Cleo Allen Noel Jr. (August 6, 1918 – March 2, 1973) was a United States ambassador to Sudan who was murdered by the Black September Palestinian terrorist organization in the 1973 attack on the Saudi embassy in Khartoum.

Early life
Born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, Noel spent his formative years in Moberly, Missouri. He attended Moberly Junior College and then University of Missouri, receiving a B.A. in History in 1939 and a M.A. in the same subject in 1940.

Career
Noel worked briefly as an educator, teaching American history at the University of Missouri before joining the United States Navy in June 1941.  During World War II he served as a gunnery officer providing security aboard merchant vessels throughout the Pacific Ocean and Persian Gulf; in fall 1945 Noel discharged from the navy at the rank of lieutenant commander.

U.S. Foreign Service career

After the war, while studying for his PhD at Harvard, Noel passed the United States Foreign Service exam and was hired by the Department of State.  In 1951 he married fellow Foreign Service worker Lucille McHenry. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s Noel served with U.S. consulates in Italy, Saudi Arabia, France, Lebanon and Sudan.  Noel was particularly fascinated with the Middle East and regularly toured the region, learning the Arabic language.

Ambassadorship to Sudan and death

On December 23, 1972, Noel was appointed U.S. Ambassador to Sudan when Sudan and the U.S. reestablished diplomatic relations severed as the result of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. The outgoing Charge d'Affairs, George Curtis Moore, was asked to stay on as Deputy Chief of Mission until the new Deputy arrived in March.

On the evening of March 1, 1973, militants from the Black September faction of PLO stormed the Saudi Embassy in Khartoum, where a farewell ceremony for Moore had just concluded.  Noel was wounded during the taking, he and Moore were among the ten diplomats taken hostage by the militants. The next day, March 2, the hostage takers shot Noel to death. Also murdered were his deputy, Moore; and Belgian diplomat Guy Eid.

After a joint funeral on March 7 at the National Presbyterian Church in Washington D.C., Cleo Noel Jr. and Curtis Moore were buried with military honors at Arlington National Cemetery.

See also

 Ambassadors of the United States killed in office

References

Korn, David A., Assassination in Khartoum, Indiana University Press, 1993

External links
U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian
U.S. Department of State, Declassified Memorandum

1918 births
1973 deaths
1973 murders in Africa
20th-century American naval officers
Ambassadors of the United States to Sudan
American terrorism victims
American people murdered abroad
Kidnapped diplomats
Assassinated American diplomats
University of Missouri alumni
Harvard University alumni
University of Missouri faculty
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Kidnapped American people
Terrorism deaths in Sudan
People murdered in Sudan
Deaths by firearm in Sudan
Victims of the Black September Organization
People from Oklahoma City
People from Moberly, Missouri
United States Navy personnel of World War II
United States Foreign Service personnel

Cleo A. Noel Jr.


The history of the United States Constitution is a history of how the government of the United States functions, its  rule of law and the rights guaranteed to its citizens. It was signed by the delegates to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia on September 17, 1787. It replaced the Articles of Confederation, that served as new nation's first constitution. The government under the Articles proved to be weak and inefficient. When the convention was called to meet in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787, most of the members were aware a new stronger government was necessary.

The first constitution
The history of the (second) Constitution of the United States begins with the history behind the creation of the Articles of Confederation, the first constitution. The Articles of Confederation were, in effect, a loose confederation that joined together thirteen independent states to mainly deal with foreign policy. For all other purposes they remained sovereign states. The greatest weakness of the Articles of Confederation is that it had no direct connection to the people themselves. It recognized state sovereignty. Each state collected its own taxes, provided its own militia and printed its own currency. A weak Congress was the chief instrument in the new government. There was no executive branch. The recent tyranny suffered under Britain's King George III made the new country's leaders wary of a strong central government. In Congress, each state only had one vote. States with small populations had the same voting rights as states ten times their size. Amending the Articles required a unanimous vote, which was virtually impossible with thirteen states each having their own interests.

However, the weaknesses became rapidly apparent. Congress could not levy taxes and so could not effectively support any war effort. The central government did not have the ability to negotiate trade agreements with foreign governments. It could not settle quarrels between states. The country could not protect its ships which were being robbed at  by pirates. The states themselves were in a near disastrous condition economically. The widespread use of paper money was causing inflation. So much so that in some places a pound of tea could cost $100. Farmers were being thrown in jail because they could not pay their debts. Many farms were being sold off for the unpaid taxes that were owed.

There was an attempt at reforming the Articles. The Articles Congress received a report on August 7, 1786 from a twelve-member "Grand Committee". They were appointed to develop needed amendments. Seven amendments to the Articles of Confederation were proposed. Under these reforms, Congress would gain "sole and exclusive" power to regulate trade. States could not favor foreigners over citizens. Tax bills would require a 70% vote, public debt 85%, not the 100% currently required. Congress could charge states a late payment penalty fee. A state withholding troops would be charged for them, plus a penalty. If a state did not pay, Congress could collect directly from its cities and counties. There would have been a national court of seven judges. No-shows at Congress would have been banned from any U.S. or state office. These proposals were, however, sent back to committee without a vote and were not taken up again.

Constitutional Convention

Congress had given the delegates the task of amending the Articles of Confederation. But almost immediately they began discussing a completely new form of government. The debates lasted through the summer of 1787 and at times became so heated it threatened to end the convention prematurely.

The delegates

Appointed to the convention were 74 delegates—only 55 of which actually attended the sessions. The state of Rhode Island refused to send any delegates. They believed the convention was actually a conspiracy to overthrow the Confederation government. Patrick Henry of Virginia was another who refused to attend declaring he "smelt a rat." In particular he suspected James Madison, also of Virginia, of wanting to create a new form of government. Henry was a firm believer that the states offered the best protections for personal rights and wanted nothing to do with upsetting that arrangement. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were away on diplomatic missions. John Jay was in New York at the diplomatic office. For various reasons many of the country's major political leaders were not at the convention. But the list of those who did attend was impressive. It included Benjamin Franklin, James Wilson, Alexander Hamilton, George Mason, John Dickinson, Gouverneur Morris and George Washington. Many others also became famous as framers of the Constitution.

The sessions were held in secret. Reporters and spectators were not allowed. To those who already had suspicions, the secrecy of the proceedings only confirmed what they feared. There were even armed guards at the doors. Many of those present had already risked being hanged by the British as traitors during the revolution. Now they worried about what their states would think of abandoning the Articles of Confederation.

The Virginia Plan
James Madison spent the winter of 1787 making a study of various confederations throughout history. He came to Philadelphia armed with a wealth of knowledge and an idea for what the United States government should be. His plan was presented to the Convention by Edmund Randolph, the Governor of Virginia. It became the broad outline of what would be a new government under the U.S. Constitution. His plan called for three branches of government with checks and balances to prevent any one branch from abusing their power. Madison's idea for a legislature had two houses. One would feature members elected by the people for a three year term. The other would have its members elected by the state legislatures and would serve for 7 years. Both would have the seats determined by the population of the country.

Two more plans
After debating the Virginia plan for two weeks, William Patterson presented his plan called variously, the New Jersey Plan, the Patterson Plan and the Small State Plan. It was very similar to the Articles of Confederation and featured a unicameral (one house) legislature. All states would have one vote. He had one idea that was kept; that state laws that ran counter to federal laws would be voided.

A third plan was offered by Alexander Hamilton. It was a copy of the British Constitution. It also was bicameral with an upper house and a legislature in which members served on their good behavior.

A new constitution
Finally they worked out a compromise between all three plans. The new government would have an upper house, having an equal number of delegates from each state, and a lower house with representation based on population. The executive branch would have most of the responsibilities of foreign affairs while other important powers, like ratifying treaties, would be the responsibility of the legislative branch. After the new Constitution was ratified by the states, it went into effect in 1789.

Notes

References

Other websites
 The Constitution, a history
 Constitution of the United States

United States Constitution
1787 establishments in the United States

History of the United States Constitution


The Main Street–Frye Street Historic District is a historic district comprising houses on Frye Street and parts of College Street and Main Street in Lewiston, Maine.  This area was part of the most fashionable residential district of the city in the second half of the 19th century, and was home to many of the city's elite.  Its architectural styles are diverse, with a significant number of homes designed by local architect George M. Coombs.  The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.

Description and history
The Main Street–Frye Street Historic District encompasses 37 houses, primarily located on two blocks of Main and Frye Streets, between the city's downtown area and the early portions of the Bates College campus.  The district extends on the east side of Main Street, between Mountain Avenue and Whipple Street, and includes three houses on the west side, north of Central Street.  It includes all properties on Frye Street, running east from Main to College Streets,  and three adjacent houses on the west side of College Street north of Frye.  Many of these properties are now part of the Bates campus.

Lewiston was developed as a major textile center beginning in the 1830s by John and William Frye.  The Franklin Company, which operated the mills, owned much of the land in the area, and laid out its streets.  Bates College was founded in 1864, named for later mill owner Benjamin E. Bates.  The area in between the city's downtown and the Bates campus was originally farmland, which began to be sold off for development in 1851.  One of the first houses built on Frye Street was that of Oren B. Cheney, the founder of Bates College, in 1866.  The Frye Street area became popular with many of the city's business and political elites because it lay just beyond company-owned lands, and was close to the college.  As a result, a significant number of architecturally high-quality houses were built, from Greek Revival and Gothic Revival cottages to elaborate Second Empire style mansions.  There are 12 Queen Anne Victorians, and 11 Colonial Revival houses.  Twelve of the district's 37 houses were designed by local architect George M. Coombs, providing a distinctive view of his residential designs. The area contains the Sen. William P. Frye House and the James C. Lord House, both previously listed on the National Register.  Bates College now owns most of the houses on Frye Street.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Androscoggin County, Maine

References

Historic districts in Androscoggin County, Maine
Bates College
Buildings and structures in Lewiston, Maine
School buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
University and college academic buildings in the United States
Culture of Lewiston, Maine
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Lewiston, Maine
Second Empire architecture in Maine


Deontic logic is the field of philosophical logic that is concerned with obligation, permission, and related concepts.  Alternatively, a deontic logic is a formal system that attempts to capture the essential logical features of these concepts. It can be used to formalize imperative logic, or directive modality in natural languages. Typically, a deontic logic uses OA to mean it is obligatory that A (or it ought to be (the case) that A), and PA to mean it is permitted (or permissible) that A, which is defined as .

Note that in natural language, the statement "You may go to the zoo OR the park" should be understood as  instead of , as both options are permitted by the statement; See Hans Kamp's paradox of free choice for more details.

When there are multiple agents involved in the domain of discourse, the deontic modal operator can be specified to each agent to express their individual obligations and permissions. For example, by using a subscript  for agent ,  means that "It is an obligation for agent  (to bring it about/make it happen) that ". Note that  could be stated as an action by another agent; One example is "It is an obligation for Adam that Bob doesn't crash the car", which would be represented as , where B="Bob doesn't crash the car".

Etymology
The term deontic is derived from the  (gen.: ), meaning "that which is binding or proper."

Standard deontic logic
In Georg Henrik von Wright's first system, obligatoriness and permissibility were treated as features of acts.  Soon after this, it was found that a deontic logic of propositions could be given a simple and elegant Kripke-style semantics, and von Wright himself joined this movement.  The deontic logic so specified came to be known as "standard deontic logic," often referred to as SDL, KD, or simply D.  It can be axiomatized by adding the following axioms to a standard axiomatization of classical propositional logic:

In English, these axioms say, respectively:

 If A is a tautology, then it ought to be that A (necessitation rule N). In other words, contradictions are not permitted.
 If it ought to be that A implies B, then if it ought to be that A, it ought to be that B (modal axiom K).
 If it ought to be that A, then it is permitted that A (modal axiom D). In other words, if it's not permitted that A, then it's not obligatory that A.

FA, meaning it is forbidden that A, can be defined (equivalently) as  or .

There are two main extensions of SDL that are usually considered. The first results by adding an alethic modal operator  in order to express the Kantian claim that "ought implies can":

where . It is generally assumed that  is at least a KT operator, but most commonly it is taken to be an S5 operator. In practical situations, obligations are usually assigned in anticipation of future events, in which case alethic possibilities can be hard to judge; Therefore, obligation assignments may be performed under the assumption of different conditions on different branches of timelines in the future, and past obligation assignments may be updated due to unforeseen developments that happened along the timeline.

The other main extension results by adding a "conditional obligation" operator O(A/B) read "It is obligatory that A given (or conditional on) B". Motivation for a conditional operator is given by considering the following ("Good Samaritan") case. It seems true that the starving and poor ought to be fed. But that the starving and poor are fed implies that there are starving and poor. By basic principles of SDL we can infer that there ought to be starving and poor! The argument is due to the basic K axiom of SDL together with the following principle valid in any normal modal logic:

If we introduce an intensional conditional operator then we can say that the starving ought to be fed only on the condition that there are in fact starving: in symbols O(A/B). But then the following argument fails on the usual (e.g. Lewis 73) semantics for conditionals: from O(A/B) and that A implies B, infer OB.

Indeed, one might define the unary operator O in terms of the binary conditional one O(A/B) as , where  stands for an arbitrary tautology of the underlying logic (which, in the case of SDL, is classical).

Semantics of standard deontic logic
The accessibility relation between possible world is interpreted as acceptability relations:  is an acceptable world (viz. ) if and only if all the obligations in  are fulfilled in  (viz. ).

Anderson's deontic logic
Alan R. Anderson (1959) shows how to define  in terms of the alethic operator  and a deontic constant (i.e. 0-ary modal operator)  standing for some sanction (i.e. bad thing, prohibition, etc.): . Intuitively, the right side of the biconditional says that A's failing to hold necessarily (or strictly) implies a sanction.

In addition to the usual modal axioms (necessitation rule N and distribution axiom K) for the alethic operator , Anderson's deontic logic only requires one additional axiom for the deontic constant : , which means that there is alethically possible to fulfill all obligations and avoid the sanction. This version of the Anderson's deontic logic is equivalent to SDL.

However, when modal axiom T is included for the alethic operator (), it can be proved in Anderson's deontic logic that , which is not included in SDL. Anderson's deontic logic inevitably couples the deontic operator  with the alethic operator , which can be problematic in certain cases.

Dyadic deontic logic
An important problem of deontic logic is that of how to properly represent conditional obligations, e.g. If you smoke (s), then you ought to use an ashtray (a).  It is not clear that either of the following representations is adequate:

Under the first representation it is vacuously true that if you commit a forbidden act, then you ought to commit any other act, regardless of whether that second act was obligatory, permitted or forbidden (Von Wright 1956, cited in Aqvist 1994). Under the second representation, we are vulnerable to the gentle murder paradox, where the plausible statements (1) if you murder, you ought to murder gently, (2) you do commit murder, and (3) to murder gently you must murder imply the less plausible statement: you ought to murder. Others argue that must in the phrase to murder gently you must murder is a mistranslation from the ambiguous English word (meaning either implies or ought). Interpreting must as implies does not allow one to conclude you ought to murder but only a repetition of the given you murder. Misinterpreting must as ought results in a perverse axiom, not a perverse logic. With use of negations one can easily check if the ambiguous word was mistranslated by considering which of the following two English statements is equivalent with the statement to murder gently you must murder: is it equivalent to if you murder gently it is forbidden not to murder or if you murder gently it is impossible not to murder ?

Some deontic logicians have responded to this problem by developing dyadic deontic logics, which contain binary deontic operators:

  means it is obligatory that A, given B
  means it is permissible that A, given B.

(The notation is modeled on that used to represent conditional probability.)  Dyadic deontic logic escapes some of the problems of standard (unary) deontic logic, but it is subject to some problems of its own.

Other variations
Many other varieties of deontic logic have been developed, including non-monotonic deontic logics, paraconsistent deontic logics, and dynamic deontic logics.

History

Early deontic logic
Philosophers from the Indian Mimamsa school to those of Ancient Greece have remarked on the formal logical relations of deontic concepts and philosophers from the late Middle Ages compared deontic concepts with alethic ones.

In his Elementa juris naturalis (written between 1669 and 1671), Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz notes the logical relations between the licitum (permitted), the illicitum (prohibited), the debitum (obligatory), the, and the indifferens (facultative) are equivalent to those between the possibile, the impossibile, the necessarium, and the contingens respectively.

Mally's first deontic logic and von Wright's first plausible deontic logic
Ernst Mally, a pupil of Alexius Meinong, was the first to propose a formal system of deontic logic in his Grundgesetze des Sollens (1926) and he founded it on the syntax of Whitehead's and Russell's propositional calculus. Mally's deontic vocabulary consisted of the logical constants  and , unary connective , and binary connectives  and .
 * Mally read  as "A ought to be the case".* He read  as "A requires B" .* He read  as "A and B require each other."* He read  as "the unconditionally obligatory" .* He read  as "the unconditionally forbidden".
Mally defined , , and  as follows:
 Def. Def. Def.
Mally proposed five informal principles:
 (i)	If A requires B and if B requires C, then A requires C.(ii)	If A requires B and if A requires C, then A requires B and C.(iii)	A requires B if and only if it is obligatory that if A then B.(iv)	The unconditionally obligatory is obligatory.(v)	The unconditionally obligatory does not require its own negation.
He formalized these principles and took them as his axioms:
 I. II. III. IV. V.
From these axioms Mally deduced 35 theorems, many of which he rightly considered strange. Karl Menger showed that  is a theorem and thus that the introduction of the ! sign is irrelevant and that A ought to be the case if A is the case. After Menger, philosophers no longer considered Mally's system viable. Gert Lokhorst lists Mally's 35 theorems and gives a proof for Menger's theorem at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy under Mally's Deontic Logic.

The first plausible system of deontic logic was proposed by G. H. von Wright in his paper Deontic Logic in the philosophical journal Mind in 1951. (Von Wright was also the first to use the term "deontic" in English to refer to this kind of logic although Mally published the German paper Deontik in 1926.) Since the publication of von Wright's seminal paper, many philosophers and computer scientists have investigated and developed systems of deontic logic. Nevertheless, to this day deontic logic remains one of the most controversial and least agreed-upon areas of logic.
G. H. von Wright did not base his 1951 deontic logic on the syntax of the propositional calculus as Mally had done, but was instead influenced by alethic modal logics, which Mally had not benefited from. In 1964, von Wright published A New System of Deontic Logic, which was a return to the syntax of the propositional calculus and thus a significant return to Mally's system. (For more on von Wright's departure from and return to the syntax of the propositional calculus, see Deontic Logic: A Personal View and A New System of Deontic Logic, both by Georg Henrik von Wright.) G. H. von Wright's adoption of the modal logic of possibility and necessity for the purposes of normative reasoning was a return to Leibniz.

Although von Wright's system represented a significant improvement over Mally's, it raised a number of problems of its own. For example, Ross's paradox applies to von Wright's deontic logic, allowing us to infer from "It is obligatory that the letter is mailed" to "It is obligatory that either the letter is mailed or the letter is burned", which seems to imply it is permissible that the letter is burned. The Good Samaritan paradox also applies to his system, allowing us to infer from "It is obligatory to nurse the man who has been robbed" that "It is obligatory that the man has been robbed". Another major source of puzzlement is Chisholm's paradox. There is no formalisation in von Wright's system of the following claims that allows them to be both jointly satisfiable and logically independent:
 It ought to be that Jones goes (to the assistance of his neighbors).
 It ought to be that if Jones goes, then he tells them he is coming.
 If Jones doesn't go, then he ought not tell them he is coming.
 Jones doesn't go

Jørgensen's dilemma
Deontic logic faces Jørgensen's dilemma.
This problem is best seen as a trilemma.
The following three claims are incompatible:
 Logical inference requires that the elements (premises and conclusions) have truth-values
 Normative statements do not have truth-values
 There are logical inferences between normative statements
Responses to this problem involve rejecting one of the three premises.

 The input/output logics reject the first premise.  They provide inference mechanism on elements without presupposing that these elements have truth-values.
 Alternatively, one can deny the second premise. One way to do this is to distinguish between the norm itself and a proposition about the norm. According to this response, only the proposition about the norm (as is the case for Standard Deontic Logic) has a truth-value. For example, it may be hard to assign a truth-value to the argument "Take all the books off the table!", but ("take all the books off the table"), which means "It is obligatory to take all the books off the table", can be assigned a truth-value, because it is in the indicative mood.
 Finally, one can deny the third premise. But this is to deny that there is a logic of norms worth investigating.

See also

 Deontological ethics
 Imperative logic
 Modal logic
 Moral reasoning
 Norm (philosophy)
 Free choice inference

Notes

Bibliography
 Lennart Åqvist, 1994, "Deontic Logic" in D. Gabbay and F. Guenthner, ed., Handbook of Philosophical Logic: Volume II Extensions of Classical Logic, Dordrecht: Kluwer.
 Dov Gabbay, John Horty, Xavier Parent et al. (eds.)2013, Handbook of Deontic Logic and Normative Systems, London: College Publications, 2013.
 Hilpinen, Risto, 2001, "Deontic Logic," in Goble, Lou, ed., The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic. Oxford: Blackwell.

External links

 Contrary-to-Duty Paradox, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Modal logic
Philosophical logic
Deontic logic

Deontic logic


Henry Wilson Cook (born 1949), widely known as Harry Cook, is a former British martial artist, teacher, and author, and convicted sex offender. He has written several martial art books, most notably Shotokan Karate: A precise history (2001). Cook began training in karate in 1966, and was the Chief Instructor of the Seijinkai Karatedo Association, a school he founded to teach his own style of karate. He holds the rank of 7th dan in karate. He admitted to numerous sexual offenses over the course of 26 years, including indecent assault, sexual assault, making indecent and possessing pornographic images of children, and was given a 10-year prison sentence in June 2012.

Early life
Cook was born in 1949 in South Shields, England. He began training in the martial arts in 1966, learning karate from two schoolmates. They belonged to a Wado-ryu school, which he joined in September 1966. Subsequently, the Wado-ryu instructors moved from the area, and Cook joined Ken Smith's Shotokan-ryu dojo (training hall) in Sunderland. In the late 1960s, Cook was one of the first British karate students to train under Keinosuke Enoeda. Having completed secondary school, he held the rank of 4th kyu in karate.

Cook studied surveying for a year, but then moved on to studying Chinese language at Durham University. At university, he came into contact with Rose Li, one of the lecturers, who taught Cook tai chi. In 1970, Cook established the Durham University Karate Club, which became affiliated to the Karate Union of Great Britain. He was tested for 1st kyu by Andy Sherry. In 1973, Cook received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Chinese studies from Durham University. A year later, he earned a Postgraduate Certificate in Education from the same institution.

Career
Cook embarked on a career as a schoolteacher, but this was to be short-lived—only around two years. He successfully applied for a job in Japan. Cook had originally planned to travel to China, but, as he recalled in a 1988 interview, "at that time it was difficult to enter, so I opted for Japan as it was more Westernized and more modern." Arriving in Japan in the mid-1970s, Cook started work as a teacher of the English language. He had intended to visit the Japan Karate Association, but Terry O'Neill recommended visiting Morio Higaonna's Goju-ryu karate dojo, which Cook did. While he trained under Hirokazu Kanazawa occasionally, and also studied sword and stick fighting arts, most of his training was under Higaonna. In interviews conducted years later, Cook would speak very positively of Higaonna.

After two years, Cook had reached 2nd dan. His work contract completed, he returned to England, but only stayed six months before coming back to Japan. He settled in Kyoto and began studying butokukan and naginata. Cook eventually returned to the United Kingdom, and was based in Haltwhistle, Northumberland.

Cook founded his own school, the Seijinkai Karatedo Association, to teach his blend of Shotokan and Goju-ryu karate styles. The association now has branches in Ireland, Norway, and the United States of America, as well as the United Kingdom.

In May 2011, Cook appeared in Newcastle Magistrates' Court facing charges of sexual assault. He pleaded guilty to charges in regard to a female from March 2006 to February 2011 and was held on remand awaiting sentencing at Newcastle Crown Court. In January 2012, Cook pleaded guilty to a further 29 charges, including indecent assault, sexual assault, making indecent images of children and possessing indecent images of children, a pornographic image of a child and a prohibited image of a child. In June 2012, he was sentenced to 10 years. Cook's family, who have renounced him, expressed their support and sympathy for the victims, and their utter condemnation of his actions.

Publications
Cook's best-known work is probably Shotokan Karate: A precise history, which Dragon Times editor J. N. Edwards has described as "certainly the best book on Shotokan, probably the best karate book ever published in the English language." An independent assessment by Rob Redmond concluded that, for students of Shotokan karate, "there cannot be a better resource than Harry Cook's famous Shotokan Karate: A Precise History." One criticism has been that Cook should have provided more interpretation of the verbatim quotations; "While [the use of exact quotes] is exemplary and well intentioned, it was, for me, one of the few 'turnoffs' in the book. Sometimes we need Mr. Cook to provide his view and interpretation of what those he interviewed meant, as the exact phrasings uttered often beg for such historical analysis," wrote Tom Militello. A second edition of this book was published in August 2009.

Cook's other books include: Samurai: The story of a warrior tradition (1993), The way of the warrior: Essays on the martial arts (1999/2004, two volumes), The Shotokan Karate book of quotes (2001, co-authored), Karate (2005), and Extreme survival (2006, co-authored). Cook is a Contributing Editor for Classical Fighting Arts, which was formerly Dragon Times until March 2003. He has written several articles for Dragon Times.

Reflecting on his contribution to karate scholarship, Cook has said: "I am deeply interested in history and I came to understand that many of the myths prevalent in karate were derived from an abysmal understanding of the history and evolution of karate. So I decided to light a candle against the dark!! Have I achieved my objective? Not really … the same myths are still heard over and over again … but maybe one [or] two people have been pointed in the right direction."

See also
 Japanese martial arts

References

Living people
1949 births
Alumni of University College, Durham
British male karateka
English people convicted of indecent assault
Historians of martial arts
Karate coaches
Martial arts school founders
Martial arts writers
People from Haltwhistle
Sportspeople from South Shields
Shotokan practitioners
English people convicted of child pornography offences
Prisoners and detainees of England and Wales

Harry Cook (martial artist)


Cotignola () is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Ravenna in the Italian region Emilia-Romagna, located about  southeast of Bologna and about  west of Ravenna.

Cotignola was the birthplace of the 15th century condottiero Muzio Attendolo, whose family Sforza later ruled Milan, Pesaro and other seigniories in Italy. The other condottiero Alberico da Barbiano was born in the frazione of Barbiano.

Cotignola borders the following municipalities: Bagnacavallo, Bagnara di Romagna, Faenza, Lugo, Solarolo. It is mentioned for the first time in 919 (as Cotoniola) and was later the fief of the counts of Cunio, who had a castle in Barbiano. In the 15th century, it was ruled by the Sforza, then by the Este and, from 1598, it was part of the Papal States.

During the late stages of World War II, Cotignola was near the front line over the Senio river. Eighty percent of the urban buildings were destroyed by the Allied bombings, with some 270 civilian casualties.

Twin towns
 Hüttlingen, Germany, since 2007
 Delle, France, since 2012
   Beer-Yaakov, Israel, since 2022

References

External links
 Official website

Cities and towns in Emilia-Romagna

Cotignola


Tarucus theophrastus, the common tiger blue, pointed Pierrot or African Pierrot, is a small butterfly found in the Old World tropics. It belongs to the lycaenids or blues family.

This is the type species of the genus Tarucus.

Description
Male upperside pale purple to violet with in certain lights a blue suffusion, the markings of the underside apparent through transparency. Forewing: costal margin above vein 12 suffused strongly with blue; discocellulars with a transverse elongate blackish spot; a slender anteciliary black line. Hindwing: immaculate except for an anteciliary black line as on the forewing. Cilia of both forewings and hindwings dull sullied white with a brownish-black band along their bases. Underside: white with the following black markings: Forewing: an anteciliary line continued along the costa but not up to the base; a streak from base passing obliquely to the costa; an obliquely-placed irregular mark across the cell with a spot below it in interspace 1; a curved interrupted band beyond, that consists of a spot in interspace 9 joined to a transverse bar across the discocellulars and detached from it a spot in interspace 2 that coalesces with another in interspace 1; following this are four upper discal spots two and two placed obliquely, the lower two often coalescent, a transverse postdiscal more or less macular curved band, and a subterminal transverse series of six round equal-sized spots. Hindwing: an obliquely placed basal streak, a row of three spots across the cell, the upper two spots much elongated, a short bar on the discocellulars and an elongate, transverse, subcostal spot above it; four discal spots, the upper four placed obliquely two and two, the lower two transverse, coalescent; postdiscal band, subterminal transverse series of spots and anteciliary line as on the forewing; the postdiscal band lunular, all or some of the spots of the subterminal series with shining bluish metallic scales. Cilia as on the upperside; tail black tipped with white. Antenna, head, thorax and abdomen black, the shafts of the antennae ringed with white, the thorax with a little bluish pubescence; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen white.

Female upperside: dark brown; bases of the wings suffused with bluish scales. Forewing: the transverse discocellular spot as in the 6 but continued posteriorly by a black spot in interspace 2 coalescent with a similar spot in interspace 1 (in some specimens the latter two spots are only seen by transparency from the underside); a medial area beyond apex of cell white, crossed by an upper discal, macular, short black band that extends from vein 3 to vein 6; the ground colour over the rest uniform; on the costal margin there are some pale lines between veins 10, 11 and 12, and on the broad terminal margin of ground colour an obscure transverse macular white line. Hindwing: basal, cellular and discal markings of the underside more or less apparent through transparency; a postdiscal and a subterminal transverse series of white somewhat quadrate spots, the two series converge and meet anteriorly in interspace 6, the outer of the two is margined by the series of black subterminal spots of the underside which show through more or less plainly. Cilia of both forewings and hindwings and tail at apex of vein 2 of the hindwing as in the male. Underside: similar to that of the male, the ground colour slightly yellowish, the markings more clearly defined. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the male.

Distribution
Northern and western Africa; Arabia; Persia; Baluchistan; north-western Himalayas; the Punjab; western, central and southern India; Ceylon; Assam; Upper Burma.

Larva
"Just half an inch in length when full grown, much flattened, the head pale ochreous and completely hidden under the second segment which is somewhat wide, the third and fourth segments progressively a little wider, whence the body gradually tapers to the last segment which is about as wide as the second. Colour pale green, the whole upper surface covered with a shagreening of small white tubercles which under a magnifying-glass give it a frosted appearance; along the lateral edge of the body and round the anal segment there are numerous somewhat long whitish hairs. Prom the third to the anal segment there is a somewhat broad (slightly decreasing in width posteriorly) yellowish-green dorsal stripe, which bears a red stripe in its middle, decreasingly on the first four segments on which it appears; in some specimens the dorsal stripe is marked with reddish on both sides, which colour is very conspicuous on the twelfth and thirteenth segments. There is also a subdorsal series of small spots from the third to the eleventh segments inclusive which are quite inconspicuous in some specimens. The extensile organs on the twelfth segment are small. The constrictions between the segments slight and inconspicuous .... The larvae feed on the young leaves and flower-buds of Ziziphus lotus and Ziziphus jujuba. Dr. A. Forel of Geneva identifies the ants which attend these larvae as Camponotus rubripes, Drury (sylvaticus, Fabr. subspecies compressus, Fabr.) and Pheidole latinoda, Roger." (de Niceville.)

Pupa
"Of the usual Lycaenid shape; head, thorax and wing-cases green speckled thickly with black, abdomen green. There is an indistinct blackish line extending down the whole length of the body, with a double subdorsal series of indistinct black specks; the head is rounded, the thorax slightly humped; the pupa throughout quite smooth."(de Niceville.)

See also
List of butterflies of India
List of butterflies of India (Lycaenidae)

References

Tarucus
Butterflies described in 1793
Butterflies of Asia

Tarucus theophrastus


James Montgomery Flagg (June 18, 1877 – May 27, 1960) was an American artist, comics artist and illustrator. He worked in media ranging from fine art painting to cartooning, but is best remembered for his political posters, particularly his 1917 poster of Uncle Sam created for United States Army recruitment during World War I.

Life and career
Flagg was born on June 18, 1877, in Pelham, New York. He was enthusiastic about drawing from a young age, and had illustrations accepted by national magazines by the age of 12. By 14, he was a contributing artist for Life magazine, and the following year was on the staff of another magazine, Judge.

From 1894 through 1898, he attended the Art Students League of New York. He studied fine art in London and Paris from 1898 to 1900, after which he returned to the United States, where he produced countless illustrations for books, magazine covers, political and humorous cartoons, advertising, and spot drawings. Among his creations was a comic strip that appeared regularly in Judge from 1903 until 1907, about a tramp character titled Nervy Nat.

In 1915, he accepted commissions from Calkins and Holden to create advertisements for Edison Photo and Adler Rochester Overcoats but only on the condition that his name would not be associated with the campaign.

He created his most famous work in 1917, a poster to encourage recruitment in the United States Army during World War I. It showed Uncle Sam pointing at the viewer (inspired by a 1914 British recruitment poster showing Lord Kitchener in a similar pose) with the caption "I Want YOU for U.S. Army". Flagg had first created the image for the July 6, 1916, cover of Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper with the headline "What Are You Doing for Preparedness?" Over four million copies of the poster were printed during World War I, and it was revived for World War II. Flagg used his own face for that of Uncle Sam (adding age and the white goatee), he said later, simply to avoid the trouble of arranging for a model. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt praised his resourcefulness for using his own face as the model.  Flagg had a neighbor, Walter Botts, pose as a model for the strong shoulders, and thrusting forefinger of the piece.

In 1917, he also attended the Illustrators' Ball, one of many annual masquerade balls in Manhattan, New York. The artists-only event was held in the 1845-built Hotel Brevoort in Greenwich Village, a neighborhood where many artists and cartoonists lived at the time. That year, the theme was "Kaleidoscopic Ball," with no specific requirements for costumes. Flagg dressed as the Scottish sailor Captain William Kidd.

At his peak, Flagg was reported to have been the highest-paid magazine illustrator in America. He worked for The Saturday Evening Post and Collier's, which were two of the most popular U.S. journals. In 1946, Flagg published his autobiography, Roses and Buckshot. Apart from his work as an illustrator, Flagg painted portraits which reveal the influence of John Singer Sargent. Flagg's sitters included Mark Twain and Ethel Barrymore; his portrait of Jack Dempsey now hangs in the Great Hall of the National Portrait Gallery. In 1948, he appeared in a Pabst Blue Ribbon magazine ad which featured the illustrator working at an easel in his New York studio with a young lady standing at his side and a tray with an open bottle of Pabst and two filled glasses sat before them.

In Flagg's later years, when his failing eyesight forced him to abandon his art, he often took out his frustrations on his friends and himself. He died on May 27, 1960, in New York City. He was interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City.

Legacy
Fort Knox, Kentucky, has a parade field named for and dedicated to Flagg. It is called Flagg Field and located behind the Fort Knox Hotel. Fort Knox is also the home of U.S. Army Recruiting Command, which borders Flagg Field.

Flagg spent summers in Biddeford Pool, Maine, and his home, the James Montgomery Flagg House, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

Gallery

References

Further reading
Flagg, James Montgomery. Roses and Buckshot. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1946.
Flagg, James Montgomery, and Susan E. Meyer. James Montgomery Flagg. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1974.

External links

 James Montgomery Flagg on JVJ Publishing site
James Montgomery Flagg artwork can be viewed at American Art Archives web site

1877 births
1960 deaths
American cartoonists
American comics artists
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
American poster artists
People from Pelham, New York
Art Students League of New York alumni
Painters from New York City
Vanity Fair (British magazine) artists
20th-century American painters
American male painters
Members of The Lambs Club
20th-century American male artists

James Montgomery Flagg


Li () is a concept found in neo-Confucian Chinese philosophy. It refers to the underlying reason and order of nature as reflected in its organic forms.

It may be translated as "rational principle", "law", or " organisational rights". It was central to Zhu Xi's integration of Buddhism into Confucianism. Zhu Xi held that li, together with qi (氣: vital, material force), depend on each other to create structures of nature and matter. The sum of li is the Taiji.

This idea resembles the Buddhist notion of li, which also means "principle or ritual." Zhu Xi maintained, however, that his notion is found in the I Ching (Book of Changes), a classic source of Chinese philosophy.
Zhu Xi's school came to be known as the School of Li, which is comparable to rationalism. To an even greater extent than Confucius, Zhu Xi had a naturalistic world-view. His world-view contained two primary ideas: qi and li. Zhu Xi further believed that the conduct of the two of these took place according to the organisational principles of Yin and Yang.

Holding to Confucius and Mencius' conception of humanity as innately good, Zhu Xi articulated an understanding of li as the basic pattern of the universe, stating that it was understood that one couldn't live without li and live an exemplary life. Wang Yangming, a philosopher who opposed Zhu Xi's ideas, held that li was to be found not in the world but within oneself. Wang Yangming was thus more of an idealist with a different epistemic approach. However, in the practice of Traditional Chinese medicine, the endogenous and exogenous interpretations of these two philosophical ideas are not seen as mutually exclusive but are viewed, to create and control each other.

Sources
Li is well known and understood in the study, practice, and application of Traditional Chinese Medicine.

The Huangdi Neijing (Chinese: 黃帝內經; pinyin: Huángdì Nèijīng), meaning the Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor, is the most important ancient text for the study of Medical and Daoist theory and lifestyle.

See also
Traditional Chinese Medicine
Wuxing
Chan Buddhism
Confucianism
Taoism

References

 Chan, Wing-tsit (translated and compiled). A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963.

External links

Neo-Confucianism
Zhu Xi
Concepts in Chinese philosophy

Li (neo-Confucianism)


Current Vietnamese historians considers that Vietnam has had a total of three declarations of independence:
The poem Nam quốc sơn hà (Mountains and rivers of Southern country) was written in 1077 by Lý Thường Kiệt and recited next to the defense line of the Như Nguyệt river (Cầu river), originally with the reason to incentive the spirit of the soldiers.
Bình Ngô đại cáo (Great Proclamation upon the Pacification of the Wu) was written by Nguyễn Trãi to speak in the name of Bình Định vương Lê Lợi in the Đinh Mùi year (1427), announcing the pacification of the Ming army, regaining the national independence, establishing the Later Lê dynasty.
The Proclamation of Independence (Tuyên ngôn độc lập) was written by Hồ Chí Minh and announced at Ba Đình Square, Hanoi, on September 2, 1945, declared independence from Japan and France, founding the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam).

Chinese-language literature of Vietnam
Vietnamese independence movement
Vietnam
Politics of Vietnam

Declarations of independence of Vietnam


Skimpot is a suburb of Luton, in Bedfordshire, England. The area is roughly bounded by Dunstable Road to the north, Hatters Way to the south, Skimpot Road to the west, and the M1 to the east.

Originally a small rural settlement, Skimpot was engulfed by the expanding town of Luton in the mid 20th century. Skimpot Road forms part of the border between Luton and Dunstable.

History
The east side of Skimpot was the former site of Luton Stadium, a former greyhound racing stadium. The stadium was constructed in 1931 and racing continued there until 1973. The site is now an industrial estate.

Politics
Skimpot makes up the south-west area of Challney ward, which is represented by Cllr Khtija Malik (Labour), Cllr Tahir Malik (Labour) and Cllr Tom Shaw (Labour).

The ward forms part of the parliamentary constituency of Luton North, whose MP is Sarah Owen (Labour).

References

Areas of Luton

Skimpot


Francis Chenevix Trench (1805–1886) was an English divine and author.

Francis, born in 1805, was the eldest son of Richard Trench (1774–1860), barrister-at-law, by his wife Melesina Trench, Richard Chenevix Trench was his younger brother. Francis entered Harrow School early in 1818, and matriculated from Oriel College, Oxford, on 12 November 1824, graduating B.A. in 1834 and M.A. in 1859. On 4 June 1829 he entered Lincoln's Inn with the intention of studying law, but in 1834 he was ordained deacon and became curate of St. Giles, Reading. In the following year he was ordained priest, and on 13 September 1837 he was appointed perpetual curate of St. John's, Reading. In 1857 he was instituted to the rectory of Islip, Oxfordshire, which he held till 1875, when he retired from active work. He died in London on 3 April 1886. On 6 December 1837 he married Mary Caroline (d. 1886), daughter of William Marsh, honorary canon of Worcester. By her he had a son, Richard William Francis (1849–1860), and two daughters, Mary Melesina and Maria Marcia Fanny.

Trench's chief works were:

Remarks on the Advantages of Loan Funds for the Poor and Industrious, London, 1833, 8vo.
Sermons preached at Reading, London, 1843, 8vo.
Diary of Travels in France and Spain, London, 1845, 12mo.
Scotland: its Faith and its Features, London, 1846, 12mo.
A Walk round Mont Blanc, London, 1847, 12mo.
The Portrait of Charity, London, 1847, 16mo.
The Life and Character of St. John the Evangelist, London, 1850, 8vo.
G. Adey: his Life and Diary, London, 1851, 8vo.
A Ride in Sicily, London, 1851, 12mo.
Theological Works, London, 1857, 8vo.
A few Notes from Past Life, Oxford, 1862, 8vo.

He also issued in 1869 and 1870 a series of miscellaneous papers, entitled Islipiana. He was a contributor to Macmillan's Magazine and to Notes and Queries.

References
Attribution

1805 births
1886 deaths
English theologians
People educated at Harrow School
Alumni of Oriel College, Oxford
Francis

Francis Chenevix Trench


John Williams (1636 – 24 April 1709) was an English Bishop of Chichester.

Life
He was born about 1636 in Northamptonshire, matriculated from Magdalen Hall, Oxford, on 24 June 1653, graduating B.A. on 14 December 1655 and M.A. on 11 June 1658. He was incorporated at Cambridge in 1660, and was created D.D. of Cambridge, comitiis regiis, in 1690.

On 4 September 1673 he was instituted to the rectory of St. Mildred Poultry, and on 21 September 1683 was collated to the prebend of Rugmere in St. Paul's. After the Glorious Revolution he became chaplain to William III and Mary II, and was preferred to a prebend of Canterbury. In 1695 and in 1696 he was Boyle Lecturer, publishing his sermons separately as they were delivered. A collective edition appeared in 1708.

On 13 December 1696 he was consecrated bishop of Chichester. He died in London in Gray's Inn on 24 April 1709, and was buried on 28 April in the church of St. Mildred Poultry.

Works
Williams was known as a controversialist, writing against Roman Catholics and dissenters. Among his works were:

 'The History of the Gunpowder Treason,' London, 1678; new edits. 1679 and 1681.
 'A Catechism truly representing the Doctrines and Practices of the Church of Rome,' London, 1686; 3rd edit. 1713.
 'The Difference between the Church of England and the Church of Rome,' 1687, (reprinted in 1738 and in 1836 in vol. iii. of the 'Enchiridion Theologicum' of Edward Cardwell.
 'A brief Exposition of the Church Catechism,' London, 1689; new edit. 1841; Welsh translation, 1699.
 'A True Representation of the Principles of the Sect known by the name of Muggletonians,' London, 1694.
, A Discourse Concerning the Celebration of Divine Service in an Unknown Tongue, London, 1685.

References

External links
Painting of Bishop Williams

1636 births
1709 deaths
Bishops of Chichester
18th-century Church of England bishops
17th-century Church of England bishops

John Williams (bishop of Chichester)


Ismene Shakuntal Debi Krishnadath (born 25 January 1956) is a Surinamese writer.

Biography
Krishnadath was born in Paramaribo, Suriname, and, as a child, lived both there and in Utrecht, Netherlands. She studied education at Utrecht University. In 1975, when Suriname became independent, Krishnadath became the first person to apply for citizenship, and received one of the first passports; in 1979, she returned to live in Suriname. For ten years she worked as a pedagogy teacher at various teacher training courses and, from 1990, as an education consultant. She was part of the progressive education movement Kenki Skoro and wrote a teaching manual with Dayenne Angel.

In 1989, Krishnadath started a publishing house and agency, Publishing Services Suriname, and a publisher for books for small children: Lees mee (Read Along). She became a prolific author of children's and youth books, many of which were illustrated by Gerold Slijngard. Krishnadath also writes for adults.

She received the inaugural State Prize for Children's Literature in 1993. In 2011 she was awarded the Henri Frans de Ziel Culture Prize for her commitment to literary life in Suriname.

For ten years, she chaired the Surinamese writers group Schrijversgroep '77.

Works

For children
 De flaporen van Amar (1989)
 Nieuwe streken van koniman Anansi (1989)
 Lees mee (1989-91; in 4 parts)
 Bruine bonen met zoutvlees (1992)
 Het zoo-syndroom: een Anansiverhaal (1992)
 De vangst van Pake Djasidin (1992)
 Veren voor de piai (1992)
 Reken mee (1993)
 Seriba in de schelp (1996)
 De groene fles (1997)
 B'Anansi keert terug naar de eenentachtigste afslag (1997)
 De opdracht van Fodewroko (2001)
 De legende van Çakuntela van het Groene Continent (2004)
 Kook mee (2006; cookbook)

For adults
 Didaktische werkvormen voor het voortgezet onderwijs (1987; with D. Angel & M. v. Leeuwaarde)
 Paulo Freire; een bijdrage voor de Surinaamse onderwijsleerkrachten (1988; with D. Angel)
 Lijnen van liefde (1990; novel)
 Handleiding voor het onderwijzen (1990; with D. Angel)
 Vrouwenbundel (1993; anthology, editor)
 Satyem (1995, novel)
Indo-ethnic roots and... [more]: Reflections on the non-ethnic orientation of Surinamese writers and their contribution in defining the concept of Caribbean identity (2008, essay)

She also contributed to the English anthology of Surinamese literature Diversity is Power (2007).

See also
 Surinamese literature
 Caribbean literature

References

External links
Schrijversgroep '77
Publishing Services Suriname

1956 births
Living people
20th-century publishers (people)
21st-century publishers (people)
Book publishing company founders
People from Paramaribo
Surinamese children's writers
Surinamese novelists
Surinamese people of Indian descent
Surinamese women children's writers
Surinamese women novelists
Surinamese women writers
Utrecht University alumni
Women book publishers (people)

Ismene Krishnadath


Skapti Þóroddsson (Old Norse: ; Modern Icelandic:  ; died 1030) was an Icelandic lawspeaker and skald. He became lawspeaker in 1004, succeeding his uncle Grímr when the latter's voice failed him. He held office till his death in 1030, longer than anyone else. According to the Íslendingabók he instituted judicial reform by establishing the "fifth court", a national court of appeals.

According to the Skáldatal, Skapti was a court poet of Hákon Sigurðarson but no details on that career are known. According to the Heimskringla, he composed a poem on king Óláfr Haraldsson and sent his son Steinn to perform it for the king.

The only piece of poetry by Skapti which has come down to us is decidedly Christian and can not have been composed at Hákon's court. Snorri Sturluson cites the following half-stanza by Skapti in a discussion of Christian kennings in the Skáldskaparmál.

Skapti is mentioned in some of the Icelanders' sagas, for example Njáls saga where he is insulted by Skarphéðinn Njálsson.

References
Íslendingabók Finnur Jónsson's edition
Lovsigemandsrækken
Skapti Þóroddsson
Skáldskaparmál Brodeur's translation
Ólafs saga helga

Lawspeakers
10th-century Icelandic poets
11th-century Icelandic poets
1030 deaths
Year of birth unknown

Skapti Þóroddsson


Duan Jifei () was an empress of the Xianbei-led Chinese Southern Yan dynasty. Her husband was the founding emperor Murong De (Emperor Xianwu).  Her given name is lost to history, but her courtesy name Jifei was recorded and used by historians.  Her father was Duan Yi (段儀).

Duan Jifei's older sister Duan Yuanfei was the empress of Murong De's older brother, Murong Chui, the founding emperor of Later Yan.  She married Murong De in or slightly before 388, when he was the Prince of Fanyang.  They did not have any sons.

In 398, Murong De, displeased at how Murong Chui's son and successor Murong Bao had, through incompetence, lost most of the Later Yan territory, declared himself the Prince of Yan and established the separate Southern Yan state.  In 400, he declared himself emperor and created Duan Jifei empress.  After Murong De died in 405 and was succeeded by his nephew Murong Chao, she became empress dowager, but in 406 became embroiled in a plot with Murong Zhong (慕容鍾) the Prince of Beidi and the generals Murong Fa (慕容法) and Duan Hong (段宏) to overthrow Murong Chao, but after one of the coconspirators, Feng Song (封嵩) was arrested, she became fearful and revealed the entire plot to Murong Chao, who then defeated the coup attempt.

The 406 plot was the last reference to Empress Dowager Duan in history.  In 408, after Murong Chao ransomed his mother Lady Duan back from Later Qin, he honored his mother as empress dowager, implying that Empress Dowager Duan Jifei might not be still alive at that point, or was deprived of her empress dowager title.  (There was a reference in the Zizhi Tongjian that stated, "Empress Dowager Duan of Yan's title was removed, and she went to reside in a different palace"; the modern Chinese historian Bo Yang opined that referred to Later Yan's Empress Dowager Duan.)

Notes and references

 Book of Jin, vol. 96.
 Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 108, 111, 114.

|-

4th-century births
5th-century deaths
Southern Yan empresses
Later Yan people
5th-century Chinese women
5th-century Chinese people

Duan Jifei


The Pneumatomachi (;  Pneumatomákhoi), also known as Macedonians or Semi-Arians in Constantinople and the Tropici in Alexandria, were an anti-Nicene Creed sect which flourished in the regions adjacent to the Hellespont during the latter half of the fourth, and the beginning of the fifth centuries. They denied the godhood of the Holy Ghost, hence the Greek name Pneumatomachi or 'Combators against the Spirit' (from πνεῦμα pneuma, spirit + μάχη machē, battle).

History
Macedonius I, the founder of the Pneumatomachi, was installed into the See of Constantinople by the Arians (342 AD), and enthroned by Emperor Constantius II, who had for the second time expelled Paul, the orthodox bishop. He is known in history for his persecution of Novatians and Catholics, as both maintained the consubstantiality of Christ, the Son, with the Father. He not only expelled those who refused to hold communion with him, but also imprisoned some and brought others before the tribunals. In many cases he used torture to compel the unwilling to communicate, forced baptism on unbaptized women and children and destroyed many churches. At last, his cruelty provoked a rebellion of the Novatians at Mantinium, in Paphlagonia, in which four imperial cohorts were defeated and nearly all slain. His disinterment of the body of Emperor Constantine I was looked upon as an indignity to the Protector of the Council of Nicaea, and led to a conflict between Arians and anti-Arians, which filled the church and neighbourhood with carnage. As the disinterment had taken place without imperial sanction, Macedonius fell into disgrace, and Roman Emperor Flavius Julius Constantius caused him to be deposed by the Acacian party and succeeded by Eudoxius in 360. This deposition, however, was not for doctrinal reasons, but on the ground that he had caused much bloodshed and had admitted to communion a deacon guilty of fornication. Macedonius continued for some time to live near Constantinople and cause trouble. He died about 364.

It is thought that during these last years he formulated his rejection of the Divinity of the Holy Ghost and founded his sect. His intimacy with Eunomius of Cyzicus makes this probable. Some scholars reject the identification of Macedonians and Pneumatomachians, although that identity is asserted by Socrates, a contemporary historian living at Constantinople. The Council of Nicaea had used all its energies in defending the Homoousion of the Son and with regard to the Spirit had already added the words: "We believe in the Holy Ghost" without any qualification. Because of the vagueness and hesitancy of statement in some of the early Fathers, the Macedonians were able to justify and propagate their views. The majority of this sect were clearly orthodox on the Consubstantiality of the Son; they had sent a deputation from the Semi-Arian council of Lampsacus (364 AD) to Pope Liberius, who after some hesitation acknowledged the soundness of their faith; but with regard to the Third Person, both pope and bishops were satisfied with the phrase: "We believe in the Holy Ghost". While hiding in the desert during his third exile, Athanasius learned from his friend Serapion of Thumis of Alexandrian believers acknowledging Nicaea, and yet declaring the Holy Ghost a mere creature and a ministering angel (on the strength of Hebrews 1:14). Athanasius wrote at once to Serapion in defence of the Nicene faith, and on his return from exile (362 AD) held a council at Alexandria, which resulted in the first formal condemnation of the Pneumatomachi. A synodal letter was sent to the people of Antioch advising them to require of all converts from Arianism a condemnation against "those who say that the Holy Spirit is a creature and separate from the essence of Christ. For those who while pretending to cite the faith confessed at Nicaea, venture to blaspheme the Holy Spirit, deny Arianism in words only, while in thought they return to it." Nevertheless, during the following decade the heresy seems to have gone on without being offered almost any resistance except in the Patriarchate of Antioch where at a synod held in 363, Meletius had proclaimed the orthodox faith.

In the East, the moving spirit for the repression of the sect was Amphilochius of Iconium, who in 374 besought St. Basil of Caesarea to write a treatise on the true doctrine of the Holy Ghost. This he did, and his treatise is the classical work on the subject (peri tou hagiou II. M. 32). It is  that he influenced his brother Gregory of Nyssa to write his treatise against the Macedonians, of which only a part has come down to us and which appears to be based on the words: "Lord and life-giver who proceeds from the Father." These words, apparently taken from the Creed of Jerusalem, had been used by St. Epiphanius of Salamis in his "Ancoratus" when combating the  (374 AD). Amphilochius of Iconium, as Metropolitan of Lycaonia, wrote in concurrence with his bishops a synodal letter to the bishops of Lycia (another part of Asia Minor), which contains a statement of the orthodox doctrine (377 AD). In Constantinople (379) Gregory of Nazianzus pronounced his theological oration on this subject.

The West likewise upheld the Catholic teaching in a synod held in Illyria and mentioned by Theodoret (H. E., IV, 8) and by Pope Damasus in his letter to Paulinus of Antioch. The sect was condemned in the First Council of Constantinople, and internal divisions soon led to its demise. Socrates (H. E., V, 24) states that a certain Macedonian presbyter, Eutropius, held conventicles of his own while others followed Bishop Carterius. Eustathius of Sebaste, Sabinus and Eleusius of Cyzicus seem to have been leaders whom the sect repudiated (for Eustathis, see Basil, Ep., CCLXIII, 3). In June 383, Emperor Theodosius I tried by means of a conference to bring the Arian factions to submission. Eleusius handed in his symbol of faith as representing the Macedonians, as he had represented them with Marcianus of Lampsacus at the Ecumenical Council of Constantinople. After this fruitless attempt at reconciliation the Macedonians with other heretics incurred all the severities of the Theodosian code and within a generation disappeared from history. Socrates and Sozomus mention a certain Marathonius, made Bishop of Nicomedia by Macedonius, who obtained such a leading position in the sect that they were often styled after him Marathonians.

Through St. Jerome, St. Augustine, St. Damasus and Rufinus, the name Macedonians became the customary designation in the West. No writings of Macedonius are extant, but Pneumatomachian writings are mentioned by Didymus the Blind, who wrote an excellent treatise on the Holy Ghost in thirty-six chapters (translated into Latin by St. Jerome at the command of Pope Damasus), and who refers in his later work (379) on the Trinity (II, 7, 8, 10) to some "Brief Expositions" of Macedonian doctrines which he possessed.

Beliefs
The Pneumatomachi (from Greek for "spirit" and "fighters", combining as "Combators against the Spirit") are also known as the Macedonians.  Church sources ascribe Bishop Macedonius I  as the founder.
The writings of Macedonius himself, as well as the Pneumatomachi, have all been lost, and what is asserted regarding their doctrine comes from polemic refutations by church leaders, who regarded them as a heretical sect.

Macedonius more fully developed his theological views toward the end of his life including during a brief retirement before his death, possibly before the sect fully emerged. Pneumatomachian doctrine was embraced by Eleusius and Marathonius, the latter a major protagonist, and it gained traction in Constantinople, Thrace, Bithynia, and the Hellespont.  Under the Emperor Julian, 361 to 363 AD, who personally rejected Christianity in favor of Neoplatonic paganism, and who sought to return the Roman Empire to its original religious eclecticism, the Pneumatomachi had enough power to declare their independence from both Arians and orthodox.

Pneumatomachi beliefs were distinct from, but in some regards reminiscent of, Arianism. Church commentators assert that they denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit, and regarded the substance of Jesus Christ as being of "similar substance" (homoiousios) but not of the "same essence" (homoousios) as that of God the Father.  The Macedonians supported the Homoiousian creeds of Antioch and Seleucia and condemned the Homoian creeds of Ariminum and Constantinople, and they called new synods to gain support for their views and condemn their opponents.

The Pneumatomachi were denounced in 374 by Pope Damasus I. In 381 AD, the  Pneumatomachian concept that the Holy Spirit was a creation of the Son, and a servant of the Father and the Son, prompted the First Council of Constantinople (also termed the Second Ecumenical Council) to add, "And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, Who proceedeth from the Father, Who with the Father and the Son is equally worshipped and glorified, Who spake by the Prophets," into the Nicene Creed. As a result of the Second Ecumenical Council, homoousios has become the accepted definition of Orthodox Christianity. Thereafter, the Macedonians were suppressed by the emperor Theodosius I.

Three prominent 4th-century saints, Athanasius of Alexandria, Basil of Caesarea, and Basil's younger brother Gregory of Nyssa, wrote polemics against Macedonianism (Letters to Serapion, On the Holy Spirit, and On the Holy Spirit respectively).

Notable Pneumatomachi
 Macedonius, bishop of Constantinople (342–346 and 351–360)<ref>Socrates Scholasticus. Church History, book 2, chapters 16, 27, 38 & 42</ref>
 Marathonius, bishop of Nicomedia (c. 351–?)
 Eleusius, bishop of Cyzicus (c. 351–360)Socrates Scholasticus. Church History, book 2, chapters 38, 42 & 45
 Sophronius, bishop of Pompeiopolis (?–360)
 Eustathius, bishop of Sebastia
 Sabinus, bishop of Heraclea

 See also
 Binitarianism

References

Bibliography

Haykin, Michael, The Spirit of God: The Exegesis of 1 and 2 Corinthians in the Pneumatomachian Controversy of the Fourth Century'' (E.J. Brill, 1994).
Athanasius, and C. R. B. Shapland. The Letters of Saint Athanasius Concerning the Holy Spirit. Translated by C. R. B. Shapland. London: Epworth Press, 1951. (available online here)

Nontrinitarianism
Heresy in ancient Christianity
Christian denominations established in the 4th century
360s establishments
380s disestablishments
Nicene Creed

Pneumatomachi


Diphasiastrum digitatum is known as groundcedar, running cedar or crowsfoot, along with other members of its genus, but the common name fan clubmoss can be used to refer to it specifically.  It is the most common species of Diphasiastrum in North America.  It is a type of plant known as a clubmoss, which is within one of the three main divisions of living vascular plants. It was formerly included in the superspecies Diphasiastrum complanatum.  For many years, this species was known as Lycopodium flabelliforme or Lycopodium digitatum.

Its common name is due to its resemblance to cedar boughs lying on the ground.  Its leaves are scale-like and appressed, like a mature cedar, and it is glossy and evergreen.  It normally grows to a height of about four inches (10 cm), with the spore-bearing strobili held higher.  This plant was once widely harvested and sold as Christmas greenery, and populations were widely depleted for this reason.  However, it has recovered throughout its range, and makes large clonal colonies, carpeting the forest floor.

It prefers disturbed areas and coniferous forests, where it can form dense monocultures. The subterranean, brown gametophytes may live for years in the soil before developing vegetative shoots. Its range is in the higher Appalachian mountains northward, and its range ends in northern Georgia and Alabama, but isolated stands have sprung up elsewhere.

In the Appalachian Mountains of Southwest Virginia, the plant is known locally as "Bear's Paw." This species was also once one of the principal clubmoss species used for collection of lycopodium powder, used as a primitive flashpowder.

Description
Diphasiastrum digitatum is a perennial vascular plant that does not contain a significant amount of wood tissue above or at the ground. They are low-growing, usually measuring less than 30 cm tall. Leaves are evergreen, which appear opposite, and are arranged spirally with four evenly spaced leaves; when viewed from the side it appears as four columns. The branch leaves are green and shiny, the base extends down to the stem (decurrent) and the free portion at the tip is pointed and scale-like. Branches are shaped rectangular in cross-section, flattened on the underside with the associated leaf much smaller than the rest. The largest leaves are lateral, the free portion appressed to spreading, and the leaves on the upper surface are appressed and are more narrow. The stems spread horizontally above ground or just below the surface of the duff layer. The erect shoots each contain two or more branches near the base. Branches are more likely ascending to spreading, forked and tree-like, and mostly are arranged on the same plane, fan-like. Erect shoots can measure from 3 to 20 inches tall, although, vegetative shoots are typically less than 8 inches. Spores develop in cone-like structures referred to as strobili. About 2 to 4 strobili (rarely more) are usually clustered at the tip of a long stalk which is referred to as the peduncle.

Taxonomy
The species Diphasiastrum digitatum belongs to the kingdom Plantae. Its subkingdom is Trachaebionta, its division is Lycopodiophyta. It falls in the class Lycopoiosida, order Lycopodiales, family Lycopodiaceae and the genus is Diphasiastrum L.

Distribution and habitat
Diphasiastrum digitatum is present in dry to mesic and usually acid forests and openings. They are located in the eastern part of North America, including parts of Canada such as Ontario and Quebec, and south to Florida and Louisiana. There are a variety of habitats for Diphasiastrum digitatum, but they are usually found in a partially shaded habitat that is moist to dry. Typically habitats are open forest, thickets, and fields. The sporulating season tends to be from July to October. Other habitats include upland woodlands, bluffs, sandstone cliffs, and abandoned sandy fields. They tend to be found in wooded areas where oak trees and conifers can also be found.

Uses

Clubmosses or Lycophytes evolved about 410 million years ago as one of the earliest groups of vascular plants.

Diphasiastrum digitatum has uses such as medicinal, pyrotechnic, and decorative purposes. Club moss spores and teas from plant leaves have been used since ancient times in both American Indian and European cultures. Medicinal uses included treating urinary tract problems, diarrhea and other digestive tract problems; relieving headaches and skin ailments; and inducing labor in pregnancy. In some cultures, the spores have been purported to be an aphrodisiac. The spores repel water and have been used as a powder on skin rashes and even on baby bottoms, and to treat wounds. Spores have been used historically as coating for pills, and in the Americas and Europe as fabric dyes. Spores are also highly flammable due to their high content of oil. They have been used culturally for ceremonial purposes when medicine men tossed the spores into a fire for a flash of light. The spores ignite with a bright flash of light and were used in flash photography, in stage productions, in fireworks and in chemistry labs. It is used for mainly bladder disorders, kidney disorders and other conditions, although more evidence is needed regarding effectiveness and safety.

Cultivation
Diphasiastrum digitatum is very difficult to cultivate in the garden. Transplants are rarely successful, and the development of mature plants from spores is very slow (taking perhaps 20 years). They can be grown with frequent application of weak fertilizer solution under bright light, high humidity, and year-round moderate temperatures in greenhouses, growth chambers, and laboratories. During its sexual phase, this species develops underground and requires the presence of appropriate fungi. It prefers a somewhat acidic soil that is sandy or rocky, dappled sunlight to light shade, and well-drained conditions.

Etymology
Diphasiastrum: From the genus Diphasium and astrum for "incomplete resemblance;" so "false Diphasium".

References

digitatum
Plants described in 1848
Flora of Canada
Flora of the United States

Diphasiastrum digitatum


Bhoomi Kosam is a Telugu-language film directed by K. B. Tilak in 1974. It is one of the earliest films to portray far left politics in the Telugu language.

Story

The film is about a village's liberation, where the people want to be free from the tyranny of Zamindari. One of Zamindar's sons leads the revolt. The film represents of the efforts of left-wing political parties. The film was dedicated to the memory of Tilak's brother Ramanarasimha Rao who was 'encountered' in 1972.

Cast

The cast included Ashok Kumar, Gummadi, Jaggayya, Jamuna, Prabhakar Reddy and Chalam, Prabha. It was Jaya Prada's début. She was given this screen name for this film as suggested by M.Prabhakar Reddy.

Writing

The film features lyrics and script by Srirangam Srinivasa Rao (Sri Sri) who was a prominent intellectual and poet of Andhra Pradesh and K.G Satyamurthy (Shivasagar) who was the founder of the People's War Group.

References

1970s Telugu-language films
Films directed by K. B. Tilak

Bhoomi Kosam


Waseda University R.F.C. was founded in 1918. It is one of the top rugby union clubs for students in Japan, together with Kanto Gakuin University RFC, Keio University RFC and Doshisha University RFC.

It is the representative club of Waseda University and has produced many players for the Japan national rugby union team.

Notable victories

 1966 - Waseda win their first All-Japan Rugby Football Championship and the University championship rugby title.
 1971 - Waseda win their second All-Japan Rugby Football Championship, beating Shinnitetsu Kamaishi 30–16.
 1972 - Waseda win their third All-Japan Rugby Football Championship, beating Mitsubishi Jikou 14–11.
 1988 - Waseda win their fourth All-Japan Rugby Football Championship, beating Toshiba Fuchuu 22–16.
 Waseda, coached by Katsuyuki Kiyomiya, beat Toyota Verblitz 28–24 in the All-Japan Rugby Football Championship at Chichibunomiya on February 12, 2006. It was thus the first Japanese university to beat a Top League team. (In the semi-final Waseda lost to Toshiba Brave Lupus 0-43.)

Players

Past

Katsuyuki Kiyomiya
Hiroaki Shukuzawa - Japan national rugby union team coach
Katsuhiko Oku - diplomat
Yoshiro Mori - former Prime Minister

Coaches

Onishi Tetsunosuke
Katsuyuki Kiyomiya (2001-2006). He was formerly a player for Waseda and Suntory. In February 2006 a book was published by him in Japanese entitled Kyukyoku no Shori:Ultimate Crush  He has been hugely successful with Waseda. The book has been translated into English. See here.
 Ryuji Nakatake (2006-

See also
Katsuhiko Oku

References
 ULTIMATE CRUSH: Waseda University Rugby, Leadership and Building the Strongest Winning Team in Japan by Katsuyuki Kiyomiya, translated into English by Ian Ruxton (September 2006)

External links
Katsuyuki Kiyomiya
Waseda University R.F.C. - official website

Waseda
Rugby in Kantō
University and college rugby union clubs
Waseda University

Waseda University Rugby Football Club


The Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) is a large, black or brown fish found in very cold (subzero) waters of the Southern Ocean near Antarctica. It is the largest fish in the Southern Ocean, feeding on shrimp and smaller fish, and preyed on by whales, orcas, and seals. It is caught for food and marketed as Chilean sea bass together with its sister species, the more northerly Patagonian toothfish (D. eliginoides). Often mistakenly called "Antarctic cod," the Antarctic toothfish belongs to the notothen family (Nototheniidae), a group of fish species abundant near Antarctica.

Name and taxonomy
The common name "toothfish" refers to the two rows of teeth in the upper jaw, thought to give it a shark-like appearance.

The genus name Dissostichus is from the Greek  (twofold) and stichus (line) and refers to the presence of two long lateral lines that enable the fish to sense prey. The species name, mawsoni, honors the Australian geologist Douglas Mawson who led the 1911-1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition that explored the Antarctic coast and obtained the species' type specimen.

The Antarctic toothfish was first formally described in 1937 by the English ichthyologist John Roxborough Norman with the type locality given as off MacRobertson Land at 66°45'S, 62°03'E in Antarctica.

Description
Fully grown, these fish (and their warmer-water relative, the Patagonian toothfish, D. eleginoides) can grow to more than  in length and 135 kg in weight, twice as large as the next-largest Antarctic fish. Being large, and consistent with the unstructured food webs of the ocean (i.e., big fish eat little fish regardless of identity, even eating their own offspring), the Antarctic toothfish has been characterized as a voracious predator. Furthermore, by being by far the largest midwater fish in the Southern Ocean, it is thought to fill the ecological role that sharks play in other oceans. Aiding in that role, the Antarctic toothfish is one of only five notothenioid species that, as  adults, are neutrally buoyant. This buoyancy is attained at 100–120 cm in length and enables them to spend time above the bottom without expending extra energy. Both bottom-dwelling and mid-water prey are, therefore, available to them. Most other notothenioid fish and the majority of all Antarctic fishes, including smaller toothfish, are confined to the bottom. Coloring is black to olive brown, sometimes lighter on the undersides, with a mottled pattern on body and fins. Small fish blend in very well among the benthic sponges and corals. The species has a broad head, an elongated body, long dorsal and anal fins, large pectoral fins, and a rudder-like caudal fin. They typically move slowly, but are capable of speed bursts that can elude predatory seals.

Feeding ecology
Over the continental shelf, Antarctic toothfish feed on shrimp (Nauticaris spp.) and small fish, principally another neutrally buoyant nototheniid, the Antarctic silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum). This loosely schooling species is also a major prey of Adélie (Pygoscelis adeliae) and emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri), Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) and Antarctic minke whales (Balaenoptera bonaerensis).  Therefore, competition for prey among toothfish and these other mesopredators (middle trophic level predators) could be very important. The large Antarctic toothfish are eaten by sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus), killer whales (Orcinus orca), Weddell seals, and possibly colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni). Toothfish that are dwelling on the bottom, particularly those caught during the summer on the continental slope, eat mainly grenadiers (Macrouridae), but also feed on other smaller fish species and skates (Raja spp.). They also feed on the colossal squid. Antarctic toothfish have been caught to depths of 2200 m, though  based on commercial fishing effort, few occur that deep.

Aging and reproduction
Aging data indicate Antarctic toothfish are relatively fast-growing when young, but then growth slows later in life. They reach about one-third of maximum size after 5 years, and half maximum by 10 years, after which growth slows considerably. To grow fast when small is an adaptation of most predatory fish, e.g., sharks, so as not to be small for very long. The maximum age recorded so far has been 48 years. Antarctic toothfish take a long time to mature (13 years for males, 17 years for females) and once mature may not spawn every year, though the actual spawning interval is unknown. Only a few Antarctic toothfish with mature eggs have ever been caught, meaning knowledge is sparse about fecundity. They spawn sometime during winter. Large, mature, older fish have been caught among the seamounts of the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge, a location thus thought to be important for spawning. Smaller, subadult Antarctic toothfish tend to concentrate in shallower waters on the continental shelf, while a large portion of the older fish are found on  in the continental slope. This sequestering by size and age could be another adaptation for small fish to avoid being eaten by large ones. The recruitment potential of Antarctic toothfish, a measure of both fecundity and survival to spawning age, is not known.

Anatomy and physiology
The Antarctic toothfish has a lightweight, partially cartilaginous skeleton, lacks a swim bladder, and has fatty deposits which act as a stored energy source, particularly during spawning. This fat also makes large toothfish neutrally buoyant. Many toothfish caught over the seamounts are very depleted of fat, and this is thought perhaps to be related to spawning and spawning migration, which are energy-demanding activities. It is not known what happens to these fat-depleted fish, including whether they reach, or how long it takes them to reach, breeding condition again; this ostensibly occurs upon returning to continental-slope waters. Antarctic toothfish have vision and lateral line systems well adapted to find prey in low light levels. Since ice covers the surface of the ocean where Antarctic toothfish occur even in summer, these sensory specializations likely evolved to enable survival in the reduced light levels found under ice and in the Antarctic winter, as well as at deep depths. Antarctic toothfish also have a very well developed sense of smell, which is why they are easily caught by baited hooks and also scavenge the remains of penguins killed by other predators.

Cold adaptation
The Antarctic toothfish lives in subzero degree water below latitude 60°S. It is noteworthy, like most other Antarctic notothenioids, for producing antifreeze glycoproteins, a feature not seen in its closest relative, the Patagonian toothfish, which typically inhabits slightly warmer waters. The presence of antifreeze glycoproteins allows the Antarctic toothfish (and other notothenioids) to thrive in subzero waters of the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica. The Antarctic toothfish's voracious appetite also is important in coping with cold water. It is mainly caught in the Ross Sea in the austral summer, but has also been recorded from Antarctic coastal waters south of the Indian Ocean sector, in the vicinity of the Antarctic Peninsula, and near the South Sandwich Islands.

Fishery and associated ecosystem
A fishery for Antarctic toothfish, managed by the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), has existed since 1997. The existence of this fishery in the Ross Sea, the area where most Antarctic toothfish are caught, is very contentious - the main argument proposed for this is the lack of accurate population parameters, such as original stock size, fecundity, and recruitment. Moreover, the main fishing grounds are presumed by some researchers to cover the area through which the entire stock of Antarctic toothfish pass. Typically, the fishing season has finished in the area by the end of February and for the remainder of the year, much of the area is covered by sea ice, providing a natural impediment to fishing. This fishery is characterised by opponents as being a challenge to manage owing to the nature of benthic longline fishing. The bycatch of other fish can also be significant, with the ratio of toothfish caught ranging from 4.5% to 17.9% and averaging 9.3% from the 1999/2000 fishing season to 2013/14 in CCAMLR Subarea 88.1 when the toothfish catch first exceeded 50 tonnes and from 2.3% to 24.5% averaging 12.4% in CCAMLR Subarea 88.2 up to the latest publicly available figure from 2013/14. The bycatch of other fish species is also regulated to a maximum amount annually by CCAMLR.  CCAMLR decision rules are based on determining the catch level that will ensure that the median estimated spawning stock biomass (not total biomass) is greater than or equal to 50% of the average pre-exploitation spawning biomass after a further 35 years of fishing (i.e. 35 years from each year of assessment), with the additional condition that the probability is less than a 10% that the spawning biomass will decline below 20% of the pre-exploitation level at any time during this period. Current spawning stock biomass for Antarctic toothfish in the Ross Sea Region is estimated to be at 75% of the pre-exploitation level (95% Bayesian probability interval 71–78%), well above the 50% target reference point.

An independent study was reported to have detected the disappearance of large fish at the southern periphery of its range in the McMurdo Sound and was postulated to be consistent with this apparent loss of large fish. However, more recent work has shown this was not the case in 2014. Some studies have reported that the prevalence of fish-eating killer whales has been apparently decreasing in the southern Ross Sea, foraging efficiency of Weddell seals is decreasing, and numbers of Adélie penguins (competitors for Antarctic silverfish) have been increasing. More recent studies have confirmed visual sightings of Weddell seals and Type-C killer whales holding and consuming large toothfish in the McMurdo Sound area and raise questions over the previously assumed importance of assumed dominance of Antarctic silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum) in the diet of Weddell seal and Type-C killer whales.  These reports highlight the importance of managing this fishery in the best interests of the ecosystem by continuing to collect information on both Antarctic toothfish life history and the interaction of that species with predators and prey. An important research programme in this regard is the annual 'Shelf' survey carried out annually since 2012, which is designed to monitor the abundance of subadult Antarctic toothfish in areas where subadult-sized fish have been regularly found (e.g., in the southern Ross Sea) has been designed provide data to better estimate recruitment variability and provide an important early-warning signal of changes in toothfish recruitment.  The project also is used for additional targeted data collection to better understand the lifecycle and ecosystem role of Antarctic toothfish.

Research has provided evidence for long-distance migrations of type-C killer whales between the Ross Sea and New Zealand waters, indicating a much wider range that had been postulated by a number of scientists.  One adult female type-C killer whale has been seen in both New Zealand waters and McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, and a high large proportion of type-C killer whales sighted in McMurdo Sound have scars caused by cookiecutter sharks that are currently assumed to be limited to north of 50°S. At the same time as this study was occurring, Italian whale experts at Terra Nova Bay, about 360 km north of Scott Base, deployed satellite transmitters on type-C killer whales to determine the whales' movements. Their results independently verified that type-C killer whales were commuting between Scott Base and the waters off Northland.

The total catch of Antarctic toothfish in 2013–14 was 3820 tonnes; 3,320 tonnes of this were taken from the Ross Sea (FAO Statistical Divisions 88.1 and 88.2), with the remainder taken from other high seas areas within the CCAMLR convention area.

Management
The ecosystem approach to fishing is encapsulated in Article II of the CAMLR Convention. The ecosystem approach uses decision rules based on both population status targets and limit reference points, and incorporates uncertainty and ecosystem status in the calculation of these targets. Different reference points to account for the needs of dependent predators in the ecosystem are used depending on the location of the species in the food web. The ecosystem fisheries management approach by CCAMLR involves use of move-on rules to protect trophic interactions, and limit direct effects of fishing on fish bycatch, seabirds, and vulnerable marine ecosystems. Annually reviewed mitigation measures such as line weighting and streamer lines minimize seabird bycatch, which have resulted in a substantial reduction in accidental seabird mortalities in the CAMLR Convention Area. The 50% (target) and 20% (limit) reference points used by the CCAMLR decision rules exceed the requirements for target and limit reference points set by almost all national and international fisheries management organizations, even for species longer lived than toothfish. A wide study of many fisheries generally indicated that most reach maximum sustainable yield at 30–35% of their pre-exploitation abundances. CCAMLR uses a more conservative reference level to allow exploitation at a level where toothfish recruitment and the ecosystem in general is not appreciably impacted.  This is required by  Article II of the CAMLR Convention. A common misunderstanding of the CCAMLR decision rules is an assumption that the decline in population size will follow a clear trajectory from the starting year to a point 35 years later when the stock size will reach 50% of pre-exploitation levels and an assumption that  no feedback occurs during each assessment. The catch limit, though, is recalculated based on all updated or revised data at each annual or biennial assessment. This approach is used to ensure that the 50% level will be approached slowly and enables an ongoing readjustment of catch levels as knowledge improves.

Environment and bycatch
CCAMLR imposes stringent environmental protection and bycatch mitigation measures to Antarctic toothfish fisheries, including:
 Monitoring of daytime setting and movement of vessels from the fishery should any vessel catch more than three seabirds
 Use of streamer lines during setting to keep birds away from baited hooks
 Weighting of lines to ensure fast sink rates to prevent seabirds from accessing baited hooks
 The use of bird exclusion devices to prevent birds from accessing hooks whilst lines are being hauled
 Limitations on the release of fish offal overboard at the same time as setting and hauling of lines to avoid attracting seabirds: An additional requirement prohibits the dumping of all offal south of 60°S, the region where Antarctic toothfish are caught
 Prohibition on the dumping of oil, plastic, garbage, food waste, poultry, eggs or eggshells, sewage, and ash by fishing vessels
 Prohibition of the use of plastic packaging bands on fishing vessels

Incidental mortality of seabirds as a result of fishing has fallen to near-zero levels in the CCAMLR convention area. No mortality of seabirds or marine mammals was recorded as a result of fishing for Antarctic toothfish in 2011–12 and only two seabirds (southern giant petrels Macronectes giganteus) have been killed as a result of fishing in the Ross Sea since 1996/97.

Compliance
Compliance measures adopted by CCAMLR apply to all Antarctic toothfish fisheries. These include:
 At-sea inspections of fishing vessels
 Vessel licensing
 Port inspections of fishing vessels
 Continuous reporting of fishing vessel positions via satellite-linked vessel monitoring systems
 Catch documentation scheme for toothfish, which tracks toothfish from the point of landing through to the final point of sale and requires verification and authorisation by government authorities at each step
 The requirement to carry two scientific observers on each licensed vessel – including one from a member state other than the vessel flag

Sustainability
In November 2010, the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certified the Ross Sea Antarctic toothfish fishery as a sustainable and well-managed fishery. The certification is contentious, with many conservation groups protesting the certification due to the paucity of information needed to reliably manage the fishery, and that only eight of the 19 vessels in the fishery during the latest year for which data are publicly available were certified. During the 2013–14 season, vessels operating under the Marine Stewardship Certification landed 51.3% of all Antarctic toothfish from the Ross Sea Region (CCAMLR Subarea 88.1) and 64.7% of Antarctic toothfish from the Amundsen Sea sector (CCAMLR Subarea 88.2).

The argument that only a portion of Antarctic toothfish is certified, the high price it commands, and the remote areas where a large proportion of the fish are caught have been advanced as an encouragement to illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing and mislabeling. A 2011 genetic study of MSC-labeled Antarctic toothfish found in markets revealed a significant proportion was not from the MSC-certified stock, and many were not toothfish at all. The MSC had conducted its own internal study, which found no evidence of mislabeling.  The MSC conducts an annual audit of the fishery which includes sampling of certified product.

Due to the challenges that faced toothfish management in the 1990s and early 2000s (e.g., IUU fishing, mislabeling, and inadequate data for management), consumer seafood guides such as Seafood Watch placed toothfish of both species (Chilean seabass) on their red, or "avoid", list; however, in light of up-to-date, internationally peer-reviewed scientific information, in April 2013, Seafood Watch upgraded the Ross Sea Antarctic toothfish fishery to a "good alternative". Following a comprehensive review in 2012, the Monterey Bay Aquarium revised its rating of Antarctic toothfish to 'good alternative'.

Greenpeace International added the Antarctic toothfish to its seafood red list in 2010.  This approach is at variance with the high score given the fishery when it was granted certification by the MSC.

References

Further reading

Antarctic toothfish
Fish of Antarctica
Fish of the Southern Ocean
Antarctic toothfish
Taxa named by John Roxborough Norman
Commercial fish

Antarctic toothfish