Scoil Gheimhridh Frankie Kennedy ("Frankie Kennedy Winter School") was a traditional music winter school held annually in Gweedore, County Donegal, Ireland starting December 1994 in memory of Belfast flautist Frankie Kennedy (from Irish folk music band Altan) who died on 19 September 1994. The last session ended in January 2014. It has been succeeded by the "Scoil Gheimhridh Ghaoth Dobhair" ("Gweedore Winter School").

Overview
The festival, which ran throughout the end of December until 2 January featured some of Ireland's best known musicians as well as friends of Frankie's from Scotland and further afield. It also presented a unique learning environment for musicians and arrangers. Classes are provided in flute, fiddle, uilleann pipes, tin whistle, bodhrán, button accordion, bouzouki, sean-nós singing, house dancing, and guitar.

In 2008, the festival introduced a new class, Arranging Irish Music and Song, which was taught by traditional music veteran Dáithí Sproule.

In 2007, the festival brought singers such as Muireann Nic Amhlaoibh and Julie Fowlis to perform.

The final Scoil Gheimhridh took place from Friday 27 December 2013 until Wednesday 1 January 2014. On this occasion, Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh (from Irish folk music band Altan), her siblings Anna Ní Mhaonaigh and Gearóid Ó Maonaigh and her nephew Ciarán Ó Maonaigh (Gearóid's son) formed the Irish folk music band Na Mooneys where they performed their first ever show. Na Mooneys released their debut album Na Mooneys on 6 October 2016.

Until the end, the Scoil Gheimhridh Frankie Kennedy was ever-expanding and attendance was still continuing to flourish.

Performers
It has become tradition that Kennedy's old band Altan headline every year at the festival, but other well-known musicians have played at the school:
Liam O'Flynn
Skara Brae
Seán Keane
Sean Potts
Arty McGlynn
Téada
Marcas Ó Murchú
Muireann Nic Amhlaoibh
Julie Fowlis
T with the Maggies
Na Mooneys

References

Annual events in Ireland
Culture in Gweedore
Music festivals in Ireland
Irish folk music
Music schools in the Republic of Ireland

Scoil Gheimhridh Frankie Kennedy


Oily fish is the name for several species of fish which have a lot of fat (and oil) in their muscle tissue. Oily fish commonly have ten percent or more fat/oil in their tissue. Some species have over 30%. The other kind of fish is called whitefish: Whitefish only contain oil/fat in tissues around the liver. Common fish that are called oily include Atlantic herring, European sprat, salmon, Atlantic mackerel, tuna, eel, Greenland halibut and different species of catfish.

Fish

Oily fish


The grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) is a megabat native to Australia. The species shares mainland Australia with three other members of the genus Pteropus: the little red  P. scapulatus, spectacled P. conspicillatus, and the black P. alecto. The grey-headed flying fox is the largest bat in Australia.

The grey-headed flying fox is endemic to the south-eastern forested areas of Australia, principally east of the Great Dividing Range. Its range extends approximately from Bundaberg in Queensland to Geelong in Victoria, with outlying colonies in Ingham and Finch Hatton in the north, and in Adelaide in the south. In the southern parts of its range it occupies more extreme latitudes than any other Pteropus species.

As of 2021 the species is listed as "Vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Taxonomy
A description of the species was published by Coenraad Temminck in his 1825 monograph of mammals. Hybridisation with the species Pteropus alecto has been noted where their ranges intersect.

The common names for Pteropus poliocephalus include grey-headed kalong. The entry in Gould's Mammals of Australia (1863) gave the bat the title grey-headed vampire.

Description

The grey-headed flying fox is the largest bat in Australia, with the adult wingspan reaching up to  in length and weighing up to . Weight generally varies between , with an average of . The combined length of the head and body is from 230 to 290 mm. The forearm length is a range from 138 to 180 mm. The length of the ear from the tip to base is 30 to 37 mm.

The overall colour of the pelage is a dark-grey body with a light-grey head, separated by a reddish-brown collar.
The fur on the body is long and streaked with grey, the broad and well defined collar completely encircles the neck with hair that is golden orange in tone. A unique characteristic among bats of the genus Pteropus is fur on the legs that extends all the way to the ankle.

Like many megachiropterans, the species lacks a tail. All of these bats possess claws on its first and second digits.
The head is simple in form, with the characteristic 'dog-like' appearance of the genus.
Since it does not echolocate, it lacks the tragus or leaf ornamentation found in many species of Microchiroptera.
It relies on smell and, predominately, sight to locate its food (nectar, pollen and native fruits) and thus has relatively large eyes for a bat.

The voice of P. poliocephalus consists of a complex series of squeals and screechings. They will flap their wings in hot weather, using blood pumped through the patagium to cool the body temperature.

The grey-headed flying fox is long-lived for a mammal of its size. Individuals reportedly survived in captivity for up to 23 years, and a maximum age of up to 15 years seems possible in the wild.

Ecology

Distribution
The distribution range is at the eastern regions of the Australian continent, mostly within 200 kilometres of the coast, from Gladstone in Queensland through to the southern Gippsland region and populations around the city of Melbourne. The breeding range has been recorded as progressing southward, the temperate climate of Melbourne and Geelong and no further north than Maryborough, Queensland.

Urbanisation may displace the species, or provide habitat that accommodates their feeding or roosting preferences. The city of Brisbane has many roosts occupied by the species; a famous colony at the Indooroopilly Island is noted for the evening departure of the bats across the local river. Within the central business district of Sydney, they can be seen travelling along city streets to feed at Moreton Bay fig trees at Hyde Park. The species was recorded as an occasional visitor to the national capital Canberra, although the flowering eucalypts at Commonwealth Park have seen more permanent camps established close to the city.

The species was surveyed during the 1920s by Francis Ratcliffe, who recorded the populations in estimates of quarter, half, or one million in camps, generally located around 40 kilometres apart. These numbers have greatly declined since this first survey.

Habitat and movements

Grey-headed flying foxes live in a variety of habitats, including rainforests, woodlands, and swamps. These camps are variable in size and are seasonally relocated; the warmer parts of the year find them occupying cool and wet gullies in large groups. During the day, individuals reside in large roosts (colonies or 'camps') consisting of hundreds to tens of thousands of individuals. Colonies are formed in seemingly arbitrary locations. Roost vegetation includes rainforest patches, stands of melaleuca, mangroves, and riparian vegetation, but roosts also occupy highly modified vegetation in urban areas. A prominent example existed for many years at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney. However, the botanic gardens instituted a controversial policy to remove them from the garden grounds. The camp is now dispersed across Queensland.

Movements of grey-headed flying foxes are influenced by the availability of food. Their population is very fluid, as they move in response to the irregular blossoming of certain plant species. They are keystone pollinators and seed dispersers of over 100 species of native trees and plants. The grey-headed flying fox is a partial migrant that uses winds to facilitate long-distance movement. It does not migrate in a constant direction, but rather in the direction that will be the most beneficial at the time.

Although recorded in small numbers sporadically throughout the 20th century, it was not until the 1980s that grey-headed flying foxes routinely visited Melbourne, with a permanent camp since the 1990s. Their residence at the Melbourne Botanic Garden was the subject of controversy, and the bats were eventually discouraged and moved to Yarra Bend at the city's river. The camp at this site was decimated during a heat wave, requiring its rehabilitation to sustain the relocated population. The forced relocations are also said to have led to the discovery of the orchards of the Goulburn Valley. Similarly, the first recorded permanent camp in Adelaide was established in 2010. The spread is likely due to global warming, habitat loss and drought; while the location of the new camps appears to be in response to urbanisation: a reliable food supply (such as native eucalypt plantings and backyard fruit trees) and warmer temperatures due to climate change and urban heat islands.

Diet and foraging

Around dusk, grey-headed flying foxes leave the roost and travel up to 50 km a night to feed on pollen, nectar and fruit. The species consumes fruit flowers and pollens of around 187 plant species. These include eucalypt, particularly Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus muelleriana, E. globoidea and E. botryoides, and fruits from a wide range of rainforest trees, including members of the genus Ficus. These bats are considered sequential specialists, since they feed on a variety of foods. Grey-headed flying foxes, along with the three other Australian flying fox species, fulfill a very important ecological role by dispersing the pollen and seeds of a wide range of native Australian plants. The grey-headed flying fox is the only mammalian nectarivore and frugivore to occupy substantial areas of subtropical rainforests, so is of key importance to those forests.

The teeth, tongue and palate of the pteropodid bats are able to extract plant juices from food, only swallowing smaller seeds of the meal. Incisors hold items such as fruit, and the fibrous material is ejected from the mouth after it is masticated and the juice is swallowed; larger seeds may be held in the mouth and dispersed several kilometres from the tree. The need for the elaborate intestinal tract of most herbivores is consequently removed. Some fruiting plants produce food for flying-foxes, and P. poliocephalus is attracted to the scent of their flowers and fruit and is able to locate the pale colour that indicates the source; the fruit and blooms of species that attract birds in the daylight are usually contrasting reds and purples. The food source is also presented away from the foliage that may obstruct the bat's access.

Most of the trees on which this species forages produce nectar and pollen seasonally and are abundant unpredictably, so the flying fox's migration traits cope with this. The time when flying foxes leave their roosts to feed depends on foraging light and predation risk. Flying foxes have more time and light when foraging if they leave their roosts early in the day. The entire colony may leave later if a predatory bird is present, while lactating females leave earlier. With males, the bachelors leave earlier than harem-holding males, which guard and wait until all their females have left. The flying foxes that leave the roost earlier are more vulnerable to predation, and some flying foxes will wait for others to leave, a phenomenon labelled the "after you" effect.

Social organisation

Groupings and territories
Grey-headed flying foxes form two different roosting camps, summer camps and winter camps. Summer camps are used from September to April or June. In these camps, they establish territories, mate, and reproduce. Winter camps are used from April to September. The sexes are separated in winter camps and most behaviour is characterised by mutual grooming. Summer camps are considered "main camps", while winter camps are referred to as "transit camps".

In their summer camps, starting in January, male grey-headed flying foxes set up mating territories. Mating territories are generally 3.5 body lengths along branches. These flying foxes' neck glands enlarge in males in the mating season, and are used to mark the territories. The males fight to maintain their territories, and this is associated with a steep drop in the males' body condition during this time.
Around the beginning of the mating season, adult females move from the periphery towards the central male territories where they become part of short-term 'harems' that consist of a male and an unstable group of up to five females. Centrally located males are polygamous, while males on the periphery are monogamous or single. The mating system of the grey-headed flying fox is best described as a lek because males do not provide any essential resources to females and are chosen on the basis of their physical location within the roost, which correlates with male quality.

Reproduction

Matings are generally observed between March and May, but the most likely time of conception is April. Most mating takes place in the territories and during the day. Females have control over the copulation process, and males may have to keep mating with the same females. Females usually give birth to one young each year. Gestation lasts around 27 weeks, and pregnant females give birth between late September and November. Late births into January are sometimes observed. The altricial newborns rely on their mothers for warmth. For their first three weeks, young cling to their mothers when they go foraging. After this, the young remain in the roosts. By January, young are capable of sustained flight, and by February, March or April are fully weaned.

Predation
Flying foxes are preyed on by eagles, goannas and snakes.

The camps of P. poliocephalus attract a number of larger predators. including both terrestrial and aerial hunters.
The sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster will capture these bats in flight as they leave their roosts.
The snake species Morelia spilota is frequently found as a resident at these camps, lazily selecting an individual from the apparently unconcerned group at a branch. The bat is seized in the jaws and encircled by the python's body, then swallowed head first to be digested over the next week.
The species was reported by John Gould as being eaten by the indigenous Australians.

Conservation

The grey-headed flying fox is now a prominent federal conservation problem in Australia. Early in the last century, the species was considered abundant, with numbers estimated in the many millions. In recent years, though, evidence has been accumulating that the species is in serious decline. An estimate for the species in 2019 put the number at 586,000 and the national population may have declined by over 30% between 1989 and 1999 alone.

Threats

Grey-headed flying foxes are exposed to several threats, including loss of foraging and roosting habitat, competition with the black flying fox, and mass die-offs caused by extreme temperature events. When present in urban environments, grey-headed flying foxes are sometimes perceived as a nuisance. Cultivated orchard fruits are also taken, but apparently only at times when other food items are scarce. Because their roosting and foraging habits bring the species into conflict with humans, they suffer from direct killing of animals in orchards and harassment and destruction of roosts. Negative public perception of the species has intensified with the discovery of three recently emerged zoonotic viruses that are potentially fatal to humans: Hendra virus, Australian bat lyssavirus and Menangle virus. However, only Australian bat lyssavirus is known from two isolated cases to be directly transmissible from bats to humans. No person has ever died from ABLV (Lyssavirus) after having had the ABLV post-exposure vaccine.

The urbanised camps of cities were noted as succumbing to poisoning during the 1970s to 1980s, identified as the lead in petrol that would accumulate on the fur and enter the body when grooming. The mortality rate from toxic levels of lead in the environment dropped with the introduction of unleaded fuel in 1985.
An introduced plant, the cocos palm Syagrus romanzoffiana, now banned by some local councils, bears fruit that is toxic to this species and has resulted in their death; the Chinese elm Ulmus parvifolia and privet present this same hazard. The species is vulnerable to diseases that may kill large numbers within a camp, and the sudden incidence of premature births in colonies is likely to significantly impact the re-population of the group; the cause of these disorders or diseases in unknown.

Recent research has shown, since 1994, more than 24,500 grey-headed flying foxes have died from extreme heat events alone.
Unsuitable backyard fruit tree netting also kills many animals and may bring them into close contact with humans, but can be avoided by using wildlife-safe netting. Barbed wire accounts for many casualties; this can be ameliorated by removing old or unnecessary barbed wire or marking it with bright paint.

The early twentieth century saw the incursion of Pteropus poliocephalus to the opportunities they discovered at orchards, and the government placed a bounty on the declared pest. Their reputation for destroying fruit crops was noted by John Gould in 1863, though the extent of actual damage was often greatly exaggerated. When Ratcliffe submitted his report, he noted the number of paid bounties was 300,000, and this would not have included the mortally wounded escapees or those left suspended at roosts by the grip that is held by their weight. This species continued to be killed or wounded by shotguns, many remaining disabled where they fell after the bounty was stopped, despite the advice of Ratcliffe and later researchers on an ineffective and uneconomical practice and the needless extermination of the population. Orchardists have begun shifting to the use of netting that also discourages the daytime visits of birds. The impact of indiscriminate shooting of bats has resulted in the species being declared vulnerable to extinction, to the tree species that relied on them for regeneration, the subsequent alteration to the forest ecology of the eastern states

Status and protection

To answer some of the growing threats, roost sites have been legally protected since 1986 in New South Wales and since 1994 in Queensland. In 1999, the species was classified as "Vulnerable to extinction" in The Action Plan for Australian Bats, and has since been protected across its range under Australian federal law, listed as Vulnerable under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act).  A species recovery plan was created by the federal Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment and the South Australian Department for Environment and Water and published in 2021.

 the species is listed as "Vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species under criteria A2ace and A4ac. Justification for the assessment says that "although the population is relatively large (exceeding 10,000 mature individuals) and it has a large extent of occurrence (> 20,000 km²), a continuing population decline is inferred to be more than 30–35% over the last three generations", and that further decline is expected.

Wildlife rescue

Baby flying foxes usually come into care after having been separated from their mothers. Babies are often orphaned during four to six weeks of age, when they inadvertently fall off their mothers during flight, often due to disease or tick paralysis (their own and/or that of the mother).

Bat caregivers are not only specially trained in techniques to rescue and rehabilitate bats, but they are also vaccinated against rabies. Although the chance of contracting the rabies-like Australian bat lyssavirus is extremely small, bat caregivers are inoculated for their own protection.

Gallery

References

Further reading

External links

 ARKive - images and movies of the grey-headed flying-fox (Pteropus poliocephalus)
 Background: P. poliocephalus
 Brief history of Megachiroptera / Megabats

Pteropus
Bats of Australia
Vulnerable fauna of Australia
Mammals of South Australia
Mammals of Queensland
Mammals of New South Wales
Mammals of Victoria (state)
Mammals described in 1825
Taxa named by Coenraad Jacob Temminck

Grey-headed flying fox


Maria Teresa Aquino-Oreta (born Maria Teresa Aquino Aquino) (June 28, 1944 – May 14, 2020), better known as Tessie Aquino-Oreta, was a Filipino Liberal politician. She was born in Concepcion, Tarlac. She was a member of the House of Representatives of the Philippines from 1987 to 1998 and Senator from 1988 to 2004.

Aquino-Oreta died on May 14, 2020 in Manila at the age of 75.

References

1944 births
2020 deaths
Filipino politicians

Teresa Aquino-Oreta


All Saints Church is a redundant Anglican church in the village of Wordwell, Suffolk, England.  It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building, and is under the care of the Churches Conservation Trust.  It stands in a small community alongside the B1106 road between Bury St Edmunds and Brandon.

History
The church dates from about 1100.  During the 14th and 15th centuries new windows were installed to replace the 12th-century lancet windows.  A porch was added in about 1500.  By 1757 the church was in a "run down" condition, but it had been "put into good order" by 1829.  Later in the 19th century a restoration was carried out between 1857 and 1866 by S. S. Teulon.  This included work on the west front, the bellcote, the porch, the priest's doorway, the roofs, the pulpit and the reredos.

Architecture

Exterior
All Saints is constructed in flint rubble, with freestone dressings.  The roofs are tiled, and the porch is timber.  Its plan is simple, consisting of a nave with a south porch, a chancel, and a bellcote at the west end.  The church contains Norman features, while the windows added later are in Decorated style.  The north and south doorways are Norman with round-headed arches; they are identical in form, and have Saxon influences.  The tympanum of the south doorway contains a pair of lions with dog-like features surrounded by foliage.  The north doorway is blocked, and its tympanum contains two human figures, one holding a ring.  There is a grid-like object between them.  It has been suggested that they represent Saint Catherine and her wheel, and Saint Lawrence with a gridiron.

Interior
The chancel arch is also Norman, as is the circular font.  The benches date from the 15th century and have carvings.  All the bench ends have poppyheads. Some of the benches have additional carvings, including representations of animals.  One bench is carved on its back with wild boars, and figures having human faces but animal bodies.  The rest of the fittings date from the 1888 restoration.

See also
List of churches preserved by the Churches Conservation Trust in the East of England

References

Grade I listed churches in Suffolk
Church of England church buildings in Suffolk
English churches with Norman architecture
English Gothic architecture in Suffolk
Gothic Revival architecture in Suffolk
Churches completed in 1866
Churches preserved by the Churches Conservation Trust
19th-century Church of England church buildings
1866 establishments in England

All Saints Church, Wordwell


Notiothemis robertsi is a species of dragonfly in the family Libellulidae. It is found in Cameroon, Central African Republic, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

References

Libellulidae
Insects described in 1944
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Notiothemis robertsi


Charleen Abigaile "Cha" Ramos Cruz-Behag (born May 11, 1988) is a Filipino professional volleyball player and an educator. She is a member of the Philippine women's national volleyball team. Currently, she is playing and is the team captain for the F2 Logistics Cargo Movers in the Philippine Super Liga, a semi-professional corporate club volleyball league in the Philippines. She was a member of De La Salle University (DLSU) Lady Spikers, the official women's volleyball varsity team of De La Salle University. She was a two-time University Athletic Association of the Philippines's (UAAP) Finals Most Valuable Player and was part of DLSU Lady Spikers' four UAAP championships. She is known for her versatility in playing the sport of volleyball earning her the moniker "Ms. Everything".

Personal life
Cruz was born on May 11, 1988. She studied in the St. Louis College of Valenzuela high school from 2003 to 2006 and completed her Bachelor's in Psychology at De La Salle University and as of 2012 was pursuing her Master's degree in Special Education. She is the older sister of volleyball players Camille Cruz and Cienne Cruz.

Cruz married pilot Rey Behag on February 28, 2018, in Tagaytay. In October 2019, she gave birth to her son, Leon Sol.

Career
Cruz is known for her versatility and multidimensional skills in playing volleyball. Over the years of playing, she has played every position except libero and has embraced the 7th woman role for the DLSU Lady Spikers. According to her: "Kung sino yung nagkamali, or sino yung medyo off sa game, I'll replace them. So even setter, even center spiker, utility or open spiker I played." This all-around athleticism in playing the sport and her ability to transition from setter to all spiking positions earned her the moniker "Miss Everything". However, she completed playing the final position of libero during the Battle of the Rivals last July 16, 2017.

Cruz began playing volleyball during her 6th grade. She abruptly took a break in the succeeding years but picked it up again during high school. She was later recruited by Coach Ramil De Jesus for the DLSU Lady Spikers varsity team and played for the team from 2005 to 2012.

Her first three years in her collegiate career was a shaky journey. Midway during her UAAP rookie year (Season 68, 2005–2006), while doing the setting job for the team, she sustained a stress fracture in her left ankle which forced her to sit out the remaining games of the season. While in the following UAAP season (Season 69, 2006–07), all DLSU varsity teams were suspended from the athletic association as consequence of its men's basketball team's violation on a UAAP rule. In UAAP Season 70 (2007–08), Cruz-Behag failed to suit up for the team due to academic requirements.

In 2008, Cruz finally returned to suit up for the team this time playing the open spiker and middle blocker positions. The DLSU Lady Spikers only dropped two matches in UAAP Season 71 (2008-2009) winning the championship title over the Far Eastern Lady Tamaraws. However, in Season 72 (2009–10), the DLSU Lady Spikers were dethroned by the University of Santo Tomas (UST) Lady Tigers and finished as runner up.

In her last two UAAP seasons [Seasons 73 (2010–11) and 74 (2011–12)], Cruz was named team captain for the DLSU Lady Spikers. In both seasons, the team won the championships and Cruz was awarded the UAAP Finals Most Valuable Player for both seasons. Eventually, the back-to-back championships turned into a 3-peat as the DLSU Lady Spikers again won the UAAP Women's Volleyball championship in Season 75.

After exhausting her UAAP playing years, Cruz temporarily took a break from playing volleyball and focused on her teaching job. She is currently finishing her master's degree in education major in special education at De La Salle University.

After a two-year hiatus, in 2014, Cruz made a comeback via the now defunct AirAsia Flying Spikers, reuniting with Coach Ramil de Jesus and other DLSU Lady Spikers. Currently, she is the team captain of the F2 Logistics Cargo Movers in the Philippine Super Liga.

Clubs
  AirAsia Flying Spikers (2014)
  Generika Lifesavers (2014)
  Shopinas.com Lady Clickers (2015)
  Meralco Power Spikers (2015)
  Cignal HD Spikers (2015)
  F2 Logistics Cargo Movers (2016–present)

Awards (Partial list)

Individuals
 UAAP Season 73 "Finals Most Valuable Player"
 UAAP Season 74 "Finals Most Valuable Player"
 2015 Philippine Superliga All-Filipino Conference "1st Best Outside Spiker"

Collegiate
Partial list, pre-season tournaments (PVF, Unigames, Shakey's V-League) not included
 UAAP Season 68 volleyball tournaments -  Champions, with DLSU Lady Spikers
 UAAP Season 69 volleyball tournaments - Entire DLSU varsity teams suspended from the UAAP
 UAAP Season 70 volleyball tournaments - Cruz-Behag did not suit up
 UAAP Season 71 volleyball tournaments -  Champions, with DLSU Lady Spikers
 UAAP Season 72 volleyball tournaments -  Silver medal, with DLSU Lady Spikers
 UAAP Season 73 volleyball tournaments -  Champions, with DLSU Lady Spikers
 UAAP Season 74 volleyball tournaments -  Champions, with DLSU Lady Spikers

Clubs
 2014 PSL Grand Prix Conference -  Silver medal, with Generika LifeSavers (now Generika-Ayala Lifesavers)
 2015 PSL All-Filipino Conference -  Silver medal, with Shopinas.com Lady Clickers
 2016 PSL Invitational Cup -  Bronze medal, with F2 Logistics Cargo Movers
 2016 PSL All-Filipino Conference -  Champions, with F2 Logistics Cargo Movers
 2016 PSL Grand Prix Conference -  Bronze medal, with F2 Logistics Cargo Movers
 2017 PSL All-Filipino Conference -  Silver medal, with F2 Logistics Cargo Movers
 2017 PSL Grand Prix Conference -  Champions, with F2 Logistics Cargo Movers
 2018 PSL Grand Prix Conference -  Silver medal, with F2 Logistics Cargo Movers
 2018 PSL Invitational Cup -  Champions, with F2 Logistics Cargo Movers
 2018 PSL All-Filipino Conference -  Silver medal, with F2 Logistics Cargo Movers

Beach Volleyball
 2015 Nestea Fantasy Beach Volleyball,  Champions, with Light Blue Team composed of Cruz, Michele Gumabao, Rachel Anne Daquis, and Gretchen Ho

Recognition
 2015, FHM Philippines 100 Sexiest Woman, ranked No. 98
 2015 DLSAA Lasallian Sports Achievement Award
 2015 season of the Philippine Super Liga's brand ambassador

References

Living people
Filipino women's volleyball players
1988 births
University Athletic Association of the Philippines volleyball players
De La Salle University alumni
People from Valenzuela, Metro Manila
Volleyball players from Metro Manila
Outside hitters
Volleyball players at the 2018 Asian Games
Asian Games competitors for the Philippines

Cha Cruz-Behag


Evangel Allena Champlin Best (January 4, 1892 – February 1974), better known by her pen name Erick Berry, was an American author, illustrator and editor.

Early and personal life

Berry was born on January 4, 1892, in New Bedford, Massachusetts. She was married at least twice, the second time to fellow writer Herbert Best. She derived her pen name from her interest in Eric Pape and the surname of her first husband.

Career

Berry published many children's books from the 1930s to the '60s, and worked as an author, illustrator, and editor. Perhaps the most popular book she wrote was 1933's Winged Girl of Knossos, which she also illustrated. It won a Newbery Honor in 1934. In that year, Anne Dempster Kyle's The Apprentice of Florence, illustrated by Berry, won the same award. She also illustrated several of her husband Best's works, one of which, Garram the Hunter: A Boy of the Hill Tribes, also won a Newbery Honor. She also edited at least one publication, Walter and Marion Havighurst's 1949 children's historical novel Song of the Pines.

Death

Berry died in February 1974, at the age of 82.

Bibliography

As author

As sole author

 Girls in Africa: 1928 (also illustrated)
 Penny-whistle: 1930 (also illustrated)
 Humbo the Hippo and Little-Boy-Bumbo: 1932 (also illustrated)
 Winged Girl of Knossos: 1933 (also illustrated)
 Cynthia Steps Out: 1937
 Homespun: 1937 (illustrated by Harold von Schmidt)
 Honey of the Nile: 1938 (also illustrated)
 Hudson Frontier: 1942 (also illustrated)
 Sybil Ludington's Ride: 1952 (also illustrated)
 Hay-Foot, Straw-Foot: 1954 (also illustrated)
 Green Door to the Sea: 1955 (also illustrated)
 Horses for the General: 1956 (also illustrated)
 The Land and People of Finland: 1959
 The Land and People of Iceland: 1959
 The Four Londons of William Hogarth: 1964
 You Have Got to Go Out: The Story of the United States Coast Guard: 1964
 Mr. Arctic: An Account of Vilhjalmur Stefansson: 1966
 The Springing of the Rice: A Story of Thailand: 1966 (illustrated by John Kaufmann)
 When Wagon Trains Rolled to Santa Fe: 1966 (illustrated by Charles Waterhouse)
 The Magic Banana and Other Polynesian Tales: 1968 (illustrated by Nicholas Amorosi)
 A World Explorer: Fridtjof Nansen: 1969 (illustrated by William Hutchinson)

With Herbert Best

 Men Who Changed the Map: 1968
 The Polynesian Triangle: 1968

As illustrator

Books by Herbert Best

 Garram the Hunter: A Boy of the Hill Tribes: 1930
 Tal of the Four Tribes: 1938
 Gunsmith's Boy: 1942
 The Long Portage: A Story of Ticonderoga and Lord Howe: 1948
 Not Without Danger: 1951
 The Columbus Cannon: 1954
 Underwater Warriors: Story of the American Frogmen: 1967

Books by other authors

 Pinky Pup and The Empty Elephant - Dixie Willson: 1928
 This Side of Jordan - Roark Bradford: 1929 (Harper & Brothers) and 1930 (William Heinemann Ltd)
 Bee of the Cactus Country — Nora Archibald Smith: 1932
 The Apprentice of Florence — Anne Dempster Kyle: 1933
 Araminta — Eva Knox Evans: 1935
 Jerome Anthony — Eva Knox Evans: 1936
 The Polynesian Triangle — Eleanor Weakley Nolen: 1938
 Key Corner — Eva Knox Evans: 1938
 The Pilgrim Goose — Keith Robertson: 1956

As editor

 Song of the Pines — Walter and Marion Havighurst: 1949

References

1892 births
1974 deaths
20th-century American novelists
American children's writers
American women novelists
Newbery Honor winners
20th-century American women writers

Erick Berry


The fifth Gran Premio de Madrid, was the seventh round of the 1983 European Championship for F2 Drivers. This was held at Circuito Permanente del Jarama, north of the Spanish capital, Madrid, on 12 June. This was first time the race was held since 1971.

Report

Entry
A total of 26 F2 cars were entered for the event, however of which 23 took part in qualifying.

Qualifying
Jonathan Palmer took pole position for Ralt Racing Ltd, in their Ralt-Honda RH6/83H, averaging a speed of 99.031 mph.

Race
The race was held over 65 laps of a Jarama circuit. Mike Thackwell took the winner spoils for works Ralt team, driving their Ralt-Honda RH6/83H. Thackwell won in a time of 1hr 28:50.80mins., averaging a speed of 92.737 mph. Around 2.36 seconds behind was the second place car, driven by Stefan Bellof, for the Maurer Motorsport team in their own BMW-engined MM83.  The podium was completed by the second works Ralt, of Jonathan Palmer.

Classification

Race Result

 Fastest lap: Mike Thackwell, 1:10.02ecs. (108.65 mph)

References

Jarama
Jarama
Formula Two

1983 Gran Premio de Madrid


Régiment du Roi (King's Regiment) was a name given to several of the most prestigious regiments of the French Army under the ancien Régime and Bourbon Restoration, with most of the Army's branches having a régiment du Roi. It is not to be confused with the term régiment royal (meaning a regiment belonging to the king as opposed to régiments de gentilhomme belonging to nobles)

Infantry
In 1663, the régiment Royal Infanterie was renamed the King's Infantry Regiment. Under this title it fought at the Battle of Fontenoy on 11 May 1745.

This regiment was one of three garrisoning Nancy in August 1790 and as such played a leading role in the mutiny known as the Nancy affair. In 1791 it became the 105e régiment d'infanterie de ligne.

In 1814 the 1st Infantry Regiment was renamed régiment du Roi; it lost that name in 1816 when a new system of "Departmental Legions" replaced the former regiments of the French line infantry.

Light infantry
In 1814, the 1st regiment of light infantry regiment was renamed régiment du Roi. It was renamed in 1815. Five cavalry regiments were also redesignated as King's regiments in 1814 as part of a general effort under the First Restoration to dilute Napoleonic links within the French Army.

Regiments of the Bourbon Restoration
Military units and formations established in 1663
Military units and formations disestablished in 1791
Infantry regiments of the Ancien Régime

King's Infantry Regiment (France)


Ville Tietäväinen is a Finnish graphic designer, illustrator and comic artist. His first comic book Linnut ja meret was published in 2003. Tietäväinen graduated as an architect but he has worked as an illustrator and graphic designer since the 1990s.

Probably the most influential work by Tietäväinen is the Invisible Hands (Finnish: Näkymättömät kädet) comic book released in 2011. The book was the winner of Finnish Graphic Novel Finlandia Prize in the year 2011. Invisible Hands tells the grim story of a Moroccan tailor Rashid who faces economic difficulties in his home country and leaves his family to look for work in Spain as an illegal alien. The comic book deals with themes like social injustice, illegal immigrants and globalization.

Works
Näkymättömät kädet (2011)
Linnut ja meret (2003)
Hymyilevä kuu (1995, with Harri Hannula)

References

1970 births
Living people

Ville Tietäväinen


In Greek mythology, Anchiale or Ankhiale (Ancient Greek: Ἀγχιάλη) was the name of the following personages:
 Anchiale, said to have founded the town of Anchiale near Tarsus in Cilicia. Her father was named Iapetus, and she had a son named Cydnus.
 Anchiale, a Cretan nymph, who gave birth to the metalworking Idaean Dactyls in the Dictaean cave. She was also seen as a Titan goddess and perhaps represented the warmth of fire. She was the wife of Hecaterus.
 Anchiale, according to Servius, was the mother of Oaxes by Apollo.

Notes

References
 Apollonius of Rhodes, Apollonius Rhodius: the Argonautica, translated by Robert Cooper Seaton, W. Heinemann, 1912. Internet Archive.
Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica translated by Robert Cooper Seaton (1853-1915), R. C. Loeb Classical Library Volume 001. London, William Heinemann Ltd, 1912. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica. George W. Mooney. London. Longmans, Green. 1912. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
 Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873).
Stephanus of Byzantium, Stephani Byzantii Ethnicorum quae supersunt, edited by August Meineike (1790-1870), published 1849. A few entries from this important ancient handbook of place names have been translated by Brady Kiesling. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Strabo, Geographica edited by A. Meineke. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.

Nymphs
Women of Apollo
Cretan characters in Greek mythology

Anchiale (mythology)


West Nusa Tenggara ( – NTB) is a province of Indonesia. It comprises the western portion of the Lesser Sunda Islands, with the exception of Bali which is its own province. Mataram, on Lombok, is the capital and largest city of the province. It shares maritime borders with Bali to the west and East Nusa Tenggara to the east. The 2010 census recorded the population at 4,500,212; the total rose to 4,830,118 at the 2015 Intermediate Census and 5,320,092 at the 2020 census; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 5,473,671. The province's area is 20,153.15 km2.
The two largest islands by far in the province are Lombok in the west and the larger Sumbawa island in the east.

History

Pre-Islamic period
Based on analysis of prehistoric objects found such as complex sarcophagi, decorated stoneware, machetes, and axes, West Nusa Tenggara had been inhabited by people from Southeast Asia.

The natives in this region are called the Sasak people, most of whom live on the island of Lombok, on the island of Sumbawa the indigenous people are divided into two groups, ethnic Sumbawa (Samawa) and Bima. However, with the wave of migrants from Bali, Makassar, Java, Kalimantan, Nusa Tenggara, Maluku and East Nusa Tenggara, the indigenous people now remain in the interior.

The region can was part of the Majapahit Empire during its height in the 14th century conquering all the kingdoms located on the islands of both Lombok and Sumbawa. In the book Negarakertagama by Mpu Prapanca in 1365, it was written that West Lombok was named "Lombok Mirah" and East Lombok was named "Sasak Adi", Taliwang, Dompo (Dompu), Sape, Sanghyang Fire, Bhima (Bima), Seram (Seran) and Hutan Kedali (Utan).

Islamic period
In the early reign of the kings in West Nusa Tenggara, the influence of Hinduism was very strong, but with the collapse of the Majapahit Empire, the influence of Hinduism began to decrease with the onset of the influence of Islam in the coastal communities.

The creation of the Demak Sultanate in Central Java had a huge impact on the spread of Islam in West Nusa Tenggara. The influence of Islam in West Nusa Tenggara was generally brought by the Malays. The influence of Islam in Bima was supported by King I Maliingkaang Daeng-Mannyonriq of Makassar, who was then known as Karaeng Matoaya who played an important role in the spread of Islam in the region.

The influence of Islam in the Bima Sultanate emerged during the reign of King Manuru Salehi around 1605 and began to grow rapidly during the reign of King Abdul Kahir. King Abdul Kahir is also known as the Sultan of Bima because he was the king who first embraced Islam in Bima, beginning a new era, separate from the previous Bima kings who embraced Hinduism. Islam became the official religion of the kings in West Nusa Tenggara.

Colonial period

The Europeans who first came to Nusa Tenggara were the Portuguese who landed on the island of Solor and Timor in 1605. At the same time the Dutch also came to the island of Hitu and Ambon, in the Malukus. The first Dutch ship that entered the area was the Ter Ver which docked in Kupang in 1611. The arrival of the Dutch-led to a long dispute between the Portuguese and the Dutch in Nusa Tenggara. The Dutch provided assistance to the local kings who resisted the Portuguese. The Netherlands then expanded its influence in Nusa Tenggara, to make a variety of agreements with small kings around the island of Sumbawa.

The arrival of the Dutch colonial administration greatly impacted Indonesian society, with the decline of the Sultanate of Gowa in the 17th century. Gowa nobility who did not submit to the colonial government fled from Makassar and built pockets of resistance in West Nusa Tenggara. To combat the resistance, the colonial government began to concentrate power in West Nusa Tenggara. This was reinforced by the emergence of Lombok for international trade, so the desire of the Dutch to rule West Nusa Tenggara become stronger.

The Dutch colonial government sent Stephen van Hegen for a close look at the Bima Sultanate in 1660. The arrival of the Dutch, influenced the political and economic situation in the area. In 1669, the Government of the Bima Sultanate led by Sultan Ambela Abdul Khair Sirajuddin, made peace and friendship ties with the colonial government with the agreement that:
 The Sultanate of Bima and Dompu will not attack Makassar
 To keep the peace, only members of the Dutch East India Company may visit the Bima area
 Bima and Makassar will not make any contact at all.
 Foreign traders from Europe, India, Java, Malaya, Arab lands, Aceh, and Champa must not engage in trade with Bima, except by special permit from the Dutch East India Company.

The agreement with the Sultan of Bima and Dompu recognized the existence of the Dutch colonial power. The Netherlands sought to consolidate its control by blocking the Bima port to prevent the arrival of aid from Makassar or other foreign countries. The effort was done so that the existing ports in Bima and Lombok would not fall into British hands.

Because of Dutch supremacy in the region the king and the people in the region could not move freely. This situation became worse with the eruption of Mount Tambora on April 5, 1815, which shook the entire region, and the consequences could be felt throughout the Moluccas, Java, Sulawesi, Sumatra, and Kalimantan. Mount Tambora's eruption resulted in the disappearance of the two kingdoms of Tambora and Papekat. More than 10,000 people were killed.

Independence
West Nusa Tenggara province previously had been part of the State of East Indonesia with the creation of the United States of Indonesia, and had been part of the province of the Lesser Sunda Islands (Nusa Tenggara) after the recognition of Indonesian sovereignty.

The province of West Nusa Tenggara was created with the enactment of Law No. 64 of 1958 Dated August 14, 1958, on the Establishment of the new provinces of Bali, West Nusa Tenggara and East Nusa Tenggara, with its first governor, AR. Moh. Ruslan Djakraningrat.

Geography

Terrain
West Nusa Tenggara has two kinds of landscape. The first is the island of Lombok with the coastline fairly straight, with the central to eastern part in the form of mountains, and coastal lowlands in the east. The second is Sumbawa Island with a jagged coastline because of the many headlands and bays, and the central part is covered with hills and limestone mountains.

Selong (capital of East Lombok Regency) is a city that has the highest altitude, which is 148 m above sea level, while the lowest Raba at 13 m above sea level. Of the seven mountains on the island of Lombok, Mount Rinjani is the highest mountain with an altitude of 3,775 m, while Mount Tambora on Sumbawa is the highest mountain with an altitude of 2,851 m.

Climate
Like the rest of Indonesia, NTB has a tropical climate. Based on statistics from the meteorological institute, the maximum temperature in 2001 ranged from 30.9 to 32.1 °C, and the minimum temperature ranged between 20.6 and 24.5 °C. The highest temperatures occur in September and the lowest is in November. Being tropical, NTB has a high average relative humidity, which is between 48 and 95%.

West Nusa Tenggara has relatively little rainfall compared to the western region of Indonesia. Maximum rainfall in the province occurs in January and minimum rainfall occurs in August.

Economy

The area of West Nusa Tenggara (NTB) has very beautiful natural scenery, be it the mountains or the beach. This has caused many tourists from other parts of Indonesia and other countries to flock to the province due to its stunning scenery.

In addition to the panorama of beautiful tourist attractions, food crops, and horticulture developed and cultivated by the community that is profitable for farmers, among others, are soybeans, peanuts, corn, green beans, peppers, onions, mangoes, bananas, and pineapples. In addition to the nine kinds of commodities in the regions, other horticultural commodities that can be developed are potatoes, carrots, apples, and grapes.

As for fisheries, NTB has 3 areas of fisheries development:
 The island of Lombok, with a priority on the development of marine aquaculture and freshwater fisheries, brackish water aquaculture (ponds), catching public waters;
 The western part of Sumbawa Island, priority on the development of brackishwater aquaculture (ponds), mariculture, arrest, public waters, and freshwater aquaculture;
 Eastern part of Sumbawa Island with priority on the development of catching, mariculture, public waters, and freshwater aquaculture.

West Nusa Tenggara is one of the major manufacturers and suppliers of livestock and seeds to the needs of various regions in Indonesia. The carrying capacity of livestock-based agribusiness development, among others, the potential availability of cattle in quality and quantity, land resources, and fodder, support all production, pet patterns as a group, are non-communicable diseases as well as the bank still has domestic and export markets. The NTB cow is a kind of Bali cattle, which is a leading NTB commodity and has domestic and export markets. In addition to cows and buffaloes, other supporting commodities are pigs, goats and horses, chickens, and ducks.

Administrative divisions

The province is administratively divided into eight regencies (kabupaten) and two municipalities (kotamadya). When created, the province consisted of just six regencies; the city of Mataram was separated from West Lombok Regency on 26 July 1993, and the city of Bima was separated from Bima Regency on 10 April 2002. Two additional regencies were created - West Sumbawa from part of Sumbawa Regency on 18 December 2003, and North Lombok from part of West Lombok Regency on 24 June 2008. The regencies and cities are listed below with their administrative capitals, their areas and their populations at the 2010 census and the 2020 census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2022.

The Indonesian government has since 2013 been considering the division of Nusa Tenggara Barat Province to create a separate Sumbawa Island province, although in the following decade all creations of new provinces has been in abeyance There is no information as to whether the remaining part of the present province (i.e. the districts comprising Lombok Island) would then be renamed.

Population

Lombok is mainly inhabited by the Sasak ethnic group, with a minority Balinese population, and Sumbawa is inhabited by Sumbawa and Bimanese ethnic groups. Each of these groups has a local language associated with it as well. The population of the province was 4.5 million at the 2010 census, 5.32 million at the 2020 census and 5.47 million according to the official estimates for mid 2022. A total of 70.69% of the province's population lives on Lombok (at mid 2022), which has only 23.5% of the area.
The province is considered to be one of the least developed of Indonesia's 34 provinces. In 2005, West Nusa Tenggara was reported as the most affected area for malnutrition and kwashiorkor. Life expectancy in West Nusa Tenggara amounted to only 54 years, the lowest in Indonesia (69 years) and the highest infant mortality rate.

Religion

References

External links

 Rinjani National Park

Provinces of Indonesia
1958 establishments in Indonesia
Lesser Sunda Islands
States and territories established in 1958

West Nusa Tenggara


Robert Mohr (5 April 1897 – 5 February 1977) was an interrogation specialist of the Gestapo. He headed the special commission responsible for the search and arrest of the White Rose, part of the German Resistance to Nazism.

Early life
Robert Mohr was born in Bisterschied in the Palatinate in 1897 into the family of a Palatine-born master mason, one of six brothers and three sisters. Mohr completed an apprenticeship as a tailor, but never practiced this profession. He served in the German Army during the First World War and was awarded the Iron Cross Second Class before resigning in May 1919. In October 1919, Mohr entered the Bavarian police. In May 1933 he joined the Nazi Party. He also belonged to the National Socialist Motor Corps, the Reich Air Defense League, the Reich Colonial League, and the National Socialist People's Welfare organizations. In the 1930s he worked as a police chief in Frankenthal (Pfalz). From 1938 he worked for the Gestapo in Munich.

The White Rose
Between 18 and 20 February 1943, Mohr interrogated Sophie Scholl and obtained her confession to the distribution of leaflets for the White Rose movement. In a 1951 report to Robert Scholl, Sophie's father, Mohr said he tried to save Sophie's life by leading her to testify against her brother Hans Scholl, to say she was under his influence and that they had different opinions on politics.

Later life
After completion of the investigation into the White Rose, Mohr became chief of the Gestapo office in Mulhouse, occupied Alsace. Around 1947 he was interned by the French but was not tried for his service in the Gestapo. From 1948 he worked in the spa at Bad Dürkheim. He died in 1977 in Ludwigshafen.

Media

Film
 Sophie Scholl – The Final Days, Director: Marc Rothemund.
Mohr was played by Alexander Held

Literature
 Inge Aicher-Scholl Die Weiße Rose.  Mit Abdruck des Berichtes von Robert Mohr an Robert Scholl

References

External links
 Kirsten Schulz: Robert Mohr. Kriminalobersekretär bei der Gestapo-Leitstelle in München. Ein Artikel publiziert von der Bundeszentrale für Politische Bildung, bei bpb.de vom 20. April 2005.
 Vernehmungsprotokoll beim Georg Elser Arbeitskreis

1897 births
1977 deaths
People from Donnersbergkreis
People from the Palatinate (region)
Nazi Party members
Gestapo personnel
Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 2nd class
German prisoners of war in World War II held by France

Robert Mohr


The Taiping Rebellion, also known as the Taiping Civil War or the Taiping Revolution, was a civil war in China between the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the Hakka-led Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. It lasted from 1850 until the fall of Tianjing (now Nanjing) in 1864, although the last rebel army was not wiped out until August 1871. The conflict resulted in approximately 20 to 30 million deaths. The established Qing government won decisively, although at great cost to its fiscal and political structure.

The uprising was commanded by Hong Xiuquan, an ethnic Hakka (a Han subgroup) and the self-proclaimed brother of Jesus Christ. Its goals were religious, nationalist, and political in nature; Hong sought the conversion of the Han people to the Taiping's syncretic version of Christianity, to overthrow the Qing dynasty, and a state transformation. Rather than supplanting the ruling class, the Taipings sought to upend the moral and social order of China. The Taipings established the Heavenly Kingdom as an oppositional state based in Tianjing and gained control of a significant part of southern China, eventually expanding to command a population base of nearly 30 million people.

For more than a decade, Taiping armies occupied and fought across much of the mid- and lower Yangtze valley, ultimately devolving into total civil war. It was the largest war in China since the Ming–Qing transition, involving most of Central and Southern China. It ranks as one of the bloodiest wars in human history, the bloodiest civil war, and the largest conflict of the 19th century. In terms of deaths, it is comparable to World War I. Thirty million people fled the conquered regions to foreign settlements or other parts of China. The war was characterized by extreme brutality on both sides. Taiping soldiers carried out widespread massacres of Manchus, the ethnic minority of the ruling Imperial House of Aisin-Gioro. Meanwhile, the Qing government also engaged in massacres, most notably against the civilian population of the Taiping capital, Tianjing.

Weakened severely by internal conflict, an attempted coup, and the failure of the siege of Beijing, the Taipings were defeated by decentralized, provincial armies such as the Xiang Army organized and commanded by Zeng Guofan. After moving down the Yangtze River and recapturing the strategic city of Anqing, Zeng's forces besieged Nanjing during May, 1862. After two more years, on June 1, 1864, Hong Xiuquan died and Nanjing fell barely a month later. The 14-year civil war, combined with other partially linked internal and external wars, weakened the dynasty but provided incentive for an initially successful period of reform and self-strengthening. It exacerbated ethnic disputes and accelerated the rise of provincial power. Historians debate whether these developments foreshadowed the Warlord Era, the loss of central control after the establishment of Republic of China in 1912.

Names

The terms which writers use for the conflict and its participants often represent their different opinions. During the 19th century, the Qing did not describe the conflict as either a civil war or a movement because doing so would have lent credibility to the Taiping. Instead, they referred to the tumultuous civil war as a period of chaos (), rebellion () or military ascendancy (). They often referred to it as the Hong-Yang Rebellion (), referring to the two most prominent leaders. It was also dismissively referred to as the Red Sheep Rebellion () because "Hong-Yang" sounds like "Red Sheep" in Chinese.

In modern China, the war is often referred to as the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, due to the fact that the Taiping espoused a doctrine which was both nationalist and communist, and the Taiping represented a popular ideology which was based on either Han nationalism or protocommunist values. The scholar Jian Youwen is among those who refer to the rebellion as the "Taiping Revolutionary Movement" on the grounds that it worked towards a complete change in the political and social system, rather than working towards the replacement of one dynasty with another.

Many Western historians refer to the conflict in general as the "Taiping Rebellion". Recently, however, scholars such as Tobie Meyer-Fong and Stephen Platt have argued that the term "Taiping Rebellion" is biased because it insinuates that the Qing government was a legitimate government which was fighting against the illegitimate Taiping rebels. Instead, they argue that the conflict should be called a "civil war". Other historians such as Jürgen Osterhammel term the conflict "Taiping Revolution" because of the rebels' radical transformational objectives and the social revolution that they initiated.

Little is known about how the Taiping referred to the war, but the Taiping often referred to the Qing in general and the Manchus in particular as some variant of demons or monsters (), representing Hong's proclamation that they were fighting a holy war to rid the world of demons and establish paradise on earth. The Qing referred to the Taiping as Yue Bandits ( or ) in official sources, a reference to their origins in the southeastern province of Guangdong.

More colloquially, the Chinese called the Taiping some variant of Long-Hairs (), because they did not shave their foreheads and braid their hair into a queue as Qing subjects were obligated to do, allowing their hair to grow long.

History

Origins

During the 19th century, the Qing dynasty experienced a series of famines, natural disasters, economic problems and defeats at the hands of foreign powers. Farmers were heavily overtaxed, rents rose dramatically, and peasants started to desert their lands in droves. The Qing military had recently suffered a disastrous defeat in the First Opium War, while the Chinese economy was severely impacted by a trade imbalance caused by the large-scale and illicit importation of opium. Banditry became common, and numerous secret societies and self-defense units formed, all of which led to an increase in small-scale warfare.

Meanwhile, the population of China had increased rapidly, nearly doubling between 1766 and 1833, while the amount of cultivated land was stable. The government, commanded by ethnic Manchus, had become increasingly corrupt. It was weak in the southern regions where local clans dominated. Anti-Manchu sentiments were strongest in southern China among the Hakka community, a Han Chinese subgroup. Meanwhile, Christian missionaries were active.

In 1837, Hong Huoxiu, a Hakka from a poor village in Guangdong, failed the imperial examination for the third time, frustrating his ambition to become a scholar-official in the civil service and leading him to a nervous breakdown. While convalescing, Hong dreamed of visiting Heaven, where he discovered that he possessed a celestial family distinct from his earthly family. His heavenly father lamented that men were worshiping demons rather than himself and informed Hong that his given name violated taboos and had to be changed, suggesting as one option the "Hong Xiuquan" moniker ultimately adopted by Hong. In later embellishments, Hong would declare that he also saw Confucius being punished by his celestial father for leading the people astray. In 1843, Hong failed the imperial examinations for the fourth and final time. It was only then, prompted by a visit by his cousin, that Hong took time to carefully examine Christian pamphlets he had received from a Protestant Christian missionary several years earlier. After reading these pamphlets, Hong came to believe that they had given him the key to interpreting his visions: his celestial father was God the Father (whom he identified with Shangdi from Chinese tradition), the elder brother that he had also seen was Jesus Christ, and he had been directed to rid the world of demons, including the corrupt Qing government and Confucian teachings. In 1847 Hong went to Guangzhou, where he studied the Bible with Issachar Jacox Roberts, an American Baptist missionary. Roberts refused to baptize him and later stated that Hong's followers were "bent on making their burlesque religious pretensions serve their political purpose".

Soon after Hong began preaching across Guangxi in 1844, his follower Feng Yunshan founded the God Worshipping Society, a movement which followed Hong's fusion of Christianity, Daoism, Confucianism and indigenous millenarianism, which Hong presented as a restoration of the ancient Chinese faith in Shangdi. The Taiping faith, says one historian, "developed into a dynamic new Chinese religion ... Taiping Christianity".

The movement at first grew by suppressing groups of bandits and pirates in southern China in the late 1840s, then suppression by Qing authorities led it to evolve into guerrilla warfare and subsequently a widespread civil war. Eventually, two other God Worshippers claimed to possess the ability to speak as members of the "Celestial Family", the Father in the case of Yang Xiuqing and Jesus Christ in the case of Xiao Chaogui.

Early years
The Taiping Rebellion began in the southern province of Guangxi when local officials launched a campaign of religious persecution against the God Worshipping Society. In early January 1851, following a small-scale battle in late December 1850, a 10,000-strong rebel army organized by Feng Yunshan and Wei Changhui routed Qing forces stationed in Jintian (present-day Guiping, Guangxi). Taiping forces successfully repulsed an attempted imperial reprisal by the Green Standard Army against the Jintian uprising.

On January 11, 1851, Hong declared himself the Heavenly King of the Heavenly Kingdom of Peace (or Taiping Heavenly Kingdom), from which comes the term "Taipings" commonly used for them in English-language studies. The Taipings began marching north in September 1851 to escape Qing forces closing in on them. The Taiping army pressed north into Hunan following the Xiang River, besieging Changsha, occupying Yuezhou, and then capturing Wuchang in December 1852 after reaching the Yangtze River. At this point the Taiping leadership decided to move east along the Yangtze River. Anqing was captured in February 1853.

Taiping leaders may have reached out to Triad organizations, which had many cells in South China and among government troops. Taiping titles echoed Triad usage, whether consciously or not, which made it more attractive for Triads to join the movement. In 1852, Qing government troops captured Hong Daquan, a rebel who had assumed the title Tian De Wang (King of Heavenly Virtue). Hong Daquan's confession claimed that Hong Xiuquan had made him co-sovereign of the Heavenly Kingdom and given him that title, but was more likely an echo of an earlier but unconnected White Lotus Rebellion. However, the capture of Nanjing in that year led to a deterioration of relations between the Taiping rebels and the triads.

Middle years

On March 19, 1853, the Taipings captured the city of Nanjing and Hong declared it the Heavenly Capital of his kingdom. Since the Taipings considered the Manchus to be demons, they first killed all the Manchu men, then forced the Manchu women outside the city and burned them to death. Shortly thereafter, the Taiping launched concurrent Northern and Western expeditions, in an effort to relieve pressure on Nanjing and achieve significant territorial gains. The former expedition was a complete failure but the latter achieved limited success.

In 1853, Hong Xiuquan withdrew from active control of policies and administration to rule exclusively by written proclamations. He lived in luxury and had many women in his inner chamber, and often issued religious strictures. He clashed with Yang Xiuqing, who challenged his often impractical policies, and became suspicious of Yang's ambitions, his extensive network of spies and his claims of authority when "speaking as God". This tension culminated in the 1856 Tianjing Incident, wherein Yang and his followers were slaughtered by Wei Changhui, Qin Rigang, and their troops on Hong Xiuquan's orders.

Shi Dakai's objection to the bloodshed led to his family and retinue being killed by Wei and Qin with Wei ultimately planning to imprison Hong. Wei's plans were ultimately thwarted and he and Qin were executed by Hong. Shi Dakai was given control of five Taiping armies, which were consolidated into one. But fearing for his life, he departed from Tianjing and headed west towards Sichuan.

With Hong withdrawn from view and Yang out of the picture, the remaining Taiping leaders tried to widen their popular support and forge alliances with European powers, but failed on both counts. The Europeans decided to stay officially neutral, though European military advisors served with the Qing army.

Inside China, the rebellion faced resistance from the traditionalist rural classes because of hostility to Chinese customs and Confucian values. The landowning upper class, unsettled by the Taiping ideology and the policy of strict separation of the sexes, even for married couples, sided with government forces.

In Hunan, a local irregular army called the Xiang Army or Hunan Army, under the personal leadership of Zeng Guofan, became the main armed force fighting for the Qing against the Taiping. Zeng's Xiang Army proved effective in gradually turning back the Taiping advance in the western theater of the war and ultimately retaking much of Hubei and Jiangxi provinces. In December 1856 Qing forces retook Wuchang for the final time. The Xiang Army captured Jiujiang in May 1858 and then the rest of Jiangxi province by September.

In 1859, Hong Rengan, Hong Xiuquan's cousin, joined the Taiping forces in Nanjing and was given considerable power by Hong. Hong Rengan developed an ambitious plan to expand the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom's boundaries.

In May 1860, the Taiping defeated the imperial forces that had been besieging Nanjing since 1853, eliminating them from the region and opening the way for a successful invasion of southern Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces, the wealthiest region of the Qing Empire. The Taiping rebels were successful in taking Hangzhou on March 19, 1860, Changzhou on May 26, and Suzhou on June 2 to the east. While Taiping forces were preoccupied in Jiangsu, Zeng's forces moved down the Yangtze River.

Fall of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom

An attempt to take Shanghai begun in June 1861 was repulsed after 15 months by an army of Qing troops supported by European officers under the command of Frederick Townsend Ward. This army would become known as the "Ever Victorious Army", a seasoned and well-trained Qing military force commanded by Charles George Gordon, and would be instrumental in the defeat of the Taiping rebels.

In 1861, around the time of the death of the Xianfeng Emperor and ascension of the Tongzhi Emperor, Zeng Guofan's Xiang Army captured Anqing with help from a naval blockade imposed by the Royal Navy on the city. Near the end of 1861 the Taipings launched a final Eastern Expedition. Ningbo was easily captured on December 9, and Hangzhou was besieged and finally captured on December 31, 1861. Taiping troops surrounded Shanghai in January 1862, but were unable to capture it.

The Ever-Victorious Army repulsed another attack on Shanghai in 1862 and helped to defend other treaty ports such as Ningbo, reclaimed on May 10. They also aided imperial troops in reconquering Taiping strongholds along the Yangtze River.

In 1863, Shi Dakai surrendered to the Qing near the Sichuan capital Chengdu and was executed by slow-slicing. Some of his followers escaped or were released and continued the fight against the Qing.

Qing forces were reorganised under the command of Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang and Li Hongzhang, and the Qing reconquest began in earnest. Zeng Guofan had initially failed so badly that he attempted suicide, but he then adopted the teachings of the 16th-century Ming-dynasty general Qi Jiguang. He bypassed the professional regular armies and recruited from local villages, paying and drilling them well. Zeng, Zuo and Li led personally loyal soldiers. By early 1864, Qing control in most areas had been reestablished.

In May 1862, the Xiang Army began directly besieging Nanjing and managed to hold firm despite numerous attempts by the numerically superior Taiping Army to dislodge them. Hong Xiuquan declared that God would defend Nanjing, but in June 1864, with Qing forces approaching, he died of food poisoning as a consequence of eating wild vegetables when the city ran low on food supplies. He was sick for 20 days before succumbing and a few days after his death, Qing forces took the city. Although Hong likely died of his illness, suicide by poison has also been suggested. His body was buried in the former Ming Imperial Palace, and was later exhumed on orders of Zeng Guofan to verify his death, and then cremated. Hong's ashes were later blasted out of a cannon in order to ensure that his remains had no resting place as eternal punishment for the uprising.

Four months before the fall of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Hong Xiuquan abdicated in favor of his eldest son, Hong Tianguifu, who was 15 years old. The younger Hong was inexperienced and powerless, so the kingdom was quickly destroyed when Nanjing fell in July 1864 to the imperial armies after protracted street-by-street fighting. Tianguifu and few others escaped but were soon caught and executed. Most of the Taiping princes were executed.

A small remainder of loyal Taiping forces had continued to fight in northern Zhejiang, rallying around Tianguifu. But after Tianguifu's capture on October 25, 1864, Taiping resistance was gradually pushed into the highlands of Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Fujian and finally Guangdong, where one of the last Taiping loyalists, Wang Haiyang, was defeated on January 29, 1866.

Aftermath

Although the fall of Nanjing in 1864 marked the destruction of the Taiping regime, the fight was not yet over. There were still several hundred thousand Taiping troops continuing the fight, with more than a quarter-million fighting in the border regions of Jiangxi and Fujian alone. It was not until August 1871 that the last Taiping army led by Shi Dakai's commander, Li Fuzhong (), was completely wiped out by government forces in the border region of Hunan, Guizhou and Guangxi.

Taiping wars also spilled over into Vietnam with devastating effects. In 1860, Wu Lingyun (), an ethnic Zhuang Taiping leader, proclaimed himself King of Dingling () in the Sino-Vietnamese border regions. Dingling was destroyed during a Qing campaign in 1868. His son Wu Yazhong, also called Wu Kun (), fled to Vietnam but was killed in 1869 in Bắc Ninh by a Qing-Vietnamese coalition.

Wu Kun's troops broke up and became marauding armies such as the Yellow Flag Army led by Huang Chongying () and the Black Flag Army (; ) led by Liu Yongfu. The latter would become a prominent warlord in Upper Tonkin and would later help the Nguyễn dynasty to engage against the French during the Sino-French War in the 1880s. He later became the second and last leader of the short-lived Republic of Formosa (5 June – 21 October 1895).

Other "Flag Gangs" armed with the latest weapons, disintegrated into bandit groups that plundered remnants of the Lan Xang kingdom. They were then engaged in combat against the incompetent forces of King Rama V (r. 1868–1910) until 1890, when the last of the groups eventually disbanded. Their victims did not know where the bandits had come from and, when they plundered Buddhist temples, they were mistaken for Chinese Muslims from Yunnan called Hui in Mandarin and Haw in the Lao language (.) This resulted in the protracted series of conflicts being misnamed the Haw wars.

Death toll
With no reliable census at the time, estimates of the death toll of the Taiping Rebellion are speculative. The most widely cited sources estimate the total number of deaths during the almost 14 years of the rebellion to be approximately 20 to 30 million civilians and soldiers. Most of the deaths were attributed to plague and famine. Some analysts have claimed that the death toll may have reached 100 million.

Concurrent rebellions

The Nian Rebellion (1853–1868), and several Chinese Muslim rebellions in the southwest (the Panthay Rebellion, 1855–1873) and the northwest (Dungan revolt, 1862–1877) continued to pose considerable problems for the Qing dynasty.

Occasionally, the Nian rebels collaborated with Taiping forces, for instance, they collaborated during the Northern Expedition. As the Taiping rebellion lost ground, particularly after the fall of Nanjing in 1864, former Taiping soldiers and commanders like Lai Wenguang were incorporated into Nian ranks.

After the failure of the Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856) to capture Guangzhou, their soldiers retreated north into Jiangxi and joined forces with Shi Dakai. After the defeat of the Li Yonghe and Lan Chaoding rebellion in Sichuan, remnants combined with Taiping forces in Shaanxi. Remnant forces of the Small Swords Society uprising in Shanghai regrouped with the Taiping army.

Du Wenxiu, who led the Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan, was in contact with the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. He was not waging his rebellion against Han Chinese, instead, he was anti-Qing and he wanted to destroy the Qing government. Du's forces led many non-Muslim forces, including Han Chinese, Li, Bai, and Hani peoples. They were assisted by non-Muslim Shan and Kakhyen and other hill tribes in the revolt.

The other Muslim rebellion, the Dungan revolt, was the reverse: it was not aiming to overthrow the Qing dynasty because its leader Ma Hualong had accepted an imperial title. Instead, it erupted as a result of intersectional fighting between Muslim factions and Han Chinese. During the Dungan revolt, various groups fought against each other without any coherent goal. According to modern researchers, the Dungan rebellion began in 1862, not as a planned uprising but as a coalescence of many local brawls and riots which were triggered by trivial causes, among these causes were false rumors that the Hui Muslims were aiding the Taiping rebels. The Hui Ma Xiaoshi claimed that the Shaanxi Muslim rebellion was connected to the Taiping. Jonathan Spence claimed that a key reason for the Taiping's defeat was its inability to coordinate its rebellion with other rebellions.

Policies

The rebels announced social reforms, including strict separation of the sexes, abolition of foot binding, land socialisation, and "suppression" of private trade. They also outlawed the importation of opium into all Taiping territories. In regard to religion, the Kingdom replaced Confucianism, Buddhism and Chinese folk religion with the Taiping Christianity, God Worshipping, which held that Hong Xiuquan was the younger brother of Jesus and the second son of Shangdi. Buddhist libraries were burned. Because Hong saw Confucianism was a shadow of its noble origin, being now a tool of the Qing to tyrannize Han people, libraries of the Confucian monasteries were destroyed (almost completely in the case of the Yangtze Delta area), and the temples were often defaced or turned into temples of his new religion or hospitals and libraries.

Traditionalist works like those of Confucius were burned and their sellers executed. The Taiping were especially opposed to idolatry, destroying idols wherever found with great prejudice. Though the destruction of idols was initially welcomed by foreign missionaries, missionaries eventually came to fear the zealotry of the Taiping that they had a hand in creating.

Separation of the sexes was strictly enforced in the first few years, although it tapered off in later years. Part of the extremeness came from a mistranslation of the Ten Commandments, which led to the seventh commandment also forbidding "licentiousness" as well as adultery. It was so severe that parents and children of the opposite sex could not interact, and even married couples were discouraged from having sex.

Military

Taiping forces

The rebels used brilliant unorthodox strategies that nearly toppled the dynasty but inspired it to adopt what one historian calls "the most significant military experimentation since the seventeenth century." The Taiping army was the rebellion's key strength. It was marked by a high level of discipline and fanaticism. They typically wore a uniform of red jackets with blue trousers, and grew their hair long so in China they were nicknamed "long hair". In the beginning of the rebellion, the large numbers of women serving in the Taiping army also distinguished it from other 19th-century armies. However, after 1853 there ceased being many women in the Taiping army. Hong Xuanjiao, Su Sanniang and Qiu Ersao are examples of women who became leaders of the Taiping army's female soldiers.

Combat was always bloody and extremely brutal, with little artillery but huge forces equipped with small arms. Both armies would attempt to push each other off of the battlefield, and though casualties were high, few battles were decisively won. The Taiping army's main strategy of conquest was to take major cities, consolidate their hold on the cities, then march out into the surrounding countryside to recruit local farmers and battle government forces.

Estimates of the overall size of the Taiping army are around 2 million soldiers. The army's organization was allegedly inspired by that of the Qin dynasty. Each army corps consisted of roughly 13,000 men. These corps were placed into armies of varying sizes. In addition to the main Taiping forces organised along the above lines, there were also thousands of pro-Taiping groups fielding their own forces of irregulars.

The rebels were relatively well equipped with modern weapons. They were not supported by foreign governments, but they bought modern munitions—including firearms, artillery, and ammunition—from foreign suppliers. The rebels were buying weapons by 1853. Munitions—partially sourced from Western manufacturers and military stores—were smuggled into China, mainly by English and Americans. An April 1862 shipment from an American dealer "well known for their dealings with rebels" included 2,783 (percussion cap) muskets, 66 carbines, 4 rifles, and 895 field artillery guns; the dealer carried passports signed by the Loyal King.

The rebels also manufactured weapons, and imported manufacturing equipment. In the summer of 1862, a Western observer noted that rebel factories in Nanjing were producing superior guns—including heavy cannon—than the Qing. The rebels augmented their modern arsenal with captured equipment. Just before his execution, Taiping Loyal King Li Xiucheng advised the Qing to buy, and to learn how to replicate, the best foreign cannon and gun carriages to prepare for war with foreign powers.

As early as 1853, foreigners from various countries joined the rebels in combat and administrative roles, and were in a position to observe the Taiping in battle. The rebels were courageous under fire, erected defensive works quickly, and used mobile pontoon bridges. One tactic was to ring a Qing emplacement in fire and kill the fleeing Qing troops as they emerged individually.

There was also a small Taiping Navy, composed of captured boats, that operated along the Yangtze and its tributaries. Among the Navy's commanders was the Hang king Tang Zhengcai.

Ethnic structure of the Taiping army

Ethnically, the Taiping army was at the outset formed largely from these groups: the Hakka, a Han Chinese subgroup; the Cantonese, local residents of Guangdong province; and the Zhuang (a non-Han ethnic group). It is no coincidence that Hong Xiuquan and the other Taiping royals were Hakka.

As a Han subgroup, the Hakka were frequently marginalised economically and politically, having migrated to the regions which their descendants presently inhabit only after other Han groups were already established there. For example, when the Hakka settled in Guangdong and parts of Guangxi, speakers of Yue Chinese (Cantonese) were already the dominant regional Han group there and they had been so for some time, just as speakers of various dialects of Min are locally dominant in Fujian province.

The Hakka settled throughout southern China and beyond, but as latecomers they generally had to establish their communities on rugged, less fertile land scattered on the fringes of the local majority group's settlements. As their name ("guest households") suggests, the Hakka were generally treated as migrant newcomers, and often subjected to hostility and derision from the local majority Han populations. Consequently, the Hakka, to a greater extent than other Han Chinese, have been historically associated with popular unrest and rebellion.

The other significant ethnic group in the Taiping army was the Zhuang, an indigenous people of Tai origin and China's largest non-Han ethnic minority group. Over the centuries, Zhuang communities had been adopting Han Chinese culture. This was possible because Han culture in the region accommodates a great deal of linguistic diversity, so the Zhuang could be absorbed as if the Zhuang language were just another Han Chinese dialect (which it is not). Because Zhuang communities were integrating with the Han at different rates, a certain amount of friction between the Han and the Zhuang was inevitable, with Zhuang unrest leading to armed uprisings on occasion.

Social structure of the Taiping Army
Socially and economically, the Taiping rebels came almost exclusively from the lowest classes. Many of the southern Taiping troops were former miners, especially those coming from the Zhuang. Very few Taiping rebels, even in the leadership caste, came from the imperial bureaucracy. Almost none were landlords and in occupied territories landlords were often executed.

Qing forces

Opposing the rebellion was an imperial army with over a million regulars and unknown thousands of regional militias and foreign mercenaries operating in support. Among the imperial forces was the elite Ever Victorious Army, consisting of Chinese soldiers led by a Western officer corps (see Frederick Townsend Ward and Charles Gordon) and supplied by European arms companies like Willoughbe & Ponsonby.

A particularly famous imperial force was Zeng Guofan's Xiang Army. Zuo Zongtang from Hunan province was another important Qing general who contributed in suppressing the Taiping Rebellion. Where the armies under the control of dynasty itself were unable to defeat the Taiping, these gentry-led Yong Ying armies were able to succeed.

Although keeping accurate records was something imperial China traditionally did very well, the decentralized nature of the imperial war effort (relying on regional forces) and the fact that the war was a civil war and therefore very chaotic, meant that reliable figures are impossible to find. The destruction of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom also meant that the majority of any records it possessed were destroyed, the percentage of records said to have survived is around 10%.

Over the course of the conflict, around 90% of recruits to the Taiping side would be killed or defect.

The organisation of the Qing Imperial Army was thus:
 Eight Banners Army: 250,000 soldiers
 Green Standard Army: ~610,000 soldiers
 Xiang (Hunan) Army: 130,000 soldiers
 Huai (Anhui) Army: 70,000 soldiers
 Chu Army: 40,000 soldiers
 Ever Victorious Army: 5,000 soldiers
 Village Militias: unknown thousands

Total war

The Taiping Rebellion was a total war. Almost every citizen who had not fled the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was given military training and conscripted into the army to fight against Qing imperial forces. Under the Taiping household registration system, one adult male from each household was to be conscripted into the army.

During this conflict, both sides tried to deprive each other of the resources which they needed in order to continue the war and it became standard practice for each to destroy the opposing side's agricultural areas, butcher the populations of cities and generally exact a brutal price from the inhabitants of captured enemy lands in order to drastically weaken the opposition's war effort. This war was total in the sense that civilians on both sides participated in the war effort to a significant extent and the armies on both sides waged war against both the civilian population and military forces. Contemporary accounts describe the amount of desolation which befell rural areas as a result of the conflict.

In every area which they captured, the Taiping immediately exterminated the entire Manchu population. In the province of Hunan one Qing loyalist who observed the genocidal massacres which the Taiping forces committed against the Manchus wrote that the "pitiful Manchus"—men, women and children—were executed by the Taiping forces. The Taiping rebels were seen chanting while slaughtering the Manchus in Hefei. After capturing Nanjing, Taiping forces killed about 40,000 Manchu civilians. On 27 October 1853, they crossed the Yellow River in Cangzhou and murdered 10,000 Manchus.

Since the rebellion began in Guangxi, Qing forces allowed no rebels speaking its dialect to surrender. Reportedly in the province of Guangdong, it is written that one million were executed because after the collapse of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Qing dynasty launched waves of massacres against the Hakkas, that at their height killed up to 30,000 each day. These policies of mass murder of civilians occurred elsewhere in China, including Anhui and Nanjing. This resulted in a massive civilian flight and death toll with some 600 towns destroyed and other bloody policies resulting.

Legacy
Beyond staggering human and economic devastation, the Taiping Rebellion left changes within the late Qing dynasty. Power was, to a limited extent, decentralized, and ethnic Han Chinese officials were more widely employed in high positions than they had previously been. The traditional Manchu banner forces upon which the Qing dynasty depended failed and were gradually replaced with gentry-organized local armies. Franz H. Michael, wrote that these armies evolved into armies used by local warlords who dominated China after the fall of the Qing dynasty. Diana Lary, however, in a review-of-the-field article, cited studies that were skeptical of these claims, since the armies created to put down the Taiping operated in a different context from later regional armies.

The Taiping example of insurgent organization and its mix of Christianity and radical social equality influenced Sun Yat-sen and other future revolutionaries. Some Taiping veterans joined the Revive China Society, whose Christian members organized short-lived Heavenly Kingdom of the Great Mingshun in 1903. Although Karl Marx wrote several articles about the Taipings, he did not perceive a social program or agenda for change, only violence and destruction. The Chinese Communist historians, following the lead of Mao Zedong, however, characterized the rebellion as a proto-communist uprising. Both Communist and Chinese Nationalist commanders studied Taiping organization and strategy during the Chinese Civil War. American General Joseph Stilwell, who commanded Chinese troops during World War II in China, praised Zeng Guofan's campaigns for combining "caution with daring' and "initiative with perseverance."

Famine, disease, massacres, and social disruption led to a sharp decline in population, especially in the Yangtze delta region. The result was a shortage in labor supply for the first time in centuries, making labor relatively more valuable than land. The Xiang Army used scorched earth tactics, refusing to take prisoners; Anhui, Southern Jiangsu, Northern Zhejiang and Northern Jiangxi were severely depopulated and had to be repopulated with migrants from Henan. The landed gentry of the Lower Yangtze region were reduced in numbers and concentration of land ownership was reduced.

The defeat of the Taiping Rebellion by military forces from Hunan led to the dramatic increase of Hunanese representation in the government, who played a role in reform efforts. By 1865, five of the eight viceroys were Hunanese. The Hunanese gentry, based on their experience with the Taiping, were more guarded against the influence of Westerners than other provinces.

Merchants in Shanxi and the Huizhou region of Anhui became less prominent because the rebellion disrupted trade in much of the country. However, trade in coastal regions, especially in Guangzhou (Canton) and Ningbo was less affected by violence than trade in inland areas was. Streams of refugees who entered Shanghai contributed to the economic development of the city, which was previously less commercially relevant than other cities in the area were. Only a tenth of Taiping-published records survive to this day because they were mostly destroyed by the Qing in an attempt to rewrite the history of the conflict.

Historian John King Fairbank compares the Taiping rebels with the communists under Mao Zedong who came to power a century later:

In popular culture
The Taiping Rebellion has been treated in historical novels. Robert Elegant's 1983 Mandarin depicts the time from the point of view of a Jewish family living in Shanghai. In Flashman and the Dragon, the fictional Harry Paget Flashman recounts his adventures during the Second Opium War and the Taiping Rebellion. In Lisa See's novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan the title character is married to a man who lives in Jintian and the characters get caught up in the action.

Amy Tan's The Hundred Secret Senses takes place in part during the time of the Taiping Rebellion. Rebels of the Heavenly Kingdom by Katherine Paterson is a young adult novel set during the Taiping Rebellion. Li Bo's Tienkuo: The Heavenly Kingdom takes place within the Taiping capital at Nanjing.

The war has also been depicted in a few television shows and films. In 1988 Hong Kong's TVB produced Twilight of a Nation, a 45-episode drama about the Taiping Rebellion. In 2000 CCTV produced The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, a 46-episode series about the Taiping Rebellion. The Warlords is a 2007 historical film set in the 1860s showing Gen. Pang Qinyun, leader of the Shan Regiment, as responsible for the capture of Suzhou and Nanjing.

Relationship with the Western powers
The Taiping government maintained an ambivalent relationship with the Western powers who were active in China during this period. Due to the religious aspects of the rebellion, the Taiping government perceived Westerners as "brothers and sisters from overseas". The Taiping government proved especially welcoming to Western missionaries. In 1853, Hong Xiuquan invited American missionary Issachar Jacox Roberts to come to Nanjing to aid in the administration of his government. After Roberts arrived in Nanjing in 1861 and met with Hong, he was commissioned by him as the director of foreign affairs.

While some missionaries like Roberts were enthusiastic in the first few years about the Taiping rebellion, Western skepticism existed from the inception of the rebellion. According to historian Prescott Clarke, Westerners in China became separated into two different groups in regards to their views on the rebellion, with one side depicting the rebels as mere robbers whose intention was to gather wealth through revolting against the Qing, and the other side depicting the rebel army as religious fanatics provoked by skillful leaders to fight against the Qing to the death.

The government officials of the Western powers were optimistic about the Taiping government's chance of victory in the early stages. According to historian Eugene P. Boardman, the Qing dynasty's enforcement of the treaty of 1842–1844 was frustrating US and British officials, especially in terms of open trade. According to Boardman the Christian nature of the Taiping opened up the possibility for a more cooperative trade partnership. Many Western officials visited the capital of Taiping between 1863 and 1864, and American commissioner Robert Milligan McLane considered granting official recognition of the Taiping government.

According to Clarke the Western missionaries changed their opinions upon further inspections of the rebellion. That change was captured in a letter from the American missionary Divie Bethune McCartee. Upon visiting Nanjing, McCartee described the situation in the city as "Dreadful destruction of life." As for the actual practice of Christianity in the city, McCartee said "I saw no signs of anything resembling Christianity in or near [Nanjing]". Similarly to McCartee, Hong's director of foreign affairs I. J. Roberts wrote, "His religious toleration, and multiplicity of chapels turns out to be a farce, of no avail in the spread of Christianity—worse than useless."

After the conclusion of the Second Opium War, Royal Navy officer Sir James Hope led an expedition to Nanjing in February 1861. This expedition was the largest party of Westerners to visit Taiping territories, with the inclusion of many British military personnel, entrepreneurs, missionaries, other unofficial observers and two French representatives. Upon visiting the capital, some members of the expedition wrote that "devastation marked our journey" in reference to the conditions in Taiping territories. Some reports suggested a great deal of indiscriminate slaughter of civilians conducted by the Taiping army in newly controlled areas.

In late 1861, Hope made a brief visit to Nanjing to come to an agreement with the Taiping rebels not to attack the city of Shanghai, a proposal which was refused by the Taiping government. According to Clarke, this refusal of cooperation and Taiping's occupation of Ningbo in December led to the limited intervention against the rebellion by the British and French in the following years. Western assistance for the Qing was also driven by the fear that a successful rebellion would lead to a stronger China able to resist Western power.

See also

 Taqibu

 Boxer Rebellion
 Christianity in China
 List of revolutions and rebellions
 List of anthropogenic disasters by death toll
 Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
 Nian Rebellion
 Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
 Millenarianism in colonial societies

Notes

Citations

Sources

Modern monographs and surveys

  Emphasis on the military history.
  Translated and condensed from the author's publications in Chinese; especially strong on the military campaigns, based on the author's wide travels in China in the 1920s and 1930s.

  A study of the victims, their experience of the war, and the memorialization of the war.

  Detailed narrative analysis.
  Focuses on the religious basis of the rebellion.

  Standard textbook.

Scholarly articles

Primary sources
 . 3 vols. Volumes two and three select and translate basic documents.

Further reading

Modern monographs and surveys
 Caleb Carr, The Devil Soldier: The Story of Frederick Townsend Ward (1994) .
 Carl J. Danko, Foreign Devils and God-Worshipers: Western Mercenaries and Cross-Cultural Realism During the Taiping Rebellion (Army Command And General Staff College, 2017) online
 John King Fairbank, et al. East Asia: The modern transformation (1965) 2:155–178. online
 Jack Gray, Rebellions and Revolutions: China from the 1800s to the 1980s (1990),
 Immanuel C. Y. Hsu, The Rise of Modern China (1999), . Standard textbook; online
 Philip A. Kuhn, Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China; Militarization and Social Structure, 1796–1864 (Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press, 1970). Influential analysis of the rise of rebellion and the organization of its suppression. online
 Philip A. Kuhn, "The Taiping Rebellion", in John K. Fairbank, ed., Cambridge History of China Vol Ten Pt One (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press, 1970): 264–317.
 Rudolf G. Wagner. Reenacting the Heavenly Vision: The Role of Religion in the Taiping Rebellion. (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, China Research Monograph 25, 1982). .
 Mary Clabaugh Wright. The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-Chih Restoration, 1862–1874. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957; rpr. 1974 . Account of the Han Chinese/ Manchu coalition which revived the dynasty and defeated the Taipings.

Scholarly articles

  (hardcover),  (paperback).

Fiction

 Hosea Ballou Morse, In the Days of the Taipings, Being the Recollections of Ting Kienchang, Otherwise Meisun, Sometime Scoutmaster and Captain in the Ever-Victorious Army and Interpreter-in-Chief to General Ward and General Gordon (Salem, MA: The Essex institute, 1927; Reprinted: San Francisco: Chinese Materials Center, 1974).
 George MacDonald Fraser. Flashman and the Dragon. New York: Knopf, 1986. . A volume in The Flashman Papers series.

Contemporaneous accounts

 Thomas Taylor Meadows, The Chinese and Their Rebellions, Viewed in Connection with Their National Philosophy, Ethics, Legislation, and Administration. To Which Is Added, an Essay on Civilization and Its Present State in the East and West. (London: Smith, Elder; Bombay: Smith, Taylor, 1856). American Libraries eBook text
 Brine, Lindesay, The Taeping rebellion in China (London: J. Murray, 1862)
 Ven. Archdeacon Moule, Personal Recollections of the T'ai-p'ing Rebellion 1861–63 (Shanghai: Printed at the "Celestial Empire" Office 1884).

External links

 Taiping Rebellion Videos – Chronological presentation of the Taiping Rebellion, with details and anecdotes. Archived at ghostarchive.org on May 24, 2022.
 Taiping Rebellion.com – Narrative history, with many illustrations, a Timeline, and a detailed Map of the Rebellion.
 The Taiping Rebellion – BBC discussion with Rana Mitter, University of Oxford; Frances Wood British Library; and Julia Lovell, University of London.

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