Trash Can." This included cosmetics, which were among items the protestors called "instruments of female torture" and accouterments of what they perceived to be enforced femininity.

Cosmetics in the 1970s were divided into a "natural look" for day and a more sexualized image for evening. Non-allergic makeup appeared when the bare face was in fashion as women became more interested in the chemical value of their makeup. Modern developments in technology, such as the High-shear mixer facilitated the production of cosmetics which were more natural looking and had greater staying power in wear than their predecessors. The prime cosmetic of the time was eye shadow, though; women also were interested in new lipstick colors such as lilac, green, and silver. These lipsticks were often mixed with pale pinks and whites, so women could create their own individual shades. "Blush-ons" came into the market in this decade, with Revlon giving them wide publicity. This product was applied to the forehead, lower cheeks, and chin. Contouring and highlighting the face with white eye shadow cream also became popular. Avon introduced the lady saleswoman. In fact, the whole cosmetic industry in general opened opportunities for women in business as entrepreneurs, inventors, manufacturers, distributors, and promoters.

21st century
Beauty products are now widely available from dedicated internet-only retailers, who have more recently been joined online by established outlets, including major department stores and traditional brick-and-mortar beauty retailers.

Like most industries, cosmetic companies resist regulation by government agencies. In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not approve or review cosmetics, although it does regulate the colors that can be used in hair dyes. Cosmetic companies are not required to report injuries resulting from use of their products.

Although modern makeup has been used mainly by women traditionally, gradually an increasing number of males are using cosmetics usually associated to women to enhance their own facial features. Concealer is commonly used by cosmetic-conscious men. Cosmetics brands are releasing cosmetic products especially tailored for men, and men are using such products more commonly. There is some controversy over this, however, as many feel that men who wear makeup are neglecting traditional gender roles, and do not view men wearing cosmetics in a positive light. Others, however, view this as a sign of increasing gender equality and feel that men also have the right to enhance their facial features with cosmetics if women do.

Today the market of cosmetics has a different dynamic compared to the 20th century. Some countries are driving this economy:
 Japan: Japan is the second largest market in the world. Regarding the growth of this market, cosmetics in Japan have entered a period of stability. However, the market situation is quickly changing. Now consumers can access a lot of information on the Internet and choose many alternatives, opening up many opportunities for newcomers entering the market, looking for chances to meet the diverse needs of consumers. The size of the cosmetics market for 2010 was 2286 billion yen on the basis of the value of shipments by brand manufacturer. With a growth rate of 0.1%, the market was almost unchanged from the previous year.
 Russia: One of the most interesting emerging markets, the 5th largest in the world in 2012, the Russian perfumery and cosmetics market has shown the highest growth of 21% since 2004, reaching US$13.5 billion.
 South Korea: South Korea's cosmetic industry is on the rise with its creations, light ingredients, and aesthetic packages. In 2020, the market amassed $6.8 billion with a $2.6 billion loss due to COVID-19. The total export of products and trade increased by 16 percent with France being the largest exporter followed by the United States and Japan. Skincare products remain to be the largest imported items at 34.17 percent along with perfumes and haircare products being other large, imported goods in 2021.
With the imposition of lockdowns due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the consequent wariness to return to salons, trends that imitate salon procedures started to emerge, such as more complicated home skin-care regimens, hair color preserving products, and beauty tools. Early in the pandemic, sales on makeup essentials, like foundation and lipstick, decreased by up to 70% because of quarantining and face-covering mandates.

In Latin America's cosmetic and personal-care industry, it has been increasing significantly and become much more diverse. Within the industry, the thought of sustainability in products are considered to find alternatives to silicone and palm sourced additives. Clariant being one of the companies producing such products. One item used in products is epseama derived from seaweed. The ingredient serves as an anti-aging agent in skin products.

Men and makeup
Men have had a long history with cosmetics, and have been beautifying since 50,000 BCE. In the 1970s, male musicians began to use makeup onstage. This included famous rock stars such as David Bowie, Alice Cooper, and the band Kiss. The use of cosmetics allowed them to create an alter ego, and were part of the visual entertainment of their shows. Currently, the popularity of TikTok has created a rise in men's cosmetics. Some men have chosen to wear nail polish, makeup, and other cosmetics to express their identity online.

See also

 Cosmetics
 Female cosmetic coalitions
 Ochre
 Prehistoric art
 Symbolic culture
 Blombos Cave

References

Sources

External links

History of chemistry
Cosmetics

History of cosmetics


The Besser Museum for Northeast Michigan is a community museum serving Alpena County and surrounding counties in the U.S. state of Michigan.  Alpena is a port city on Lake Huron. The museum defines its role broadly  to preserve, protect and present history and culture closely connected with the heritage of Northern Michigan and the Great Lakes.  The museum includes a small publicly-owned planetarium.

Description
The Besser Museum traces its core endowment to benefactor Jesse Besser (1882-1970), the founder of Besser block, an Alpena manufacturer of concrete block manufacturing machinery.  During World War II and following years, concrete blocks became essential materials of worldwide construction.  Besser's 1964 gift enabled the creation of a community museum in Alpena, which was at first called the Jesse Besser Museum. The endowment enabled the museum to be professionally staffed and accredited by the American Alliance of Museums.  The facility has retained its accreditation and has changed its name to reflect its outreach to many communities in northeastern Michigan.   The only accredited museum in Northern Michigan, it "boasts one of the finest collections of Great Lakes Indian artifacts in the country."

On the campus, there are restored historical buildings.  The museum is an important contributor and stakeholder in the Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary.

Today
The museum's  building contained 47,000 catalogued artifacts as of 2020.  There is an  campus, that has outdoor exhibits and adjunct buildings.  A two-story Foucault pendulum is in the lobby. The full dome and newly renovated and equipped full sky planetarium shows films and exhibitions.  The outdoor Lafarge Fossil Park exhibit features Devonian fossils.  Fine art includes works from artists such as Paul Cézanne, glass sculptor Dale Chihuly, Pablo Picasso, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Diego Rivera.  It has been described as serving 15 counties of the northeastern Lower Peninsula.  The museum is at the forefront of telling the story of Alpena, including fishing, logging, mining, concrete, concrete block machinery development design, technology and manufacturing, and is in the midst of "Shipwreck alley."

In its fossil garden, there is an exterior mural depicting the Devonian Period by artist Judy Dawley. The original painting is inside the museum.

The museum includes a 1890s pharmacy display window, part of a larger reconstructed "Avenue of Shops," which includes 12 shops.  The display includes bottles of pharmaceuticals, drug store paraphernalia and ephemera.

Fisheries

The museum is part of the Great Lakes Fisheries Heritage Trail.  As such, it brings together historic artifacts, fishing vessels, gear, and dock sites which were part of the commercial fishing industry indigenous to Lake Huron and the northeast Michigan shores. Sport fishing, recreational fishing, and Great Lakes ecology are documented, with the Research Vessel Chinook being a work in progress.  The Fishing Tug Katherine V, designated US 228069, is a Great Lakes fish tug displayed there; it is believed to be the last intact wooden fishing tug left.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.  The vessel is one of about 900 boats that were in the Great Lakes gill net fishing fleet.  She is unique having spent her entire fishing career in Lake Huron waters off the northeastern Lower peninsula.  It has been noted that, "The Katherine V is the last remaining example of the large, wooden fish tugs that once plied the waters of Lake Huron on both the Canadian and American sides of the lake. She is also a splendid example of wooden ship building methods and skills that were once common among the craftsmen of this region."

Concrete
The original Besser block machine is on display at the Besser Museum.  Herman Besser was involved with the Alpena Portland Cement company.  In 1904, his son, Jesse Besser, developed the first hand-tamp block machine. This technology 'revolutionized the block-making industry" and the Besser Company was born.  The company is still a leader in block making machinery technology.  Its international headquarters is in Alpena.

A recurrent event is the "Fall Harvest Festival."  Highlights have included tours of the limestone quarry, the Lafarge quarry (on site in Alpena, and an adjunct to the Lafarge Cement plant), which quarries Alpena Limestone and Rockport Quarry Limestone and gypsum, and guided demonstrations at the World Center for Concrete Technology at Alpena Community College. Attendees are shown "how the fossilized limestone at the Lafarge Quarry is processed to make cement; and the technologies, inventions, and career opportunities that support the concrete industry."  At the museum, visitors can hunt for Devonian Period fossils in the museum's Fossil Park

Fossils
The limestone laid down around Alpena comes from the Devonian Period, the 4th period of the Paleozoic Era (roughly 416-358 million years ago)  the "Age of the Fishes".  Marine life was intensely diverse, before formation of the supercontinent of Pangaea, when 85% of the earth's surface was oceans.  Fish of this period were cartilaginous, mainly shark ancestors.  Cartilage does not fossilize, so fossils from the area are typically from "filter feeding" creatures.  However, a carnivorous remnant of the Middle Devonian Period is to found in the fossils of the area.  Dunkleosteus (pronounced DUNKLE-OSTEUS) had bony armor on its head and frontal body, as well as bony structures, (much like teeth), "used to shear their prey. Paleontologists can only speculate what the torso and tail of this fish looked like, however it is believed that the Dunkleosteus" reached .  A depiction of this fish is in the mural outside of Besser Museum.  It was painted by Judy Dawley, and is nearby the museum's Fossil Dig Park.

Activities
At the Besser Museum, visitors can watch crafts confectioners make fudge and learn the history of this candy in Northern Michigan, often called Mackinac Island fudge.  The restored backyard Historic Village and expanded Fisheries Heritage exhibits are offered, along with apple cider and doughnuts.

Juried art exhibitions take place at the Museum.

Planetarium
As of 2016, the Meseum worked with donors to refit the planetarium as a place of digital star discovery. Veteran 50-year-old electromechanical sky-display equipment was retired and replaced. The refitted planetarium features full-dome digital sky theater capability.  The newly installed Spitz Digital Dome planetarium projector necessitated the hiring of additional staff.   It opened in 1966, has a dome of , 51 seats, Starball projector Spitz A3P, and a digital system Spitz SciDome.

Visitor information
An admission fee is charged.  One museum artifact that is on free public display is the salvaged Admiralty-style bow anchor of the 19th-century steamship SS Pewabic, sunk in a tragic collision in 1865.

Publishing
The museum published The Town That Wouldn't Die: A Photographic History of Alpena, Michigan from Its Beginnings Through 1940.

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

External links
Besser Museum for Northeast Michigan home page
Historic Baby Grand Piano Exhibit at the Besser Museum Video via YouTube April 17, 2017

1964 establishments in Michigan
Anthropology museums in the United States
Art museums and galleries in Michigan
Dinosaur museums in the United States
Geology museums in the United States
History museums in Michigan
Museums in Alpena County, Michigan
Museums established in 1964
Natural history of Michigan
Paleontology in Michigan
Planetaria in the United States

Besser Museum for Northeast Michigan


Count Otto of Duras (d. 1147) was a Count of Duras, and advocatus of the Abbey of St Truiden. Duras and St Truiden are in the modern province of Belgian Limburg. His parents were Count Giselbert of Duras and his wife Gertrud.

Otto married Berthe of Valenciennes, daughter of Yolande of Guelders, daughter of Gerard I, Count of Guelders.  Yolande was first married to Baldwin III, Count of Hainaut, and was mother to Baldwin IV, Count of Hainaut.  Yolande was granddaughter of Albert III, Count of Namur, a family with strong relations with Otto's father.

Otto and Berthe are thought to have had one child who survived to adulthood, Otto's successor:
 Juliane (d. 1164), married first Godfried, Count of Montaigu, Duras and Clermont, and second Enguerrand, possibly the count of Orbais.

In Sint-Truiden charter 51 (Piot Vol.2) Countess Juliane was described as Otto's filia, and her Juliane's husband Count Godfried was described as his gener. This could mean "son-in-law" or "brother-in-law". (In the 19th century Wolters for example identified Juliane as Otto's sister, but this seems unlikely given the succession of the Counts of Duras.)

Juliane and Godfried had five children, the eldest of which was Gilles, Count of Montaigu, Duras, and Clermont, who married Lauretta, daughter of Louis I, Count of Loon. Their third son Conan was also Count of Duras. None of Juliane's sons had male heirs, and the family inheritance split up after their deaths.

Sources

Baerten, Jean, 'Les origines des comtes de Looz et la formation territoriale du comté', in: Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire 43 (2 parts; 1965) 459-491, 1217-1242. On persee: part 1, part 2.
Baerten, Jean, Het Graafschap Loon (11de - 14de eeuw), (Assen 1969).  pdf
Hanon de Louvet (1941) Histoire de la Ville de Jodoigne
Piot, Cartulaire de l'abbaye de Saint-Trond, Vol.2. https://archive.org/details/cartulairedelabb01sainuoft/
C. G. Roland, Les seigneurs et comtes de Rochefort, Annales de la Société archéologique de Namur 20 (1893) https://archive.org/details/annalesdelasocie20soci/page/63
Ulens, R., "Les origines et les limites primitives du comté de Duras" Bulletin de la Société Scientifique & littéraire du Limbourg 50 (1936) pp.49-71.
Vaes, Jan, De Graven van Loon. Loons, Luiks, Limburgs (Leuven 2016)
Wolters, Mathias J., Notice Historique sur l'Ancien Comté de Duras en Hesbaie, Gyselinck, 1855 (available on Google Books)
Zeller, Thibaut, "La maison de Durras en Hesbaye : les pilliers de pouvoir d'une parentèle comtale (XIe -XIIe  siècles)", l'Annuaire d'histoire liégeoise, 37, (2007-2008), pp.33-57.

Primary sources
Gestorum Abbatem Trudonensium Continuatio Tertia: Koepker (ed.) MGH SS Vol.10 dmgh.de; =de Borman (ed.) Vol.1 Vol.2; =Lavigne (trans.) 228-229 (pdf).

Belgian nobility
History of Belgian Limburg
Counts of the Holy Roman Empire

Otto II, Count of Duras


Robert Dennis Harris (born 7 March 1957) is a British novelist and former journalist. Although he began his career in journalism and non-fiction, his fame rests upon his works of historical fiction. Beginning with the best-seller Fatherland, Harris focused on events surrounding the Second World War, followed by works set in ancient Rome. His most recent works centre on contemporary history. Harris was educated at Selwyn College, Cambridge, where he was president of the Cambridge Union and editor of the student newspaper Varsity.

Early life and education
Robert Harris spent his childhood in a small rented house on a Nottingham council estate. His ambition to become a writer arose at an early age, from visits to the local printing plant where his father worked. Harris went to Belvoir High School in Bottesford, Leicestershire, and then King Edward VII School, Melton Mowbray, where a hall was later named after him. There he wrote plays and edited the school magazine. Harris read English literature at Selwyn College, Cambridge, where he was elected president of the Cambridge Union and editor of Varsity, the oldest student newspaper at Cambridge University.

Career

Early career
After leaving Cambridge, Harris joined the BBC and worked on news and current affairs programmes such as Panorama and Newsnight. In 1987, at the age of 30, he became political editor of the newspaper The Observer. He later wrote regular columns for The Sunday Times and The Daily Telegraph.

Non-fiction (1982–1990)
Harris's first book, A Higher Form of Killing (1982) with fellow BBC journalist Jeremy Paxman, was a study of chemical and biological warfare. Other non-fiction works followed: Gotcha! The Government, the Media and the Falklands Crisis (1983) covering the Falklands War; The Making of Neil Kinnock (1984); Selling Hitler (1986), an investigation of the Hitler Diaries scandal; and Good and Faithful Servant (1990), a study of Bernard Ingham, Margaret Thatcher's press secretary.

Fiction

Fatherland (1992)
Harris's bestselling first novel, the alternative-history Fatherland, has as its setting a world where Nazi Germany won the Second World War. Publication enabled Harris to become a full-time novelist. It was adapted as a television film by HBO in 1994.

Harris stated that the proceeds from the book enabled him to buy a house in the countryside, where he still lives.

Enigma (1995)
His second novel, Enigma, portrayed the breaking of the German Enigma cipher during the Second World War at Cambridge University and Bletchley Park. It was adapted as a film by writer Tom Stoppard, starring Dougray Scott and Kate Winslet, in 2001.

Archangel (1998)
Archangel was another international best seller. It follows a British historian in contemporary Russia as he hunts for a secret notebook, believed to be Stalin's diary. It was adapted as a television film by the BBC, starring Daniel Craig, in 2005.

Pompeii (2003)
In 2003 Harris turned his attention to ancient Rome with his acclaimed Pompeii. The novel is about a Roman aqueduct engineer, working near the city of Pompeii just before the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE. As the aqueducts begin to malfunction, he investigates and realises the volcano is shifting the ground beneath and is near eruption. Meanwhile, he falls in love with the young daughter of a powerful local businessman who was illicitly dealing with his predecessor to divert municipal water for his own uses, and will do anything to keep that deal going.

Imperium (2006)
In 2006, Harris followed up on Pompeii with another Roman-era work, Imperium, the first novel in a trilogy centred on the life of the great Roman orator and lawyer Marcus Tullius Cicero.

The Ghost (2007)
Harris was an early and enthusiastic supporter of Tony Blair (a personal acquaintance) and a donor to New Labour, but the war in Iraq blunted his enthusiasm. "We had our ups and downs, but we didn't really fall out until the invasion of Iraq, which made no sense to me," Harris has said.

In 2007, after Blair resigned, Harris dropped his other work to write The Ghost. The title refers both to a professional ghostwriter, whose lengthy memorandum forms the novel, and to his immediate predecessor who, as the action opens, has just drowned in gruesome and mysterious circumstances. The dead man has been ghosting the autobiography of a recently unseated British prime minister called Adam Lang, a thinly veiled version of Blair. The fictional counterpart of Cherie Blair is depicted as a sinister manipulator of her husband. Harris told The Guardian before publication: "The day this appears a writ might come through the door. But I would doubt it, knowing him."

Harris said in a U.S. National Public Radio interview that politicians like Lang and Blair, particularly when they have been in office for a long time, become divorced from everyday reality, read little and end up with a pretty limited overall outlook. When it comes to writing their memoirs, they therefore tend to have all the more need of a ghostwriter.

Harris hinted at a third, far less obvious, allusion hidden in the novel's title, and, more significantly, at a possible motive for having written the book in the first place. Blair, he said, had himself been ghostwriter, in effect, to President Bush when giving public reasons for invading Iraq: he had argued the case better than had the President himself.

The New York Observer, headlining its otherwise hostile review The Blair Snitch Project, commented that the book's "shock-horror revelation" was "so shocking it simply can't be true, though if it were it would certainly explain pretty much everything about the recent history of Great Britain."

Roman Polanski adapted the novel as the film The Ghost Writer (2010).

Lustrum (2009)
The second novel in the Cicero trilogy, Lustrum, was published in October 2009. It was released in February 2010 in the US under the alternative title of Conspirata.

The Fear Index (2011)
The Harris novel The Fear Index, focusing on the 2010 Flash Crash, was published by Hutchinson in September 2011. It follows an American expat hedge fund operator living in Geneva who activates a new system of computer algorithms that he names VIXAL-4, which is designed to operate faster than human beings, but which begins to become uncontrollable by its human operators. It was adapted as a 4-part limited series starring Josh Hartnett in 2022.

An Officer and a Spy (2013)
An Officer and a Spy is the story of French officer Georges Picquart, a historical character, who is promoted in 1895 to run France's Statistical Section, its secret intelligence division. He gradually realises that Alfred Dreyfus has been unjustly imprisoned for acts of espionage committed by another man who is still free and still spying for the Germans. He risks his career and his life to expose the truth. Harris was inspired to write the novel by his friend Roman Polanski, who adapted it as a film in 2019.

Dictator (2015)
Dictator was the long-promised conclusion to the Harris Cicero trilogy. It was published by Hutchinson on 8 October 2015.

Conclave (2016)
Conclave, published on 22 September 2016, is a novel "set over 72 hours in the Vatican", leading up to "the election of a fictional Pope".

Munich (2017)
Munich, published on 21 September 2017, is a thriller set during the negotiations for the 1938 Munich Agreement between Hitler and UK Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain.  The story is told through the eyes of two young civil servants – one German, Hartmann, and one English, Legat, who reunite at the fateful summit, six years after they were friends at university. It was adapted as the film Munich – The Edge of War in 2021.

The Second Sleep (2019)
The Second Sleep, published on 5 September 2019, is set in the small English village of Addicott St. George in Wessex in the year 1468 (but it is not "our" 1468; it's 800 years later than the 2020s) and follows the events of a priest, Christopher Fairfax, sent there to bury the previous priest, and the secrets he discovers: about the priest, the village, and the society in which they live.

V2 (2020)
V2, published on 17 September 2020, is a thriller set in November 1944 which follows the parallel stories of a German V-2 rocket scientist, Rudi Graf, and a British WAAF, Kay Caton-Walsh.

Act of Oblivion (2022)
Act of Oblivion, published on 1 September 2022, is set in 1660 and follows Richard Nayler of the Privy Council who is tasked with tracking down the regicides Edward Whalley and William Goffe. The book is notable for featuring only real figures as named characters, with the sole exception of Nayler.

Work with Roman Polanski
In 2007, Harris wrote a screenplay of his novel Pompeii for director Roman Polanski. Harris acknowledged in many interviews that the plot of his novel was inspired by Polanski's film Chinatown, and Polanski said it was precisely that similarity that had attracted him to Pompeii. The film, to be produced by Summit Entertainment, was announced at the Cannes Film Festival in 2007 as potentially the most expensive European film ever made, set to be shot in Spain. Media reports suggested Polanski wanted Orlando Bloom and Scarlett Johansson to play the two leads. The film was cancelled in September 2007 as a result of a looming actors' strike.

Polanski and Harris then turned to Harris's bestseller, The Ghost. They co-wrote a script and Polanski announced filming for early 2008, with Nicolas Cage, Pierce Brosnan, Tilda Swinton and Kim Cattrall starring. The film was then postponed by a year, with Ewan McGregor and Olivia Williams replacing Cage and Swinton.
The film, retitled The Ghost Writer in all territories except the UK, was shot in early 2009 in Berlin and on the island of Sylt in the North Sea, which stood in for London and Martha's Vineyard respectively, owing to Polanski's inability to travel legally to those places. In spite of his incarceration, he oversaw post-production from his house arrest and the film premiered at the Berlin Film Festival in February 2010.

Harris was inspired to write his novel An Officer and a Spy by Polanski's longtime interest in the Dreyfus affair. He also wrote a screenplay based on the story, which Polanski was to direct in 2012. The screenplay was first titled D, after the initial written on the secret file that secured Dreyfus' conviction. After many years of production difficulties, it started filming in 2018, starring Jean Dujardin. It was produced by Alain Goldman and distributed by Gaumont in 2019.

In June 2018 Harris reiterated his support for Polanski, and branded criticisms of Polanski's crimes as being a problem of culture and fashion. "The culture has completely changed....And so the question is: "Do you then say, OK fine, I follow the culture.' Or do I say: 'Well, he hasn't done anything since then. He won the Oscar, he got a standing ovation in Los Angeles.' The zeitgeist has changed. Do you change with it? I don't know, to be honest with you. Morally, I don't see why I should change my position because the fashion has changed."

TV appearances and radio broadcasts
Harris has appeared on the BBC satirical panel game Have I Got News for You in episode three of the first series in 1990, and in episode four of the second series a year later. In the first he appeared as a last-minute replacement for the politician Roy Hattersley. On 12 October 2007, he made a third appearance on the programme, 17 years, to the day, after his first appearance. Since the gap between his second and third appearance was nearly 16 years, Harris enjoyed the distinction of the longest gap between two successive appearances in the show's history until Eddie Izzard appeared on 22 April 2016, just under 20 years after his last appearance on Episode 5 of Series 11 (17 May 1996).

On 2 December 2010, Harris appeared on the radio programme Desert Island Discs, when he spoke about his childhood and his friendships with Tony Blair and Roman Polanski.

Harris appeared on the American PBS show Charlie Rose on 10 February 2012. Harris discussed his novel The Fear Index which he likened to a modern-day Gothic novel along the lines of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. Harris also discussed the adaptation of his novel, The Ghost that came out as the movie, The Ghost Writer directed by Roman Polanski.

Columnist
Harris was a columnist for The Sunday Times, but gave it up in 1997. He returned to journalism in 2001, writing for  The Daily Telegraph. He was named "Columnist of the Year" at the 2003 British Press Awards.

Personal life
Harris lives in a former vicarage in Kintbury, near Hungerford in Berkshire, with his wife, Gill Hornby, herself a writer and sister of best-selling novelist Nick Hornby. They have four children. Harris contributed a short story, "PMQ", to Hornby's 2000 collection Speaking with the Angel.

Formerly a donor to the Labour Party, he renounced his support for the party after the appointment of Guardian journalist Seumas Milne as its communications director by leader Jeremy Corbyn. He now supports the Liberal Democrats.

Works

Fiction
 Fatherland (1992)
 Enigma (1995)
 Archangel (1998)
 Pompeii (2003)
 Imperium (2006) (Vol 1 of the Cicero Trilogy)
 The Ghost (2007)
 Lustrum (2009) (Vol 2 of the Cicero Trilogy, retitled Conspirata for release in US and Italy)
 The Fear Index (2011)
 An Officer and a Spy (2013)
 Dictator (2015) (Vol 3 of the Cicero Trilogy)
 Conclave (2016)
 Munich (2017)
 The Second Sleep (2019)
 V2 (2020)
 Act of Oblivion (2022)
 Precipice (2024)

Short stories
 PMQ, short story in the collection Speaking with the Angel. London: Penguin, 2 November 2000

Screenplays
 The Ghost Writer (2010)
 An Officer and a Spy (2019)

Non-fiction
 A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret Story of Gas and Germ Warfare (with Jeremy Paxman). London: Chatto & Windus, March 1982
 Gotcha! The Government, the Media and the Falklands Crisis. London: Faber and Faber, January 1983
 The Making of Neil Kinnock. London: Faber and Faber, 17 September 1984
 Selling Hitler: The Story of the Hitler Diaries. London: Faber and Faber, 17 February 1986
 Good and Faithful Servant: The Unauthorized Biography of Bernard Ingham. London: Faber and Faber, December 1990

Awards and nominations

Honours
 He was awarded the Honorary degree of Doctor of Letters (D.Litt) by the University of Leicester on 22 July 2022.

References

Further reading

External links

Robert Harris official website
Robert Harris official Twitter
transcript of interview with Ramona Koval on The Book Show ABC Radio National 13 November 2007

1957 births
Living people
20th-century English male writers
20th-century English novelists
21st-century English male writers
21st-century English novelists
Alumni of Selwyn College, Cambridge
British alternative history writers
English historical novelists
English male journalists
English male novelists
English non-fiction writers
European Film Award for Best Screenwriter winners
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
Honorary Fellows of Selwyn College, Cambridge
Panorama (British TV programme)
People from Kintbury
Presidents of the Cambridge Union
Walter Scott Prize winners
Writers from Nottingham
Writers of historical fiction set in antiquity
Presidents of the Classical Association

Robert Harris (novelist)


The Springfield Model 1866 was the second iteration of the Allin-designed trapdoor breech-loading mechanism.  Originally developed as a means of converting rifle muskets to breechloaders, the Allin modification ultimately became the basis for the definitive Springfield Model 1873, the first breech-loading rifle adopted by the United States War Department for manufacture and widespread issue to U.S. troops.

The Model 1866 corrected problems encountered with the prototypical Springfield Model 1865, in particular a simplified and improved extractor and a superior .50 caliber centerfire cartridge (the Model 1865 used a .58 caliber rimfire cartridge with mediocre ballistics), among many other less significant changes.  It employed a robust version of the trapdoor breechblock design originated by Erskine S. Allin, Master Armorer of the Springfield Armory.

Approximately 25,000 .58 caliber Springfield Model 1863 rifled muskets were converted by Springfield Armory for use by U.S. troops, the barrels being relined and rifled to .50 caliber and the trapdoor breech system affixed.  The rifle was chambered for the powerful centerfire .50-70 Government cartridge (.50 caliber  bullet;  of black powder).  Though a significant improvement over the extractor of the Model 1865 Springfield Rifle, the Model 1866 extractor was still excessively complicated and the extractor spring was somewhat prone to breakage.  However, it is a misconception that a broken extractor disabled the weapon.  In the official 1867 government user booklet "Description and Rules for the Management of the Springfield Breech-Loading Rifle Musket, Model 1866", the following is stated regarding a broken extractor and/or ejector: "It should be understood that the ejector and friction springs are convenient rather than necessary, and that the piece is not necessarily disabled if one or both of them should break, for the shell can be easily removed by the fingers after being loosened by the extractor hook."  Furthermore, the cleaning rod of the rifle can be used quite effectively to remove a stuck case in an emergency.  Thus it is clear that this weapon is not as easily disabled as is sometimes believed.

The Model 1866 was issued to U.S. troops in 1867, and was a major factor in the Wagon Box Fight and the Hayfield Fight, along the Bozeman Trail in 1867. The rapid rate of fire that could be achieved disrupted the tactics of attacking Sioux and Cheyenne forces, who had faced muzzle-loading rifles during the Fetterman massacre only a few months before. The new rifles contributed decisively to the survival and success of severely outnumbered U.S. troops in these engagements.

See also
 Springfield rifle

References
 The Bozeman Trail: Historical Accounts of the Blazing of the Overland Routes, Volume II, by Grace Raymond Hebard, et al. digitized at https://books.google.com/books?id=Jc8BAAAAMAAJ – participant reports for Wagon Box Fight and Hayfield Fight.
 "The .58 and .50 Caliber Rifles and Carbines of the Springfield Armory" by Richard A. Hosmer, Published by North Cape Publications, May 2006

External links

Springfield firearms
Hinged breechblock rifles
Rifles of the United States
Guns of the American West

Springfield Model 1866


Christmas Around the World is Bradley Joseph's fourth album reaching NAV's top 100 radio playlist.

"In a thousand different ways, people join together every year to celebrate Christmas with their own unique customs and traditions.  Pianist Bradley Joseph has hand-picked songs from around the world and recreated them with his own unique style.  Each melody contains history and meaning that has endured for centuries."

Critical reception
In a review for Wind and Wire Magazine, Michael Debbage writes, "Jules Verne took his characters Around The World In Eighty Days.  However, musician Bradley Joseph takes us around the world in one play of this 51-minute-long CD. Partially a conceptual project, Joseph presents World Christmas melodies that have endured for centuries making this a unique Christmas project that allows you to enjoy it all year long."   While Debbage believes the concept clearly supports the continued "ambitious talents of this creative and warm musician", he does not think this album quite meets the high standard that is associated with Bradley Joseph, stating, "the concept is offset by a limited thin and sparse production", "...most evident via the upbeat 'Hark! The Herald Angels Sing' that includes "poor use of loops and drum machines".

Debbage does go on to say that Joseph's stronger arrangements are via the less traditional ventures evident via the exotic Mexican-rooted carol "Riu, Riu Ciu" and the self-penned "Far Away On Christmas Day".   "The latter shows influences of the fluid and flowing Bradley Joseph I have come to know and love", states Debbage.  The only other self-penned composition is "A Minnesota Snowfall" that reflects a more "naked bare-boned ballad approach".

Track listing
"Quickly on To Bethlehem" (Przybiezeli do Betlejem) – Poland
"God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen" – England
"Ríu, Ríu Chíu" – Mexico
"Sheep Fast Asleep" (Hitsuji wa Nemureri) – Japan
"I Am So Glad Each Christmas Eve" (Jeg er glad hver Julekveld) – Norway
"Far Away On Christmas Day" – USA
"Praise The Lord O My Soul" – Russia
"Silent Night" (Stille Nacht)  – Austria
"Joy To The World" – Germany
"He Is Born" (IL est ne) – France
"A Minnesota Snowfall" – USA
"Hark! The Herald Angels Sing" – Germany

(History of each song: Christmas_Traditions)

Personnel
All music arranged and performed by Bradley Joseph.
Art and Design – Tony Horning
Photography – Erin Horning

References

External links
Official Website
[ Christmas Around the World] at Allmusic
Christmas Around the World at Discogs
Christmas Around the World at Wind and Wire Magazine
 Christmas Around the World at Last.fm

Bradley Joseph albums
2000 Christmas albums
Christmas albums by American artists
New-age Christmas albums

Christmas Around the World


Samuel Delbert Clark  (1910–2003), known as S. D. Clark or Del Clark, was a Canadian sociologist.

Born on 24 February 1910 in Lloydminster, Alberta, Clark grew up near Streamstown, Alberta. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science and history in 1930 and a Master of Arts degree in 1931 from the University of Saskatchewan. His master's thesis was titled Settlement in Saskatchewan with Special Reference to Dry Farming. From 1932 to 1933, he studied at the London School of Economics. In 1935, he received a Master of Arts degree from McGill University and a Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1938 from the University of Toronto. His 1937 doctoral thesis was titled The Canadian Manufacturers' Association: A Political and Social Study. In 1943, he was awarded a fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.

In 1938, he started teaching at the University of Toronto in the department of political economy. Through his efforts, sociology gained respect from Canadian scholars who were initially skeptical of the discipline. On 1 July 1963, he led the founding of the sociology department and served as its first chair until 1969. He retired in 1976, but taught for years as a visiting professor at a number of places, including Dalhousie University, Lakehead University, and the University of Edinburgh.

As a sociologist, Clark became known for studies interpreting Canadian social development as a process of disorganization and re-organization on a series of economic frontiers. His scholarship won him acceptance at a time when Canadian academics were still skeptical of the new discipline of sociology. Under Clark's direction, a series on the Social Credit movement produced 10 monographs by Canadian scholars. In the 1960s, Clark's interest shifted to contemporary consequences of economic changes, especially suburban living and urban poverty.

Clark's publications – mainly books – include The Canadian Manufacturers Association (1939), The Social Development of Canada (1942), Church and Sect in Canada (1948), Movements of Political Protest in Canada (1959), The Developing Canadian Community (1962), The Suburban Society (1966), Canadian Society in Historical Perspective (1976), and The New Urban Poor (1978).

Clark was elected president of the Canadian Political Science Association in 1958 and honorary president of the Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association in 1967. In 1978, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada as "social historian of international repute and, as one of our most distinguished scholars". A fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, he also served as its president from 1975 to 1976. He was elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1976. He was awarded the J. B. Tyrrell Historical Medal in 1960. He received honorary degrees from the University of Calgary, Dalhousie University, Lakehead University, the University of Western Ontario, the University of Manitoba, and the University of Toronto.

In 1999, the Department of Sociology, University of Toronto instituted the endowed "S.D. Clark Chair" in his honour. The first holder of the chair was William Michelson, a scholar of housing and urban sociology. In 2006, he was succeeded by Barry Wellman, a scholar of the Internet, community, and social networks.

Clark was married to Rosemary Landry Clark for 63 years, until her death in February 2008. His children are Samuel Clark, a sociologist at the University of Western Ontario; W. Edmund Clark, CEO of the Toronto-Dominion Bank; and Ellen Tabisz, a social worker and adjunct professor at the University of Manitoba. Clark died on 18 September 2003.

Selected bibliography
 The Canadian Manufacturers Association (1939)
 The Social Development of Canada (1942)
 Church and Sect in Canada (1948)
 Movements of Political Protest in Canada (1959)
 The Developing Canadian Community (1962)
 The Suburban Society (1966)
 Canadian Society in Historical Perspective (1976)
 The New Urban Poor (1978)

See also

 Human ecology

References

Footnotes

Works cited

External links

 Samuel Delbert Clark archival papers held at the University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services

1910 births
2003 deaths
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Canadian sociologists
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
McGill University alumni
Officers of the Order of Canada
People from Lloydminster
Scientists from Alberta
Scientists from Ontario
University of Saskatchewan alumni
University of Toronto alumni
Academic staff of the University of Toronto
Writers from Alberta
Presidents of the Canadian Political Science Association
20th-century political scientists

S. D. Clark