The glottalic theory is that Proto-Indo-European had ejective or otherwise non-pulmonic stops, , instead of the plain voiced ones,  as hypothesized by the usual Proto-Indo-European phonological reconstructions.

A forerunner of the theory was proposed by the Danish linguist Holger Pedersen in 1951, but he did not involve glottalized sounds. While early linguists such as André Martinet and Morris Swadesh had seen the potential of substituting glottalic sounds for the supposed plain voiced stops of Proto-Indo-European, the proposal remained speculative until it was fully fleshed out simultaneously but independently in theories in 1973 by Paul Hopper of the United States and by Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov of the Soviet Union in the journal Phonetica in 1973.

The glottalic theory "enjoyed a not insignificant following for a time, but it has been rejected by most Indo-Europeanists." The most recent publication supporting it is Allan R. Bomhard (2008 and 2011) in a discussion of the controversial Nostratic hypothesis, and its most vocal proponents today are historical linguists at the University of Leiden. An earlier supporter, Theo Vennemann, has abandoned the glottalic theory because of incompatibilities between it and his theory of a Semitic substrate and loanwords in Germanic and Celtic languages (Vennemann 2006). However, Martin Kümmel (2012), although rejecting the ejective hypothesis as implausible, argues for a re-interpretation of these stops as implosive, comparable to the Leiden interpretation as pre-glottalized stops.

Traditional reconstruction

The traditional reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European includes the following stop consonants:

 is parenthesized because it is at best very rare and perhaps nonexistent.

Historically, the inventory was not introduced as an independent proposal, but it arose as a modification of an earlier, typologically more plausible theory.

In the original Proto-Indo-European proposal, there was a fourth phonation series, voiceless aspirated , which was assumed to exist on the basis of what is found in Sanskrit, which was then thought to be the most conservative Indo-European language. However, it was later realized that the series was unnecessary and that it was generally the result of a sequence of a tenuis stop () and one of the Proto-Indo-European laryngeal consonants: , , or . The aspirate series was removed, but the breathy voiced consonants remained.

Problems
There are several problems with the traditional reconstruction. Firstly, the rarity of  is odd from a typological point of view. If a single voiced stop is missing from a phoneme inventory (a 'gap'), it would normally be  that is missing (examples including Dutch, Ukrainian, Arabic, Thai, and Vietnamese); on the other hand, if a labial stop is missing, the voiceless  is the most likely candidate (examples including stages in the evolution of Irish and Japanese, and Arabic).

Secondly, there are few languages which have breathy voiced consonants but no voiceless aspirates and even fewer that simultaneously contrast breathy voice with full voice. Roman Jakobson has asserted that no such language is known; however, that is disputed by some linguists who oppose the theory. For example, Robert Blust showed that a system of voiceless, voiced and voiced aspirated (not murmured) stops, as postulated in the traditional reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European, exists in Kelabit, a language of the Sarawak highlands in Borneo. Others have observed, however, that the sounds in Kelabit are not actually murmured but voiceless with breathy release and so are not comparable to what is posited for Proto-Indo-European. In any event, the traditional reconstruction remains a typological oddity.

Thirdly, a longstanding but unexplained observation of Indo-Europeanists about the distribution of stops in word roots is that it had long been noted that certain combinations of consonants were not represented in Proto-Indo-European words in terms of the traditional system:
 No root contained a sequence of two plain voiced stops: there were no roots of the type , which reflects a common cross-linguistic constraint against roots with two similar stops.
 No root contained both a voiceless stop and a voiced aspirate: roots of the type  or  were not attested. As the result of a sound shift from Pre-Proto-Indo-European, roots of this type are attested as  and  instead.
 On the other hand, the plain voiced stops were compatible with either of the other two series:  or  were both possible.

The constraints on the phonological structure of the root cannot be explained in terms of a theory of unlimited assimilation or dissimilation since they display a radical difference in patterning between three sets of consonants, the stops, that ought to behave identically. Typologically, that is very odd.

Original glottalic proposal

The glottalic theory proposes different phonetic values for the stop inventory of Proto-Indo-European:

In his version of the glottalic theory, Hopper (1973) also proposed that the aspiration that had been assumed for the voiced stops  could be accounted for by a low-level phonetic feature known to phoneticians as "breathy voice". The proposal made it possible both to establish a system in which there was only one voiced series and to explain at the same time later developments in some Indo-European dialects that became Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit, which pointed to some kind of aspiration in the voiced series. Hopper also treated the traditional palatalized and plain velar dichotomy as a velar-uvular contrast.

Gamkrelidze and Ivanov (1973, 1995:5-70) have posited that both non-ejective series (traditional  and ) were fundamentally aspirated ( and , respectively) but had non-aspirated allophones ( and ). According to them, the non-aspirated forms occurred in roots with two non-ejectives because no more than one aspirate could be in the same root. To express the variability of aspiration, Gamkrelidze and Ivanov wrote it with a superscripted h: . Thus, an Indo-European  (in which  represents any non-ejective stop) might be realized as  (attested in Indic and Greek) or as  (attested in Latin). In contrast, traditional theory would trace a form attested as both  and  to an Indo-European . The advantage of the interpretation over the previous is circumventing the typological oddity of the language in having only voiced aspirates by identifying the voiceless non-aspirates of the traditional stop system () as voiceless aspirates (). Postulating the voiceless stops as aspirated finds support in helping to explain Grimm's Law, with these purported now-aspirated stops () evolving into Proto-Germanic . This would also be typologically similar to one of the more notable evolutions from Ancient to Modern Greek (with φ, θ, and χ respectively).

Consequences
The phonation system proposed by the glottalic theory is common among the world's languages. Moreover, the revised system explains a number of phonological peculiarities in the reconstructed system. The absence of a labial plain voiced stop  in the protolanguage now becomes an absence of a labial ejective , proportionally a rather more common state of affairs. The theory also provides a completely-coherent explanation to the patterning of the stop series in roots (Hopper 1973):
 In many languages that have glottalized consonants, there is a phonetic constraint against two such consonants in the same root. The constraint has been found in many languages of Africa, the Americas, and the Caucasus. In Akkadian, the constraint affected borrowed and inherited roots, and one of the two heterorganic emphatics undergoes dissimilation and appears as a simple (unmarked) consonant, which is known as Geers' law.
 If the "plain voiced stops" were not voiced, the "voiced aspirated stops" were the only voiced stops. The second constraint can accordingly be reformulated as: two nonglottalic stops must agree in voicing.
 Since the glottalic stops were outside the voiced/voiceless opposition, they were immune from the constraint on voicing agreement in (2).

Decem and Taihun
In 1981, Hopper proposed to divide all Indo-European languages into Decem and Taihun groups, according to the pronunciation of the numeral '10', by analogy with the Centum-Satem isogloss, which is based on the pronunciation of the numeral '100'. The Armenian, Germanic, Anatolian, and Tocharian subfamilies belong to the Taihun group because the numeral '10' begins with a voiceless t in them. All other Indo-European languages belong to the Decem group because the numeral 10 begins with a voiced d in them. The question then can be framed as which, if either, of the groups reflects the original state of things and which is an innovation.

Direct and indirect evidence

While the glottalic theory was originally motivated by typological argument, several proponents, in particular Frederik Kortlandt, have argued for traces of glottalization being found in a number of attested Indo-European languages or the assumption of glottalization explaining previously known phenomena, which lends the theory empirical support. (Similarly, the laryngeal theory was proposed before direct evidence in Anatolian was discovered.)

Among the Indo-Iranian languages, Sindhi reflects the non-aspirated voiced series unconditionally as implosives. Kortlandt also points out the distribution of voiced aspirates within Indo-Iranian: they are lacking from the Iranian languages and the Nuristani languages, two of the three accepted main branches of Indo-Aryan, and within the third, Indo-Aryan, also lacking from Kashmiri, which he suggests points to voiced aspirates being an innovation rather than a retention.

In Germanic, some Danish dialects have clusters of a glottal stop followed by a voiceless stop (vestjysk stød) which correspond with the Proto-Germanic voiceless stops, deriving from the allegedly-glottalized PIE series. Kortlandt also proposes word-final glottalization in English to be a retention and derives features such as preaspiration in Icelandic and Faroese and sporadically in Norwegian and certain instances of gemination in Swedish and High German from preglottalization as well.

In both Latin (Lachmann's law) and Balto-Slavic (Winter's law), vowels are lengthened before a "voiced" consonant. It is the same behaviour that vowels exhibit before Proto-Indo-European laryngeals, which are assumed to have included a glottal stop. It may be that the glottalic consonants were preglottalized or that they were ejectives that became preglottalized in Italic and Balto-Slavic before losing their glottalization and becoming voiced. It is very common in the world's languages for glottal stops to drop and lengthen preceding vowels. In Quileute, for example, the sequences , , and , as found in ak'a ~ a'k'a ~ āk'a, are allophones in free variation.

In Balto-Slavic, glottalization is also directly attested, in the broken tone of Latvian and Žemaitian.

Dialects of Armenian also show glottalization. It has been argued to be influence from the other Caucasian languages, but Kortlandt argues glottalization cannot be considered a modern innovation and must be reconstructed with a wider dialectal distribution for older stages of Armenian.

Objections
The primary objection to the theory is the alleged difficulty in explaining how the sound systems of the attested dialects were derived from a parent language in the above form. If the parent language had a typologically unusual system like the traditional , it might be expected to collapse into more typical systems, possibly with different solutions in the various daughter languages, which is what one finds. For example, Indo-Aryan added an unvoiced aspirate series () and gained an element of symmetry; Greek and Italic devoiced the murmured series to a more common aspirate series ( to ); Iranian, Celtic and Balto-Slavic deaspirated the murmured series to modal voice ( to ) and Germanic and Armenian chain-shifted all three series ( > ). In each case, the attested system represents a change that could be expected from the proposed parent. If the system were typologically common, as proposed by the glottalic theory, it might be expected to be stable and so be preserved in at least some of the daughter languages, which is not the case: no daughter language preserves ejective sounds in places that the theory postulates them. Its proponents respond that if Proto-Indo-European did not have true ejectives but some less stable kind of glottalic consonant, their loss would be more understandable, but that undercuts many of the original motivations of the glottalic theory, which are based on ejectives (rather than glottalized consonants) and on the idea of a typologically natural (and so stable) system. Regardless, there are languages in which ejective consonants have voiced allophones, such as Blin and Kw'adza, which has been suggested as an "empirical precedent" for the glottalic theory.

The typological underpinnings of the glottalic theory itself have also been questioned, such as in 1997 by Martínez as well as in 2002-3 by Barrack.

Additionally, if traces of glottalic stops can be found in separate branches such as Italic and Indo-Iranian, the change of  to  must have occurred independently in each branch after their separation from Proto-Indo-European. Taking them as identical but independent innovations would, according to traditional models of sound change, be an astonishing coincidence, which most linguists would find very hard to believe because ejectives tend to be quite stable diachronically. However, it cannot be assumed that Proto-Indo-European was a uniform language, and presumably, a putative shift from ejective to voiced stops was already present as variation at an early stage. Kortlandt also asserts that the change from aspirated to plain voiced stops, which is likewise required as an independent change in numerous Indo-European branches under the traditional model, is not attested elsewhere and is typologically suspect. (However, the same change has been observed to have taken place independently numerous times in the Indic languages.)

A compromise viewpoint would be to see the original formulation of glottalic theory, with ejective stops, as representing an earlier stage in the history of Proto-Indo-European, which would have undergone a period of internal evolution into a stage featuring unstable voiced glottalized stops, or even into the similarly unstable traditional system, before it branched out into the daughter languages. That would explain the root restrictions in Proto-Indo-European, the near-universal loss of glottalic consonants in the daughter languages and the lack of  in the traditional system, while at the same time explaining evidence supporting the traditional system.

A scenario of glottalic framework in pre-Proto-Indo-European, although possible, is at present unprovable by the methods of historical linguistics because of the uncertainty concerning the possibility of other languages or language families being related to Proto-Indo-European, which might be used as corroborating evidence. In practical terms, it is irrelevant for the traditional reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European that describes only its latest stage (the so-called "Late Proto-Indo-European"). However, Kortlandt suggests that voiced aspirate was probably not in Indo-European before the division into the branches.

In a broad diachronic and synchronic study about sound changes involving ejectives, Fallon argues that the proposed shift from ejective stops to voiced stops—which according to the ejective model of Proto-Indo-European consonantism must have occurred in most branches of IE—is not in conflict with empirical data in other language families.

Armenian evidence
The oldest stratum of Iranian loanwords to Armenian demand consonant shifts from voiced to voiceless, which are not possible in a glottalic theory framework in which they were voiceless to begin with. Compare:
 Iran. *ardzata- > Old Armenian arcatʿ "silver" (also related to Latin argentum, from Italo-Celtic, also voiced)
The same argument is valid for early Celtic borrowings into Proto-Germanic, such as Proto-Celtic *rīg- borrowed as Proto-Germanic *rīk-.

Additional evidence from Armenian comes in the form of Adjarian's law: in certain Armenian dialects, initial-syllable vowels are fronted after consonants reflecting the inherited (PIE) voiced aspirates. The conditioning is not a synchronic process but reflects the quality of the original prevocalic consonant. Andrew Garrett argues that such a sound change would be most cogently explained if the triggering consonants were, indeed, voiced aspirates (as they still are in some Armenian dialects) and not plain voiced stops. Since voiced aspirates would then have to be reconstructed for Proto-Armenian, only Germanic could be claimed to be archaic with respect to the traditional voiced aspirate series in the traditional glottalic theory framework.

Revised proposals
One objection that has been raised against the glottalic theory is that the voiced stops are voiceless in some daughter languages: "unvoiced" in Tocharian and Anatolian and aspirates (later fricatives) in Greek and Italic. Thus, some more recent versions of the theory have no voiced consonants or treat voicing as non-distinctive. For example, Beekes describes the traditional voiced series as pre-glottalized instead of ejective. That is based on the "voiced" series triggering length in preceding vowels in daughter languages, the glottalic closure before the stop acting in a manner akin to the laryngeals. That analysis results in the following phoneme inventory:

Martin Kümmel similarly proposes, based on observations from diachronic typology, that the consonants traditionally reconstructed as voiced stops were really implosive consonants, and the consonants traditionally reconstructed as aspirated stops were originally plain voiced stops, agreeing with a proposal by Michael Weiss that typologically compares the development of the stop system of the Tày language (Cao Bằng Province, Vietnam). Kümmel points out that the pre-glottalized lenis stops proposed by Kortlandt and also Beekes can, among other things, be interpreted as voiceless implosive stops; however, Kümmel does reconstruct the stops traditionally reconstructed as voiced as truly voiced.

However, this implosive system is a typological oddity; lacking [ɓ] which is the easiest to pronounce. In other words, Kümmel has circled back to an exoticized version of one of the secondary characteristics of the traditional model the original glottalic theorists had objected to. Nevertheless, proponents of a revised model like Weiss (2009) acknowledge the rarity of bilabial implosives, suggesting that they became *w before consonants, citing the strongest reconstructed roots containing *b (from pre-PIE [ɓ]) were pre-vocalic like *bel- "strong" and *bak- "stick" in contrast to the preponderence of PIE *wr-, *wl-. This ɓ > w sound change is attested in Proto-Tai to Longsheng in addition to the similar PT ɓ > v in Yuanyang and Menglian. Alternatively, Weiss (2009) suggests that the implosive series could instead be nonexplosives, found in 20% of the world's languages like in Ikwere.

Phonation alternative
Another alternative to the glottalic theory proposed by James Clackson bases the contrast on phonation. Observing that the traditional voiced aspirated series is preserved in languages like Sanskrit not as true voiced aspirates but as voiced consonants with breathy or murmured voice, Clackson suggests the contrast between voiceless, voiced and voiced aspirates could be reframed as stops conditioned by three phonations: voiceless, creaky or stiff voice, and breathy voice. That, he argues, is typologically more common than voiced aspirates without voiceless counterparts:

Schirru has also suggested that the voiced aspirated stops could be better analyzed as having the feature [+slack vocal folds] or [−stiff vocal folds]:

Frederik Kortlandt
As mentioned above in "Direct and indirect evidence", Frederik Kortlandt in particular has argued for these traces of glottalization being found in a number of attested Indo-European languages or the assumption of glottalization explaining previously known phenomena, which lends the theory empirical support:

 Direct
 Sindhi reflects the non-aspirated voiced series unconditionally as implosives.
 In Germanic, some Danish dialects have clusters of a glottal stop followed by a voiceless stop (vestjysk stød) which correspond with the Proto-Germanic voiceless stops, deriving from the allegedly-glottalized PIE series.
 In Balto-Slavic, glottalization is also directly attested, in the broken tone of Latvian and Žemaitian.
 Potentially word-final glottalization in English
 Dialects of Armenian also show glottalization, having inherited it from Classical Armenian.
 Indirect
 In both Latin (Lachmann's law) and Balto-Slavic (Winter's law), vowels are lengthened before a "voiced" consonant.
 features such as preaspiration in Icelandic and Faroese and sporadically in Norwegian and certain instances of gemination in Swedish and High German

Problems
Arguably, the minority status of most of the languages which provide the allegedly-certain direct evidence for the theory may be a rather large problem. Also, it is somewhat disputed that either Lachmann's law or Winter's law is real though this dispute is a result of assuming no glottalization in Proto-Indo-European. If Proto-Indo-European once showed glottalization, this circumvents the dispute by not requiring the assumption that we are dealing with an example of a sound law that affects deep phonological structure. Instead, we are dealing with an example of a cross-linguistically common allophonic variation like the ~~ shown in Quileute. However, it still remains that allegedly-certain direct evidence is absent from any majority Indo-European language except Latvian and two pieces of indirect evidence; the operation of "Lachmann's law" and "Winter's law", have become obscured by subsequent phonological developments in Romance and Balto-Slavic.

Classical Armenian
Classical Armenian is notable to this discussion because, as mentioned above in "Direct and indirect evidence", it has been argued to be influence from the other Caucasian languages that accounts for dialects of Armenian also showing glottalization, having inherited it from Classical Armenian. But if a part of the Caucasus is accepted as a part of the Proto-Indo-European homeland, this means the Caucasian influence was present before Proto-Armenian diverged from Proto-Indo-European in an eastern dialect which would have been spoken near the Caucasus if not within the Caucasus itself. The evidence from comparison of attested Indo-European and Caucasian languages points to a borrowing of phonemes, but few, if any, obvious roots, from Caucasian languages. The question then becomes what quality these borrowed phonemes had. The most likely candidate is the series of ejective stops that Kartvelian, Northeast Caucasian and Northwest Caucasian share because vowels are already sufficiently accounted for internally and Proto-Indo-European had no cross-linguistically rare pulmonic consonants that it would have had to borrow, the separation of the traditional murmured series being just as likely to be an allophonic variation that became phonemic. There is direct evidence for the traditional murmured series originating as an allophonic variation in the behavior of the voiceless stops in English and German, where they emerge as aspriates except after /s/ and especially to only word-initially. If, following Gamkrelidze and Ivanov and Hopper, aspiration is an allophonic variation of the stops, it makes sense to have the stops traditionially analyzed as plain voiced stops as glottalic, which they do. The series they posit is a series of ejective stops like it would be most geographically logical to assume given the aforementioned overlap between the Proto-Indo-European homeland and the Caucasus. Kortlandt follows this proposal, but also follows more recent versions of the theory in having no voiced consonants or treating voicing as non-distinctive, proposing that the pulmonic stops had phonemic length like vowels had:

It seems paradoxical for Kortlandt to posit that, on the one hand, there are daughter languages of Proto-Indo-European where certain instances of gemination are indirect evidence of former instances of glottalization, and on the other hand, gemination was already phonemic in Proto-Indo-European. The solution to this seeming paradox is that Kortlandt is describing a stage of Proto-Indo-European after an original allophonic variation between glottalic and geminated pulmonic stops became phonemic. The motivation for this idea is that if attested languages commonly show a Vʔ~V: allophonic variation, there is no valid reason to dismiss a C'/Cʔ~C: allophonic variation as impossible. Therefore, if a C'/Cʔ~C: allophonic variation is possible, Kortlandt interprets the traditional voiced series as ejectives and the traditional murmured series is just as likely to be an allophonic variation that became phonemic, Kortlandt is reversing the roles of the geminated and plain stops. Furthermore, if Kortlandt is reversing the roles of the geminated and plain stops, one gets a model fitting with his support of the Indo-Uralic hypothesis, which unites Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Uralic, which only had voiceless stops. The Indo-Uralic hypothesis, if proven correct, lends support to a Caucasian part of the Proto-Indo-European homeland by the fact of the Uralic languages being named for their presumed homeland in the Ural Mountains. The reason for this is that the mountain-dwelling Proto-Uralic people who would have migrated to what is presumed to have been the Proto-Indo-European homeland would have found the Caucasus Mountains a comfortable place to resettle, being similar to their home. This resettlement brought the Proto-Uralic people into contact with Proto-Caucasian languages, from which they borrowed ejectives, as allophones of which they subsequently innovated the geminated pulmonic stops. As this allophonic variation became phonemic, * became unproductive as a phoneme and most of its original occurrences shifted to *p:, leaving the gap shown in reconstructions of Proto-Indo-European.

Voiced consonants
Because Kortlandt reconstructs a Proto-Indo-European without voiced stops, he needs an account of how the voiced stops arose in the daughter languages. For this account, he cites André-Georges Haudricourt's Les mutations consonantiques (occlusives) en indo-européen as a cross-reference for "the typologically normal sequence of developments t > t' > 'd > d > dʰ > tʰ, also t > d > t > tʰ". This is the same as the compromise viewpoint to see the original formulation of glottalic theory, with ejective stops, as representing an earlier stage in the history of Proto-Indo-European, which would have undergone a period of internal evolution into a stage featuring unstable voiced glottalized stops before it branched out into the daughter languages. However, this reveals a hidden problem with Kortlandt suggesting that "voiced aspirate was probably not in Indo-European before the division into the branches" in suggesting that the absence of direct evidence for voiced aspirate losing its aspiration in "all languages except Indic, Greek and Italic" outside of Kümmel's monograph proves that it never happened because voiced aspirate probably never existed in these languages in the first place. Phonological shifts can reverse, especially after they become non-productive, which Icelandic shows much direct evidence of. The argument also contradicts Kortlandt's own supposition that the t' > 'd sound change that occurred "except in Anatolian and Tocharian" reversed in Armenian, not to mention that the voiced "stops" shifted from the traditional voiced aspirates in Proto-Germanic regularly alternated with fricatives. If voiced aspirates ever existed at an ancient stage of any Indo-European languages other than Indic, they could have easily become fricatives either phonemically, as in Italic and ultimately in Greek, or allophonically, as in Germanic. This direct evidence for the ease of occurrence for such a development renders Kortlandt's view that the two voiced series must have, however partially, collapsed back into one, in Albanian and Iranian something of a paradox. The paradox goes even deeper, many apparent instances of preglottalized stops in Kortlandt's view of late Proto-Indo-European may have been the result of a metathesis 'V/ʔV→V'/Vʔ equally to C'/Cʔ→'C/ʔC. The solution to this paradox is that the Proto-Indo-European glottalic series was never fully stable ejectives, first splitting into ejectives and geminates and then allophonically varying rather freely as ejectives and preglottalized stops.

Lexical accent

Since the traditional reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European includes one stress per word, generally on the root or stem of the word, and the non-representation of voiced-voiced and voiceless-voiced aspirated stop sequences in the reconstructed roots is not a real problem; modern reconstructions including glottalic phonemes are making an unnecessarily strong assumption. If Proto-Indo-European words can only have one stress each and in many languages that have glottalized consonants there is a phonetic constraint against two such consonants in the same root, the Proto-Indo-European glottalic consonants need only have been allophones conditioned by the lexical accent. Since Proto-Indo-European had distinct syllable weights, a stressed short syllable nucleus may have glottalized its onset while a long one (pre)glottalized its coda, at least in polysyllabic words:

Notes

References

General References

 Charles M. Barrack, The Glottalic Theory revisited: a negative appraisal, Indogermanische Forschungen, 2002, pp. 76–95.
 Charles M. Barrack, The Glottalic Theory revisited: a negative appraisal. Part II: The typological fallacy underlying the Glottalic Theory, Indogermanische Forschungen, 2003, pp. 1–16.
 Robert S. P. Beekes, Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. 2nd edition revised and corrected by Michiel de Vaan, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2011.
 Allan R. Bomhard, Reconstructing Proto-Nostratic: Comparative Phonology, Morphology, and Vocabulary. 2 vols. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2008.
 Allan R. Bomhard, The Nostratic Hypothesis in 2011: Trends and Issues. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man, 2011.
 James Clackson, Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction (Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 40–49.
 Anthony Fox, Linguistic Reconstruction. Oxford University Press, 1995.
 Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav V. Ivanov, "Sprachtypologie und die Rekonstruktion der gemeinindogermanischen Verschlüsse". Phonetica 27 (1973): 150–156.
 Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav V. Ivanov, Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans, translated by Johanna Nichols, 2 volumes. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995.
 Paul J. Hopper, Glottalized and murmured occlusives in Indo-European. Glossa 7:2:1973, 141-166.
 .
 Theo Vennemann, Grimm's Law and loanwords. Transactions of the Philological Society 104:2:2006, 129-166.

Indo-European linguistics

Glottalic theory


The Open Window, also known as Open Window, Collioure, is a painting by Henri Matisse. The work, an oil on canvas, was painted in 1905 and exhibited at the Salon d'Automne in Paris the same year. It was bequeathed in 1998 by the estate of Mrs. John Hay Whitney to the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.

It is an example of the Fauvist style of painting that Matisse became famous for, and for which he was a leader, roughly between the years 1900–1909. The Open Window depicts the view out the window of his apartment in Collioure, on the Southern coast of France. We see sailboats on the water, as viewed from Matisse's hotel window overlooking the harbour. He returned frequently to the theme of the open window in Paris and especially during the years in Nice and Etretat, and in his final years, particularly during the late 1940s.

Henri Matisse loved painting open windows and painted them throughout his career.

See also
 List of works by Henri Matisse
Window at Tangier

References

External links
Image of Open Window, Collioure, retrieved December 20, 2016

1905 paintings
Paintings by Henri Matisse
Collections of the National Gallery of Art
Ships in art
Fauvism

The Open Window (Matisse)


Máel Snechtai mac Lulaich (died 1085) was the ruler of Moray, and the son of Lulach, King of Scotland.

He is called on his death notice in the Annals of Ulster, "Máel Snechtai m. Lulaigh ri Muireb" (="Máel Snechtai, Lulach's son, King of Moray"), which is a significant terminological development, since previously the titles for the ruler of Moray had either been "King of Scotland" or "Mormaer." The title is repeated for his successor, Óengus (if indeed the latter were his successor).

Perhaps then the events of Máel Snechtai's death caused some kind of identity disassociation between the Men of Moray and the Men of Scotland. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 1078, reports that "In this year Máel Coluim seized the mother of Máel Snechtai ...and all his treasures, and his cattle; and he himself escaped [only] with difficulty." The ... represents a lacuna in the text one line long; but it is clear that Máel Snechtai was defeated by King Máel Coluim III in some kind of conflict. Grant's suggestion that  Máel Snechtai subsequently retired to a monastery is based only on textual innuendo, and is made unlikely by the fact that he was called "King of Moray" on his death. Máel Snechtai, as the son of King Lulach, undoubtedly perceived himself as the rightful king of Scotland, and the already noted conflict with Máel Coluim III strongly suggests that he pursued his claim.

His death date is based on the year given by the Annals of Ulster, s.a. 1085.

References

Sources
 Anderson, Alan Orr, Early Sources of Scottish History: AD 500-1286, 2 Vols, (Edinburgh, 1922)
 Anderson, Alan Orr, Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers: AD 500-1286, (London, 1908), republished, Marjorie Anderson (ed.) (Stamford, 1991)
 Grant, Alexander, "The Province of Ross and the Kingdom of Alba", in E.J. Cowan and R.Andrew McDonald (eds.), Alba: Celtic Scotland in the Medieval Era, (Edinburgh, 2000)

External links
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
 Annals of Ulster
 Annals of Tigernach
 Book of Deer

1085 deaths
Mael Snecthai
Year of birth unknown
Mormaers of Moray
Gaels
11th-century mormaers
Sons of kings

Máel Snechtai


Past tense is a verb form which is marked by time (tense).

The past tense is used for actions in a time which has already happened.  In order to explain and understand past tense, it is useful to imagine time as a line on which the past, the present tense and the future tense are positioned.

Words in English have several tenses, including many common past tenses. The two that are used the most are the simple past tense and the perfect tense

Simple past tense
The simple past tense is used for action in past time. It usually uses for story telling or there is in narrative and recount text.

Different verbs change in different ways to make the past tense. The most common way is by ending with ed" or we usually says REGULAR VERB.
Many other verbs are irregular, this means that there is no pattern and no easy way to know how the verb changes.

If we want to make a past sentence, here are the formula:

~Verbal sentence~

(+) S + V2 (past verb)

(- ) S + did not / didn't + V1 (present verb)

(?) Did + S + V1 (present verb)

~ Nominal sentence~

(+) S + to be ( was / were) +                                                  Noun/adjective/adverb

(- ) S + to be (was / were) + not  +Noun/adjective/adverb

(?) To be (was / were) + Noun/adjective/adverb

Example:
(+) I went to bandung last week

(- ) I did not go to bandung last week

(? ) did you go to bandung last week?

(+) she was happy this morning

(- ) she was not happy this morning

(?) Was she happy this morning?

 Past tense classified into four types

 Past Indefinite Tense
 Past Progressive Tense
 Past Perfect Tense
 Past Perfect Progressive Tense

Perfect tense
The Perfect is about completion: actions which are completed. The tense refers to a period in the past. In English the Perfect is made by have + -ed or variations of that form.

Present perfect refers to a time which begins in the past and continues to the present. Examples: I have lived in  Dover since my birth. She has discovered it. She has done it now! We have seen the movies since 2011Past perfect, or pluperfect, refers to an action before another action in the past. Examples: She had not been home since her parents divorced. I had discovered that he had taken my key. She had begged for the job before the interview.
Present continuous progressive perfect: She has been discovering that grammar is not so easy as she thought..., They have been lecturing all day long
Past continuous progressive perfect: They had been finding it difficult.
Future perfect refers to an event before a future event. Examples: She will have finished her report for the next board meeting. By now she will have discovered the key.Future continuous progressive perfect: I'm sure she will have been looking for that. It will have been raining before we get to the party''

Verb endings: -ed = finished; -ing = continuing

References

Grammar

Past tense


Isaac N. Carleton (10 June 1832 – 8 August 1902) was an educator.  He taught at Phillips Academy and was the principal of State Normal School in New Britain, Connecticut for twelve years. He was the founder of Carleton School in Massachusetts.  He was the president of the American Institute of Instruction for two years.

Youth and education

Carleton was born in Bradford (now part of Haverhill), Massachusetts on 10 June 1832 to Isaac Carleton and Mary Richardson Carleton. He attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts from 1852 to 1855. He completed his BA at Dartmouth College in 1859.

Family
Carleton married Laura Tenney Carleton 8 August 1860 in Hartford, Vermont.  They raised four children, Grace, Clara, Walter and Theodore.  Grace married Forrest F. Dryden, son of New Jersey Senator John F. Dryden.  Walter was one of the three founding directors of NEC Corporation, the first Japanese joint venture with foreign capital.  Theodore attended Yale University (Day, pg 251).

Career

He went back to Phillips Academy to teach Latin and Greek from 1859 to 1863. He was principal at Peabody High School in 1864.  In 1865, Carleton was an associate principal for a young ladies' seminary in Lexington, Massachusetts.  He was the acting principal of the State Normal School (now Central Connecticut State University) in New Britain, Connecticut during the summer session of 1866. He was the principal of a young ladies' home and day school in Medford) Massachusetts in 1866 to 1869. This would be later known as Carleton School.

He returned to the New Britain State Normal School as its fifth principal in 1869.  During his years there, the school was reported to have recovered the reputation that had been jeopardized by its closure in the 1867 Connecticut State General Assembly.  He received an honorary MA from Yale University in 1872. He was selected as President of the American Institute of Instruction in 1878.  He served at the New Britain Normal School until 1881.  He returned to Bradford, Massachusetts as principal of Carleton School from 1884 to 1901. His school earned an endorsement from Phillips Academy at Andover. He received an honorary Ph.D. from Dartmouth in 1889.

Carleton died 8 August 1902, in Haverhill, Massachusetts.

Carleton School
Carleton School was a college preparatory boarding school in Massachusetts. There are three notable periods that defined Carleton School; it was originally a girls' school, later was a boys' school, and became a military school at the end of its operation.  In 1868, the school was located in Medford, Massachusetts.  It was called I.N. Carleton's Home and Day School for Young Ladies.

In 1869, Carleton set aside running a private school and went to the New Britain State Normal School (now Central Connecticut State University) in New Britain, Connecticut as its fifth principal.  He served there until 1881.

In 1884, Carleton started a new private school.  It was referred to as I.N. Carleton's Home and Day School for Boys in 1886, located in Bradford Massachusetts. This was the longest and most defining period in its operation as a boys' preparatory school.  By 1896, it was simply called Carleton School.  The last period of the school's existence was possibly the most dramatic change.

It was renamed The Carleton Military School in approximately 1901.  Carleton still held the position of principal, but a Major Baker ran the military instruction, having previously been a military instructor at Harvard University summer school.  Carleton died 8 August 1902, two months after the expected end of the school year.  The location of the school continued to be used as a boarding house, called the Carleton House for Boys and Young Men in approximately 1925.  The school buildings still stand near the corner of Chadwick and South Main Street in Haverhill, and are used as apartments.

American Institute of Instruction

Upon his selection as its president, the National Journal of Education was quoted: "In the election of Prof. I. N. Carleton, principal of the State Normal School of New Britain as President of the American Institute of instruction, a wise choice has been made.  It is a deserved honor to the Normal school fraternity of New England, as well as a compliment to Mr. Carleton's ability as an educator.  He is energetic and enthusiastic, and will spare no efforts to make his administration useful and successful."

References
I. N. Carleton, The Carleton School for Young Men and Boys, Lawrence MA: James Ward Jr., 1894.
Herbert E. Fowler, A Century of Teacher Education in Connecticut, New Britain CT: Teachers College of Connecticut, 1949.
Catalogue of The Officers and Graduates of Yale University In New Haven Connecticut 1701–1924, page 591, (1924).
Dartmouth College and Associated Schools General Catalogue, 1760–1940.
Peabody High School, Peabody High School Committee Report, April 1864.
Peabody High School, Peabody High School Committee Report, April 1865.
Mrs. H. D. Carleton (1997), Carleton Family Album.
The Dartmouth, Page 40, January (day unknown) 1868.
The Dartmouth, Page 45, September 19, 1878.
The Dartmouth, Page 215, January 30, 1880.
The Dartmouth, Page 86, October 26, 1883.
The Dartmouth, Page 16, September 26, 1902.
Clarence S. Day Jr., Decennial Record of the Class of 1896 Yale College, New York NY: De Vinne Press, 1907.
Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, Universities and Their Sons, Boston MA: R. Herndon Co, 1900.

External links
Phillips Academy Andover
Peabody Public Schools
Central Connecticut State University

American educators
Phillips Academy alumni
Dartmouth College alumni
1832 births
1902 deaths
People from Bradford, Massachusetts

Isaac N. Carleton


Zombie Bums from Uranus is a novel by Australian children's author Andy Griffiths, and is the second part of Griffiths' Bum trilogy. The book was released in 2003 worldwide, however, the United States version was titled Zombie Butts from Uranus as opposed to Zombie Bums from Uranus.

Plot synopsis
The story opens with protagonist from the previous story The Day My Bum Went Psycho, Zack Freeman skiing down a "mountain", whilst repeatedly arguing with his bum. After defying death many times, Zack falls to his death off a waterfall, and then realises that he is actually in Silas Sterne's state-of-the-art bum fighting simulator. After another in what is revealed to be a long series of ear-bashings by The Kicker, Zack gives up bum-fighting and leaves the academy.

Meanwhile, up near Uranus, James and Judi Freeman have just collected a bum from Uranus, after they were found to be what made up the rings. Back on earth, Zack finds his hometown completely flattened from a Bum-blitz, excluding his Gran's house to his great relief.

References

2003 Australian novels
Novels by Andy Griffiths
Australian children's novels
Bum Trilogy
Fiction set on Uranus
Zombie novels
COOL Award-winning works
2003 children's books
Pan Books books

Zombie Bums from Uranus


Jayanta Bhatta ( CE –  CE) was a Kashmiri poet, teacher, logician, and an advisor to King Sankaravarman. He was a philosopher of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy. He authored three works on Nyāya philosophy: one of which is not known, an allegorical drama, and a commentary on Pāṇinian grammar.

Early life
Jayanta was born into a wealthy Brahmin family. He was a child prodigy, composing a commentary to Panini's Ashtadhyayi and earned the name Nava-Vrittikara, or new commentator. Later in life, he mastered various shastra and agama, distinguished himself in scholarly debates, and passed his knowledge on to his students.

Jayanta's birth year, lifespan, dates of his written works are a subject of scholarly debates. His philosophical work Nyāyamañjarī as well as his drama Āgamaḍambara, refer to King Sankaravarman (883 – 902 CE) as a contemporary.

Kādambarikathāsāra, a work written by Jayanta's son Abhinanda, mentions that Jayanta's great grandfather was a minister of king Lalitaditya Muktapida, who was a ruler of the Karkota dynasty in the second quarter of the 8th century CE. Several attempts to specify his life span are based on references to his work by other authors and references to contemporary events and individuals in his work. They range from the middle of the 8th century CE to the start of the 10th century CE. However, most reliable estimates place him around the 9th century CE.

Lineage
Kādambarikathāsāra provides some information about Jayanta's lineage. It says his ancestor Shakti was a Brahmin and a direct patriline descendant of Bharadwaja gotra from the Gauda region, who lived in Darvabhisara, near the border of Kashmir. His son was named Mitra, and his grandson was Saktisvämin (Shaktisvamin).

Saktisvämin, the great grandfather of Jayanta, was a minister of Kashmir Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota dynasty ( – 761 CE). Jayanta mentions in Nyayamanjari that his grandfather obtained a village named Gauramulaka, believed to have been located north of the modern town of Rajouri, from King Muktapida. Saktisvämin had a son named Chandra, Jayanta's father.

Career
The Agamadambara provides details about Bhatta's political career. He was an adviser to Kashmiri king Sankaravarman. In his position, he played a role in banishing the Nilambara (Black-Blankets) sect from Kashmir. Commenting on Tantric literature, he argued that the Nilambara sect promoted "immoral teachings". Jayanta claimed the Nilambara "wear simply one blue garment, and then as a group engages in unconstrained public sex". He argued that this practice was "unnecessary" and threatened the fundamental values of society.

Works

Philosophical works
Jayanta wrote three known treatises on Nyaya philosophy, of which two survive. His first, the Nyayamanjari (A Cluster of Flowers of the Nyaya tree) is a commentary on Nyaya-aphorisms that serves as a critique of the theories of rival philosophical systems like the Mīmānsādarśana.

His second, the Nyayakalika (A Bud of the Nyaya tree) is an overview of the basic tenets of the Nyāya Sūtras, a foundational text of the Nyaya school.  His third work, Pallava (probably Nyayapallava, A Twig of the Nyaya tree) though quoted in Syadvadaratnakara, has not survived.

Jayanta mentions in Nyayamanjari that he wrote this treatise during his confinement in a forest by the king. This treatise is unique because it is an independent work, not a commentary of an earlier work.

Secondly, according to Jayanta, the purpose of Nyaya is to protect the authority of the Vedas, Hinduism's oldest scriptures, whereas earlier Nyaya scholars considered Nyaya to be an Anvikshiki (scientific study) providing true knowledge about the real nature of the objects of cognition.

Literary works
His major literary work is , a Sanskrit play in four acts. The hero of his quasi-philosophical drama is a young graduate of the Mimansa school, who wants to defeat all opponents of Vedas through reasoning.

Philosophy

God
The discussion of God's Existence is found in part 1 of Nyaya Manjuri. Jayanta adheres to a realist viewpoint of God and the world and defends the possibility of reasoned arguments favoring God as a realistic and adequate cause of the world.

Criticism of Lokayats
Jayanta Bhatta criticized the Lokayata school of philosophy for not developing a Lokayata culture. He said, "The Lokayata is not an Agama. viz. not a guide to cultural living, not a system of do's and don'ts; hence it is nothing but irresponsible wrangling."

English translations

The Clay Sanskrit Library published a translation of  by Csaba Dezső under the title of Much Ado about Religion.

See also
 Nyaya

References

 9th-century Indian philosophers
 Kashmiri people
 Kashmiri writers
 Poets from Jammu and Kashmir
 9th-century Indian writers
 Indian logicians
 Nyaya
 Year of death unknown
 Year of birth unknown
 Indian male writers
 Scholars from Jammu and Kashmir
Sanskrit dramatists and playwrights

Jayanta Bhatta


Alexander Nikolaevich Galchenyuk (born July 28, 1967) is a Belarusian former professional ice hockey player who participated in the 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001 IIHF World Championships as a member of the Belarus men's national ice hockey team.

Galchenyuk was employed as an assistant coach with the Sarnia Sting of the Ontario Hockey League where he coached his son, Alex Galchenyuk, who was selected by the Montreal Canadiens third overall at the 2012 NHL Entry Draft.

Professional career
Galchenyuk began playing top-level professional hockey with HC Dynamo Moscow during the 1985-86 season, staying with this team until the end of the 1991-92 season. He then travelled to the United States where he played the 1992–93 and 1993-94 seasons with the Milwaukee Admirals in the International Hockey League (IHL). Galchenyuk started the 1995-96 season in Germany playing elite level hockey in the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL) with Eisbären Berlin, but returned to the United States before the season's end to join the Madison Monsters of the Colonial Hockey League (CoHL). Midway through the season, he was signed by the Michigan K-Wings of the IHL, where he remained for the following season and a half.

Galchenyuk returned to Europe for the 1998–99 season where he played nine more seasons in various the European leagues including the Russian Superleague where he played with Avangard Omsk and SKA Saint Petersburg. After spending 21 seasons as a professional ice hockey player, Galchenyuk retired following the 2006-07 season.

International play

Soviet Union
At the age of 19, Galchenyuk was selected to represent the Soviet Union at the 1987 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships where he played 13 games and scored 5 points before the Soviet team was disqualified from the tournament following an on-ice brawl with the Canadian Team. He was also selected to play with the senior Soviet Union team that competed for the 1991 Canada Cup.

Belarus
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Galchenyuk went on to represent Belarus in international tournaments. As a member of the Belarus men's national ice hockey team, Galchenyuk competed in four consecutive Ice Hockey World Championships, from 1998–2001, during which he scored a total of 26 points in 24 IIHF World Championship games. He also competed with Team Belarus at the 1998 Winter Olympics.

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

International

References

External links

1967 births
Living people
Avangard Omsk players
Belarusian expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Belarusian ice hockey centres
Eisbären Berlin players
HC Dynamo Moscow players
HC Khimik Voskresensk players
Ice hockey players at the 1998 Winter Olympics
Kalamazoo Wings (1974–2000) players
Madison Monsters players
Milwaukee Admirals (IHL) players
Olympic ice hockey players for Belarus
Philadelphia Bulldogs players
Sarnia Sting coaches
SKA Saint Petersburg players
Soviet ice hockey centres
Ice hockey people from Minsk
Belarusian expatriate sportspeople in Germany
Belarusian expatriate sportspeople in Russia
Belarusian expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Belarusian expatriate sportspeople in Switzerland
Belarusian expatriate ice hockey people
Expatriate ice hockey players in Germany
Expatriate ice hockey players in Russia
Expatriate ice hockey players in Italy
Expatriate ice hockey players in Switzerland
Expatriate ice hockey players in the United States

Alexander Galchenyuk


The Karaburun Peninsula () is a peninsula of the Mediterranean Sea located in Southern and Southeastern Europe, which is almost completely surrounded by both the Adriatic Sea to the north and the Ionian Sea to the south. It is located in Southwestern Albania along the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast, whereas the Strait of Otranto separates it from Italy. The Strait of Mezokanal separates the peninsula from Sazan Island, while in the southeast stretches the Bay of Vlorë. Its name "Karaburun" derives from Turkish for "black cape". In classical antiquity, its name was the "Akrokeraunian Peninsula" (Ακροκεραύνιο ακρωτήριο), whose name was derived from the eponymous Akrokeraunian mountains;this is because, in terms of geology, the Rrëza e Kanalit on the peninsula represent the continuation of said mountains, which are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that extends parallel to the Ionian Sea. Karaburun peninsula is sometimes called Ceraunian Peninsula due to the name of the mountain range. Created during the mesozoic era of the cretaceous and paleogene period, the crests of the mountain range form a northwest-southeast line with a series of distinct peaks along its irregular structure that are broken apart by steep and unequally slopes. The highest peaks are namely, the Maja Çaderës, Maja e Flamurit, Maja e Koretës and Maja e Ilqes.

The western section comprises a rough relief and is dotted with sandy and rocky beaches, sea caves, steep cliffs and several bays amongst them Cave of Haxhi Ali, Cape of Gjuhëz, Bay of Skaloma, Bay of Arushë, Bay of Dafinë, and most notably Bay of Grama, where ships and vessels anchored during classical antiquity. On the high and steep rock faces of the bay, which served also as a marble quarry, there are hundreds of rock inscriptions dating back to the 4th century BC.

Under the Köppen climate classification, the peninsula experiences a mediterranean climate with hot summers and generally warm to cool, dry winters. The ideal climate and contrasting landscapes located at the sea have favored the development of a vast array of habitats which in turn are home to a diverse wildlife. The fauna is represented by several threatened and endangered species such as the loggerhead and green sea turtle but also the mediterranean monk seal, the rarest seal species in the world.

The landmass of the peninsula is designated as nature reserve, while the shoreline and its surrounding sea waters are part of the marine park. In 2014, the Regina Blu ferry was established by a Radhime-based hotel owner making trips between the peninsula and the island of Sazan, while stopping along the secluded beaches.

The peninsula belongs to the Sazan Zone that is a constituent of the Albanides tectonic unit. Albanides form the link between Dinarides and Hellenides orogenic belts. They are considered allocthonous and mobilist theories deduce they come from the east. These formations have been continuously under the effect of Karst and are exploited as marble (metamorphosed limestone) since antiquity. The widespread Karst topography is responsible for the absence of potable water and thus the absence of any population on the peninsula. Despite the dry surface and upper soil layers, there are several water sources that pour deep directly into the sea. The geological evolution has formed also capes such as Galloveci cape and Kepi i Gjuhëzës, as well as a total number of 20 caves along the whole coast.

Gallery

See also

 Albanian Ionian Sea Coast
 Karaburun-Sazan National Marine Park
 Biodiversity of Albania
 Geography of Albania
 Protected areas of Albania

References

Peninsulas of Albania
Nature parks in Albania
Nature reserves in Albania
Bodies of water of Albania
Albanian Ionian Sea Coast
Karaburun-Sazan Marine Park
Important Bird Areas of Albania

Karaburun Peninsula, Albania


Thompson Island is a phantom island, in the South Atlantic. It was thought to be about 150 km north-northeast of Bouvet Island.

Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier discovered Bouvet Island in 1739. In 1808, James Lindsay of the Snow Swan discovered Bouvet Island again, and named it Lindsay Island. The next time, George Norris of the Sprightly sighted Bouvet on 10 December 1825. He landed on 16 December, and took possession of the island, which he named Liverpool Island, for King George IV of the United Kingdom.

Between December 13 and December 16, Norris sailed the waters northeast of Bouvet Island, where he discovered another island. It was much smaller, and the sea around it was much rougher. Three miles southeast of the newly discovered island, he found three rocks. In his log, he named the newly found island Thompson Island, and the rocks chimneys, because of their form. He also marked the position of his discoveries on a map. Unfortunately, the positions of the islands on the map did not match those written down in the log. In 1853 the discoveries of Thompson Island, Bouvet Island, and the Chimneys showed up on an official map of the British admiralty.

In 1893, Captain Joseph J. Fuller reported another sighting of Thompson Island, on his ship, Francis Allyn.

The Valdivia expedition wanted to find the exact position of Bouvet and Thompson Island, in November 1898, but was unable to find Thompson Island.

In 1915, a German ship, the Meteor, gave a depth of the sea of 1579 m at the position where Thompson had been reported. If Thompson ever existed, it is probable that it disappeared in a volcanic eruption sometime in the 1890s.

The Norwegian Arctic Expedition (1928/29) failed to find Thompson Island, and declared it did not exist.

Thompson Island continued to appear on maps published as late as 1943.

The only person to have seen Thompson Island was probably Norris. Fuller's description of Thompson Island matches more or less that given of Bouvet Island in Norris' diary, and is therefore questionable.

References

 Gerhard Engelmann: Die Bouvet-Insel. Mit 4 Karten. In: Geographische Zeitschrift. Bd. 46, Nr. 11, Leipzig 1940, pp 408–424.
 Rupert Thomas Gould: Oddities: a book of unexplained facts; London [1928] (Chapter VII: The Auroras, and other doubtful islands pp. [190]–247)

Phantom islands

Thompson Island (South Atlantic)


The Bordentown Secondary was originally a freight railroad line in New Jersey, running from Pavonia Yard in Camden to Trenton. Today, a large portion of the line from Bordentown to Camden is used for New Jersey Transit's River Line light rail service. Conrail Shared Assets Operations continues to operate freight trains on the line, but these operations are restricted to overnight hours.

The line that meets with the Bordentown Secondary in Bordentown, the Robbinsville Industrial Track is operated by Conrail Shared Assets Operations and extends from Bordentown to nearby Yardville, New Jersey which is located within Hamilton Township.

History

The trackage that makes up much of the present-day Bordentown Secondary was originally laid by the Camden and Amboy Railroad in the 19th century. The line completed the connection between New York City and Philadelphia, via ferries between Pier 1 in New York, and South Amboy, New Jersey, and between Camden and Philadelphia. The Camden and Amboy was eventually purchased by the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR), then became a Penn Central Transportation line after the PRR-New York Central Railroad merger in 1968, and was transferred to Conrail in 1976.

The line was purchased by New Jersey Transit in 1999 for its River Line light rail service between Trenton and Camden. As part of the deal, Conrail retains trackage rights over the line.

Today

At present, the line is primarily used for the River Line service, which operates on the same tracks used by freight trains for much of its route. To achieve Federal Railroad Administration approval for the operation, light rail and freight operations are time separated. Conrail's agreement with New Jersey Transit gives exclusive access to light rail operations from 6:00 AM to 10:00 PM Sunday through Friday. Conrail has exclusive access for freight service during the overnight hours, but may run trains on the southern end of the alignment any other time with prior approval from New Jersey Transit or in emergencies.

Much of the line between Bordentown and South Amboy is out of service; the track has been pulled up or paved over in several places. In February 2006, the New Jersey Department of Transportation proposed removing two road crossings on the northern portion of the line. Whats left of the remaining line that ran between Bordentown and South Amboy which is currently called the Robbinsville Industrial Track now stops in the Yardville section of Hamilton Township, New Jersey.

References
 The Trentonian, Feb. 17, 2006.
 Railroad history database

External links
 Bordentown Secondary mileposts

Conrail lines
Pennsylvania Railroad lines
Rail transportation in New Jersey

Bordentown Secondary


Linda Loredo (June 20, 1907 – August 11, 1931) was an American-born actress and dancer of Mexican descent. She is most commonly associated with Spanish language versions of Laurel and Hardy short subjects. Her sister, Maria Loredo, was also an actress.

Career
Loredo was born in Arizona Territory. She entered silent films in 1927, playing Carmen in the ten-installment silent serial Heroes of the Wild, but her career really came into its own with the advent of sound. The Hal Roach Studios produced foreign-language versions of their most popular series – Laurel and Hardy, Charley Chase, Our Gang and Harry Langdon – for the lucrative Spanish markets in both hemispheres.

She appeared in four Laurel and Hardy shorts, including an English-speaking one, Come Clean, which was released after her death. She is one of only two actresses to have played both Laurel's and Hardy's wife, alongside Isabelle Keith, and the only one to have done so more than once.

Typically, the headline stars would stay on upon completion of the English-language version, and then would speak their foreign lines phonetically from cue cards in shot-for-shot remakes; they would be joined by native-speaking supporting players to round out the cast. Loredo's fluency in Spanish was of great value in the making of these films.

Death
Loredo entered Queen of Angels Hospital on June 11, 1931, for an emergency appendectomy and succumbed two months later to peritonitis, age 24.

Filmography
Heroes of the Wild (1927) – Carmen
After the Storm (1928) – Malay Dancer
Great Gobs (1929)
La Vida Nocturna (1930) – Sra. Laurel
El Jugador de Golf (1930)
La Estación de Gasolina (1930)
¡Pobre Infeliz! (1930)
Radiomanía (1930) – Sra. Hardy
Politiquerías (1931) – Sra. Hardy
El Alma de la Fiesta (1931) – Doctora
La Señorita de Chicago (1931)
Come Clean (1931) – Mrs. Laurel

References

External links

1907 births
1931 deaths
Deaths from peritonitis
Actresses from Arizona
American film actresses
American actresses of Mexican descent
20th-century American actresses

Linda Loredo


An aircraft maintenance engineer (AME), also licensed aircraft maintenance engineer (LAME or L-AME), is a licensed person who carries out and certifies aircraft maintenance. The license is widespread internationally and is recognised by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The American FAA recognise the qualification in foreign countries but refers to it as aviation maintenance engineer rather than "Aircraft...". Unlicensed mechanics or tradespersons are sometimes informally referred to as "Unlicensed AMEs"

Countries which issue or recognize AME licenses internally include; Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, India, Ireland, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and much of Asia.

The American equivalent of an AME is an aircraft maintenance technician (AMT), also known as an A&P.

Up until 1998, Type I and Type II aircraft maintenance engineer (AME) licences were distinguished. In 1998 ICAO replaced these by a single AME licence.

In 2005 the relationship between the Canadian AME and the US A&P (AMT) was further revised, through a Bilateral Aviation Safety Agreement (BASA) between the US and Canada.

See also
 Aircraft maintenance engineer (Canada)
 Charles Taylor Master Mechanic Award
 Groundcrew

References

Aviation licenses and certifications
Aircraft maintenance

Aircraft maintenance engineer


Santa Maria della Pace is a Roman Catholic church attached to a monastery and hospital, located on Via dei Tribunali corner with Via Castel Capuano, just after the piazzetta Sedil Capuano, in Naples, Italy.

History
The church and the attached Sala del Lazzaretto (Hall of the Leprosarium) were built in the 16th century. The monastic complex of Santa Maria della Pace includes the Hospital of the Order of brothers of the Hospital of San Giovanni di Dio (built 1587).  The complex is arranged around a more ancient palace built by Giovanni Caracciolo in the early 15th century (designed by Andrea Ciccione). The Gothic entrance archway is a residua of the earliest palace.

Pietro De Marino designed the church (built 1629–1659); it was consecrated to Holy Mary of Peace, because it was the last year of the agreed peace and truce between Louis XIV of France and Philip IV of Spain. The church has a Latin cross plan. The interior was restored after the earthquake of 1732 by Domenico Antonio Vaccaro; by Donato Massa and decorated with Majolica tiles. The apse was designed by Nicola Tagliacozzi Canale.

Sala del Lazzaretto
The Hall of the Leprosarium is entered through a grand staircase to the left of the vestibule. It was so called, because in this room of the hospital were tended individuals with leprosy, the plague, and other infectious maladies. An elevated gallery runs along the sides of the walls, from which, to avoid contagion, drinks and food were handed to the patients. Frescoes by Andrea Viola and Giacinto Diano are in the ceilings above the window.

Gallery

Bibliography
 Vincenzo Regina, Le chiese di Napoli. Viaggio indimenticabile attraverso la storia artistica, architettonica, letteraria, civile e spirituale della Napoli sacra, Newton and Compton editor, Naples 2004.

External links

Churches in Naples
Leper colonies
16th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1659
Defunct hospitals in Italy
1659 establishments in Italy

Santa Maria della Pace, Naples


Prince William Sound is a body of water in the Gulf of Alaska.  A sound is a small body of water that comes in from the ocean.  Prince William Sound is on the south side of the U.S. state of Alaska. It is on the east side of the Kenai Peninsula. Its biggest port is Valdez, at the south end of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. Other towns on the sound include Cordova and Whittier.

James Cook went in Prince William Sound in 1778.  He named it Sandwich Sound, after the Earl of Sandwich. The Sound's name was changed in the same year.  It was then named after George III's third son Prince William Henry.  Prince William was then 13 years old.  He was in the Royal Navy.

Most of the land near Prince William Sound is part of the Chugach National Forest. Chugach is the second largest U.S. National Forest.  Prince William Sound is ringed by the Chugach Mountains.  These mountains are steep.  The coast is complex. It has many islands and fjords.  It also has some glaciers.

In 1964, a tsunami hit the sound.  It was caused by the Good Friday earthquake.  It killed many people in the town of Chenega.  It destroyed the town of Valdez.

In 1989, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground.  It caused a large oil spill, which damaged the environment. It killed around 250,000 seabirds, nearly 3,000 sea otters, 300 harbor seals, 250 bald eagles and up to 22 killer whales.

References

Geography of Alaska
Bodies of water of the United States

Prince William Sound


Organizational ecology (also organizational demography and the population ecology of organizations) is a theoretical and empirical approach in the social sciences that is considered a sub-field of organizational studies.  Organizational ecology utilizes insights from biology, economics, and sociology, and employs statistical analysis to try to understand the conditions under which organizations emerge, grow, and die.

The ecology of organizations is divided into three levels, the community, the population, and the organization. The community level is the functionally integrated system of interacting populations. The population level is the set of organizations engaged in similar activities. The organization level focuses on the individual organizations (some research further divides organizations into individual member and sub-unit levels).

What is generally referred to as organizational ecology in research is more accurately population ecology, focusing on the second level.

Development

Wharton School researcher William Evan called the population level the organization-set, and focused on the interrelations of individual organizations within the population as early as 1966. However, prior to the mid-1970s, the majority of organizational studies research focused on adaptive change in organizations (See also adaptive management and adaptive performance). The ecological approach moved focus to the environmental selection processes that affect organizations.

In 1976, Eric Trist defined population ecology as "the study of the organizational field created by a number of organizations whose interrelations compose a system at the level of the whole field". He also advocated for organizational studies research to focus on populations and individual organizations as part of open rather than closed systems that have both bureaucratic (internal) regulation and ecological (community environment) regulation (see also Open and closed systems in social science).

The first explicit formulation of a theory of population ecology, by Michael T. Hannan and the late John H. Freeman in their 1977 American Journal of Sociology piece "The population ecology of organizations" and later refined in their 1989 book Organizational Ecology, examines the environment in which organizations compete and how a process like natural selection occurs.  This theory looks at the death of organizations (firm mortality), the birth of new organizations (organizational founding), as well as organizational growth and change.

Organizational ecology has over the years become one of the central fields in organizational studies, and is known for its empirical, quantitative character. Ecological studies usually have a large-scale, longitudinal focus (datasets often span several decades, sometimes even centuries). The books The Demography of Corporations and Industries by Glenn Carroll and Michael T. Hannan (2000) and Logics of Organization Theory: Audiences, Codes, and Ecologies by Michael T. Hannan, Laszlo Polos, and Glenn Carroll (2007), provide the most comprehensive overview of the various theories and methods in organizational ecology.

Key concerns
Organizational ecology focuses on how social (community) forces affect:
 rates of creation of new organizational forms
 rates of demise of organizations and organizational forms
 the rates of change in organizational forms.

Organizational mortality
Organizational ecology is concerned with the capacity of the environment to support organizations and the rate of growth and decline of organizations within the environment. Each of these forces is a part of what is called Organizational Mortality.

Inertia and change
This factor holds that organizations that are reliable and accountable are those that can survive (favored by selection). A negative by-product, however, of the need for reliability and accountability is a high degree of inertia and a resistance to change. A key prediction of organizational ecology is that the process of change itself is so disruptive that it will result in an elevated rate of mortality.

Theories about inertia and change are fundamental to the research program of organizational ecology, which seeks a better understanding of the broader changes in the organizational landscape. Both internal and external resistance to change can result in organizational inertia, providing some resistance to organizational adaptation.  Given the limits on firm-level adaptation, most of these broader changes thus come from the entry and selective replacement of organizations. Hence organizational ecology has spent considerable effort on understanding the founding and mortality rates of organizations.

Hannan and Freeman define organizational inertia in terms of internal and external restraints. Internal restraints include investment and sunk costs; availability of information for decision makers; political restraints such as organizational culture; and organization history. External restraints include legal and fiscal barriers to market entry and exit; availability of information about the environment; external legitimacy; and collective rationality and strategy (See also Bounded rationality).

Niche theory

Niche width distinguishes broadly between two types of organizations: generalists and specialists. Generalist organizations maximize their exploitation of the environment and accept the risk of experiencing a change in that environment. On the other hand, specialist organizations accept a lower level of exploitation in return for greater security.

Niche theory shows that specialization is generally favored in stable or certain environments. However, the main contribution of the niche theory is probably the finding that "generalism is not always optimal in uncertain environments". The exception is produced by environments which "place very different demands on the organization, and the duration of environmental states is short relative to the life of the organization".

Thus, the niche theory explains variations in industrial structure in different industries. The theory shows how different structures in different industries (generalist vs specialist organizations) are shaped by relevant environments.

Density dependence

Organizational ecology also predicts that the rates of founding and mortality are dependent on the number of organizations (density) in the market. The two central mechanisms here are legitimization (the recognition or taken-for-grantedness of that group of organizations) and competition. Legitimization generally increases (at a decreasing rate) with the number of organizations, but so does competition (at an increasing rate). The result is that legitimization processes will prevail at low numbers of organizations, while competition will at high numbers.

The founding rate will therefore first increase with the number of organizations (due to an increase in legitimization) but will decrease at high numbers of organizations (due to competition). The reverse holds for mortality rates. Thus, the relationship of density to founding rates has an inverted U shape and the relationship of density to mortality rates follows a U-shaped pattern.

Age dependence

How an organization's risk of mortality relates to the age of that organization has also been extensively examined. Here, organizational ecologists have found a number of patterns:

 Liability of newness. Here, the risk of failure is high initially but declines as the organization ages.
 Liability of adolescence. The risk of mortality will be low at first as the organization is buffered from failure due to support by external constituents and initial endowments. But when these initial resources become depleted, the mortality hazard shoots up and then declines following the liability of newness pattern.
 Liabilities of aging. Here, the risk of failure increases with organizational age. This could be due to a liability of senescence (internal inefficiencies arising from the aging of the organization) or a liability of obsolescence (a growing external mismatch with the environment).

Evolutionary approaches to organizations
Organizational ecology can be usefully compared with evolutionary theories in economics (e.g. Nelson & Winter, 1982). Hannan and Freeman also note the influences of biological ecology and economic evolution on their population ecology model (specifically Elton, 1927; Durkheim, 1947; Hawley, 1950; and Hutchison, 1959). Main similarities between these strands of literature are: (1) the emphasis on organizational routines and the limits to organizational adaptability, (2) the population or system level of analysis and (3) the importance of environmental selection. Organizational ecology's perspective is more Darwinistic (see Hannan & Freeman, 1989, pp 20–22), while Nelson & Winter (1982, p. 11) provide a more Lamarckian perspective.  Another important difference concerns the question: What is selected by the environment-- 'organizational forms', as in organizational ecology, or 'routines' as in the evolutionary economics literature? Authors like Joel Baum and Arjen van Witteloostuijn have argued for the potential of cross-fertilization between these two research strands.

See also
 Adaptive management
 Adaptive performance
 Biocultural evolution
 Bounded rationality
 Open and closed systems in social science
 Organizational behavior
 Organizational behavior management
 Organizational studies

References

Further reading
 Baum, J.A.C., S.D. Dobrev and A. Van Witteloostuijn (eds, 2006), "Ecology and Strategy." Amsterdam: Elsevier
 Carroll, G.R. and M.T. Hannan (2000) The Demography of Corporations and Industries. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
 Carroll, G.R. (1985) "Concentration and specialization: dynamics of niche width in populations of organizations."  American Journal of Sociology 90 (6): 1262–83.
 Douma, Sytse and Hein Schreuder, 2013. Economic Approaches to Organizations. 5th edition. London: Pearson   •
 Hannan, M.T. and J. Freeman (1977) "The population ecology of organizations." American Journal of Sociology 82 (5): 929–964.
 Hannan, M.T. and J. Freeman (1989) Organizational Ecology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
 Hannan, M.T., L. Polos, and G R. Carroll (2007) Logics of Organization Theory: Audiences, Code, and Ecologies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

External links

 Evolutionary Theory in Social Science
 The Population Ecology of Organizations

Behavioural sciences
Organizational theory

Organizational ecology


Nawat Itsaragrisil () is a Thai media personality and businessperson, best known as the president of Miss Grand International organization.

Nawat first became known for travel TV shows, first hosting Exhibition Show and then Kon Thueng Chan () for ITV. He then joined Channel 3, hosting the travel segment variety talk show Today Show and becoming the director and executive producer of the Miss Thailand World beauty pageant from 2007 to 2012. He started his own beauty pageant franchise, Miss Grand International in 2013.

Appearances
 Television
 2008 : โวยาเจอร์ เกมการเดินทางในต่างแดน On Air Channel 9 (2008-2009)
 2004 : ทไวไลท์โชว์ On Air Channel 3 (2004-2007)
 2009 : ทูไนท์โชว์ On Air Channel 3 (2009-2015)
 2012 : เพชรรามา On Air Channel 3 (2012-2021)
 2013 : ครัวคุณต๋อย On Air Channel 3 (2013-2021)
 2009 : ทูเดย์โชว์ On Air Channel 3 (2009-2021)

Controversies
In 2016, Nawat was reported by Miss Iceland 2015, Arna Ýr Jónsdóttir  to have said that "she's too fat and needed to lose weight" prior to the finals of Miss Grand International 2016 held in Las Vegas on October 25, 2016, eventually dropping out of the pageant before the coronation due to the controversy. In a statement, Nawat said that they give similar advice to other contestants who asked what should they do to improve in order to win. Nawat eventually said that he had spoken with Jónsdóttir along with the company's vice president and clarified matters. In 2022, Nawat has also publicly stated in a live stream that "Miss Vietnam had too long a torso and too short legs" as to the reason why Miss Vietnam failed to make top 10 in Miss Grand International 2022, enraging Vietnamese beauty fans.

Nawat has also expressed displeasure about the behavior of Filipino pageant fans online. This is after several incidents of Filipino pageant fans attacking him on social media. These incidents include accusations of Nawat rigging the results of Miss Grand International, of him having a bias against Filipina contestants, an Instagram post where Nawat insinuated that the coronation of Catriona Gray as Miss Universe 2018 was a rigged affair and saying that Miss Philippines 2018 didn't make it due to the rest of the contestants being better than her.

Nawat has also gotten into a verbal row with the Miss Supranational organization after the then reigning Miss Supranational Chanique Rabe did not include Miss Grand into what she considers the "Big Five" of pageants, saying that those pageants were "minor crowns".

References

Miss Grand International
Beauty pageant owners
Nawat Itsaragrisil
Nawat Itsaragrisil
Nawat Itsaragrisil
Nawat Itsaragrisil
Nawat Itsaragrisil
Nawat Itsaragrisil
Dominica businesspeople
Living people
1973 births

Nawat Itsaragrisil


Dendrocnide moroides,  the gympie gympie, or gympie stinger, is a plant of rainforest areas in the north east of Australia. It is also found in Indonesia. It has stinging hairs over the whole plant. It delivers a strong neurotoxin when touched. The small bulb  on the tip of the stinging hairs break off and penetrating the skin, injecting the toxin. It is the most toxic of the Australian  stinging trees. The fruit can be eaten if the stinging hairs that cover it are removed.

Ernie Rider, who was slapped in the face and torso with the foliage in 1963, said:
For two or three days the pain was almost unbearable; I couldn't work or sleep, then it was pretty bad pain for another fortnight or so. The stinging persisted for two years and recurred every time I had a cold shower. ... There's nothing to rival it; it's ten times worse than anything else.

The sting does not stop several small marsupial species (such as the red-legged pademelon, some insects, such as Prasyptera mastersi, and some birds, from eating the leaves.

References

Urticaceae
Toxicology
Plants of Australia

Gympie gympie


"Another Part of Me" is a song by Michael Jackson. It was in Jackson's 1986 3-D film Captain EO. It was released as the sixth single from Jackson's seventh album Bad on July 11, 1988. "Another Part of Me" was not going to be on Bad. But after Jackson's manager Frank DiLeo danced along to the song, it was decided that the song would be featured on the album. The song reached number eleven in the Billboard Hot 100.

References

Michael Jackson songs
1988 songs

Another Part of Me


Dutch Ships in a Calm Sea is a 1665 oil-on-canvas painting by Dutch marine artist Willem van de Velde the Younger (1633–1707). The son of Willem van de Velde the Elder, who also specialized in marine art, he was first instructed by his father and later by Simon de Vlieger.

Most of Van de Velde's work represents shipping off the coast of the Netherlands. The vessels are painted with extremely intricate detail, providing a high-quality record of shipping in the period. He also excelled in his renderings of the sea and sky under various weather conditions. This painting is in the collection of the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam.

References

1665 paintings
Paintings by Willem van de Velde the Younger
Paintings in the Rijksmuseum

Dutch Ships in a Calm Sea


Captain Charles Johnson was the British author of the  1724 book A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the most notorious Pyrates, whose identity remains a mystery. No record exists of a captain by this name, and "Captain Charles Johnson" is generally considered a pen name for one of London's writer-publishers. Some scholars have suggested that the author was actually Daniel Defoe, but this is disputed.

A prime source for the biographies of many well known pirates of the era, Johnson gave an almost mythical status to the more colourful characters, and it is likely that the author used considerable artistic licence in his accounts of pirate conversations. First appearing in Charles Rivington's shop in London, the book sold so well that by 1726, an enlarged fourth edition had appeared. English naval historian David Cordingly writes: "It has been said, and there seems no reason to question this, that Captain Johnson created the modern conception of pirates."

Character of the author
Johnson's identity is unknown, but he demonstrates a knowledge of the sailor's speech and life, suggesting that he could have been an actual sea captain.  He could also have been a professional writer using a pseudonym who was well versed in the sea. If this is true, the name may have been chosen to reflect playwright Charles Johnson, who had a play called The Successful Pyrate performed in 1712. The play addressed the career of Henry Every, and it had been something of a scandal for seeming to praise a criminal. Following the book, many biographies and catalogs of criminals were published, including catalogs of highwaymen and prostitutes. This theory suggests that the "Charles Johnson" of the pirate catalog was merely taking part in a burgeoning industry in criminal biography.

Identity of author
The author has remained unknown in spite of numerous attempts by historians to discover his identity. There has been no record found of anyone with the name Charles Johnson serving as a captain in any capacity, save forty-two years before the publication of A General History. There was a playwright by that name in the early 18th century, but there are no ties to piracy found in his works. Some have suggested that the "Captain" was in fact a common pirate, but again, there is no record of this man.

Daniel Defoe

In 1932, literary scholar and writer John Robert Moore posited that Daniel Defoe be acknowledged the author of A General History. After years of research in connection with a collection of Defoe's works, Moore published a study of his findings, detailing his argument for Defoe's authorship of this, and other, works. Moore declared that A General History was "substantially" a work of Defoe based on writing style (including frequent meditations on morality similar to in Defoe's work) and content similar to other pieces that have been attributed to Defoe. Moore argued that Defoe's interest in subjects such as "seafaring" and criminals (including pirates) shows that A General History falls squarely into his repertoire. Moore posited that not only could other works be used to confirm that Defoe wrote A General History, but that A General History could be used to endorse his authorship of those same works. Another point that Moore counted on to validate his claims was that many authors, to include historians, had used A General History of the Pyrates as a source of information for their own writings.

Moore's study and his reputation as a Defoe scholar was so convincing that most libraries recataloged A General History under Defoe's name.

Criticism
However, in 1988, scholars P. N. Furbank and W. R. Owens attacked the theory in The Canonisation of Daniel Defoe, in which they point out that there is no documentary evidence linking Johnson to Defoe, and that there are discrepancies between A General History and Defoe's known works.

Disputes between different Defoe biographers called his body of work into question. Based on the accounts of these many biographers, Defoe's attributed canon went from 101 different works to 570 between the years of 1790 and 1970.  Most of these additions were made on the basis of internal, "stylistic" evidence. Moore's publication of his Checklist of the Writings of Daniel Defoe added almost 200 works alone. Many questioned not only his attribution of A General History to Defoe, but the general trend of biographers to continually add to the canon. One critic even suggested, based on this trend, that all anonymous works from the early eighteenth century be designated Defoe's.

Furbank and Owens' arguments against Defoe's authorship of A General History address the parallels that are drawn to other works of the time (often also attributed to Defoe) and the logical fallacies that are necessary to subscribe to such a large, diverse catalog. Many of the ideas and phrases that Moore points to as parallels, and therefore as proof of Defoe's continuity in his works, were commonplace in the eighteenth century. According to Furbank and Owens, Moore's attribution of A General History to Defoe was based on no external evidence and only those few circumstantial parallels. They also cite inconsistencies in the accounts of Henry Every and John Gow.

Author Colin Woodard, in The Republic of Pirates, considers attribution of Johnson's work to Defoe to be erroneous.

Nathaniel Mist
The author could have been publisher Nathaniel Mist (or somebody working for him). Woodard considers Mist "far more likely" than Defoe, citing Bialuschewski's 2004 paper Daniel Defoe, Nathaniel Mist, and the "General History of the Pyrates". Specifically, Woodard's reasoning includes that Mist was a former sailor familiar with the West Indies, that he was a journalist and a publisher who lived near to and had a working relationship with Charles Rivington (the first publisher of record of A General History), that Mist was the man in whose name the book was registered at Her Majesty's Stationery Office, and Mist's Jacobitism (which perhaps gave him reason to write somewhat sympathetically about some of the pirates, as in A General History).

Contents of the different editions
The original publisher Charles Rivington emphasized the fact that the catalogue included stories of "the remarkable ACTIONS and ADVENTURES of the two Female Pyrates, Mary Read and Anne Bonny" (largely assembled from newspaper accounts, Admiralty Court records and a few interviews)  A second edition came out within a few months, vastly enlarged and most likely assembled from writings by other authors. German and Dutch translations were published in 1725. These German- and Dutch-language versions greatly played up the salaciousness of the accounts of "Amazon" pirates.

Modern editions and related works
A General History of the Pyrates continues to be reprinted in many different editions, often with additional commentary, sometimes published under Charles Johnson's name and sometimes under Daniel Defoe's name. Nova Scotian author William Gilkerson published the children's novel Pirates Passage (Trumpeter Books, 2006) which was inspired by the life and work of Charles Johnson, reissued as The Brotherhood of Pirates.

Notes

References

Further reading
Charles Johnson (1724), A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates

External links

British biographers
18th-century British writers
Piracy
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
Daniel Defoe
18th-century pseudonymous writers

Captain Charles Johnson


WTKA (1050 AM) is a commercial radio station in Ann Arbor, Michigan, known as "The Ticket."  It broadcasts a sports radio format and is owned by Cumulus Media.  The studios and offices are on Victors Way in Ann Arbor.

By day, WTKA is powered at 5,000 watts, covering most of southeast Michigan.  Because 1050 AM is a Mexican clear channel frequency reserved for XEG in Monterrey, WTKA reduces power to 500 watts at night to avoid interference.  It uses a directional antenna with a four-tower array.  The transmitter is on Stoney Creek Road in York Charter Township, Michigan.

Programming
TheMichiganInsider.com's Sam Webb and WTKA Program Director Ira Weintraub host "The Michigan Insider" weekday mornings. The show features prominent sports guests, including sports writer John Bacon, Yahoo Sports contributor Eric Adelson, and frequent interviews with University of Michigan coaches John Beilein, Carol Hutchins, Erik Bakich and more. One of the most popular features on "The Michigan Insider" is "Recruiting Roundup" at 7:45am with the latest information on Michigan football and basketball recruiting.  The segment is recorded and is available on the station's website.

In afternoon drive time, WTKA features 'The M-Zone' with Jamie Morris.  The rest of the schedule mostly comes from CBS Sports Radio.  WTKA also carries Detroit Red Wings hockey, Detroit Tigers baseball and Michigan Wolverines college football, hockey and basketball.

History

WPAG
In the 1920s, there were three short-lived radio stations licensed to Ann Arbor: WMAX (1922), WQAJ (1923; owned by the Ann Arbor News) and WCBC (1924–25; owned by the University of Michigan). In addition, WJBK (now WLQV), licensed to nearby Ypsilanti, signed on in 1925. In 1940, WJBK was moved to Detroit, leaving Washtenaw County without a radio station until WPAG first took to the air.  It signed on the air on .

WPAG's studios were located on the third floor of the Hutzel Building, at the corner of Main at Liberty Streets in Ann Arbor. (Currently, a digital service called A3 Radio netcasts from the old WPAG studios.) Owned by brothers Paul and Art Greene, the call letters WPAG were selected to reflect their names. (For many years there was a ladies lingerie and apparel store down on the Hutzel Building's first floor, which caused long-time University of Michigan football broadcaster Bob Ufer to joke that WPAG really stood for "Women's Panties And Girdles".) WPAG also briefly operated a television outlet, WPAG-TV on channel 20 in the 1950s.

Top 40 Hits
In the 1960s, WPAG was one of several stations in the Ann Arbor market featuring Top 40 musical fare. One of its most popular personalities was Dave Pringle, who later became a fixture on Detroit radio as "Dave Prince." (He adopted that name after Billboard Magazine mistakenly referred to him as such in one issue, and Pringle decided he liked "Prince" better.) The station is also notable for being possibly the first to play Bob Seger, who grew up in Michigan.  In 1961, Seger convinced the station to play a demo of "The Lonely One," a song he had recorded with his group at the time, the Decibels.

By 1970, WPAG had transitioned to a full service format featuring MOR/adult contemporary music.  It was an affiliate of the ABC Information Network. The station remained successful until the late 1970s, when a recession led to declining business and forced the laying off of several employees. An early 1980s change to an adult standards format garnered the station increased audience, but from advertiser-unfriendly older demographics. After a return to the station's longtime AC format proved unsuccessful, WPAG made a switch to country music after Christmas of 1985. The new "1050 Country", consulted by Ed Buchanan of Grand Rapids' successful WCUZ, was intended as a cosmopolitan variant of the country format for Ann Arbor and mixed in compatible soft rock titles by artists such as Bob Seger and Crosby, Stills and Nash, alongside current and classic country hits.

WPZA and WTKA
In December 1987, the station was purchased by Tom Monaghan and had its call sign changed to WPZA, a nod to Monaghan's thriving Domino's Pizza business.  Under Monaghan, the unsuccessful cosmopolitan country format was dumped for another stab at full-service adult contemporary. In late 1992, Monaghan (who later owned Ave Maria Radio, including Ypsilanti's WDEO), sold WPZA to the MW Blue Partnership.  Eventually, it went to Cumulus Broadcasting and then to Clear Channel Communications.

Clear Channel flipped the station to WTKA. In 1997, WTKA's daytime schedule featuring a variety of programming, ranging from local sports and financial talk shows, a farm report, the nationally syndicated Joy Browne advice show, the Alan Colmes talk show, and the One-on-One Sports Network.

Sports Radio
In 1999, WTKA began using the brand name "The Ticket" and revamped its program lineup to be primarily sports programming, with ESPN Radio outside of local shows and the farm report.  WTKA is once again owned by Cumulus Broadcasting due in part to a multi-station swap between Cumulus and Clear Channel that involved stations in Michigan And Ohio.

Today, WTKA bills itself as "Sports Talk 1050 AM", the official voice of the University of Michigan sports in Ann Arbor. It is not, however, the flagship station.  That status belongs to WWJ 950 in Detroit.  Sports Talk 1050 AM carries U-M college football, basketball, and hockey as well as Detroit Red Wings hockey and Detroit Tigers baseball.  The Tigers are a holdover from the WPZA era, as Monaghan also owned the Tigers at that time.

On April 23, 2007 WTKA fired former University of Michigan hockey player Dave Shand from the station. Shand served as the co-host for the morning show titled "In the Locker Room with Dave Shand." The station gave no reason for the firing. Shand claims University of Michigan athletic director Bill Martin pressured the station to fire him, but a lawsuit against Martin on this claim was dismissed for lack of evidence.

See also
Media in Detroit

References

Former Michigan QB Leach Rips Carr
Audio of Rick Leach's criticism of Lloyd Carr from WTKA

External links

TKA
Sports radio stations in the United States
Radio stations established in 1945
CBS Sports Radio stations
1945 establishments in Michigan
Cumulus Media radio stations
Michigan Wolverines men's basketball

WTKA