Google Chrome is a freeware web browser made by Google. It builds on parts from other open source software, including WebKit and Mozilla Firefox.
The name comes from the graphical user interface frame, or "chrome", of web browsers. The open source project behind Google Chrome is known as Chromium.

The first version was a beta for Microsoft Windows was released on September 2, 2008. macOS and Linux versions were released in December 2009.

Announcement
The release announcement was going to be made on September 3, 2008, and a comic by Scott McCloud was to be sent to journalists and bloggers explaining the features of and reasons for the new browser. Copies that were for Europe were shipped early and German blogger Philipp Lenssen of Google Blogoscoped made a scanned copy of the 38-page comic available on his website after receiving it on September 1, 2008. Google then made the comic available on Google Books and their website and referenced it on its official blog along with an explanation for the early release. As of September 2, 2008, Google has a link to Google Chrome on their main page.

Design

Security
Blacklists
Chrome downloads updates of two blacklists (one for phishing and one for malware) and warns users when they try to visit a harmful site. This service is also made available for use by others via a free public API called "Google Safe Browsing API". In the process of maintaining these blacklists, Google also notifies the owners of listed sites who may not be aware of the presence of the harmful software.

Sandboxing
Each tab in Chrome is sandboxed to "prevent malware from installing itself" or "using what happens in one tab to affect what happens in another". Following the principle of least privilege, each process is stripped of its rights and can compute but can't write files or read from sensitive areas (e.g. documents, desktop), this is similar to "Protected Mode" that is used by Internet Explorer 7 on Windows Vista. The Sandbox Team is said to have "taken this existing process boundary and made it into a jail"; for example, malicious software running in one tab is unable to sniff credit card numbers, interact with the mouse or tell "Windows to run an executable on the start-up" and will be terminated when the tab is closed. This enforces a simple computer security model whereby there are two levels of multilevel security (user and sandbox) and the sandbox can only respond to communication requests initiated by the user.

Plugins
Plugins such as Adobe Flash Player are typically not standardised and as such cannot be sandboxed like tabs. These often need to run at or above the security level of the browser itself. To reduce exposure to attack, plugins are run in separate processes that communicate with the renderer, itself operating at "very low privileges" in dedicated per-tab processes.

Incognito
Chrome includes an Incognito mode (similar to Safari's Private Browsing and Internet Explorer 8's InPrivate) which "lets you browse the web in complete privacy because it doesn't record any of your activity" and discards cookies. When enabled for a window "nothing that occurs in that window is ever logged on your computer."

Speed
JavaScript
The Javascript virtual machine was considered a sufficiently important project to be split off (like Adobe/Mozilla's Tamarin) and handled by a dedicated team in Denmark. Existing implementations were designed "for small programs, where the performance and interactivity of the system weren't that important" but web applications like Gmail "are using the web browser to the fullest when it comes to DOM manipulations and Javascript". The resulting V8 JavaScript engine was designed for speed and introduces new features with that in mind such as hidden class transitions, dynamic code generation, and precise garbage collection. Tests by Google show that V8 is about twice as fast as Firefox 3 and the Safari 4 beta.

User interface
The main user interface includes back, forward, refresh, bookmark, go and cancel options similar to Safari browser, while the settings location looks like Internet Explorer 7/8. The minimize, maximize and close window buttons are based on Windows Vista
Gears
Chrome includes Gears which adds developer features that may or may not become web standards, typically relating to the building of web applications (including offline support).

New Tab Page
Chrome replaces the browser home page which is displayed when a new tab is created with a New Tab Page. This shows thumbnails of the eight most visited websites along with the sites most often searched, recent bookmarks, and recently closed tabs. This concept appeared first with Opera's Speed Dial.

Omnibox
The Omnibox is the URL box at the top of each tab, based on the one in Opera. It includes autocomplete functionality but will only autocomplete URLs that were manually entered (rather than all links), search suggestions, top pages (previously visited), popular pages (unvisited), and text search over history. Search engines can also be captured by the browser when used via the native user interface by pressing Tab.

Popups
Popup windows "are scoped to the tab they came from" and will not appear outside the tab unless the user explicitly drags them out. It is not clear whether they also run in their own process.

Rendering engine
At first, Chrome used the WebKit browser engine on advice from the Android. Since version 28, Chrome has used its own fork, or a version of WebKit called Blink. This is to allow Google to change Blink to suit Chrome's needs explicitly by removing things that Chrome doesn't need. The IOS version of Chrome still uses Blink due to IOS' requirements.

Tabs
Tabs are the primary component of Chrome's user interface and as such has been moved to the top of the window rather than below the controls (similar to Opera). This subtle change is in contrast to many existing tabbed browsers which are based on windows containing tabs. Tabs (including their state) can be seamlessly transferred between window containers by dragging. Each tab has its own set of controls, including the Omnibox URL box.

Standards

The first release of Google Chrome Beta (Build 1583) did not pass the Acid3 test; it scored 77/100 and does not render the image correctly. It passed the Acid2 test initially, but failed upon resizing. From version 4 onward, Google Chrome has passed the Acid1, 2, and 3 tests.

Webapps
Webapps can be launched in their own streamlined window without the Omnibox URL box and browser toolbar. This limits the browser chrome so as not to "interrupt anything the user is trying to do", allowing web applications to run alongside local software (similar to Mozilla Prism, Adobe AIR and Fluid).

Notes

References

Other websites

 Chromium project page at Google Code
 Google Chrome features
 Official Google Blog article of Google Chrome
 Google Chrome Help

Web browsers
Google

Google Chrome


In condensed matter physics, an ultracold atom is an atom with a temperature near absolute zero. At such temperatures, an atom's quantum-mechanical properties become important.

To reach such low temperatures, a combination of several techniques typically has to be used. First, atoms are trapped and pre-cooled via laser cooling in a magneto-optical trap. To reach the lowest possible temperature, further cooling is performed using evaporative cooling in a magnetic or optical trap. Several Nobel prizes in physics are related to the development of the techniques to manipulate quantum properties of individual atoms (e.g. 1995-1997, 2001, 2005, 2012, 2017).

Experiments with ultracold atoms study a variety of phenomena, including quantum phase transitions, Bose–Einstein condensation (BEC), bosonic superfluidity, quantum magnetism, many-body spin dynamics, Efimov states, Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) superfluidity and the BEC–BCS crossover. Some of these research directions utilize ultracold atom systems as quantum simulators to study the physics of other systems, including the unitary Fermi gas and the Ising and Hubbard models. Ultracold atoms could also be used for realization of quantum computers.

History
Samples of ultracold atoms are typically prepared through the interactions of a dilute gas with a laser field. Evidence for radiation pressure, force due to light on atoms, was demonstrated independently by Lebedev, and Nichols and Hull in 1901. In 1933, Otto Frisch demonstrated the deflection of individual sodium particles by light generated from a sodium lamp.

The invention of the laser spurred the development of additional techniques to manipulate atoms with light. Using laser light to cool atoms was first proposed in 1975 by taking advantage of the Doppler effect to make the radiation force on an atom dependent on its velocity, a technique known as Doppler cooling. Similar ideas were also proposed to cool samples of trapped ions. Applying Doppler cooling in three dimensions will slow atoms to velocities that are typically a few cm/s and produce what is known as an optical molasses.

Typically, the source of neutral atoms for these experiments were thermal ovens which produced atoms at temperatures of a few hundred kelvins. The atoms from these oven sources are moving at hundred of meters per second.  One of the major technical challenges in Doppler cooling was increasing the amount of time an atom can interact with the laser light. This challenge was overcome by the introduction of a Zeeman Slower. A Zeeman Slower uses a spatially varying magnetic field to maintain the relative energy spacing of the atomic transitions involved in Doppler cooling. This increases the amount of time the atom spends interacting with the laser light.

The development of the first magneto-optical trap (MOT) by Raab et al. in 1987 was an important step towards the creation of samples of ultracold atoms. Typical temperatures achieved with a MOT are tens to hundreds of microkelvins. In essence, a magneto optical trap confines atoms in space by applying a magnetic field so that lasers not only provide a velocity dependent force but also a spatially varying force. The 1997 Nobel prize in physics was awarded for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light and was shared by Steven Chu, Claude Cohen-Tannoudji and William D. Phillips.

Evaporative cooling was used in experimental efforts to reach lower temperatures in an effort to discover a new state of matter predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein known as a Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC). In evaporative cooling, the hottest atoms in a sample are allowed to escape  which reduces the average temperature of the sample. The Nobel Prize in 2001 was awarded to  Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman for the achievement of Bose–Einstein condensate in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates.

Applications
Ultracold atoms have a variety of applications owing to their unique quantum properties and the great experimental control available in such systems. For instance, ultracold atoms have been proposed as a platform for quantum computation and quantum simulation, accompanied by very active experimental research to achieve these goals.

Quantum simulation is of great interest in the context of condensed matter physics, where it may provide valuable insights into the properties of interacting quantum systems. The ultracold atoms are used to implement an analogue of the condensed matter system of interest, which can then be explored using the tools available in the particular implementation. Since these tools may differ greatly from those available in the actual condensed matter system, one can thus experimentally probe otherwise inaccessible quantities. Furthermore, ultracold atoms may even allow to create exotic states of matter, which cannot otherwise be observed in nature.

Ultracold atoms are also used in experiments for precision measurements enabled by the low thermal noise and, in some cases, by exploiting quantum mechanics to exceed the standard quantum limit. In addition to potential technical applications, such precision measurements may serve as tests of our current understanding of physics.

See also
 Bose–Einstein condensate
 Cold Atom Laboratory
 Quantum simulator

References

Sources

Quantum mechanics
Thermodynamics
Atoms

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Ultracold atom


Dimagnesium phosphate is a compound with formula MgHPO4. It is a Mg2+ salt of monohydrogen phosphate.  The trihydrate is well known, occurring as a mineral.

It can be formed by reaction of stoichiometric quantities of magnesium oxide with phosphoric acid.
MgO + H3PO4 → MgHPO4 + H2O
Dissolving monomagnesium phosphate in water, forms phosphoric acid and depositing a solid precipitate of dimagnesium phosphate trihydrate:
Mg(H2PO4)2  +  3 H2O  →   Mg(HPO4).3H2O  +  H3PO4

The compound is used as a nutritional supplement, especially for infants and athletes. Its E number is E343.

See also
 Magnesium phosphate

References

Acid salts
Phosphates
Magnesium compounds
E-number additives

Dimagnesium phosphate


The American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) was a formation of the United States Armed Forces on the Western Front during World War I. The AEF was established on July 5, 1917, in France under the command of then-Major General John J. Pershing. It fought alongside French Army, British Army, Canadian Army, British Indian Army, New Zealand Army and Australian Army units against the Imperial German Army. A small number of AEF troops also fought alongside Italian Army units in 1918 against the Austro-Hungarian Army. The AEF helped the French Army on the Western Front during the Aisne Offensive (at the Battle of Château-Thierry and Battle of Belleau Wood) in the summer of 1918, and fought its major actions in the Battle of Saint-Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive in the latter part of 1918.

Formation

President Woodrow Wilson initially planned to give command of the AEF to Gen. Frederick Funston, but after Funston's sudden death, Wilson appointed Major General John J. Pershing in May 1917, and Pershing remained in command for the rest of the war. Pershing insisted that American soldiers be well-trained before going to Europe. As a result, few troops arrived before January 1918. In addition, Pershing insisted that the American force would not be used merely to fill gaps in the French and British armies, and he resisted European efforts to have U.S. troops deployed as individual replacements in depleted Allied units.
This approach was not always well received by the western Allied leaders who distrusted the potential of an army lacking experience in large-scale warfare. In addition, the British government tried to use its spare shipping as leverage to bring US soldiers under British operational control.

By June 1917, only 14,000 American soldiers had arrived in France, and the AEF had only a minor participation at the front up to late October 1917, but by May 1918 over one million American troops were stationed in France, though only half of them made it to the front lines.
Since the transport ships needed to bring American troops to Europe were scarce at the beginning, the U.S. Army pressed into service passenger liners, seized German ships, and borrowed Allied ships to transport American soldiers from the Hoboken Port of Embarkation with facilities in New York City and New Jersey, and  the Newport News Port of Embarkation in Virginia. The mobilization effort taxed the American military to the limit and required new organizational strategies and command structures to transport great numbers of troops and supplies quickly and efficiently. The French harbors of Bordeaux, La Pallice, Saint Nazaire, and Brest became the entry points into the French railway system that brought the American troops and their supplies to the Western Front. American engineers in France also built 82 new ship berths, nearly  of additional standard-gauge tracks, and over  of telephone and telegraph lines.

The first American troops, who were often called "Doughboys," landed in Europe in June 1917. However the AEF did not participate at the front until October 23, 1917, when the 1st Division fired the first American shell of the war toward German lines, although they participated only on a small scale. A group of regular soldiers and the first American division to arrive in France, entered the trenches near Nancy, France, in Lorraine.

I Corps was officially activated in France, under the AEF, from 15 January 1918. It include the 1st, 2nd, 26th, 32nd, 41st and 42nd Divisions. (4th Brigade, US Marine Corps, was included as part of 2nd Division.) II Corps was activated on 24 February, by which time troop numbers justified it. Initially II Corps consisted of the 27th, 30th, 33rd, 78th and 80th Divisions.

In June 1918, many component infantry units from II Corps – commanded by Maj.-Gen. George W. Read – were attached to veteran British Army or Australian Army units. This served two purposes: familiarizing the Americans with actual battlefield conditions in France, and temporarily reinforcing the British Empire units that were often severely-depleted in numbers, after more than three years of fighting. In fact, the first major operation in World War I to involve US troops concerned individual infantry platoons of the 33rd Division, which were attached to battalions of the Australian Corps for the Battle of Hamel on the 4th of July. Their involvement was voluntary and occurred despite last-minute orders from AEF headquarters, that its troops should not take part in offensive operations led by non-US generals. Thus Hamel was historically significant as the first major offensive operation during the war to involve US infantry and the first occasion on which US units had fought alongside British Empire forces.

The AEF used French and British equipment. Particularly appreciated were the French canon de 75 modèle 1897, the canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider, and the canon de 155mm GPF. American aviation units received the SPAD XIII and Nieuport 28 fighters, and the U.S. Army tank corps used French Renault FT light tanks. Pershing established facilities in France to train new arrivals with their new weapons.
By the end of 1917, four divisions were deployed in a large training area near Verdun: the 1st Division, a regular army formation; the 26th Division, a National Guard division; the 2nd Division, a combination of regular troops and U.S. Marines; and the 42nd "Rainbow" Division, a National Guard division made up of soldiers from nearly every state in the United States. The fifth division, the 41st Division, was converted into a depot division near Tours.

Logistics

Logistic operations were under the direction of Chicago banker Charles G. Dawes, with the rank first of colonel and then brigadier general. Dawes reported directly to Gen. Pershing.  Dawes recommended in May 1918 that the allies set up a joint logistics planning board, which was approved by the Allies in the form of the Military Board of Allied Supply (MBAS), which coordinated logistics and transportation on the Western and Italian fronts.

Supporting the two million soldiers across the Atlantic Ocean was a massive logistical enterprise. In order to be successful, the Americans needed to create a coherent support structure with very little institutional knowledge. The AEF developed support network appropriate for the huge size of the American force. It rested upon the Services of Supply in the rear areas, with ports, railroads, depots, schools, maintenance facilities, bakeries, clothing repair shops (termed salvage), replacement depots, ice plants, and a wide variety of other activities.

The Services of Supply initiated support techniques that would last well into the Cold War including forward maintenance, field cooking, graves registration (mortuary affairs), host nation support, motor transport, and morale services. The work of the logisticians enabled the success of the AEF and contributed to the emergence of the American Army as a modern fighting force.

African Americans

African Americans were drafted on the same basis as whites and made up 13 percent of the draftees. By the end of the war, over 350,000 African-Americans had served in AEF units on the Western Front. However, they were assigned to segregated units commanded by white officers. One fifth of the black soldiers sent to France saw combat, compared to two-thirds of the whites. They were three percent of AEF combat forces, and under two percent of battlefield fatalities. "The mass of the colored drafted men cannot be used for combatant troops", said a General Staff report in 1918, and it recommended that "these colored drafted men be organized in reserve labor battalions." They handled unskilled labor tasks as stevedores in the Atlantic ports and common laborers at the camps and in the Services of the Rear in France. The French, whose front-line troops were resisting combat duties to the point of mutiny, requested and received control of several regiments of black combat troops. Kennedy reports "Units of the black 92nd Division particularly suffered from poor preparation and the breakdown in command control. As the only black combat division, the 92nd Division entered the line with unique liabilities. It had been deliberately dispersed throughout several camps during its stateside training; some of its artillery units were summoned to France before they had completed their courses of instruction, and were never fully equipped until after the Armistice; nearly all its senior white officers scorned the men under their command and repeatedly asked to be transferred. The black enlisted men were frequently diverted from their already attenuated training opportunities in France in the summer of 1918 and put to work as stevedores and common laborers."

The 369th, 370th, 371st, and 372nd Infantry Regiments (nominally the 93d Division, but never consolidated as such) served with distinction under French command with French colonial units in front-line combat. The French did not harbor the same levels of disdain based on skin color and for many Americans of African descent it was a liberating and refreshing experience. These African-American soldiers wore American uniforms, some dating from the time of the Union Army, with French helmets and were armed with French Model 1907/15 Berthier rifle  manufactured by Remington Arms, rather than the M1903 Springfield or M1917 Enfield rifles issued to most American soldiers.  One of the most distinguished units was the 369th Infantry Regiment, known as the Harlem Hellfighters. The 369th was on the front lines for six months, longer than any other African-American regiment in the war. One hundred seventy-one members of the 369th were awarded the Legion of Merit. One member of the 369th, Sergeant Henry Johnson, was awarded the French Croix de guerre, and posthumously the Medal of Honor.

Actions during World War I

At the beginning, during the spring of 1918, the four battle-ready U.S. divisions were deployed under French and British command to gain combat experience by defending relatively quiet sectors of their lines. After the first offensive action and American-led AEF victory on 28 May 1918 at the Battle of Cantigny, by the U.S. 1st Division, and a similar local action by the 2nd Division at Belleau Wood beginning 6 June, both while assigned under French Corps command, Pershing worked towards the deployment of an independent US field Army. The rest followed at an accelerating pace during the spring and summer of 1918. By June Americans were arriving in-theater at the rate of 10,000 a day; most of which entered training by British, Canadian and Australian battle-experienced officers and senior non-commissioned ranks. The training took a minimum of six weeks due to the inexperience of the servicemen.

The first offensive action by AEF units serving under non-American command was 1,000 men (four companies from the 33d Division), with the Australian Corps during the Battle of Hamel on 4 July 1918. (Corporal Thomas A. Pope was awarded the Medal of Honor for this battle.) This battle took place under the overall command of the Australian Corps commander, Lt. Gen. Sir John Monash. The Allied force in this battle combined artillery, armor, infantry, and air support (combined arms), which served as a blueprint for all subsequent Allied attacks, using "tanks".

U.S. Army and Marine Corps troops played a key role in helping stop the German thrust towards Paris, during the Second Battle of the Marne in June 1918 (at the Battle of Château-Thierry (1918) and the Battle of Belleau Wood). The first major and distinctly American offensive was the reduction of the Saint Mihiel salient during September 1918. During the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, Pershing commanded the U.S. First Army, composed of seven divisions and more than 500,000 men, in the largest offensive operation ever undertaken by United States armed forces. This successful offensive was followed by the Meuse-Argonne offensive, lasting from September 26 to November 11, 1918, during which Pershing commanded more than one million American and French combatants. In these two military operations, Allied forces recovered more than 200 sq mi (488 km2) of French territory from the German army. By the time the World War I Armistice had suspended all combat on November 11, 1918, the American Expeditionary Forces had evolved into a modern, combat-tested army.

Late in the war, American units ultimately fought in two other theaters at the request of the European powers. Pershing sent troops of the 332d Infantry Regiment to Italy, and President Wilson agreed to send some troops, the 27th and 339th Infantry Regiments, to Russia. These latter two were known as the American Expeditionary Force Siberia, and the American Expeditionary Force North Russia.

Casualties

The AEF sustained about 320,000 casualties: 53,402 battle deaths, 63,114 noncombat deaths and 204,000 wounded. Relatively few men suffered actual injury from poison gas, although much larger numbers mistakenly thought that they had been exposed. The 1918 influenza pandemic during the fall of 1918 took the lives of more than 25,000 men from the AEF, while another 360,000 became gravely ill.

Demobilization
After the Armistice of November 11, 1918 thousands of Americans were sent home and demobilized. On July 27, 1919, the number of soldiers discharged amounted to 3,028,487 members of the military, and only 745,845 left in the American Expeditionary Forces.

American Expeditionary Forces University at Beaune
The AEF established the American Expeditionary Forces University at Beaune, complete with its own chapter of Phi Beta Kappa. Faculty included Walter M. Chandler, a Progressive Party member and, later, a Republican Party member of the U.S. House of Representatives from the State of New York. Botanist Edwin Blake Payson was also an instructor there.

See also
 Bonus Army
 Formations of the United States Army during World War I

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

 Awards and Decorations: World War I Statistics
 Ayres, Leonard P,  The War with Germany: A Statistical Summary Government Printing Office, 1919 full text online
 Barbeau, Arthur E. and Florette Henri, The Unknown Soldiers: Black American Troops in World War I (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1974),
 Beaver, Daniel R. Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917–1919 (1966)
 CMH Pub 24-1: "Learning Lessons in the American Expeditionary Forces"
 Chambers, John W., II. To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (1987)
 Chapter 17: "World War I: The First Three Years"
 Chapter 18: "World War I: The U.S. Army Overseas"

Cooke, James J., The Rainbow Division in the Great War, 1917–1919 Praeger Publishers, (1994)
 Dalessandro, Robert J. & Dalessandro, Rebecca S. American Lions: The 332nd Infantry Regiment in World War I (Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2009)
 Dalessandro, Robert J., & Knapp, Michael G., "Organization and Insignia of the American Expeditionary Forces, 1917–1923" (Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2008) The best single volume on AEF unit organization.
 Dalessandro, Robert J. & Gerald Torrence, "Willing Patriots: Men of Color in the First World War" (Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2009)
 Davenport, Matthew J. "First Over There: The Attack on Cantigny America's First Battle of World War I" (New York, Thomas Dunne: 2015)
 Faulkner, Richard S. Pershing's Crusaders: The American Soldier in World War I (U Press of Kansas, 2017). xiv, 758 pp
 Freidel, Frank. Over There (1964), well illustrated
 Grotelueschen; Mark E. Doctrine under Trial: American Artillery Employment in World War I (2001)  (full text version at Google Books)
 Hallas, James H. Doughboy War: The American Expeditionary Force in World War I (2000)
 Heller Charles E. Chemical Warfare in World War I. The American Experience, 1917–1918. Fort Leavenworth, Kan.: Combat Studies Institute, 1984.
 Hirrel, Leo P. "Supporting the Doughboys: US Army Logistics and Personnel During World War I." Ft. Leavenworth, KS Combat Studies Institute, 2017. online at no charge
 Holley, I. B. Ideas and Weapons: Exploitation of the Aerial Weapon by the United States During World War I (1983)
 Howarth, Stephen. To Shining Sea: A History of the United States Navy, 1775–1991 (1991)
 Hurley, Alfred F. Billy Mitchell, Crusader for Air Power (1975)
 James, D. Clayton. The Years of MacArthur, I, 1880–1941. (1970)
 Johnson; Herbert A. Wingless Eagle: U.S. Army Aviation through World War I University of North Carolina Press, (2001)
 Kennedy, David M. Over Here: The First World War and American Society (1982)
 Koistinen, Paul. Mobilizing for Modern War: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1865–1919 (2004)

 Lengel, Edward G., ed. A Companion to the Meuse-Argonne Campaign (Wiley-Blackwell, 2014). xii, 537 pp.
 Millett, Allan Reed. Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps (1991)
 Pershing, John J. Pershing, My Experiences in the World War (1931)
 Smythe, Donald. Pershing: General of the Armies (1986)
 Trask, David F. The United States in the Supreme War Council: American War Aims and Inter-Allied Strategy, 1917–1918 (1961)
  Trask, David F. The AEF and Coalition Warmaking, 1917–1918 (1993) online free
 Van Ells, Mark D. America and World War I: A Traveler's Guide. (Interlink, 2014)
 Venzon, Anne ed. The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1995)
 Wilson Dale E. Treat 'Em Rough: The Birth of American Armor, 1917–1920 Presidio Press, 1989.
 Woodward, David R. Trial by Friendship: Anglo-American Relations, 1917–1918 (1993) online
 Woodward, David R. The American Army and the First World War(Armies of the Great War) Cambridge University Press, 2014. 484 pp. online review

 Yockelson, Mitchell. Forty-Seven Days: How Pershing's Warriors Came of Age to Defeat at the German Army in World War I (New York: NAL, Caliber, 2016)
 Zeiger; Susan. In Uncle Sam's Service: Women Workers with the American Expeditionary Force, 1917–1919 (1999)

External links

Government
 Records of the American Expeditionary Forces (World War I) at the National Archives
General information
 American Expeditionary Forces at UASWW1.com

1917 establishments in France
1920 disestablishments in Washington, D.C.
Disbanded armies
Expeditionary units and formations
Military units and formations of the United States in World War I
Military units and formations established in 1917
Military units and formations disestablished in 1920

American Expeditionary Forces


The Suicide Club is a collection of three 19th century detective fiction short stories by Robert Louis Stevenson that combine to form a single narrative. First published in  the London Magazine in 1878, they were collected and republished in the first volume of the New Arabian Nights.

The trilogy introduces the characters of Prince Florizel of Bohemia and his sidekick Colonel Geraldine. In this cycle they infiltrate a secret society of people intent on losing their lives.

It has been described as: "The Prince's investigation of the macabre club and its criminally inclined president makes for one of Stevenson's most exciting and suspenseful tales."

The cycle has been adapted for stage, film and television on a number of occasions.

Plot summary
The three short stories that form this cycle are as follows.

Story of the Young Man with the Cream Tarts
The story is set in Victorian London, where Prince Florizel of Bohemia and Colonel Geraldine roam in search of adventure. They dine incognito in a London oyster bar where they are surprised to be accosted by a young man distributing cream tarts for free. Intrigued by this idiosyncratic behaviour they invite him to dinner where he reveals the existence of the Suicide Club, for men who want to end their lives, but are not capable of doing that, or do not want to shock their relatives by their suicide. Florizel and Geraldine claim to want to end their lives too, and become members. It turns out that during each gathering of the club two members, excluding the president, are selected at random: one who will be killed, and one to do the killing; the president then instructs the person to be killed where to go, and the killer how to do the killing in such a way that it looks like an accident. Florizel and Geraldine are appalled by the first killing since their membership, and even more by the fact that the second time Florizel is selected to be killed. Geraldine saves him and arranges that servants of Florizel capture the club members. Florizel  decides to help the club members to become happy, but also to dispatch the president abroad in the custody of Geraldine's younger brother, to be killed by the latter.

Story of the Physician and the Saratoga Trunk
The second story in the cycle is set in the Latin Quarter of Paris where an American tourist finds himself embroiled in a dastardly plot.

In the story, while lodging in Paris naïve young Silas Q. Scuddamore is lured away by a beautiful young lady who promises a secret assignation but fails to appear. Returning to his hotel dejected he is shocked to discover a dead man in his bed. Kindly neighbour Dr. Noel arranges for Scuddamore and the body (concealed in a Saratoga trunk) to be smuggled to London in the company of Prince Florizel. Once in London, Florizel discovers the plot and reveals the victim to be Geraldine's younger brother who has been murdered by the President of the Suicide Club in his escape from custody.

The Adventure of the Hansom Cab
The third and final story in the cycle is set in the gas-lit streets of Victorian era London where a retired British soldier looks for adventure.

In the story, former Lieutenant Brackenbury Rich is beckoned into the back of an elegantly appointed Hansom by a mysterious cabman who whisks him off to a party. There the host continuously assesses his various guests and asks them to depart until only a handful are left. The host then reveals himself to be Colonel Geraldine and invites Rich to join him on a secret mission. They travel to a discreet location where Prince Florizel, with the assistance of Dr. Noel, has finally ensnared the President of the Suicide Club. The Prince challenges the President to a duel to the death and emerges victorious.

Adaptations
1909: American Mutoscope and Biograph Company acquired the film rights in 1908 and director D. W. Griffith used the concept of the suicide club as the basis of his 4-minute short The Suicide Club but the plot bore little resemblance to Stevenson's stories.

1913: A 40-minute German version Der Geheimnisvolle Klub

1914: A British version The Suicide Club (1914) starring
Montagu Love as Prince Florizel.

1919: Richard Oswald directed another German movie version as the fourth segment of Unheimliche Geschichten (1919) starring Anita Berber and Conrad Veidt as Club President.

1929: Canadian playwright and theatrical manager Hugh Abercrombie Anderson successfully adapted the work for the stage, receiving good reviews.

1932: Oswald remade his film of 1919 retaining the title Unheimliche Geschichten but with a new cast led by Paul Wegener. Footage from this film was later edited into Dr. Terror's House of Horrors (1943).

1936: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer adapted the story for Trouble for Two starring Robert Montgomery as Prince Florizel, Frank Morgan as Colonel Geraldine, Reginald Owen as President of the Club and with the addition of a female love interest played by Rosalind Russell.

1946: A Chilean movie entitled La Dama de la muerte directed by Carlos Hugo Christensen and starring Guillermo Battaglia and Carlos Cores. Footage from this film was later edited into Curse of the Stone Hand (1964).

1947: Radio program Murder at Midnight on January 6, 1947. Adaptation entitled "The Ace of Death".

1947: CBS radio Escape on November 12, 1947. Adapted only "The Young Man with the Cream Tarts" portion.

1950: CBS Television series Suspense season 2, episode 24, on 14 February 1950;

1956: ABC Radio ABC Mystery Time on June 7, 1956. "The Suicide Club". Adapted only "The Young Man with the Cream Tarts" portion.

1956: NBC TV series Lilli Palmer Theatre
episode 12, directed by Dennis Vance on 12 December 1956;

1960: NBC TV series The Chevy Mystery Show episode 17, starring Cesar Romero and Everett Sloane on 18 September 1960;

1963: Ziv Television Programs TV series Ripcord episode  72, "The Suicide Club", starring Larry Pennell and Ken Curtis;

1970: Thames Television series Mystery and Imagination season 5, episode 1, starring Bernard Archard as President of the Club on 9 February 1970.

1970: A Mexican adaptation entitled El Club de los suicidasstarring Enrique Guzmán.

1973: ABC Wide World of Mystery, Suicide Club broadcast February 13, 1973, adapted by Philip H. Reisman Jr., and starring Peter Haskell, Margot Kidder, and Joseph Wiseman.

1974: CBS Radio Mystery Theatre "The Suicide Club". Episode #87, broadcast May 7, starring Barry Nelson, Marian Seldes, John Baragrey, Dan Ocko, Lloyd Batista. Adapted by George Lowthar.

1981: A Soviet adaptation entitled The Suicide Club, or the Adventures of a Titled Person starring Oleg Dal as Prince Florizel and Donatas Banionis as Chairman of the Club.

1988: An independent film version: The Suicide Club starring Mariel Hemingway updated the story to modern times.

2000: The Suicide Club starring Jonathan Pryce chose a more traditional setting but abandoned much of the original story.

2003:  A Czech TV movie entitled Bankrotáři was broadcast by Česká televize on 26 December 2003.<

2007: Roberto Santiago directed a Spanish adaptation entitled El Club de los suicidas starring Fernando Tejero and Lucía Jiménez.

2011: Playwright Jeffrey Hatcher adapted elements of the stories but changed the heroes to Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson in Sherlock Holmes and the Adventure of the Suicide Club.

2017: Steven Philip Jones and John Ross adapted elements of the stories for their sequel to Bram Stoker's Dracula, Dracula: The Suicide Club published by Caliber Comics.

Publication history
1878, UK, London Magazine, Pub date Jun-Oct 1878, Periodical
1882, UK, Chatto & Windus, Pub date 1882, Hardback
1924 UK, Heinemann, vol one of collected works of Stevenson, Tusitala edition. Hardback.
1928, Macmillan Pocket Classics edition, illustrated by H.R..Millar, calf leather hardback.
1948 UK, Pan Books Ltd The Suicide Club And Other Adventures Of Prince Florizel  (includes the Rajah's Diamond stories) Paperback Printed by L DANEL Lille, France
1985, UK, Puffin , Pub date Aug 1997, Paperback
1991, USA, Carroll & Graf , Pub date Sep 1991, Hardback
2000, USA, Dover Publications, Inc. , Pub date 2000, Paperback

References

External links

The New Arabian Nights scanned at Archive.org.

1878 short story collections
Detective fiction short story collections
Short stories about suicide
Scottish short story collections
Short story collections by Robert Louis Stevenson
Works originally published in The London Magazine
Chatto & Windus books

The Suicide Club (short story collection)


Wazmo Nariz (born Larry Grennan in Chicago, Illinois) was a quirky new wave singer and songwriter.  His first success came with an independent single, "Tele-tele-telephone" which was recorded and released on the independent Chicago label Fiction Records in 1978. The single was picked up and was one of Stiff Records' early releases in the UK. They released an EP the next year and I.R.S. Records founder Miles Copeland III signed Wazmo and his band to Illegal Records/I.R.S. The signing resulted in the full-length LP Things Aren't Right  and featured the single "Checking Out The Checkout Girl" which received some airplay around the Midwestern U.S. as well as on WPIX-FM in New York City.  Further success was limited and there were no other Illegal Records/I.R.S. releases for Wazmo Nariz.

Wazmo Nariz's next recording was the Big Records release Tell Me How To Live.  The album cover was designed by Rick Landerman, who also designed logos and posters for him. Again, success was limited and five years went by before another recording was released, this time a 12" single "Yahoo Eeeee".

In 1983 Wazmo briefly served as one of the first hosts of the MTV alternative music program, I.R.S. Records Presents The Cutting Edge.  "Checking Out the Checkout Girl" is included on the 1989 I.R.S. compilation album These People Are Nuts!

In keeping with Wazmo's quirky reputation, the album cover for "Things Aren't Right" (displayed on the show) has a cover photo that is slightly off-center. Nariz's trademark was his tendency to wear two neckties side by side.

Wazmo has worked with Stan Ridgway under his real name, Larry Grennan, along with his drummer Bruce Zelesnik. Zelesnik performed as a permanent member of Stan's band starting in 2002.

On the March 14, 2017 broadcast of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, Wazmo's song "Checking Out the Checkout Girl" was sampled as part of the humorous "Do Not Play List" segment.

Wazmo Nariz band members:
Jeff Hill - Guitar and backing vocals
Bruce Zelesnik - Drums
Jeff Boynton - Keyboards
James E.McGreevy III - Bass

References

External links
Wazmo Nariz biography at I.R.S. Corner (archived January 31, 2017)
Wazmo Nariz at CheapTrashNYC
"The Secret History of Chicago Music: Wazmo Nariz", Chicago Reader, May 2, 2012.

American male singers
American new wave musicians
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Singers from Chicago

Wazmo Nariz


George Franklin Dales Jr. (August 13, 1927 – April 25, 1992), was an archaeology professor at the University of Pennsylvania, and later the University of California, Berkeley, where he chaired the South and Southeast Asian Studies department. He was considered a leading expert on Indus valley peoples and their languages.

Early life
Dales was born in Akron. He received his bachelor's degree in classical studies in 1953 from the University of Akron. In 1960, he earned his Ph.D.  from the University of Pennsylvania, where he studied the history, art and archeology of the ancient Middle East and the cuneiform scripts of the Sumerian, Akkadian and Hurrian languages. The title of his Ph.D. dissertation was Mesopotamian and Related Female Figurines: Their Chronology, Diffusion and Cultural Functions.

Career
Dales served in the Marine Corps in China from 1945 to 1948. He spent 30 seasons of archeological excavations, starting at Nippur in 1957. Later, he excavated a number of the Indus Valley civilization sites. In 1959, he conducted an archeological survey in the Bandar Abbas region of southern Iran. In 1960, he made a coastal survey (along with his wife Barabara, T. Cuyler Young, Jr and M.R. Mughal) that showed archeological evidence of trade routes on the Makran coast of Pakistan. In 1964-65, he excavated at Mohenjo Daro for one season. Between 1973 and 1979, Dales excavated at the Indus Valley civilization site of Balakot. From 1961 to 1963 he was a special lecturer at the University of Toronto, Canada. He then returned to the University of Pennsylvania as Assistant (1963–66) and then Associate (1966–72) Curator-in-Charge of the South Asia section of The University Museum, with concurrent appointments as Assistant and Associate Professor in the South Asia Regional Studies Department (where he was Co-Chairman in 1970-71).

At the University of California, Berkeley
In 1972, Dales joined the faculty of the University of California, Berkeley as a member of the Department of Near Eastern Studies. A year later this appointment was adjusted to a half-time appointment in the Department of Near Eastern Studies and a half-time appointment in the Department of South and Southeast Asian Studies. This latter arrangement permitted him to offer courses in both ancient Near Eastern and ancient South Asian archaeology and history. From April 1979 through December 1980, he chaired the Department of South and Southeast Asian Studies. He was also the Chairman of Berkeley's Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies from 1980 to 1982.

Harappa Archeological Research Project
In 1986, he became one of the co-directors of the Harappa Archeological Research Project, involving a number of universities and institutions. He died in 1992 at Berkeley.

Works
Dales published more than 80 articles and monographs. His works include Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan: The Pottery (1986), co-authored with his student, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer.  This work was published by the University of Pennsylvania. The definitive account of his 1960 survey on the Makran coast of Pakistan, written in the form of an illustrated journal was the last manuscript to be completed by him before his death. This latter work was published by the Archaeological Research Facility of the University of California, Berkeley, in 1992, entitled, Explorations on the Makran coast, Pakistan: A search for paradise.

Notes

References
 "George F. Dales Jr., UC Archaeology Professor", San Jose Mercury News, April 24, 1992, obituary
 "George F. Dales Jr.", San Francisco Chronicle, April 24, 1992, obituary
 "Prof. George F. Dales Jr.", Newsday, April 27, 1992, obituary

External links
 American Institute of Pakistan Studies website

1927 births
1992 deaths
University of Akron alumni
University of Pennsylvania alumni
University of California, Berkeley College of Letters and Science faculty
University of Pennsylvania faculty
American Sindhologists
Archaeologists of the Indus Valley civilisation
20th-century American archaeologists
People from Akron, Ohio

George F. Dales


The Time Traveller was one of the earliest science fiction fanzines, started in 1932.  It grew out of a New York City fan club called the Scienceers and was started by Mort Weisinger, Julius Schwartz, Allen Glasser, and Forrest J Ackerman. Initially, Glasser was the "Editor" of the zine, Weisinger "Associate Editor," Schwartz "Managing Editor," and Ackerman "Contributing Editor." (Three of the four editors were 15–17 years old at the time. Allen Glasser was born in 1908.)

According to SF historian Sam Moskowitz, The Time Traveller was the first fanzine to be devoted exclusively to science fiction. It went through a series of incarnations and title switches (Science Fiction Digest; Fantasy Magazine) before it ceased publication in January 1937. The zine's chief claim to fame was its publication of a 17-part round-robin story called Cosmos (July 1933 – December 1934), each part written by a different writer. The roster of Cosmos writers included many of the leading lights of SF, fantasy, horror, and adventure fiction in that era, including A. Merritt, E.E. "Doc" Smith, Edmond Hamilton, John W. Campbell, E. Hoffmann Price, and Otis Adelbert Kline. The others involved were David H. Keller, P. Schuyler Miller, Arthur J. Burks, Ralph Milne Farley, "Eando Binder," Francis Flagg, Lloyd Arthur Eshbach, Bob Olsen, J. Harvey Haggard, and Abner J. Gelula; Raymond A. Palmer wrote one installment under his own name, and another under the pseudonym "Rae Winters." Hamilton composed the final episode of the serial, and finished with a bang, destroying the planets Pluto, Neptune, and Uranus with an atomic disintegrator ray.

References
Moskowitz, Sam. Seekers of Tomorrow: Masters of Modern Science Fiction. World Publishing, Cleveland, Ohio, 1966. Ballantine Books, New York, 1967; pp. 109–14.
Schwartz, Julius, with Brian M. Thomsen. Man of Two Worlds: My life in Science Fiction and Comics. HarperCollins Publishers, New York, 2000; pp. 10–22.

External links
The Cosmos Project - Bringing to life the Cosmos sci-fi serial novel

Science fiction fanzines
Hugo Award-winning works
Magazines established in 1932
Magazines disestablished in 1937
Defunct science fiction magazines published in the United States
Magazines published in New York City

The Time Traveller (fanzine)


Nigeria na kontri inside West Africa, wey e dey share land borders with di Republic of Benin to the west, Chad and Cameroon to the east, and Niger to the north. Its coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the south and it borders Lake Chad to the northeast. Di meni-meni ogbonge beter place inside Nigeria an di Adamawa Plateau, Mambilla Plateau, Jos Plateau, Obudu Plateau, di Niger River, Benue River, and Niger Delta.

See also

 Climate change in Nigeria

Geography of Nigeria


Cephalotaxus hainanensis is a species of conifer known by the common name Hainan plum-yew. It is endemic to the island of Hainan in southern China. It is possibly a synonym of Cephalotaxus mannii.

This species grows in warmer temperate and subtropical rainforest habitat. When mature it is a tree 10 to 20 meters tall. It is sometimes a dominant species in the local ecosystem.

C. hainanensis is suggested to have antileukemia activity, and is widely used as an herbal remedy in China. Exploitation of the bark and leaves is a potential threat to this species. Logging has historically been a cause of its decline, but as logging is no longer allowed on Hainan, much of the pressure is currently from illegal harvesting for Chinese remedies.

References

Trees of China
Endemic flora of China
hainanensis
Endangered plants
Plants described in 1953

Cephalotaxus hainanensis


Desonide (INN) is a low-potency topical corticosteroid anti-inflammatory that has been available since the 1970s.  It is primarily used to treat atopic dermatitis (eczema), seborrheic dermatitis, contact dermatitis and psoriasis in both adults and children. It has a fairly good safety profile and is available as a cream, ointment, lotion, and as a foam under the tradename Verdeso Foam. Other trade names for creams, lotions, and ointments include Tridesilon, DesOwen, Desonate. It is a group VI corticosteroid under US classification, the second least potent group.

Medical uses
Desonide is a prescription topical treatment for redness, swelling, itching, and discomfort of various skin conditions. Regardless of the vehicle used, desonide is applied 2 to 3 times a day, at the same times each day. Skin conditions typically improve in the first two weeks of treatment. Patients are instructed to use desonide for the minimum amount of time necessary for conditions to improve.

Adverse effects
The safety of desonide has not been determined beyond 4 weeks of use. Patients with allergies to corticosteroids (like hydrocortisone or prednisone) should use caution when taking desonide. Pharmacists and prescribing physicians should be aware that this medication may contain inactive ingredients than can cause allergic reactions.

Desonide should not be used if there is an infection or open wound in the treatment area.

Systemic absorption of topical corticosteroids can produce adverse effects. Indication of Cushing's syndrome, hyperglycemia, and glycosuria have been observed in some patients receiving treatment. After stopping treatment, reversible hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis suppression with the potential for glucocorticosteroid insufficiency is possible. The cosyntropin (ACTH1-24) laboratory test can evaluate patients for HPA axis suppression. HPA function can be reversed after the cessation of treatment or replacement with another less potent corticosteroid. If glucocorticosteroid insufficiency occurs, supplemental systemic corticosteroids may be required.

Side effects of desonide requiring immediate contact with the prescribing physician:
 Blistering, burning, crusting, dryness, or flaking of the skin
 burning, itching, redness, skin rash, swelling, or soreness at the application site
 flushing or redness of the skin
 irritation
 itching, scaling, severe redness, soreness, or swelling of the skin
 peeling of the skin
 raised, dark red, wart-like spots on the skin, especially when used on the face
 stinging and burning
 unusually warm skin

Side effects that may go away as the body adjusts to the medication:
 Body aches or pain
 chills
 cough
 difficulty with breathing
 ear congestion
 fever
 headache
 loss of voice
 nasal congestion
 runny nose
 sneezing
 sore throat
 unusual tiredness or weakness

Pregnancy
The FDA has labeled desonide as pregnancy category C. Desonide should only be used during pregnancy when absolutely necessary.

Breastfeeding
It is currently unknown whether topical application of Desonide can pass into breast milk. Similar drugs taken orally have been seen to pass into breast milk. The prescribing doctor should be consulted prior to breast-feeding.

Mechanism of action
Desonide is a synthetic nonfluorinated corticosteroid; topical corticosteroids have anti-inflammatory, antipruritic, and vasoconstrictive properties. The mechanism of these properties, however, is unclear for the dermal route of administration. Following absorption through the skin, corticosteroids follow pharmacokinetic pathways similarly to intravenously administered corticosteroids. The mechanism of corticosteroids is thought to induce phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins (lipocortins). Lipocortins control the biosynthesis of inflammation mediators, like prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Lipocortins can inhibit the common precursor of inflammation mediators, arachidonic acid.

Interactions

Common medications causing a minor negative drug interaction include: Insulin and Metformin. Common medications checked in combination, but that are not known to create a negative drug interaction, include: Aspirin, Cymbalta (duloxetine), Fish Oil, Acetaminophen, Vitamin B12, Vitamin C, Vitamin D3, and Zyrtec.

History
Desonide was first introduced in the United States under the trade name Tridesilon by Dome Laboratories in 1972. Since the discovery in the United States, several other countries have introduced different brand names of desonide, including Italy, Spain, United Kingdom, and Germany. The FDA first approved Connetics Corporation's Verdeso Foam®
on September 16, 2006. Just shortly after, the FDA approved SkinMedica Inc.'s
Desonate® hydrogel delivery vehicle on October 20, 2006.

Desonate® gel is currently manufactured by Bayer HealthCare
Pharmaceuticals Inc. in Whippany, NJ. DesOwen® creams, ointments, and lotions
are currently manufactured by DPT Laboratories, Ltd. in San Antonio Texas and
is marketed by Galderma Laboratories. Other suppliers for the generic desonide
include Rebel Distributors Corp and Perrigo New York Inc.

Research and clinical trials
Desonate was approved by the FDA following two major clinical trials in 2006. Each randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study enrolled 582 pediatric patients (between the ages of 3 months and 18 years).  The patient was topically administered the drug or placebo two times a day for four weeks. Using the Investigator's Global Severity Score (IGSS), the treatment was considered successful if at Week 4 there was at least a two (2) point decrease from the patient's baseline IGSS. In clinical trial 1, 44% of patients succeeded successful treatment of Desonate versus 14% treated with the placebo. In clinical trial 2, 28% of patients succeeded successful treatment of Desonate versus 6% treated with the placebo.

The FDA approved Tridesilon for the following treatments: Contact Dermatitis, Rhus Dermatitis, Eczema, Dermatitis, Discoid Lupus Erythematosus, Granuloma Annulare, Seborrheic Dermatitis, Polymorphous Light Eruption, Pruritus, Psoriasis, Lichen Simplex, Atopic Dermatitis, Lichen Planus, Xerosis, Exfoliative Dermatitis.

Recently, in late 2014, phase 3 clinical trials were completed to evaluate treatments using Desonide cream versus amino acid moisturizing cream. Patients with eczema or atopic dermatitis could be enrolled in this study, both male and female, over the age of 18. The randomized, double-blind, active control, 5-week study compared the effects of treatment of both creams through twice-a-day application. The clinical trial is sponsored by NeoStrata Company, Inc.

No research has been completed to evaluate the carcinogenic or photoco-carcinogenic potential of desonide. Additionally, no research has been completed to determine the effect on fertility. These are current opportunities for improvement to learn more about the risks and benefits associated with desonide.

Regulatory
The first US. patent for desonide was US4185100A was granted on January 22, 1980. The patent was for topical anti-inflammatory treatment using desonide. The patent defends the suitability of the anti-inflammatory for the treatment of cutaneous disorders or disruptions characterized by skin inflammation and/or hyperproliferative activity in the epidermis. Side effects and the mechanism of action are both disclosed. This patent is currently expired.

References

Acetonides
Corticosteroid cyclic ketals
Corticosteroids
Glucocorticoids
Pregnanes

Desonide


Henry Shaw (July 24, 1800, in Sheffield, England – August 25, 1889, in St. Louis, Missouri) was a businessman, amateur botanist, and slave owner in St. Louis, MO when it was a gateway city to the West. His businesses supplied residents, pioneers and others. Having made his fortune, he was able to retire at age 40, pursue his interest in botany, and used much of his fortune in philanthropy. He is best known as the founder of the Missouri Botanical Garden, but he also donated the land to the city for Tower Grove Park and oversaw its development. He donated funds to several other city institutions as well.

Early life

Shaw was born on July 24, 1800, in Sheffield, England, which had been a center of iron and steel manufacturing. Henry's father, Joseph Shaw, had moved to Sheffield as a young man to open his own iron factory, along with a partner. The firm manufactured grates, fire irons and so forth. Henry was the oldest of four children in the family. He had two sisters, Sarah and Caroline, and a brother who died in infancy. Shaw received his primary school education in the village of Thone near his home in Sheffield. When he was about ten or eleven,  he was transferred to the Mill Hill School near London. He studied at this boarding school for about six years, before returning home to Sheffield in 1816 or 1817.

Shaw was taken out of school because of his father's financial difficulties. While he had been away at school, his father's business had come upon hard times. The family could no longer afford to send Henry to the expensive school with other children of the upper classes. But in his time at Mill Hill School, Shaw had gained the basic education of an English gentleman. He had studied the classics, learned some Latin and Greek, and studied French. He also studied mathematics and was introduced to the sciences. More importantly, he acquired the attitudes and outlook of an English gentleman, and a polish he would continue to have even after decades of life in the United States.

Business career

On his return to Sheffield, Shaw began to assist his father with the business. Searching for new markets, the elder Shaw turned his sights on the vast markets of the Americas. Iron and steel manufacturing in the former colonies was not as advanced as in England, and Sheffield steel products were some of the finest in the world. In 1818, Henry accompanied his father on his first trip across the Atlantic Ocean, where the pair did business in Quebec, Canada. Young Henry must have impressed his father with his business acumen because the next year he was sent to New Orleans alone on business.

A shipment of goods to New Orleans had been lost or misplaced, and Shaw was sent to find the shipment. Although he recovered the goods, he could not find a buyer in New Orleans. With the business acumen and entrepreneurial spirit that was to mark his adult life, Shaw was determined to find a market for the goods in the interior of the country. Vast territories of the American Midwest had been opened up in the previous decade by the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the United States. In about 1817, New Orleans had become the gateway to this area by the first steam-powered paddlewheel riverboat that made its way up the Mississippi River from the port of New Orleans.

In the Spring of 1819, Henry Shaw purchased passage for himself and his goods on a steamship called the Maid of Orleans. The trip, which took 40 days, cost Shaw $120. On May 3, 1819, Shaw landed in a small French village on the west side of the Mississippi called St. Louis. At the time, the village was about fifty years old. It ran about three blocks deep for about a mile along the bank of the river. Shaw set up a hardware store in St. Louis, selling high quality cutlery and other metal products. His first storefront was at Four North Main, on the west side of the street between Market and Chestnut. The goods were purchased by Shaw's uncle, James Hoole, in Sheffield and shipped to St. Louis. Hoole also provided the initial capital for the business. It turned out to be a good investment, as it was a good time to be in the hardware business in St. Louis.

During the two decades Shaw operated his business, roughly 1819 to 1839, St. Louis grew quite rapidly. Shaw sold his goods to the people of St. Louis, to soldiers and farmers, and to the other new immigrants to the area. He also found a ready market in the pioneers making their way to the open lands of the West. Many of the pioneers moving westward were outfitted in St. Louis before moving West. Shaw carried the kind of hardware, tools and cutlery they would need to make the trip and set up a new homestead. As his business went well, he continued to buy land on the outskirts of the city.

Slave ownership
Missouri was a slave state, and Shaw acquired enslaved African Americans as workers by 1828 for his working farm land. He also had several slaves working as domestic servants. He owned as many as eleven slaves at a time. In June 2020, the Missouri Botanical Garden shared a Facebook post with the names of some of Shaw's slaves: Peach, Juliette, Bridgette, Joseph, Jim, Sarah, Tabitha and her daughter Sarah, Ester and her children. In 1855, four of Shaw's slaves escaped but were caught as they crossed the Mississippi River. Esther and her children were trying to get to the free state of Illinois where they hoped to connect with helpers to travel further north on the Underground Railroad. Shaw consequently sold Esther south to Vicksburg, Mississippi, separating her from her children. A census record reveals that Shaw had eight slaves in 1860.

Retirement

By the age of 40, Shaw was one of the largest landholders in the city and was able to retire. This gave him the freedom to travel and to pursue his great interest in botany. Following his retirement, Shaw travelled extensively for years. He returned to St. Louis in 1851. He engaged architect George I. Barnett (who later also designed Shaw's mausoleum) to design and build Tower Grove House, which became the center of his estate. Working with leading botanists, Shaw planned, funded and built what would become the Missouri Botanical Garden on the land around his home. As the garden became more extensive, Shaw decided to open it to the general public in 1859.

Shaw donated additional land adjoining the garden to the city of St. Louis for Tower Grove Park. He helped with its construction, including the pavilions and various works of art. He gave the city a school and land for a hospital. He endowed Washington University in St. Louis School of Botany, and helped found the Missouri Historical Society. Shaw died in 1889 and is buried in a mausoleum surrounded by a grove of trees on the grounds of the gardens he founded. He is widely remembered for his generosity and philanthropy. Over 100 years after his death, many who visit the Missouri Botanical Gardens still refer to it affectionately as "Shaw's Garden" or "Hank's Garden".
For his philanthropic work, Shaw has been recognized with a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame.

References

External links

Missouri Botanical Garden
Historical Timeline
Henry Shaw's entry, St. Louis Walk of Fame

1800 births
1889 deaths
American botanists
Businesspeople from St. Louis
Businesspeople from Sheffield
People educated at Mill Hill School
English emigrants to the United States
Botanists with author abbreviations
Missouri Botanical Garden directors
American nonprofit executives
19th-century American philanthropists
19th-century American businesspeople
19th-century English businesspeople

Henry Shaw (philanthropist)


Bellahøj is an area situated 5 kilometres to the northwest of central Copenhagen, Denmark. It features the Bellahøj Houses, a functionalist housing project, as well as parkland with an open-air theatre. The 37 metre high hill situated in Bellahøj Park is the highest point in Copenhagen. The area offers an extensive view over the skyline of Copenhagen.

History and description
King Charles X Gustav of Sweden's fortified camp Carlstad was located at the site during his siege of Copenhagen from 1658 to 1660. The area later belonged to a farm which moved out from the village of Utterslev in 1791.  The estate was acquired by Copenhagen Municipality in 1932. The area was used for agricultural shows between 1938 and 1967. The old farmhouse was converted into a restaurant in 1938 and is still used as such. Copenhagen Municipality sold the building in 2005

The Bellahøj Houses contains 28 tower blocks. Each block has between 9 and 13 floors. The housing project was among the earliest in Scandinavia. It was completed in 1956.

The park contains an open-air theatre which was built from surplus earth from the construction of the Bellahøj Houses in the 1950s. It was designed by Carl Theodor Sørensen and seats 2,000 spectators.

In 1965, Copenhagen Municipality built an exhibition centre, Bella Center, which kept its name when it moved to its current location on Amager in 1975. The old building is now used as a sports centre under the name Grøndal MultiCenter.

Other buildings in the area include Bellahøj School, a hostel and Bellahøj Swimming Centre.

The park also contains three or four burial mounds from the Bronze Age.

In the southeastern corner is a small wooded area. The trees are mainly beech and ash.

The Copenhagen Historic Grand Prix auto race is held on the streets of Bellahøj.

References

External links

Information on Bellahøj
Bellahøj Huse

Brønshøj-Husum

Bellahøj


Oswaldo "Ozz" Negri Jr. (born May 29, 1964) is a Brazilian racing driver from São Paulo.

Racing career

Formula Three and Indy Lights
He raced part-time in the British Formula Three Championship from 1987 to 1989 with few good results. He returned to his native Brazil in 1990 to race in Brazilian Formula Three Championship, where he won the championship, and Formula 3 Sudamericana where he finished 9th. With newfound confidence he returned to British F3 in 1992 and finished 4th. In 1993 he went to the Mexican Formula Three Championship and raced there until 1996. In 1997 he raced in Indy Lights part-time for Genoa Racing and finished 20th. In 1998 he won the Mexican version of Indy Lights, Indy Lights Panamericana. He made one Indy Lights start in 1999 and finished 3rd in Indy Lights Panamericana in 2000.

Grand-Am sports cars

Negri moved to sports car racing in 2003 racing in the Grand-Am Rolex Sports Car Series. He joined Michael Shank Racing and raced full-time in the series in 2004 and finished 12th in points, winning the league's rising star award which he shared with Max Angelelli. He captured his first victory in 2006 at Miller Motorsports Park and finished second in the 24 Hours of Daytona. He finished 8th in points in both 2006 and 2007. In 2008 he finished 10th, winning in the first race held at the New Jersey Motorsports Park. He stayed with the team in 2009 and finished 8th in points. In 2010 he finished 10th in points and in 2011 improved to a career-best sixth. He won the 24 Hours of Daytona in 2012 for Michael Shank Racing with teammates A. J. Allmendinger, John Pew, and Justin Wilson. It was his first Rolex Sports Car Series win since 2008.

Racing record

Complete American Open Wheel racing results
(key)

Indy Lights

IMSA WeatherTech SportsCar Championship series results

* Season still in progress

24 Hours of Le Mans results

External links

1964 births
Living people
Racing drivers from São Paulo
Brazilian racing drivers
24 Hours of Daytona drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
Rolex Sports Car Series drivers
Indy Lights drivers
Mexican Formula Three Championship drivers
Formula 3 Sudamericana drivers
British Formula Three Championship drivers
Brazilian WeatherTech SportsCar Championship drivers
Stock Car Brasil drivers
European Le Mans Series drivers
Brazilian Formula Three Championship drivers
Meyer Shank Racing drivers
AF Corse drivers
Le Mans Cup drivers
International GT Open drivers

Oswaldo Negri Jr.


Yun Zi () is a male giant panda born at the San Diego Zoo on August 5, 2009.  His name is "Son of Cloud (Yun)" in Chinese.

Yun Zi weighed 4 ounces at birth. He was the fifth cub born to his mother Bai Yun, and the fourth to his father Gao Gao. He has one half-sister, Hua Mei, through Bai Yun. He also has two full brothers, Mei Sheng and Xiao Liwu, and two full sisters, Su Lin and Zhen Zhen. Like his full siblings, he was conceived via natural mating.  The name was selected from a list of 6,300 names submitted by his fans. He received his name on November 17, 2009 at 104 days of age.

Yun Zi made his public debut on January 7, 2010, at 155 days of age. He was weaned in February 2011.

Yun Zi returned to China in January 2014. He resides at Duijiangyan Base (part of the China Conservation and Research Centre for Giant Pandas).

References

External links
 San Diego Giant Panda Research Center
 Panda Fix

Individual giant pandas
2009 animal births
San Diego Zoo

Yun Zi


Mark Antony Wigley (born 1956) is a New Zealand-born architect and author based in the United States. From 2004 to 2014, he was the Dean of Columbia University's Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation.

Career
Wigley received both his Bachelor of Architecture (1979) and Ph.D. (1987) from the University of Auckland, New Zealand. Mike Austin was his doctoral supervisor.  Wigley left Auckland in 1986 and taught at Princeton University, from 1987 to 1999, serving also as the director of Graduate Studies at Princeton's School of Architecture.

In 1988, Wigley co-curated with Philip Johnson the MoMA exhibition Deconstructivist Architecture. The exhibition featured the works of seven architects, who were already well-known at the time for a style of architecture that involved in various ways "deconstructing" conventional notions of architectural convention: Frank Gehry, Zaha Hadid, Peter Eisenman, Daniel Libeskind, Bernard Tschumi, Rem Koolhaas and Coop Himmelb(l)au. The curators linked the works to the philosophical notion of Deconstruction, as espoused by French philosopher Jacques Derrida, as well as the art-architectural historical precedent of Russian constructivism, and several works from this period were displayed in the exhibition. However, of the architects only Eisenman and Tschumi acknowledged the connection to Derrida and only Hadid and Koolhaas to Constructivism.

Personal life
Mark Wigley is married to architectural historian Beatriz Colomina.

Volume Magazine
In 2005, Wigley founded Volume Magazine together with Rem Koolhaas and Ole Bouman. A collaborative project by Archis (Amsterdam), AMO Rotterdam and C-lab (Columbia University NY), Volume Magazine is an experimental think tank focusing on the process of spatial and cultural reflexivity. The magazine aims to explore "beyond architecture's definition of 'making buildings'" by presenting global views on architecture and design, broader attitudes to social structures and created environments; and embodies progressive journalism.

Created and founded in collaboration with Brett Steele the Institute of Failure; essentially an academic institution for the instruction and theory of failure (as opposed to success).

Awards
Wigley was awarded the Resident Fellowship, Chicago Institute for Architecture and Urbanism, 1989; International Committee of Architectural Critics (C.I.C.A.) Triennial Award for Architectural Criticism, 1990; and the Graham Foundation Grant, 1997.

Exhibitions
Deconstructivist Architecture, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 23 June to 30 August 1988 (with Philip Johnson)
Constant — New Babylon, Witte de With Center for Contemporary Art, Rotterdam, 21 November 1997 to 10 January 1998
The American Lawn: Surface of Everyday Life, Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montreal, 16 June 1998 to 8 November 1998 (with Beatriz Colomina, Elizabeth Diller, Alessandra Ponte, Ricardo Scofidio, Georges Teyssot, and Mark Wasiuta)
Another City for Another Life: Constant's New Babylon, The Drawing Center, New York, 2 November 1999 to 30 December 1999
Laboratories: Six Young Architectural Firms in the CCA Galleries, Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montreal, 18 April 2002 to 15 September 2002 (with Frédéric Migayrou)
out of the box: price rossi stirling + matta-clark, Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montreal, 23 October 2003 to 6 September 2004 (with Marco de Michelis, Philip Ursprung, Anthony Vidler, Hubertus von Amelunxen, and Mirko Zardini)

Bibliography
(With Philip Johnson) Deconstructivist Architecture. New York: The Museum of Modern Art; Boston: Little Brown and Company; Distributed by New York Graphic Society Books, 1988.
The Architecture of Deconstruction: Derrida's Haunt. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1993.
White Walls, Designer Dresses: The Fashioning of Modern Architecture. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1995.
Constant's New Babylon: The Hyper-Architecture of Desire. Rotterdam: Witte de With, Center for Contemporary Art, 1998.
(Edited with Catherine De Zegher) The Activist Drawing: Retracing Situationist Architectures from Constant's New Babylon to Beyond. New York: The Drawing Center, 2001.
(With James Graham). Cutting Matta-Clark. The Anarchitecture Project. Zürich: Lars Müller Publishers; New York: Columbia University GSAPP, 2014.
Buckminster Fuller Inc.: Architecture in the Age of Radio. Zürich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2015.
(With Beatriz Colomina). Are We Human? : Notes on an Archaeology of Design. Zürich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2016.
Cutting Matta-Clark. The Anarchitecture Investigation. Zürich: Lars Müller Publishers; Montreal: Canadian Centre for Architecture; New York: Columbia University GSAPP, 2018.

References

External links

 17 September 2006 Hammer Conversation with Mark Wigley and  Wolfgang Tillmans
Columbia University faculty Biography
Volume Magazine
Interview Mark Wigley

New Zealand architects
New Zealand emigrants to the United States
American architecture writers
American male non-fiction writers
New Zealand architecture writers
Architectural theoreticians
Living people
Columbia University faculty
Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation faculty
Princeton University faculty
University of Auckland alumni
1956 births
People from Palmerston North

Mark Wigley


The Croatian–Venetian wars were a series of periodical, punctuated medieval conflicts and naval campaigns waged for control of the northeastern coast of the Adriatic Sea between the city-state (later the Republic) of Venice and the Principality of Croatia (later turned to the Kingdom of Croatia, as well as the Kingdom of Croatia in personal union with Hungary), at times allied with neighbouring territories – the Principality of the Narentines and Zahumlje in the south and Istrian peninsula (then partially ruled by the German feudal families) in the north. First struggles occurred at the very beginning of the existence of two conflict parties (7th and 8th century), they intensified in the 9th century, lessened during the 10th century, but intensified again since the beginning of the 11th century.

From the year 1000 Venetian forces managed to subjugate a lot of coastal towns of the Byzantine Theme of Dalmatia, which was ceded from the Byzantine Emperor to the Croatian King. From the 1030s however, after the fall of Doge Otto Orseolo, Croatian kings Stephen I and his son Peter Krešimir IV succeeded in taking almost the whole coast back, so the latter carried the title King od Croatia and Dalmatia. Since 1085, following the  agreement between Venice and Byzantine Empire, Venetians subsequently conquered the significant part of the Croatian coastline.

During the 12th century, after Croatia entered a personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary, Croato-Hungarian kings Coloman and Béla II managed to return a considerable territory of Dalmatia and Croatian Littoral to their kingdom, but occasional conflicts almost never ceased. Since that Croatian–Venetian wars were technically theaters of the more wider Hungarian–Venetian Wars. When Louis the Great, the new young king (ruled 1342–1382), decided to expel Venetians from his country, he launched a large campaign in 1356–1358 and forced them to withdraw from Dalmatia. Zadar Peace Treaty was signed on 18 February 1358 and the whole coast from eastern Istria to southern Dalmatia was set free.

In 1409 the Republic of Venice used the opportunity of the dynastic struggle that occurred and bought Dalmatia for 100,000 ducats from the Croatian anti-king Ladislaus of Naples, establishing Venetian Dalmatia. Croatian Littoral and eastern Istria remained parts of Croatia, where Croats, together with their allies, rejected Venetian efforts to subject them and fought against Venetians in conflicts like War of the Holy League and Uskok War. Thus a couple of decades after the purchase of Dalmatia by Venice, the Croatian–Venetian Wars became part of larger conflicts of the world's Great powers and were turned into the Ottoman–Venetian wars and Habsburg–Venetian wars.

Warfare until 887

Conflicts between Venetians and Croats, as well as other Slavic nations or tribes on the Adriatic coast, including Narentines, began very early, in the 7th and 8th century, because the Venetians demanded free passage for their merchant galleys and did not want to pay taxes to Croats. In the 9th century Venetian Doge Giovanni I Participazio fought against Narentines, but concluded a peace treaty in 830. A few years later another warfare broke out, but ended with a new peace treaty of 839 among Doge Pietro Tradonico, Duke Mislav of Croatia and Prince Družak (Drosaico) of the Narentines. Occasional hostilities started again a bit later and repeated several times during next years.

The situation even worsened after Duke Domagoj acceded the Croatian throne (ruled 864-876). John the Deacon, Venetian Chronicler, wrote at the beginning of the 11th century that Domagoj was pessimus Sclavorum dux (meaning the worst Duke of Slavs), because of the latter's numerous wars, especially against the Venice and the Arabs. The Venetian navy under command of Doge Orso I Participazio attacked Croatian territory in 865, having some success, and another peace agreement followed, securing the safe passage of Venetian ships in the Adriatic Sea. In 871 or 872 a new intense naval-commercial war on the sea between Croats and Venetians broke out, ending after Domagoj's death.

One of the decisive battles for dominance in the Adriatic Sea in that period happened on 18. September 887 between the Narentines and Venetians at Makarska. Doge Pietro I Candiano led personally his fleet in a campaign against Narentines but they crushed his forces and killed him in the battle.

Situation between 887 and 1000

Following Pietro Candiano's death, the Venetians started to pay Croats and Narentines an annual tribute for the right to sail and trade in the northeastern Adriatic. Between 887 and 948 there was no new war recorded between Venetians and Croats. In 948 Doge Pietro III Candiano launched a naval campaign to combat Narentines, but his military attempt failed. The result was a peace treaty that made the Most Serene Republic of Venice pay taxes for safe passage for the next 50 years.

This situation lasted until the end of the 10th century. Having come to power, Doge Pietro II Orseolo began the period of southeastern expansion of Venice, refusing to pay tribute to Croats and launching military expeditions against them. After the death of King Stjepan Držislav in 997, Kingdom of Croatia was weakened due to the dynastic crisis and civil war that broke out among his three sons for the throne succession. This enabled Venetians in the following years to take control over Croatian towns and islands in the theme of Dalmatia.

Warfare after 1000

The Venetian Armada led by Orseolo succeeded in taking over coastal towns from Rab (Arba) in the north to Dubrovnik (Ragusa) in the south, including islands of Vis (Issa), Lastovo (Lagosta) and Korčula (Curzola), either with using armed forces or calm surrender. The bloodiest conflict was the battle of Lastovo in 1000, at the end of which the town of Lastovo was completely destroyed and the survivors displaced.

The Republic of Saint Mark secured its suzerainty over the area until the 1030s, after  which the Croatian King Stjepan I, having come to power, took control over the town of Zadar. He and his son Petar Krešimir IV succeeded in taking other coastal towns back from Venetians. Since 1085 however, following the Byzantine–Venetian Treaty of 1082, Venice subsequently conquered a large part of the Croatian coastal and maritime territory.

In 1105 the new Croatian king, Coloman of Hungary, launched campaign against Venetians, which was approved by Byzantine Emperor, and returned the northeastern Adriatic coast under the crown. Ten years later, Doge Ordelafo Faliero managed to retake some of the disputed area: he conquered Zadar and several other towns but lost his life in a battle. A peace treaty was then concluded, according to which Zadar devolved upon Venice, while Biograd, Šibenik, Trogir and Split remained in the Kingdom of Croatia in personal union with Hungary.

A new Venetian military campaign was undertaken in 1125 and Doge Domenico Michele's forces captured Split and Trogir. King Béla II liberated these two towns in 1133, but until the end of the 12th century several further naval campaigns of Venice followed, so that the warfare was almost permanent. In 1180 King Béla III managed to free Zadar and the whole area between the rivers  Krka and Neretva. Since Venetians did not give up subjugating Zadar, another war between Venice and the town of Zadar (supported by the King) broke out and lasted twenty years (1183-1203), ending with the Crusaders' capture of the town.

Crusaders' capture of Zadar in 1202

The Crusaders' capture of Zadar was a consequence of an agreement between the crusaders and the Republic of Venice for transport across the sea, whose price far exceeded what the crusaders were able to pay. As a solution Venetians proposed that the crusaders help them capture Zadar, a constant battleground between Venice on one side and Croatia and Hungary on the other.

Although many crusaders had refused to take part in the siege of the catholic town, the attack started in November 1202. After fierce fighting, Zadar fell on 24 November and the Venetians and the crusaders pillaged the town. After spending the winter in Zadar, the crusaders continued their campaign (Fourth Crusade) in the first days of the springtime. In 1203, Pope Innocent excommunicated the whole crusading army, along with the Venetians, for taking part in this attack, but Zadar remained under the control of Venice.

Period between 1203 and 1358

During the periodical Venetian reign in Zadar in the 13th century and the first half of the 14th century, the citizens of Zadar rebelled several times against the authorities of the Most Serene Republic and had support of the Croato-Hungarian kings. Major armed conflicts were recorded in 1242, 1247, 1311 and 1345–1346.

At the same time, the Venetian authorities forced Dubrovnik to accept their governor, after the local Rector Damjan Juda refused it and committed suicide in 1205. Having installed its own governor, Venice subsequently took control over the southernmost part of Croatian lands.

In the north, Venetians ruled western and southern Istria from the 13th and 14th century, after military interventions in major towns, as follows: in Pula in 1148, 1243, 1267, 1331 and 1397; in Rovinj in 1283, in Poreč in 1354, in Novigrad in 1270 and 1358, in Umag in 1269 and 1370. The Republic wanted all the time to take central and eastern Istria as well, but never succeeded in achieving permanent control over Pazin area and eastern coast of the peninsula, despite many heavy military clashes with their German owners, whose seat was in the Pazin Castle. Although the local population was primarily Croatian, the feudal owners were of German descent and carried the title of Margraves of Istria.

In 1342 Louis the Angevin became Croato-Hungarian king and the pushing of Venetian forces from the northeastern Adriatic area soon became one of the principal goals of his foreign policy. In 1346 he tried to help citizens of Zadar during the Venetian siege, but failed.  In 1347, King Louis I strengthened his position in Dalmatia by taking the strategically important fortress of Ostrovica, near Bribir, from the Šubić family and in return gave to them estates in the vicinity of Zrin.  In summer 1356 he launched a large military campaign and attacked all the Venetian held territories of his country. Within a year and a half, his armies entered Zadar, Split, Trogir, Šibenik and other Croatian coastal towns. In the Treaty of Zadar, which was signed on 18 February 1358 in the Monastery of St. Francis, the Republic of Venice renounced all Dalmatian towns and islands between the Gulf of Kvarner and the Town of Drač/Durazzo (in present-day Albania) in favour of King.

Situation after 1358

The peace period after the Treaty of Zadar lasted in Dalmatia approximately 50 years. Following the dynasty crisis at the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th century, and the struggle for the crown between Sigismund of Luxembourg and Ladislaus of Naples,  the latter sold in 1409 his rights over Dalmatia to the Republic of Venice for the sum of 100,000 ducats. This led to the formation of the Venetian Dalmatia, while Croatian Littoral, including the island of Krk, remained part of Croatia.

Several decades later a new rising military force came to the area from the east, the mighty  Ottoman Empire, and caused a new series of wars on the Croatian coast: Ottoman–Venetian wars, Ottoman–Habsburg wars and Habsburg–Venetian wars (which included War of the Holy League, Uskok War and others).

See also
 Timeline of the Republic of Venice
 Timeline of Croatian history
 History of the Croatian Navy
 History of the Byzantine Empire
 History of the Republic of Venice
 History of Croatia

References

External links

 Prince Domagoj tried to liberate Istria from the Franks but failed as the Venetians drove his troops out
 Venetian doges led war fleets against Croatia
 Venetian naval expeditions to Dalmatia in the 9th century
 [http://hbl.lzmk.hr/clanak.aspx?id=5070 Domagoj – The worst duke of Slavs" (Sclavorum pessimo duce) for the Venetians] (in Croatian) Peter II Orseolo invaded Dalmatia and defeated Croatian navy
 In 1018, the Venetians returned to Croatia for a major offensive and drove the Croatian leaders from various towns
 Following the Golden Bull of 1082, Byzantine Emperor recognized Venice's nominal suzerainty over Dalmatia in 1085 (in Croatian) After the Arpad dynasty died out, a war of succession ensued and the Venetians took Croatian towns in Dalmatia
 Wars between Zadar and Venice (in Croatian)''
 Constant struggles between Croatia and Venice in the Middle Ages

Military history of the Mediterranean
Wars involving medieval Croatia
Wars involving the Republic of Venice
Military history of the Byzantine Empire
Wars involving the Republic of Pisa
Venetian period in the history of Croatia
History of Dalmatia
9th-century conflicts
10th-century conflicts
11th-century conflicts
12th-century conflicts
13th-century conflicts
14th-century conflicts
9th century in Croatia
10th century in Croatia
9th-century military history of Croatia
10th-century military history of Croatia
11th-century military history of Croatia
12th-century military history of Croatia
13th-century military history of Croatia
14th-century military history of Croatia
9th century in the Republic of Venice
10th century in the Republic of Venice
11th century in the Republic of Venice
12th century in the Republic of Venice
13th century in the Republic of Venice
14th century in the Republic of Venice

Croatian–Venetian wars


Christa Goetsch (born 28 August 1952 in Bonn) is a German politician of the Alliance '90/The Greens party, member of the Hamburg Parliament, and from 2008-2010 was a Senator and Deputy Mayor of Hamburg.

Early life and career
Goetsch finished her schooling in Munich and Essen in 1971 with the Abitur. In Frankfurt am Main, she studied to be a chemistry and biology teacher. From 1980 to 2002 she worked as a teacher at the Theodor-Haubach School in Hamburg-Altona-Nord, an integrated primary and junior high school with a support centre for talented young people from immigrant backgrounds.

Political career
Since 1995 Goetsch has been a member of Alliance 90/The Greens. In the 1997 state election, she moved to the Hamburg Parliament, where she served as her parliamentary group's spokeswoman on education and educational policies. In 2002 she became chair of the GAL Group (Hamburg state branch of Alliance 90/The Greens). She sat on the Study Commission on School Development, the Petition Committee, School Committee and the Special Committee for Neglected Children.

Goetsch was a leading candidate for her party in the 2008 state election. She led the coalition negotiations with the Hamburg Christian Democratic Union. From 7 May 2008 to the early release of GAL-members by the First Mayor Christoph Ahlhaus on 29 November 2010, Goetsch was a member of the Senate of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg. There Senator Goetsch was President of the Authority for School and Vocational Education and Deputy Mayor in the first black-green coalition at the national level.

Other activities
 Heinrich Böll Foundation, Member of the General Assembly

Personal life
Goetsch is married, has one son and lives in the district of Ottensen .

Sources
This article was abridged and translated from its counterpart on the German Wikipedia on 26 April 2011.

Living people
Members of the Hamburg Parliament
1952 births
21st-century German women politicians
Alliance 90/The Greens politicians

Christa Goetsch


Suraj Abeysekera (full name Raphil Suraj Abeysekera; born 24 October 1958) is a former Sri Lankan cricketer. He was born in Colombo. He has played for the Sinhalese Sports Club and the Sri Lanka Board President's XI teams in the domestic game and internationally he played for the under-25s in 1981 against the Tamil Nadu under-25s and for the Sri Lanka national cricket team in 1986 against the England B team. He was a first-class bowler in 9 matches from the 1978–79 season to 1989–90 and took 16 wickets. He bowled off break and was a right-handed batsman. His best bowling was 4–55 and his highest score was 41 runs, not out.

Abeysekera made his first-class debut in February 1979 when he played for the President's XI against the touring West Indies. His last match was in the 1988–89 Lakspray Trophy final for the Sinhalese against the Nondescripts Cricket Club.

References

External links
 Suraj Abeysekera at Cricket Archive
 Suraj Abeysekera at ESPNcricinfo

1958 births
Sri Lankan cricketers
Sinhalese Sports Club cricketers
Living people
Cricketers from Colombo

Suraj Abeysekera


Rabbi Chaim Mordechai Aizik Hodakov (12 January 1902 – 23 April 1993) was the chief of staff of the secretariat of the Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson for more than 40 years. From 1950, until his death, Hodakov served as chairman of Agudas Chasidei Chabad, the umbrella organization of the Chabad-Lubavitch movement.

Early life

Chaim Mordechai Aizik was born in the Russian town of Beshenkowitz on January 12, 1902 to Sholom Yisroel and Chaya Treina Hodakov.  He moved to Riga, Latvia with his parents in 1904. There he was raised in the ways of the Navahrudak Mussar movement, as taught by Rabbi Yoel Barantchik. The young Chodakov excelled in his devotion to Torah study, and in his piety and refined character.

An educator and pedagogue, young Chaim Mordechai was appointed principal of the Torah V'Derech Eretz school in Riga at the age of 18.  While still a young man, in 1934, he was appointed the inspector of Jewish schools by the Latvian Ministry of Education. His close ties (through Mordehai Dubin) with the dictatorial regime of Karlis Ulmanis, and his strict orthodoxy, accompanied by the radical antisocialism and mass lock-outs of left-orientated teachers caused him to be unpopular with the secular circles of Latvian Jewry.

Involvement in Lubavitch

When the sixth Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn, moved to Riga (from Russia) in 1928, Rabbi Hodakov became drawn to the Rebbe and joined the Rebbe's staff.  It was during that period that he became acquainted with Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok's son-in-law, for the first time.

In 1940, when the sixth Rebbe escaped from Poland, he asked Rabbi and Mrs. Hodakov to accompany him to the United States. They were one of only a few families who received this privilege and became part of the sixth Rebbe's official entourage.  Some time after their arrival in the United States, in 1942, the Previous Rebbe appointed him as director of Merkos L'Inyonei Chinuch (the educational arm of the Lubavitch movement), Mahane Israel (Chabad) (the social service arm), and Kehot Publication Society.

Role as secretary

In 1950, when Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson ascended to the helm of the worldwide Chabad-Lubavitch movement, Hodakov became his Chief-of-Staff and head of his secretariat.  He was later appointed chairman of Agudas Chasidei Chabad, the umbrella organization that oversees the worldwide network of Chabad-Lubavitch organizations and institutions.

Hodakov innovated many educational ideas and programs.  His advice is compiled in a book on education entitled "The Educator's Handbook."  He was a role model for many young Chassidim in his demeanor and in his devotion to the Rebbe.

Hodakov gave much thought to spiritual conditions in the Land of Israel and sent constant directives to the Lubavitch School Network in Israel (Reshet Oholei Yosef Yitzchok – Lubavitch) and other institutions there.

Death

He died on April 23, 1993, after a brief illness.  The funeral, which was held on Sunday, April 25, was attended by several thousand people, many of whom had managed to fly in from various parts of the United States.  The procession filed past Lubavitch World Headquarters in the Crown Heights section of Brooklyn, and proceeded to the Montefiore Cemetery, in Springfield Gardens, New York.  He was interred near the resting place of the previous Rebbe.

His wife, Etel Tzerna, a noted educator and author, died on June 17, 2006.  They are survived by two children: son Sholom Yisroel and daughter Chaya Rivkah Kramer, and numerous grandchildren and great-grandchildren.

References

External links
A Biography of Rabbi Hodakov from Chabad.org
12th Anniversary of the Passing of Rabbi Hodakov
A Small Man with Great Advice
A Talk with Rabbi Hodakov on Education - Perspectives magazine

Chabad-Lubavitch rabbis
1902 births
1993 deaths
American Hasidic rabbis
Hasidic rabbis in Europe
Latvian Orthodox rabbis
Russian Hasidic rabbis

Chaim Mordechai Aizik Hodakov


A direct election is an election in which people vote directly for the person, persons or political party that they want to see elected to a political position. The electorate casts their votes directly in an election for candidates of their choice that will represent them either in the executive or legislature without any problem. The opposite is an indirect election, in which the voters elect a group of people who in turn elects the officeholder in question.

Many countries use a mixed system, where some elements are directly elected, and some are not.For example india where the president is elected indirectly whereas the prime ministr is elected directly

Types of elections

Direct election


Andrew Collins is a British actor, best known for playing recurring character Jarrett Maxwell in the CBS soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful as well as appearing in Parenthood, The Newsroom and Gilmore Girls.

He is a regular performer in Big Finish Productions, where he stars as Barnabas Collins in the Dark Shadows audio dramas, various characters in Doctor Who, Gallifrey, Earthsearch, and Stargate SG-1.

In the UK, his stage name is Andy Coleman.

Personal life

Collins was born in the West Midlands, England and moved to America in the early 2000s. He is currently living in LA, and is married with two children.

Career
Andrew Collins graduated from Guildford School of Acting and has worked extensively in theatre, film and television both in the United States and the United Kingdom. He was the star of a Spanish national commercial, as well as several commercials for the UK, and also works as a voice-over artist.

Collins currently plays Jarrett Maxwell on the CBS soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful and has been seen on The Newsroom, Parenthood, Gilmore Girls, Passions, The Young and the Restless, All My Children and the BBC's Dangerfield, among others. He is a regular performer for Big Finish audio dramas, has played characters in Doctor Who, Gallifrey, Earthsearch, and Dark Shadows, from which he has earned a large following as the new incarnation of Barnabas Collins.

As a writer/performer he was a leading light of the cult London satire show, Newsrevue, as well as several other shows including The Smiling Assassins and Lounge Lizards in Love.

Film, television and audio credits

External links

The Bold and the Beautiful Website
Dark Shadows Audio Dramas

Notes

British male soap opera actors
British expatriate male actors in the United States
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people

Andrew Collins (actor)