Borisovo () is a Moscow Metro station in the Brateyevo District, Southern Administrative Okrug in Moscow. It is on the Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line, between Maryino and Shipilovskaya stations. Borisovo was opened on December 2, 2011 along with the stations Maryino and Zyablikovo.

Name
At the beginning, until 1989, the station had its project name set as Brateyevo. In 1996, the Government of Moscow enacted a new name Borisovo after a former village located in the West and South-West, not far from the constructed metro station. The resolution set the name Brateyevo to a projected station initially called Promzona, however during the construction, Promzona was renamed as Alma-Atinskaya.

According to RIA Novosti, since January 1, 2011, the city authorities were supposed to rename the station Borisovo as Kazakhnskaya. In return, the Almaty Metro in Kazakhstan should have had a station Moskovskaya. Nevertheless, Borisovo's name remained unchanged.

The History of Construction
The decision about building the station (initially Brateyevo) was made in the 1980s. In the feasibility study in 1988, the station was allocated under the stream bed of Gorodnya River which was supposed to be included into sewer system. The first works took place since 1993 until 1996. During this time, the Canadian tunnelling shield Polina extended the main tunnel line towards Maryino in 190m. In September 1998, the works stopped due to the lack of funds. In March 2004, the illegally preserved tunnelling shield was dismantled, raised to the surface, cleaned of the rust and used for building the Kazan Metro.

In 2008, the works started basically from the top in accordance with a modified project. The location of the station was moved 40m to the north, towards Maryino, since the floodplain around the Gorodnya River, from Brateyevskaya Street to the Moskva River, is a protected natural monument. On October 17, 2008, the tunnel boring machine Svetlana started excavating the first and the main line of the tunnel from Maryino towards to the future Borisovo.  Subsequently, on November 9 and 10, 2009, the tunnel boring machines Vera and Svetlana were finishing the tunnelling.

The station is built with monolithic reinforced concrete. The walls were made in formworks. The vault covering with the light niches was built in a special horizontally movable formwork with galvanised steel frames. The vault, 162 metres long, was divided into 18 parts (9 metres each) during the concreting.

On January 4, 2011, the government of Moscow announced its plans about completing the stations Borisovo, Shipilovskaya and Zayablikovo until the 4th quarter of 2011.
The station was opened the 2nd of December 2011 as a part of Marino-Zayablikovo section and became the 185th station of Moscow Metro.

Technical Parameters
The platform is shallow single-vault built with monolithic reinforced concrete. The depth is 9 metres and the height is more than 6 metres.
The platform is one-centred, 162m long and 10m wide. The monolithic vault is constructed with underground shafts used for service communication between the vestibules, and lamp maintenance. The lamps are fixed on the vault with a special rail which is used for maintenance ( lamp replacement etc.) This system was used in Moscow metro for the first time.

Vestibules
There are two underground vestibules. The northern one goes to the street Borisovsky Ponds, and the southern one to the passage Brateyevsky Proyezd. The ticket halls are located in the underpass. Each lobby is equipped with a group of three escalators E25T with the lifting height 12,2m.

The Station in Numbers
 Code of the station – 160
 The axis of ordinate – PK0203+00
 The station opens at 5.45 a.m. on odd-numbered days and 5.50 a.m. on even-numbered days. It closes at 1 a.m.
The first arrivals of the train:

Construction in numbers:
 During the construction was used 2,000 tons of steel and 48,000 cubic metres of reinforced concrete.
 There was dug out 129,000 cubic metres of soil
 The pit was 296m long and 22m wide
 1,300 piles were used for the foundations

References

External links
 Official website of Moscow Metro
 Metro.ru
KartaMetro.ru (English/Russian)
 (In Russian) Борисово (станция метро)

Moscow Metro stations
Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line
Brateyevo District
Railway stations located underground in Russia
Railway stations in Russia opened in 2011

Borisovo (Moscow Metro)


David Ferry (born March 5, 1924) is an American poet, translator, and educator. He has published eight collections of his poetry and a volume of literary criticism. He won the National Book Award for Poetry for his 2012 collection Bewilderment: New Poems and Translations.

Life
Ferry was born in Orange, New Jersey in March 1924, and grew up and attended Columbia High School amid the "wild hills" of suburban Maplewood, New Jersey.
His undergraduate education at Amherst College was interrupted by his service in the United States Army Air Force during World War II.
He ultimately received his B.A. from Amherst in 1946. He went on to earn his Ph.D. from Harvard University, and it was during his graduate studies that he published his first poems in The Kenyon Review.

From 1952 until his retirement in 1989, Ferry taught at Wellesley College where he was, for many years, the chairman of the English Department.  He now holds the title Sophie Chantal Hart Professor Emeritus of English at Wellesley.  He has also taught writing at Boston University, as well as Suffolk University, as a distinguished scholar. Ferry was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1998, and he is a fellow of the Academy of American Poets.

In 1958, Ferry married the distinguished literary scholar  Anne Ferry (died 2006), they had two children, Elizabeth, an anthropologist, and Stephen, a photojournalist.
Before moving to his current home in Brookline, Massachusetts, Ferry lived across the Charles River in Cambridge, in the house where 19th century journalist and women's rights advocate Margaret Fuller lived before she joined the Brook Farm community.

Honors and awards

In 2000, Ferry's book of new and selected poems and translations, entitled Of No Country I Know, received the Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize from the Academy of American Poets and the Rebekah Johnson Bobbitt National Prize for Poetry from the Library of Congress (for the best work of poetry for the previous two years).
He is the author of a critically praised verse rendering of the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh.
The poet W. S. Merwin has described Ferry's work as having an "assured quiet tone" that communicates "complexities of feeling with unfailing proportion and grace."

Ferry is also a recipient of the Harold Morton Landon Translation Award.

In 2011, Ferry was awarded the Ruth Lilly Poetry Prize.

In 2012, Ferry was awarded the National Book Award for Poetry for his book Bewilderment (University of Chicago Press). Bewilderment was a finalist for the National Book Critics Circle Award (2012, Poetry).

Poetry and translations

For many years, David Ferry has been admired in the US for his translations of Gilgamesh, Horace and Virgil. His original poetry has flourished in the shadow of this other work and he likes to juxtapose translations with his own poems in an acknowledgement of influence and tradition. Elegance, clarity, an avoidance of frills – the Horatian virtues – are important to him. He has written critically about Wordsworth and always intends to communicate with readers, approaching both translation and original work with a wise passivity, even humility, in pursuit of "the heartbeat easy governance / Of long continued metrical discipline" ('A Thank-You Note'). This selection draws from his whole oeuvre, including 'Poem' (1960) which shows a young poet not wanting to howl or essay a barbaric yawp, but rather stiffly confined to New Formalist and Classical models, to inversion and Romantic lexis.

It was twenty three years before Ferry published his own poems again. 'In the Garden' suggests how elegance had now fused with vitality, formal skill with vivid responses to reality. The narrator sits reading Edward Thomas, engaged in "ill-informed staring" and observation nudges the poem forward: "The green of these leaves is almost an absence of green, / And the stalks look like rays of light under water". Later Ferry poems meander, seem to have little intent on the reader, but brim with details, move like music. He understands the more we attend, whether to language or world, the more we discover we have missed. In 'That Evening at Dinner', one of the guests struggles with her "graceless leg, / The thick stocking, the leg brace". Yet the poem ends by gazing at books on shelves: "Line after line, all of them evenly spaced, / And spaces between the words. You could fall through the spaces." Here Ferry interpolates lines from Samuel Johnson on "chasms infinitely deep" that lie beneath the surface of things. It is not merely that –as the writer of 'Old Man' and 'The Glory' must have felt – we do not know these things, but that we do not have the "faculties" to know them.

Over and over, Ferry alludes to this "something", elusive partly as the result of the ambivalent gifts of time. 'Down by the River' describes a scene's "participial rhythm, // Flowing, enjoying, taking its own sweet time". But it is the shifting liquidity of water that most vividly evokes the ineffable, Ferry's real subject. 'Lake Water' declares "The plane of the water is like a page on which / Phrases and even sentences are written". Yet as the poet tries to compose, "The surface of the page is like lake water" and later again all is "erased with the changing of the breeze". For all their elegance and plain-speaking, these poems are marvellously unstable, modern, poignantly facing up to the limits of the faulty equipment we are given to understand the world. 'The Intention of Things' gently devastates with the idea that "death lives in the intention of things / To have a meaning". Lesser poets might be reduced to silence, or tear language to shreds, but Ferry's provisional songs instruct, console, distract, remain to be admired. His collection, Bewilderment: New Poems and Translations, won the 2012 National Book Award: a fitting tribute to this 89-year-old outstanding poet, still singing "like the birds that gather in Virgil's lines / In the park at evening, sitting among the branches" ('The Birds').

In 2017 his translation of Virgil's Aeneid, published at the age of 93, was reviewed at length by the academic and poet April Bernard in the New York Review of Books. She considered that, "he has some sort of uncanny connection to the great poet [i.e. Virgil ]", and suggested his translation was superior to those of John Dryden, Robert Fitzgerald and  Robert Fagles, because of its combination of vivid precision, metrical force, and cumulative effect. Writing in the TLS, classicist Richard Jenkyns called Ferry's Aeneid "the best modern version...both for its loyalty to the original and for its naturalness in itself."

List of works

 The Limits of Mortality: An Essay on Wordsworth's Major Poems Wesleyan University Press, 1959; Literary Licensing, LLC, 2011,
 On the Way to the Island Wesleyan University Press, 1960,

 Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1992,

 The Eclogues of Virgil Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000,

 The Georgics of Virgil (2005)
 On This Side of the River: Selected Poems, Between the Lines, 2012,

  Virgil, The Aeneid. University of Chicago Press. 2017.

References

Living people
1924 births
American male poets
Amherst College alumni
Harvard University alumni
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Writers from Orange, New Jersey
Wellesley College faculty
Latin–English translators
Formalist poets
Translators of Virgil
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II

David Ferry (poet)


John Lardner (born 10 May 1972 in Glasgow, Scotland) is a former professional snooker player. His best performance came in the 1999 World Snooker Championship, where he reached the last 32. He reached a peak world ranking of 67th in 2000–01.

Early life
Lardner was born in Glasgow in 1973. He left school early to spend time practising snooker, confident that he could become a professional player. In 1988 Lardner won the Star of the Future award at a competition in Prestatyn.

Professional career
Lardner turned professional in 1991. In the 1993–94 season, he reached the final of the Benson & Hedges Championship, losing 6–9 to Ronnie O'Sullivan.

In 1999, at the age of 26, Lardner reached the first round of the World Snooker Championship by defeating Neal Foulds, Quinten Hann and Martin Clark in the qualifying rounds. In his first round match against world number 9 Stephen Lee, Lardner trailed 3–9 before recovering to lose only 7–10. Despite the defeat, he described the Crucible Theatre as "the best place I've ever played snooker".

The following season, Lardner climbed to position 72 in the world rankings, and reached the first round of the UK Championship, losing to David Gray. He also achieved his best ranking tournament finish by reaching the last 16 of the Thailand Masters in March 2000, beating Fergal O'Brien in the last 32 before being defeated by Ken Doherty. However, he was defeated in the qualifying rounds of the World Championship to Icelandic player Kristján Helgason. His world ranking climbed to 67 for the 2000/2001 season.

Tournament Wins

Non-Ranking Wins: (1)
 WPBSA Minor Tour - Event 3 – 1995

References

Scottish snooker players
Living people
1973 births
Snooker players from Glasgow

John Lardner


A monochrome monitor is a type of computer monitor in which computer text and images are displayed in varying tones of only one color, as opposed to a color monitor that can display text and images in multiple colors. They were very common in the early days of computing, from the 1960s through the 1980s, before color monitors became widely commercially available. They are still widely used in applications such as computerized cash register systems, owing to the age of many registers. Green screen was the common name for a monochrome monitor using a green "P1" phosphor screen; the term is often misused to refer to any block mode display terminal, regardless of color, e.g., IBM 3279, 3290.

Abundant in the early-to-mid-1980s, they succeeded Teletype terminals and preceded color CRTs and later LCDs as the predominant visual output device for computers.

CRT Design

The most common technology for monochrome monitors was the CRT, although, e.g., plasma displays, were also used.
Unlike color monitors, which display text and graphics in multiple colors through the use of alternating-intensity red, green, and blue phosphors, monochrome monitors have only one color of phosphor (mono means "one", and chrome means "color"). All text and graphics are displayed in that color. Some monitors have the ability to vary the brightness of individual pixels, thereby creating the illusion of depth and color, exactly like a black-and-white television.

Typically, only a limited set of brightness levels was provided to save display memory which was very expensive in the '70s and '80s. Either normal/bright or normal/dim (1 bit) per character as in the VT100 or black, dark gray, light gray, white (2bit) per pixel like the NeXT MegaPixel Display.

Monochrome monitors are commonly available in three colors: if the P1 phosphor is used, the screen is green monochrome. If the P3 phosphor is used, the screen is amber monochrome. If the P4 phosphor is used, the screen is white monochrome (known as "page white"); this is the same phosphor as used in early television sets.
An amber screen was claimed to give improved ergonomics, specifically by reducing eye strain; this claim appears to have little scientific basis.

Usage
Well-known examples of early monochrome monitors are the VT100 from Digital Equipment Corporation, released in 1978, the Apple Monitor III in 1980, and the IBM 5151, which accompanied the IBM PC model 5150 upon its 1981 release.

The 5151 was designed to work with the PC's Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) text-only graphics card, but the third-party Hercules Graphics Card became a popular companion to the 5151 screen because of the Hercules' comparatively high-resolution bitmapped 720×348 pixel monochrome graphics capability, much used for business presentation graphics generated from spreadsheets like Lotus 1-2-3. This was much higher resolution than the alternative IBM Color Graphics Adapter 320×200 pixel, or 640×200 pixel graphic standard. It could also run most programs written for the CGA card's standard graphics modes. Monochrome monitors continued to be used, even after the introduction of higher resolution color IBM Enhanced Graphics Adapter and Video Graphics Array standards in the late 1980s, for dual-monitor applications.

Clarity
Pixel for pixel, monochrome CRT  monitors produce sharper text and images than color CRT monitors. This is because a monochrome monitor is made up of a continuous coating of phosphor and the sharpness can be controlled by focusing the electron beam; whereas on a color monitor, screen space is divided into triads of three phosphor dots (one red, one blue, one green) separated by a mask. The effective resolution of a color monitor is limited by the density of these triads. Furthermore, pixels in the source image will not align precisely to these triads, so moire effects will occur as the image resolution approaches the limit imposed by the size of the phosphor triads. Monochrome monitors were used in almost all dumb terminals and were widely used in text-based applications such as computerized cash registers and point of sale systems because of their superior sharpness and enhanced readability.

Some green screen displays were furnished with a particularly full/intense phosphor coating, making the characters very clear and sharply defined (thus easy to read) but generating an afterglow-effect (sometimes called a "ghost image") when the text scrolled down the screen or when a screenful of information was quickly replaced with another as in word processing page up/down operations. Other green screens avoided the heavy afterglow-effects, but at the cost of much more pixelated character images. The 5151, amongst others, had brightness and contrast controls to allow the user to set their own compromise.

Phosphor limitations

Monochrome monitors are particularly susceptible to screen burn (hence the advent, and name, of the screensaver), because the phosphors used are of very high intensity.

Another effect of the high-intensity phosphors is an effect known as "ghosting", wherein a dim afterglow of the screen's contents is briefly visible after the screen has been blanked.

This ghosting effect is deliberate on some monitors, known as "long persistence" monitors. These use the relatively long decay period of the phosphor glow to reduce flickering and eye strain.

In popular culture

The colour scheme, grid layout of characters, and ghosting effects of the now-obsolete monochrome CRT screens have become an eye-catching visual shorthand for computer-generated text, frequently in "futuristic" settings.  The opening titles of the first Ghost in the Shell film and the digital rain effect of the Matrix trilogy science fiction films prominently feature computer displays with ghosting green text.

A similar grid of amber text is used in the science fiction TV show Travelers.

See also
 IBM 3270
 IBM 5250
 IBM 5151
 Apple Monitor III

References

Display devices
Legacy hardware
Obsolete technologies
User interfaces

Monochrome monitor


Balmaceda Park is an urban park along the Mapocho River in Providencia, Santiago de Chile. It was originally created under the name of Parque Japonés (Japanese Park) in 1930. When Chile joined the Allies during the World War II, its name was changed to Parque Gran Bretaña (Great Britain Park). Afterwards, the name was changed to its current name.

The park is adjacent to Plaza Baquedano. Toward the west, the park continues into Santiago as Parque Forestal. On the opposite bank of the river is the Barrio Bellavista.

References

Urban public parks
Parks in Santiago, Chile

Balmaceda Park


James Power (1788 or 1789 – August 15, 1852) was an Irish-born Texan empresario, politician and signer of the Texas Declaration of Independence, known for the land grant he received with partner James Hewetson that included the coastal area between the mouths of the Guadalupe and Nueces Rivers, as well as his founding and service as the first mayor of the Aransas City settlement. He often represented Refugio County during statewide conventions. Was part of the Mexican national era

Early life

Power was born either in 1788 or 1789 at the small rural village of Ballygarrett in County Wexford, Ireland. In 1809, he relocated to New Orleans, where he labored as a merchant for the next twelve years. During his time in New Orleans, Power met with Stephen F. Austin, who notified him of the land grant (empresario) offerings from the Mexican government. Hoping to cash in on the opportunity, he moved to Saltillo via Matamoros in 1821, and became a citizen of Mexico. During his stay in Saltillo, he was employed in the mining equipment industry and entered into a partnership with merchant and fellow Irishman James Hewetson.

Empresario

After forming the partnership, Power and Hewetson applied for an empresario with the Mexican government in 1825 to begin a colony on the Texas coast with Mexican and Irish families. The original 1826 application requested for a grant between the Nueces and Sabine Rivers, but in 1828, the Mexican government instead offered the strip of land between the Guadalupe and Lavaca Rivers. The next year, Power and Hewetson requested more land and their holdings were extended west to the Nueces River, which included Nuestra Señora del Refugio Mission. Ownership disputes with other empresarios forced Power and Hewetson to cede some land east of the Guadalupe River and the new eastern boundary was drawn at Coleto Creek.

In 1833, Power returned to Ireland and searched for potential settlers of his colony. He convinced 350 individuals to travel with him to Texas to begin a settlement with promises of large plots of land. The immigrants traveled in two group with the first scheduled to land in New Orleans in April and the next scheduled for May. After the first group arrived in New Orleans, many of the settlers were struck with cholera and died. An additional lot were infected with cholera during the voyage from New Orleans to Texas, and died at the landing in Copano. These who survived either remained in Copano or traveled to the Refugio Mission, where they formed a settlement with Mexican colonists. In 1834, he sailed with his nephew Thomas O'Connor, from Ireland to Texas and was able to have the newly formed independent Republic of Mexico granted them access to the country's unpopulated northern lands. On September 28, 1834, the Mexican government granted O'Connor 4,428 acres as a "settler in the Power and Hewetson colony". In 1835, Hewetson sold his share of the empresario to Power and returned to Mexico. The land claims were eventually deemed invalid by the new Republic of Texas and designated as property of the state.

Texas Independence
Power became involved in the struggle for Texas Independence around 1835, and was a part of the Lipantitlán expedition that led to the Battle of Lipantitlán. He also was present at the Convention of 1836 and signed the Texas Declaration of Independence as a representative of Refugio County. During the convention, he convinced his fellow members to seat Sam Houston as president, and helped draft the Constitution of the Republic of Texas. Afterwards, he was sent to New Orleans to retrieve supplies for the Texas army, and assisted the ultimate victory.

Later endeavors
In 1837, Power partnered with former Texas Governor Henry Smith to establish the settlement of Aransas City near Power's home on Live Oak Peninsula, just north of present-day Fulton. He established a post office, wharf and customhouse at the site, which grew into a valued port and settlement of about 500 people.  Power served as the town's first mayor following incorporation in 1839. However, the town declined after Lamar was established nearby, and President Mirabeau B. Lamar, a political opponent of Sam Houston, whom Power supported, decided to strip Aransas City of its customhouse and present it to Lamar.

Power served on the Second Congress for Refugio County during the 1845 Convention that decided to approve the United States' annexation of Texas.

Personal life and death
In 1832, Power married Dolores de la Portilla, the daughter of Spanish colonizer Felipe Roque de la Portilla, and had two children. He later married his wife's sister following her death, and had five additional children.

Power died on August 15, 1852, and was buried near his house, but was later reinterred at Mount Calvary Cemetery in Refugio. The site of his house, the first lot plotted in incorporated Refugio, was designated as a historical landmark in 1936. This house, known as the Ballygarrett House, is currently owned by Dagoberto and Barbara Gonzalez.

References

1780s births
1852 deaths
People of the Texas Revolution
Politicians from County Wexford
Irish emigrants to the United States
Irish-American history and culture in Texas
People from Aransas County, Texas
Mayors of places in Texas
People from Refugio, Texas
Signers of the Texas Declaration of Independence

James Power (empresario)


Elizabeth Eckford (born October 4, 1941) was a member of the Little Rock Nine. This was a group of African-American students who became the first black students ever to attend classes at Little Rock Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. They were able to attend the school after a court case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. The court ordered that schools had to integrate black and white students. Elizabeth's attempt to go to school was photographed on the morning of September 4, 1957. She was prevented from entering the school by the Arkansas National Guard. A dramatic snapshot by Johnny Jenkins (UPI) showed the young girl being followed and threatened by an angry white mob; this and other photos of the day's startling events were circulated around the US and the world by the print press.

The most famous photo of the event was taken by Will Counts of the Arkansas Democrat. His photo was the unanimous selection for a 1958 Pulitzer Prize, but since the story had earned the Arkansas Gazette two other Pulitzer Prizes already, the Prize was awarded to another photographer for a pleasant photograph of a two-year-old boy in Washington, D.C. A different photo taken by Counts of Alex Wilson, a black reporter for the Memphis Tri-State Defender being beaten by the angry mob in Little Rock the same day, was chosen as the "News Picture of the Year" for 1957 by the National Press Photographers Association. This image by Counts prompted President Dwight D. Eisenhower to send federal troops to Little Rock.

1941 births
Living people
People from Little Rock, Arkansas

Elizabeth Eckford


The All-National Congress of the Chechen People (NCChP) of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria came to power on 1 November 1991 under president Dzhokhar Dudayev, a former commander of the Soviet air force base in Tartu, Estonia. Since its formation, the organization advocated sovereignty for Chechnya as a separate republic within the Soviet Union. During the period of Soviet breakup, it switched this to explicit support for the separation of "Ichkeria" from Russia.

On 7 September 1991, the NCChP National Guard seized government buildings and the radio and television center. They stormed a session of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR Supreme Soviet, which caused the death of the Soviet Communist Party chief for Grozny, Vitali Kutsenko, who was either thrown out of a window or fell trying to escape, and effectively dissolved the government of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR. Between 1991 and 2000 Chechnya was de facto an independent state.

See also
Politics of Chechnya

References

1991 establishments in Russia
1991 establishments in the Soviet Union
Chechen nationalism
Chechen Republic of Ichkeria
Political organizations based in the Soviet Union
National liberation movements
Organizations established in 1991
Political organizations based in Russia
Politics of Chechnya
Secessionist organizations in Europe
Indigenous rights organizations in Europe


The School of Salamanca () is an intellectual movement of 16th-century Iberian Scholastic theologians rooted in the intellectual and pedagogical work of Francisco de Vitoria. From the beginning of the 16th century the traditional Catholic conception of man and of his relation to God and to the world had been assaulted by the rise of humanism, by the Protestant Reformation and by the new geographical discoveries and their consequences. These new problems were addressed by the School of Salamanca. The name is derived from the University of Salamanca, where de Vitoria and other members of the school were based.

Scope of the term
Most properly, the term applies merely to the intellectual movement of the early 16th century at the university of Salamanca led by Francisco de Vitoria. More broadly, it comprises the bulk of Iberian Renaissance-Scholastic philosophy. In its broadest application, the notion is sometimes applied to the entirety of Second scholasticism, of which Vitoria's career and legacy are but an early, albeit formative part. This, however, is highly misleading, as there are important strands of Second scholasticism, such as the Baroque Scotism, of which connexion to the Salamancan legacy is rather tenuous.

The term most often connotes developments specifically in the fields of philosophy of law and economics associated with Vitoria's legacy; for Scholastic philosophy and theology of the 16th century in general the term "Renaissance Scholasticism" is now preferred by scholars.

History and leading figures
The intellectual movement started with Francisco de Vitoria (1483–1546) and Domingo de Soto (1494–1560), both Dominican Thomists. The Thomist line was continued by the Carmelites Complutenses and Salmanticenses.
In the latter part of the 16th century, the newly founded Jesuits rose to intellectual prominence, with authors such as the Conimbricenses, Pedro da Fonseca (1528–1599), Luis de Molina (1535–1600), Gabriel Vásquez (†1604), and Francisco Suárez (1548–1617). With Suárez, however, the intellectual movement had already vastly surpassed its roots and Suárez's legacy defines the transition from Renaissance to Baroque scholasticism of the 17th and 18th centuries, for which the term "School of Salamanca" is no longer appropriate.

Philosophy of law
Many leading figures of the school, such as Francisco de Vitoria, Domingo de Soto, Martín de Azpilcueta (or Azpilicueta), Tomás de Mercado, or Francisco Suárez, were not just philosohers and theologians but also jurists and scholars of natural law and of morality. They undertook the adaptation of the teachings of Thomas Aquinas to the then new political-economic order.

The juridical doctrine of the School of Salamanca represented a profound transformation of medieval concepts of law, with a revindication of liberty not habitual in Europe of that time. The natural rights of man came to be, in one form or another, the center of attention, including rights as a corporeal being (right to life, economic rights such as the right to own property) and spiritual rights (the right to freedom of thought and to human dignity).

The School of Salamanca reformulated the concept of natural law: law originating in nature itself, with all that exists in the natural order sharing in this law. Their conclusion was, given that all humans share the same nature, they also share the same rights to life and liberty. Such views constituted a novelty in European thought and went counter to those then predominant in Spain and Europe that people indigenous to the Americas had no such rights.

Sovereignty

The School of Salamanca distinguished two realms of power, the natural or civil realm and the realm of the supernatural, which were often conflated in the Middle Ages through granting royal control of investiture of bishops, or the temporal powers of the pope. One direct consequence of the separation of realms of power is that the king or emperor does not legitimately have jurisdiction over souls, nor does the pope have legitimate temporal power. This included the idea that there are limits on the legitimate powers of government. Thus, according to Luis de Molina a nation is analogous to the mercantile corporations of his time, in that those who govern are holders of power (effectively sovereigns) but a collective power, to which they are subject, derives from them jointly. Nonetheless, in de Molina's view, the power of society over the individual is greater than that of a mercantile corporation over its members, because the power of the government of a nation emanates from God's divine power (as against merely from the power of individuals sovereign over themselves in their business dealings).

At this time, the monarchy of England was extending the theory of the divine right of kings—under which the monarch is the unique legatee of God's power—asserting that subjects must follow the monarch's orders, in order not to contravene God's design. Counter to this, several adherents of the School sustained that the people are the vehicle of divine sovereignty, which they, in turn, pass to a prince under various conditions. In this, the late scholastics were instrumental in the development of early modern theories of political representation. Possibly the one who went furthest in this direction was Francisco Suárez, whose work Defensio Fidei Catholicae adversus Anglicanae sectae errores (The Defense of the Catholic Faith against the errors of the Anglican sect 1613) was the strongest contemporary defense of popular sovereignty. Men are born free by their nature and not as slaves of another man, and can disobey even to the point of deposing an unjust government. As with de Molina, he affirms that political power does not reside in any individual, but he differs subtly in that he considers that the recipient of that power is the people as a whole, not a collection of sovereign individuals—in the same way, Jean-Jacques Rousseau's theory of popular sovereignty would consider the people as a collective group superior to the sum that composes it.

Gabriel Vásquez (1549–1604) held that natural law is not limited to the individual, but obliges societies to respect natural rights and justice.

For Suárez, the political power of society is contractual in origin because the community forms by consensus of free wills. The consequence of this contractualist theory is that the natural form of government is either a democracy or a republic, while oligarchy or monarchy arise as secondary institutions, whose claim to justice is based on consent of the governed organized in a political body.

The law of peoples and international law

Francisco de Vitoria played an important role in the early modern comprehension of ius gentium (the rights of nations). He extrapolated his ideas of legitimate sovereign power to relations between nations, concluding that international society as well ought to be ruled by just forms respecting the rights of all. The common good of the world is of a category superior to the good of each state. This meant that relations between states ought to pass from being justified by force to being justified by law and right. Vitoria has been referred to, along with Grotius, as the "father of international law."

Francisco Suárez subdivided the concept of ius gentium. Working with already well-formed categories, he carefully distinguished  ius inter gentes from ius intra gentes. Ius inter gentes (which corresponds to modern international law) was a just agreement among the majority of countries, although being positive law, not natural law, it was not necessarily universal. On the other hand, ius intra gentes, or civil law, is specific to each nation.

Many scholars have argued for the importance of Vitoria and Suárez as the forerunners and founders of the International law field, and the precursors of the seminal text De iure belli ac pacis by Grotius. Others, such as Koskenniemi, have argued that none of these humanist and scholastic thinkers can be understood to have founded international law in the modern sense, instead placing its origins in the post-1870 period.

Just war

Given that war is one of the worst evils suffered by mankind, the adherents of the School reasoned that it ought to be resorted to only when it was necessary  to prevent an even greater evil. A diplomatic agreement is preferable, even for the more powerful party, before a war is started.  Examples of "just war" are:
 In self-defense, as long as there is a reasonable possibility of success. If failure is a foregone conclusion, then it is just a wasteful spilling of blood.
 Preventive war against a tyrant who is about to attack.
 War to punish a guilty enemy.

A war is not legitimate or illegitimate simply based on its original motivation: it must comply with a series of additional requirements:
 It is necessary that the response be commensurate with the evil; use of more violence than is strictly necessary would constitute an unjust war.
 Governing authorities declare war, but their decision is not sufficient cause to begin a war. If the people oppose a war, then it is illegitimate. The people have a right to depose a government that is waging, or is about to wage, an unjust war.
 Once war has begun, there remain moral limits to action. For example, one may not attack innocents or kill hostages.
 War is only legitimate as a last resort, after vigorous attempts at negotiation and diplomacy have failed.

Under this doctrine, expansionist wars, wars of pillage, wars to convert infidels or pagans, and wars for glory are all inherently unjust.

The conquest of America

In the 16th century, the School of Salamanca was the first to use the natural law's principle that rights reside in the individual to question the Spanish colonization on the indigenous people of the Americas.

Francisco de Vitoria began his analysis of conquest by rejecting "illegitimate titles," or illegitimate reasons for conquest. He was the first to dare to question whether the bulls of Alexander VI known collectively as the Bulls of Donation were a valid title of dominion over the newly discovered territories. In this matter he did not accept the universal primacy of the emperor, the authority of the pope (because the pope, according to him, lacked temporal power), nor the claim of voluntary submission or conversion of the Native Americans. One could not dismiss them as sinners or ignorant savages: they were free people by nature, with legitimate property rights. When the Spanish arrived in America they brought no legitimate title to occupy and rule those lands.

Vitoria also analyzed whether there were legitimate claims of title over discovered lands. He elaborated up to eight legitimate titles of dominion. The first and perhaps most fundamental relates to communication between people, who jointly constitute a universal society. Ius peregrinandi et degendi is the universal right to travel and do commerce in all parts of the earth, independently of who governs or what is the religion of the territory. For him, if the "Indians" of the Americas would not permit free transit, the hindered parties had the right to defend themselves and to remain in land obtained in such a war of self-defense.

The second form of legitimate title over discovered lands referred to the right of the Spanish to preach and proselytize. The Indians could voluntarily refuse conversion, but forbidding missionaries would make the matter analogous to the first case. Nonetheless, Vitoria noted that although this can be grounds for a just war, it is not necessarily prudent because of the resulting death and destruction.

The other cases of this casuistry are:
 If the pagan sovereigns force converts to return to idolatry.
 If there come to be a sufficient number of Christians in the newly discovered land that they wish to receive from the Pope a Christian government.
 In the case of overthrowing a tyranny or a government that is harming innocents (e.g. human sacrifice)
 If associates and friends have been attacked—as were the Tlaxcaltecas, allied with the Spanish but subjected, like many other people, to the Aztecs—once again, this could justify a war, with the ensuing possibility of legitimate conquest as in the first case.
 The final "legitimate title" although qualified by Vitoria himself as doubtful, is the alleged mental incapacity of the foreign population resulting in lack of just laws, magistrates, agricultural techniques, etc. In any case, title taken according to this principle must be exercised with Christian charity and only for the advantage of the Indians.

Emperor Charles V, then ruler of Spain, took offense to this doctrine of "legitimate" and "illegitimate" titles purporting to limit his prerogatives, and he tried without success to stop its promulgation.

Economics

The School of Salamanca has been described as the "first economic tradition" in the field of economics. This put the origins of economic theory on Europe's mainland, prompting a reassessment of the entire history of the discipline. Much attention has been drawn to the economic thought of the School of Salamanca by Joseph Schumpeter's History of Economic Analysis (1954). It did not coin, but certainly consolidated, the use of the term School of Salamanca in economics. Schumpeter studied scholastic doctrine in general and Spanish scholastic doctrine in particular, and praised the high level of economic science in Spain in the 16th century. He argued that the School of Salamanca most deserves to be considered the founders of economics as a science. The School did not elaborate a complete doctrine of economics, but they established the first modern economic theories to address the new economic problems that had arisen with the end of the medieval order. Unfortunately, there was no continuation of their work until the end of the 17th century and many of their contributions were forgotten, only to be rediscovered later by others.

The thinking of the School was defined as "pro-market, pro-hard money, anti-state in many ways, pro-property, and pro-merchant to a surprising extent."

The English historian of economic thought Marjorie Grice-Hutchinson and Belgian legal historian Wim Decock have published numerous articles and monographs on the School of Salamanca.

Although there does not appear to be any direct influence, the economic thought of the School of Salamanca is in many ways similar to that of the Austrian School. Murray Rothbard referred to them as proto-Austrians.

Antecedents

In 1517, de Vitoria, then at the Sorbonne, was consulted by Spanish merchants based in Antwerp about the moral legitimacy of engaging in commerce to increase one's personal wealth. From today's point of view, one would say they were asking for a consultation about the entrepreneurial spirit. Beginning at that time, Vitoria and other theologians looked at economic matters. They moved away from views that they found to be obsolete, adopting instead new ideas based on principles of natural law.

According to these views, the natural order is based in the "freedom of circulation" of people, goods, and ideas, allowing people to know one another and increase their sentiments of brotherhood. This implies that merchantry is not merely not reprehensible, but that it actually serves the general good.

Private property
The adherents of the School of Salamanca all agreed that property has the beneficial effect of stimulating economic activity, which, in turn, contributed to the general well being. Diego de Covarrubias y Leyva (1512–1577) considered that people had not only the right to own property but—again, a specifically modern idea—they had the exclusive right to the benefit from that property, although the community might also benefit. Nonetheless, in times of great necessity, there, all goods become a commons.

Luis de Molina argued that individual owners take better care of their goods than is taken of common property, a form of the tragedy of the commons.

Money, value, and price

The most complete and methodical developments of a Salamancan theory of value were by Martín de Azpilcueta (1493–1586) and Luis de Molina. Interested in the effect of precious metals arriving from the Americas, de Azpilcueta proved that in the countries where precious metals were scarce, prices for them were higher than in those where they were abundant. Precious metals, like any other mercantile good, gained at least some of their value from their scarcity. This scarcity theory of value was a precursor of the quantitative theory of money put forward slightly later by Jean Bodin (1530–1596).

Up until that time, the predominant theory of value had been the medieval theory based on the cost of production as the sole determinant of a just price (a variant of the cost-of-production theory of value, most recently manifested in the labor theory of value). Diego de Covarrubias and Luis de Molina developed a subjective theory of value and prices, which asserted that the usefulness of a good varied from person to person, so just prices would arise from mutual decisions in free commerce, barring the distorting effects of monopoly, fraud, or government intervention. Expressing this in today's terms, the adherents of the School defended the free market, where the fair price of a good would be determined by supply and demand.

On this Luis Saravia de la Calle wrote in 1544:

Those who measure the just price by the labour, costs, and risk incurred by the person who deals in the merchandise or produces it, or by the cost of transport or the expense of traveling...or by what he has to pay the factors for their industry, risk, and labour, are greatly in error.... For the just price arises from the abundance or scarcity of goods, merchants, and money...and not from costs, labour, and risk.... Why should a bale of linen brought overland from Brittany at great expense be worth more than one which is transported cheaply by sea?... Why should a book written out by hand be worth more than one which is printed, when the latter is better though it costs less to produce?... The just price is found not by counting the cost but by the common estimation.

However the school rarely followed this idea through systematically, and, as Friedrich Hayek has written, "never to the point of realizing that what was relevant was not merely man's relation to a particular thing or a class of things but the position of the thing in the whole...scheme by which men decide how to allocate the resources at their disposal among their different endeavors."

Interest on money
Usury (which in that period meant any charging of interest on a loan) has always been viewed negatively by the Catholic Church. The Third Lateran Council condemned any repayment of a debt with more money than was originally loaned; the Council of Vienne explicitly prohibited usury and declared any legislation tolerant of usury to be heretical; the first scholastics reproved the charging of interest. In the medieval economy, loans were entirely a consequence of necessity (bad harvests, fire in a workplace) and, under those conditions, it was considered morally reproachable to charge interest.

In the Renaissance era, greater mobility of people facilitated an increase in commerce and the appearance of appropriate conditions for entrepreneurs to start new, lucrative businesses. Given that borrowed money was no longer strictly for consumption but for production as well, it could not be viewed in the same manner. The School of Salamanca elaborated various reasons that justified the charging of interest. The person who received a loan benefited; one could consider interest as a premium paid for the risk taken by the loaning party. There was also the question of opportunity cost, in that the loaning party lost other possibilities of utilizing the loaned money. Finally, and perhaps most originally, was the consideration of money itself as a merchandise, and the use of one's money as something for which one should receive a benefit in the form of interest.

Martín de Azpilcueta also considered the effect of time, formulating the time value of money. All things being equal, one would prefer to receive a given good now rather than in the future. This preference indicates greater value. Interest, under this theory, is the payment for the time the loaning individual is deprived of the money.

Theology

Under Francisco de Vitoria, the University of Salamanca led a period of intense activity in theology, especially a renaissance of Thomism, whose influence extended to European culture in general, but especially to other European universities. Perhaps the fundamental contribution of the School of Salamanca to theology is the study of problems much closer to humanity, which had previously been ignored, and the opening of questions that had previously not been posed. The term positive theology is sometimes used to distinguish this new, more practical, theology from the earlier scholastic theology.

Morality
In an era when religion permeated everything, to analyze the morality of the acts was considered the most practical and useful study one could undertake to serve society. The novel contributions of the School in law and economics were rooted in concrete challenges and moral problems which confronted society under new conditions.

Over the years a casuistry, a fixed set of answers to moral dilemmas, had been developed. However, by its nature, a casuistry can never be complete, leading to a search for more general rules or principles. From this developed probabilism, where the ultimate criterion was not truth, but the certainty of not choosing evil. Developed principally by Bartolomé de Medina and continued by Gabriel Vázquez and Francisco Suárez, Probabilism became the most important school of moral thought in the coming centuries.

The De auxiliis controversy

The De auxiliis controversy was a dispute between Jesuits and Dominicans which occurred at the end of the 16th century. The topic of the controversy was grace and predestination, that is to say how one could reconcile the liberty or free will of humans with divine omniscience. In 1582 the Jesuit Prudencio Montemayor and Fray Luis de León spoke publicly about human liberty. Domingo Báñez considered that they gave free will too great a weight and that they used terminology that sounded heretical; he denounced them to the Spanish Inquisition, accusing them of Pelagianism, a belief in human free will to the detriment of the doctrine of original sin and the grace granted by God. Montemayor and de León were banned from teaching and prohibited from defending such ideas.

Báñez was then denounced to the Holy Office by Leon, who accused him of "committing the error of Lutheranism", that is of following the doctrines of Martin Luther. According to Lutheran doctrine, man is "dead in his trespasses" (Ephesians 2:1) as a consequence of original sin and cannot save himself by his own merit; only God can save man, "For by grace you have been saved through faith. And this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God, not a result of works, so that no one may boast." (Ephesians 2:8–9) Báñez was acquitted.

Nonetheless, this did not end the dispute, which Luis de Molina continued with his Concordia liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis (1588). This is considered the best expression of the Jesuit position. The polemic continued over the course of years, including an attempt by the Dominicans to get Pope Clement VIII to condemn the Concordia of de Molina. Finally Paul V in 1607 recognized the liberty of Dominicans and Jesuits to defend their ideas, prohibiting that either side of this disagreement be characterized as heresy.

The existence of evil in the world
The existence of evil in a world created and ruled by an infinitely good and powerful God has long been viewed as paradoxical. (See Problem of evil). Vitoria reconciled the paradox by arguing first that free will is a gift from God to each person. It is impossible that each person will always freely choose only the good. Thus, evil results from man's ability not to choose good, by virtue of his free will.

Members
There is discussion about which authors can be assigned to the name of the School of Salamanca, or if one can speak of a School of Salamanca in the first place, but the consensus revolves around the name of Francisco de Vitoria, considered a central figure of the movement . From him, authors refer to three stages, counting in the first the pupils of Vitoria and their pupils, in the second Salamanca contemporaries who had no direct relationship with him and in the third external figures influenced by this current of thought.

First group
 Arias Piñel (1512-1563)
 Antonio de Padilla y Meneses (-1580)
 Bartolomé de Albornoz (1519-1573)
 Bartolomé de Medina (1527-1581)
 Diego de Chaves (1507-1592)
 Diego de Covarrubias (1512-1577)
 Diego Pérez de Mesa (1563-1632)
 Domingo Báñez (1528-1604)
 Domingo de Soto (1494-1560)
 Fernán Pérez de Oliva (1494-1531)
 Francisco de Vitoria (1492-1546)
 Francisco Sarmiento de Mendoza (1525-1595)
 Francisco Suárez (1548-1617)
 Gregorio de Valencia (1549-1603)
 Jerónimo Muñoz (1520-1591)
 Juan de Horozco y Covarrubias (1540-1610)
 Juan de la Peña (1513-1565)
 Juan de Matienzo (1520-1579)
 Juan de Ribera (1532-1611)
 Juan Gil de la Nava (-1551)
 Leonardus Lessius (1554-1623)
 Luis de León (1527-1591)
 Martín de Azpilcueta (1492-1586)
 Martín de Ledesma (1509-1574)
 Melchor Cano (1509-1560)
 Pedro de Sotomayor (1511-1564)
 Tomás de Mercado (1523-1575)

Second group
 Alonso de la Vera Cruz (1507-1584)
 Cristóbal de Villalón (-1588)
 Fernando Vázquez de Menchaca (1512-1569)
 Francisco Cervantes de Salazar (-1575)
 Juan de Lugo y Quiroga (1583-1660)
 Juan de Salas (1553-1612)
 Luis de Molina (1535-1600)
 Pedro de Aragón (1545-1546)
 Pedro de Valencia (1555-1620)

Third group
 Antonio de Hervías (-1590)
 Bartolomé de Carranza (1503-1576)
 Bartolomé de las Casas (1484-1566)
 Cristóbal de Fonseca (1550-1621)
 Domingo de Salazar (1512-1594)
 Domingo de Santo Tomás (1499-1570)
 Gabriel Vásquez (1549-1604)
 Gómez Pereira (1500–1567)
 Juan de Mariana (1536-1624)
 Juan de Medina (1489-1545)
 Juan Pérez de Menacho (1565-1626)
 Luis de Alcalá (1490-1549)
 Luis Saravia de la Calle (?)
 Miguel Bartolomé Salón (1539-1621)
 Pedro de Fonseca (1528-1599)
 Pedro de Oñate (1567-1646)
 Rodrigo de Arriaga (1592-1667)

See also

 Conimbricenses
 Second scholasticism
 Casuistry
 Rule According to Higher Law
 Social contract
 Valladolid debate
 Spanish Universalist School of the 18th century

References

Bibliography

 Alves, André Azevedo (2010). The Salamanca School (Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers), edited by John Meadowcroft, Continuum International Publishing.

 Chojnowski, Peter (January 2005) "'Corporation Christendom': The True School of Salamanca". The Angelus XXVIII (1). Kansas City, MO: Angelus Press. . Contends that the alleged economic liberalism is based on a misreading of scholastic texts.
 Grice-Hutchinson, Marjorie (1952). The School of Salamanca: Readings in Spanish Monetary Theory, 1544–1605
 Grice-Hutchinson, Marjorie (1978). Early Economic Thought in Spain, 1177–1740.
 Grice-Hutchinson, Marjorie (1993). Economic thought in Spain. Selected Essays of Marjorie Grice-Hutchinson, edited with an introduction by Laurence Moss and Christopher K. Ryan.
 Liggio, Leonard P. (Jan & Feb 2000) "The Heritage of the Spanish Scholastics". Religion & Liberty. 10 (1). Grand Rapids, MI: Acton Institute.

 Rothbard, Murray, New Light on the Prehistory of the Austrian School Essay originally published in The Foundations of Modern Austrian Economics, edited by Edwin Dolan (Kansas City: Sheed and Ward, 1976), pp. 52–74.
 Schumpeter, Joseph (1954). History of Economic Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press.
 : Puts into context of truce negotiations 1608–1809. Ittersum (p. 18) notes  Grotius' citing of School of Salamanca figures, as well as the Ancient Greek, Roman and early Church Fathers (p. 12).

External links
 The School of Salamanca A Digital Collection of Sources and a Dictionary of its Juridical-Political Language.

 The School of Salamanca on the History of Economic Thought website.

Ethical schools and movements
Economic history of Spain
History of Catholicism in Spain
Scholasticism
Preclassical economics
Legal history of Spain
Thomas Aquinas
Popular sovereignty
University of Salamanca

School of Salamanca


In mass spectrometry, fragmentation is the dissociation of energetically unstable molecular ions formed from passing the molecules  mass spectrum. These reactions are well documented over the decades and fragmentation patterns are useful to determine the molar weight and structural information of unknown molecules. Fragmentation that occurs in tandem mass spectrometry experiments has been a recent focus of research, because this data helps facilitate the identification of molecules.

Mass spectrometry techniques
Fragmentation can occur in the ion source (in-source fragmentation) where it has been used with electron ionization to help identify molecules and, recently (2020), with electrospray ionization it has been shown to provide the same benefit in facilitating molecular identification. Prior to these experiments, electrospray ionization in-source fragmentation was generally considered an undesired effect however, electrospray ionization using Enhanced In-Source Fragmentation/Annotation (EISA) has been shown to promote in-source fragmentation that creates fragment ions that are consistent with tandem mass spectrometers. Tandem mass spectrometry-generated fragmentation is typically made in the collision zone (post-source fragmentation) of a tandem mass spectrometer. EISA and collision-induced dissociation (CID) among other physical events that impact ions are a part of gas-phase ion chemistry. A few different types of mass fragmentation are
collision-induced dissociation (CID) through collision with neutral molecule,
surface-induced dissociation (SID) using fast moving ions collision with a solid surface,
laser induced dissociation which uses laser to induce the ion formation,
electron-capture dissociation (ECD) due to capturing of low energy electrons,
electron-transfer dissociation (ETD) through electron transfer between ions,
negative electron-transfer dissociation (NETD),
electron-detachment dissociation (EDD),
photodissociation, particularly infrared multiphoton dissociation (IRMPD) using IR radiation for the bombardment and blackbody infrared radiative dissociation (BIRD) which use IR radiation instead of laser,
higher-energy C-trap dissociation (HCD), EISA, and
charge remote fragmentation.

Fragmentation reactions
Fragmentation is a type of chemical dissociation, in which the removal of the electron from the molecule results in ionization. Removal of electrons from either sigma bond, pi bond or nonbonding orbitals causes the ionization. This can take place by a process of homolytic cleavage or homolysis or heterolytic cleavage or heterolysis of the bond. Relative bond energy and the ability to undergo favorable cyclic transition states affect the fragmentation process. Rules for the basic fragmentation processes are given by Stevenson's Rule.

Two major categories of bond cleavage patterns are simple bond cleavage reactions and rearrangement reactions.

Simple bond cleavage reactions
Majority of organic compounds undergo simple bond cleavage reactions, in which direct cleavage of bond take place. Sigma bond cleavage, radical site-initiated fragmentation, and charge site-initiated fragmentation are few types of simple bond cleavage reactions.

Sigma bond cleavage / σ-cleavage
Sigma bond cleavage is most commonly observed in molecules, which can produce stable cations such as saturated alkanes, secondary and tertiary carbocations. This occurs when an alpha electron is removed. The C-C bond elongates and weakens causing fragmentation. Fragmentation at this site produces a charged and a radical fragment.

Radical site-initiated fragmentation
Sigma bond cleavage also occurs on radical cations remote from the site of ionization. This is commonly observed in alcohols, ethers, ketones, esters, amines, alkenes, and aromatic compounds with a carbon attached to ring. The cation has a radical on a heteroatom or an unsaturated functional group. The driving force of fragmentation is the strong tendency of the radical ion for electron pairing. Cleavage occurs when the radical and an odd electron from the bonds adjacent to the radical migrate to form a bond between the alpha carbon and either the heteroatom or the unsaturated functional group. The sigma bond breaks; hence this cleavage is also known as homolytic bond cleavage or α-cleavage.

Charge site-initiated cleavage
The driving force of charge site-initiated fragmentation is the inductive effect of the charge site in radical cations. The electrons from the bond adjacent to the charge-bearing atom migrate to that atom, neutralizing the original charge and causing it to move to a different site. This term is also called inductive cleavage and is an example of heterolytic bond cleavage.

Rearrangement reactions
Rearrangement reactions are fragmentation reactions that form new bonds producing an intermediate structure before cleavage. One of the most studied rearrangement reaction is the McLafferty rearrangement / γ-hydrogen rearrangement.  This occurs in the radical cations with unsaturated functional groups, like ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, esters, amides, olefins, phenylalkanes. During this reaction, γ-hydrogen will transfer to the functional group at first and then subsequent α, β-bond cleavage of the intermediate  will take place. Other rearrangement reactions include heterocyclic ring fission (HRF), benzofuran forming fission (BFF), quinone methide (QM) fission or Retro Diels-Alder (RDA).

See also
 Mass chromatogram
 Mass spectral interpretation
 Mass spectrum analysis
 Tandem mass spectrometry

References

External links
 Fragmentation patterns in the mass spectra of organic compounds
 A tutorial in small molecule identification via electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry: The practical art of structural elucidation

Tandem mass spectrometry

Fragmentation (mass spectrometry)


The New Federal Theatre is a theatre company named after the African-American branch of the Federal Theatre Project, which was created in the United States during the Great Depression to provide resources for theatre and other artistic programs. The company has operated out of a few different locations on Henry Street in the Lower East Side of Manhattan. Since 1970 The New Federal Theatre has provided its community with a stage and collection of talented performers to express the voices of numerous African-America playwrights.  New Federal Theatre boasts nationally known playwrights such as Ron Milner (Checkmates), Ed Bullins (The Taking of Miss Janine), and Ntozake Shange (For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide/When the Rainbow is Enuf) as well as actors including Jackée Harry, Morgan Freeman, Denzel Washington, Debbie Allen, Phylicia Rashad, Dick Anthony Williams, Glynn Turman, Taurean Blacque, Samuel L. Jackson, and Laurence Fishburne.

History
Through a Mobilization for Youth theatre program, The New Federal Theatre was founded in 1970 by Woodie King Jr. in the multi-ethnic area of lower east side of Manhattan. The company received its original funding from a small grant by the New York State Council of Arts and by the Henry Street Settlement. While the first season was conducted in the St. Augustine Church basement, construction of the Louis Abrons Arts Center was completed in 1974 through the Henry Street Settlement. The administrative offices of New Federal Theatre moved back to St. Augustine's Church in 1996 while the company continues to work out of the Louis Abrons Art Center where it holds productions and training programs. Today, the New Federal Theatre maintains acting and playwriting workshops for their students at the Dewey Cultural Center located on St. Nicholas Avenue in New York City. The Department of Cultural Affairs recently cut its $15,000 funding to the New Heritage Theatre Group, the New Federal Theatre, and the Negro Ensemble Company, which the companies intend to appeal.

Important individuals
 Woodie King Jr. - Founder - Producer - Director
 Laurie Carlos - Director
 Shauneille Perry - Director
 Pat White - Company Manager
 Paula Moss - Choreographer
 Judy Dearing - Costume Design
 Judy Kadiatou - Costume Design
 Ed Montgomery - Musical Arrangement and Direction
 Richard C. Mills - Set designer
 Bernard Gersten - Producer
 Joseph Papp - Producer

Mission statement
The New Federal Theatre brings the enjoyment of live stage to minorities in the Lower East Side as well as in the greater Metropolitan surroundings. The companies existence has brought numerous up-and-coming actors, designers, directors and playwrights to national attention in their fields.

"New Federal Theatre's mission is to integrate minorities and women into the mainstream of American theatre by training artists for the profession, and by presenting plays by minorities and women to integrated, multicultural audiences-plays which evoke the truth through beautiful and artistic re-creations of ourselves."

Playwrights
The playwrights listed below developed their voices in African-American theatre through the Federal Theatre Company. Notable playwrights are Ntozake Shange, Ronald Milner, and Richard Abrons.
 Richard Abrons - The Brothers Berg (2000), Whose Family Values! (2003), Every Day a Visitor (2001)
 Trazana Beverley - The Spirit Moves (1994)
 Jay Broad - Conflict of Interest (2000)
 Ed Bullins - The Taking of Miss Janine (1975)
 China Clark - Bessie Speaks (1994)
 Clare Coss - Our Place in Time (2000)
 Ruby Dee - My One Good Nerve (1998)
 Donald Thomas Evans - It's Showdown Time (1976)
 Rudolph Fisher - The Conjure Man Dies: A Mystery Tale of Dark Harlem (1932) (2001)
 Jennie Elizabeth Franklin - Black Girl (1971) (1995)
 P.J. Gibson - Long Time Since Yesterday (1985)
 Don Wilson Glen - American Menu (2003)
 Lee Gundersheimer - Incommunicado  (1997)
 Nikos Kazantzakis - Christopher Columbus (1998)
 Oliver Lake - The Matador of 1st and 1st (1995)
 Marcia L. Leslie - The Trial of One Short-Sighted Black Woman Vs. Mammy Louise and Safreeta Mae (1999)
 Robbie McCauley - My Father and the Wars (1986)
 Ronald Milner - Urban Transitions (2002), Defending the Light (2000), Checkmates (1988), (1996)
 Ntozake Shange - For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide/When the Rainbow is Enuf (1976), (1995)
 Howard Simon - James Baldwin (2000)
 Clarice Taylor - Spermegga (2000)
 Samm-Art Williams - The Dance on Widows' Row (2000)

Productions
The list of playwrights above developed their voice with the assistance from the New Federal Theatre, yet not all plays written by these individuals were performed by the company. The productions listed below were performed by the company at a few different locations in New York City.
 Production of Black Girl  by Jennie Elizabeth in 1971
 Production of The Taking of Miss Janie by Ed Bullins in 1975
 Production of For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide/When the Rainbow is Enuf by Ntozake Shange in 1976
 Production of It's Showtime by Donald Thomas Evans in 1976
 Production of Long Time Since Yesterday by P.J. Gibson in 1985
 Production of James Baldwin: Soul On Fire by Howard Simon in 2000

Critical reception
In the New York Times, David Dewitt described a 2000 production of James Baldwin: A Soul on Fire in the Abrons Art Center that the as "...a technically modest production; a silk bedspread and scarf-covered lamp are the most telling set pieces". Despite minimal set production, Dewitt found the biographical play of Baldwin was acted out "...with humor, style and raw emotion, it embraces its chosen territory with enthusiasm."

On February 16, 1997, Lawrence Van Gelder saw a production of Do Lord Remember Me at the Kaye Playhouse between Lexington and Park Avenue. Noting all of the cast as "veterans of previous productions of [the play]", Gelder found of their performance: "Oral history may not be malleable into shapely and convenient drama, but it rings with unshakable truth".

References

External links
 New Federal Theatre records Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, The New York Public Library.
 New Federal Theatre photographs, 1959-2014, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts

African-American theatre companies
Theatres in New York City
Theatre companies in New York City

New Federal Theatre


Annie Lin (born January 14, 1980) is a lawyer in entertainment matters. Lin was also a US-based songwriter and the founder of the Ariadne Record label.

Early life
On January 14, 1980, Lin was born in Taiwan. Lin moved to Southern California by the age of six.

Education
Lin majored in English at Rice University while she balanced a busy national touring schedule (100+ dates/year) with classes. After forming the Ariadne Record label in the year 2000, she released her first studio album in 2001 Kicking Stars. The album was made up of original acoustic pop songs which showed a strong Lisa Loeb influence.

Career
Annie soon expanded Ariadne to a full-service label, booking other bands and launching the Asian-American Songwriters Showcase, an event she created to spotlight Asian American talent. The AASS toured nationwide from 2001 to 2003 and featured such artists as Vienna Teng and Emm Gryner.

East Coast Songs, a collection of music written on the road, was released in 2002 and received positive reviews from the Houston Chronicle, Boston Phoenix, and Village Voice.  In 2003, Annie graduated from Rice and began law school. Truck Was Struck was released on April 16, 2004, becoming Annie's best selling effort thus far.

Annie was also a judge for the 7th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists' careers.

Annie received her J.D. degree from the University of Houston. In November 2006, Billboard magazine reported that Annie had been promoted to director of creative licensing at The Orchard (music label).

Annie has started her own law practice in entertainment matters out of San Francisco.

In April 2016, Lin became the General Counsel at Loudr.

References

External links
Annie Lin's Official Site
Ariadne Records Official Site
Houston Chronicle Feature - January 2005
Houston Press Article - May 2004
Boston Phoenix Review of AASS Tour (Emm Gryner & Annie Lin) - January 2002

ASCAP Playback Magazine Article - Winter 2009
Annie's Law Practice

Rice University alumni
American women pop singers
American women singer-songwriters
American musicians of Chinese descent
American musicians of Taiwanese descent
American women lawyers
Living people
1980 births
University of Houston Law Center alumni
21st-century American women singers
American lawyers
Taiwanese emigrants to the United States
21st-century American singer-songwriters

Annie Lin


Cape Maclear or Chembe is a town in the Mangochi District of Malawi's Southern Region. The town, on the Nankumba Peninsula, is on the southern shore of Lake Malawi and is the busiest resort on Lake Malawi. Cape Maclear is close to the islands of Domwe, Thumbwe and Mumbo Island on Lake Malawi, and is in Lake Malawi National Park.

History
In 1859, the missionary and explorer David Livingstone found the Cape, and named it "Cape Maclear" after his friend, the astronomer Thomas Maclear, who was Her Majesty's Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope. In October 1875, a new mission, "Livingstonia", was set up by a group of members of the Free Church of Scotland. Before the missionaries arrived, the area was controlled by the Muslim Yao people. The graves of some of the missionaries are in Cape Maclear, overlooking the bay. Although Cape Maclear had a good harbour, the poor soil in the area, and the prevalence of the tsetse fly, meant a more suitable base had to be found; the mission moved to Bandawe, near Chintheche, in 1882.

Wildlife

Cape Maclear and its islands, forests and bay were declared a national park in 1980, creating the Lake Malawi National Park, the first freshwater national park in the world. In 1984, the area became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. There are several species of bird at Cape Maclear, including kingfishers, Dickinson's kestrels, and freckled nightjars. There is a museum about the formation of Lake Malawi and its wildlife at Cape Maclear. UNESCO has recommended wildlife preservation at Cape Maclear.

Tourism

Cape Maclear is "a leading tourist destination", and is the busiest resort on Lake Malawi. The area is popular with backpackers. There are bars, restaurants, lodges and guesthouses in the town. Activities available in Cape Maclear include snorkelling, hiking, boat cruises, kayaking, and diving.  In October 2001, the Malawian government invited investors to fund a $6,000,000 construction of a new 150-room, four-star hotel at Cape Maclear. In June 2003, plans were announced to build an ecolodge on Maleri Island, near Cape Maclear. In February 2005, the Malawian government announced plans to increase ecotourism at Cape Maclear with new accommodation and facilities. These plans proved too ambitious for the fragile Malawian economy and tourist industry.

Transport
In February 2006, the Malawian government announced plans to build a new road from Cape Maclear to Monkey Bay. The current road is a bumpy dirt track, and there is no regular public transport at Cape Maclear. Regular bus service extends only from Lilongwe to Monkey Bay where private minibuses can be hired for the trip to Cape Maclear.

Healthcare
There is a medical clinic in Cape Maclear; the Billy Riordan Memorial Clinic was established in 2004, and treats diseases such as dysentery, bilharzia and malaria. There are no diagnostic services or surgery carried out at the clinic. Mags Riordan, who founded the clinic, is the mother of a man who drowned in Lake Malawi, near Cape Maclear in 1999. The clinic is supported by the Billy Malawi Project.

Bilharzia is common at Cape Maclear; the incidence of the disease at Cape Maclear is three times higher than the rest of Lake Malawi.

Sport
Every summer, a multi-day yacht race is held on Lake Malawi. The race starts at Cape Maclear, heads north, and ends at Nkhata Bay.

References

External links

Lake Malawi
Populated places in Southern Region, Malawi

Cape Maclear


Sam Kressen (October 5, 1918 - December 27, 1991) was an American actor known for his portrayal of Benjamin Franklin.

Early years
Kressen was a native of Philadelphia. During his years at that city's Central High School, he took classes in debate, oratory, and public speaking. After graduation, he acted with the Neighborhood Players, which later became the Society Hill Playhouse. He also was a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania.

Career
Kressen began portraying Ben Franklin in 1956, taking on the role for a variety of events. His association with Franklin became more widely known when he played the character in the national company's production of the musical 1776 in 1970 and 1971, and he continued playing that part in the Independence Mall Theatre's production of 1776 in 1976. In 1988, Krassen performed in a production of 1776 for the 600th time as the play continued at Paper Mill Playhouse in Millburn, New Jersey.

Kressen also acted on Broadway, portraying Mr. Korngold in Golden Rainbow (1968), and in touring companies of Funny Girl, Luther, Mame, and The Andersonville Trial. Additionally, he performed in regional theaters, including the Camden County Music Fair and the Storrowton Music Fair.

Off stage, Kressen conducted tours of Philadelphia, designed stationery and other items for theatrical companies and taught actors. Before he became an actor, he sold jewels for a diamond company in Philadelphia.

In 1975, Kressen (in his Franklin persona) was featured on posters and souvenir cards produced by a publishing company in Philadelphia.

References

1918 births
1991 deaths
20th-century American male actors
American male stage actors
Male actors from Philadelphia

Sam Kressen


Little Big Top is 2006 American comedy film written and directed by Ward Roberts and starring Sid Haig, Richard Riehle, Hollis Resnik, Mel England, and Jacob Zachar.  The film tells the story of an aging, unemployed clown who returns to his small hometown, content to spend the rest of his days in a drunken stupor. But his passion for clowning is reawakened by the local amateur circus.

The film went into production in July 2005 and was filmed in Peru, Indiana, which was once the winter headquarters for several famous circuses, including Ringling Brothers, Barnum and Bailey, and Wallace.  Annually during the third weekend of July, the Peru Amateur Circus holds performances for the whole week, ending with a Circus City Festival and Parade. Little Big Top premiered on October 21, 2006 at the 8th Heartland Film Festival held in Indianapolis. It was released on DVD in November 2008 by Morningstar Entertainment.

Reception
Joe Leydon of Variety wrote that the film was "a lightly likable trifle that benefits greatly from the offbeat casting of vet heavy Sid Haig" and even though it "predictably evolves into a seriocomic tale of personal redemption through clowning around", "Haig maintains just enough irascibility to keep things interesting".

References

External links

 Little Big Top on FlyHighFilms.com

2006 films
American comedy films
Films set in Indiana
Films shot in Indiana
Circus films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films

Little Big Top


AS-203 (also known as SA-203 or Apollo 3) was an uncrewed flight of the Saturn IB rocket on July 5, 1966. It carried no command and service module, as its purpose was to verify the design of the S-IVB rocket stage restart capability that would later be used in the Apollo program to boost astronauts from Earth orbit to a trajectory towards the Moon. It achieved its objectives, but the stage was inadvertently destroyed after four orbits.

Objectives
The purpose of the AS-203 flight was to investigate the effects of weightlessness on the liquid hydrogen fuel in the S-IVB-200 second-stage tank. The lunar missions would use a modified version of the S-IVB-200, the S-IVB-500, as the third stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle. This called for the stage to fire briefly to put the spacecraft into a parking Earth orbit, before restarting the engine for flight to the Moon. In order to design this capability, engineers needed to verify that the anti-slosh measures designed to control the hydrogen's location in the tank were adequate, and that the fuel lines and engines could be kept at the proper temperatures to allow engine restart.

In order to keep residual propellants in the tanks on orbit, there would be no command and service module payload as there was on AS-201 and AS-202. This was replaced by an aerodynamic nose cone. Also, the full load of liquid oxygen oxidizer was shorted slightly so that the amount of hydrogen remaining would approximate that of the Saturn V parking orbit.  The tank was equipped with 88 sensors and two TV cameras to record the fuel's behavior.

This was also the first launch of a Saturn IB from Pad 37B.

Preparation
In the spring of 1966, the decision was made to launch AS-203 before AS-202, as the CSM that was to be flown on AS-202 was delayed.  The S-IVB stage arrived at Cape Kennedy on 6 April 1966; the S-IB first stage arrived six days later, and the Instrument Unit came two days after that.

On April 19, technicians began to erect the booster at Pad 37B. Once again, the testing regimen ran into problems that had plagued AS-201, including cracked solder joints in the printed-circuit boards, requiring over 8,000 to be replaced.

In June 1966, three Saturn rockets could be seen set up on various pads across the Cape: at Pad 39A was a full-size mock-up of the Saturn V; AS-202 was at Pad 34; and AS-203 was at 37B.

Flight
The rocket launched on the first attempt on July 5. The S-IVB and Instrument Unit (IU) were inserted into a  circular orbit.

The S-IVB design test objectives were carried out on the first two orbits, and the hydrogen was found to behave mostly as predicted, with sufficient control over its location and of engine temperatures required for restart. The next two orbits were used for extra experiments to obtain information for use in future cryogenic stage designs. These included a free-coast experiment to observe and control the negative acceleration of the fuel caused by the small amount of aerodynamic drag on the vehicle; a rapid fuel tank depressurization test; and a closed fuel tank pressurization test.

The closed fuel tank experiment involved pressurizing the hydrogen tank by closing its vents, while depressurizing the oxygen tank by allowing it to continue venting. It was expected that the pressure difference between the two tanks (measured as high as  would collapse the common bulkhead separating them, as happened in a ground test. The rupture must have occurred during the two-minute loss of signal between the Manned Spacecraft Center and the Trinidad tracking station. The Trinidad radar image indicated the vehicle was in multiple pieces, and telemetry was never re-acquired. NASA concluded that a spark or impact must have ignited the propellants, causing an explosion.

Despite the destruction of the stage, the mission was classified as a success, having achieved all of its primary objectives and validating the design concept of the restartable S-IVB-500 version. In September Douglas Aircraft Company, which built the S-IVB, declared that the design was ready for use on the Saturn V to send men to the Moon.

References

External links

AS-203 Launch Video
NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive
Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations
Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft

Apollo program
Spacecraft launched in 1966
Test spaceflights
Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets

AS-203


Air Marshal Errol John McCormack AO (born 30 August 1941) is a retired senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), who served as Chief of Air Force from May 1998 to June 2001.

Early life
McCormack was born in Bundaberg, Queensland, on 30 August 1941 to Horace McCormack and his wife Ida (née Wooldridge). He was educated at Bundaberg State High School.

Service career
McCormack was commissioned in 1963 and served in Malaysia and Singapore during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, and subsequently took part in the Vietnam War. He served as commanding officer of No. 1 Squadron RAAF in the 1980s. He was made commanding officer of No. 82 Wing RAAF in 1987, Director General Force Development Air at Headquarters, Australian Defence Force in Canberra in 1989 and Air Attaché in Washington D. C. in 1993. In 1995 he became Commander for the Integrated Air Defence System at Butterworth in Malaysia.

He was appointed Deputy Chief of Air Force in 1997 and Chief of Air Force in May 1998 before he retired in 2001. In retirement he became Chairman of Chemring Australia Pty Ltd.

He became an Officer of the Order of Australia in 1998.

Honours and awards

References

|-

|-

1941 births
Military personnel from Queensland
Australian aviators
Australian military personnel of the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
Australian military personnel of the Vietnam War
Living people
Officers of the Order of Australia
People from Bundaberg
Royal Australian Air Force air marshals

Errol McCormack


The Goldschmidt family is a family of German Jewish descent, originally from Frankfurt am Main, known for their success in banking and finance.

With origins tracing back to the 15th century, most members were forced to leave Frankfurt after the 1614 Fettmilch uprising, and did not return until the 18th century.

The family was interwoven particularly with the Rothschild family, the Bischoffsheim family of Mainz, and with the Bartolome Family, one of the richest families of Monaco. The  Bischoffsheim and Goldschmidt families conjointly managed the Bischoffsheim, Goldschmidt & Cie Bank, which was eventually merged into Banque de Crédit et de Dépôt des Pays-Bas in 1863, the forerunner to BNP Paribas.

On 6 September 1903, Maximilian Goldschmidt was elevated to the title of Baron von Goldschmidt-Rothschild in Prussia, by Emperor Wilhelm II. Thus, the family became part of the German nobility.

The English branch of the family Anglicised their name to Goldsmith, starting with Frank Goldsmith (1878–1967). Its most famous 20th century member was the billionaire James Goldsmith. The most famous today is Zac Goldsmith, who was MP for Richmond Park. Zac's sister, Jemima, was married to the Pakistani former cricket player turned politician and the former Prime Minister of Pakistan Imran Khan. Members of this branch of the family were also awarded with the title of Baron in Britain and thus belong to British nobility.

Family tree

'Eden Hayum Goldschmidt (1772–1843), banker
 Benedikt Hayum Goldschmidt (1798–1873), banker, founder of B.H. Goldschmidt Bank, married to Jeannette Kann (1802–1848)
 Leopold Benedict Goldschmidt (1830–1904), banker, married to Regine Bischoffsheim (1834–1905)
 Adolphe Goldschmidt (1838–1918), banker, married to Alice Emma Moses (1844–1922)
  Frank Goldsmith (1878–1967), politician, married to Marcelle Mouiller
 Edward Goldsmith (1928–2009), philosopher, environmentalist
 Clio Goldsmith (1957–) former French actress, married to Mark Shand (1951–2014)
  James Goldsmith (1933–1997), investor, married to María Isabel Patiño y Borbón (–1954), Ginette Lery, and Annabel Vane-Tempest-Stewart
 Jemima Goldsmith (1974–), writer, previously married to Imran Khan, a former cricketer and Prime Minister of Pakistan
 Zac Goldsmith (1975–), politician, married to Alice Miranda Rothschild (1983–), daughter of Amschel Rothschild (1955–1996)
 Ben Goldsmith (1980–), financier, previously married to Kate Emma Rothschild (1982–), daughter of Amschel Rothschild (1955–1996)
 Charlotte Colbert (1987–), film director and multi-media artist
 Maximilian Goldschmidt (1843–1940), married to Minna Karoline Freiin von Rothschild, the daughter of Wilhelm Carl von Rothschild (1828–1901)
 Albert Maximilian von Goldschmidt-Rothschild (1879–1941)
 Rudolph Maximilian von Goldschmidt-Rothschild (1881–1962), married Betty Lambert (1894–1969), daughter of Léon Lambert (1851–1919) and Zoé Lucie Betty de Rothschild and Marie-Anne von Goldschmidt-Rothschild (1892-1973), the daughter of Fritz von Friedlaender.
 Lili Jeannette von Goldschmidt-Rothschild (1883–1925), married Philipp Schey de Koromla (1881–1957)
 Lucy Georgine Leontine von Goldschmidt-Rothschild (1891–1977), married Edgar Spiegl, Edler von Thurnsee
  Erich Max Benedikt von Goldschmidt-Rothschild (1894–1987), married Countess Veronika Henckel von Donnersmarck
Patrick Maximilien Goldschmidt-Rothschild (b. 1928)
 Amalie Goldschmidt (1804–1887), married to Louis-Raphaël Bischoffsheim (1800–1873), banker
  See Bischoffsheim family
  Henriette Goldschmidt (1812–1892), married to Jonathan-Raphaël Bischoffsheim (1808–1883), banker
  See Bischoffsheim family

See also
 Family of Imran Khan

References

Bibliography
The Goldschmidts, Anthony Allfrey, 1996 ()

German bankers
British bankers
Goldsmith family
Jewish families

Goldschmidt family


FreedomFilmFest, also known as The KOMAS Freedom Film Festival (FFF), is the first annual documentary film festival in Malaysia. Established in 2003, it adopts the themes encompassed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), pioneering a documentary film competition method in Malaysia which encourages first-time film makers to turn their winning proposals into films.

FreedomFilmFest (FFF) is organized by KOMAS (Pusat Komuniti Masyarakat), a popular communications human rights center set up in August 1993 to service the organizing needs of grassroots communities and civil society organizations.

FFF was held in Penang for the first time in 2006  and subsequently have been brought to Johor and Kuching, Sarawak.
A retrospective of the winning films were also screened in London in 2009

References

External links
Official Website
The Star: From Ideals to Videos
FreedomFilmFest London

Film festivals in Malaysia
Human rights film festivals

FreedomFilmFest


The Office of Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse at the American Medical Association (AMA) was established by the temperance-oriented Robert Wood Johnson Foundation with an initial grant of $5 million, followed by more substantial funding.

As a national program office of the foundation, it established and is promoting the "A Matter of Degree" program. This is a major campus and community partnership demonstration project at ten colleges and universities across the United States. The goal of the program was to encourage local communities and campus administrations to work together to reduce situations and environments that would encourage high-risk or binge drinking among students.  Preliminary results of its effectiveness have not been positive.

Other projects focus on reducing alcoholic beverage advertising, changing parental behaviors related to alcohol consumption, and alcoholic beverage taxes.

American Medical Association
Addiction organizations in the United States
Alcohol law in the United States
Temperance organizations in the United States

Office of Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse


A virtual private server (VPS) is a virtual machine sold as a service  by an Internet hosting service. The term "virtual dedicated server" (VDS) also has a similar meaning.

A virtual private server runs its own copy of an operating system (OS), and customers may have superuser-level access to that operating system instance, so they can install almost any software that runs on that OS. For many purposes, it is functionally equivalent to a dedicated physical server and, being software-defined, can be created and configured more easily. A virtual server costs less than an equivalent physical server. However, as virtual servers share the underlying physical hardware with other VPSes, performance may be lower depending on the workload of any other executing virtual machines.

Virtualization
The force driving server virtualization is similar to that which led to the development of time-sharing and multiprogramming in the past. Although the resources are still shared, as under the time-sharing model, virtualization provides a higher level of security, dependent on the type of virtualization used, as the individual virtual servers are mostly isolated from each other and may run their own full-fledged operating system which can be independently rebooted as a virtual instance.

Partitioning a single server to appear as multiple servers has been increasingly common on microcomputers since the release of VMware ESX Server in 2001. The physical server typically runs a hypervisor which is tasked with creating, releasing, and managing the resources of "guest" operating systems, or virtual machines. These guest operating systems are allocated a share of resources of the physical server, typically in a manner in which the guest is not aware of any other physical resources except for those allocated to it by the hypervisor. As a VPS runs its own copy of its operating system, customers have superuser-level access to that operating system instance, and can install almost any software that runs on the OS; however, due to the number of virtualization clients typically running on a single machine, a VPS generally has limited processor time, RAM, and disk space.

Hosting
Many companies offer virtual private server hosting or virtual dedicated server hosting as an extension for web hosting services. There are several challenges to consider when licensing proprietary software in multi-tenant virtual environments.

With unmanaged or self-managed hosting, the customer is left to administer their own server instance.

Unmetered hosting is generally offered with no limit on the amount of data transferred on a fixed bandwidth line. Usually, unmetered hosting is offered with 10 Mbit/s, 100 Mbit/s, or 1000 Mbit/s (with some as high as 10 Gbit/s). This means that the customer is theoretically able to use approximately 3 TB on 10 Mbit/s or up to approximately 300 TB on a 1000 Mbit/s line per month; although in practice the values will be significantly less. In a virtual private server, this will be shared bandwidth and a fair usage policy should be involved. Unlimited hosting is also commonly marketed but generally limited by acceptable usage policies and terms of service. Offers of unlimited disk space and bandwidth are always false due to cost, carrier capacities, and technological boundaries.

See also
 Comparison of platform virtualization software
 Cloud computing

References

Servers (computing)

Cloud computing

Virtual private server