Deventer (; Sallands: ) is a city and municipality in the Salland historical region of the province of Overijssel, Netherlands. In 2020, Deventer had a population of 100,913. The city is largely situated on the east bank of the river IJssel, but it also has a small part of its territory on the west bank. In 2005 the municipality of Bathmen (with a population of about 5,000 people) was merged with Deventer as part of a national effort to reduce bureaucracy in the country
.

Deventer is one of the oldest cities in the Netherlands. The place is mentioned in 9th-century sources from the Diocese of Utrecht. A charter from 877 AD mentions seven farmsteads in Daventre portu (the Deventer harbor). In 952 AD, Deventer is mentioned as a city in a gift certificate from King Otto I. After the place had acquired more and more rights and privileges over time, it received the municipal lands from Emperor Henry V in 1123. This is considered by historians to be the moment of Deventer obtaining the city rights by the inhabitants. The city has the oldest stone house, the oldest walking park and with the Athenaeum library also the oldest scientific library in the Netherlands.

History

Foundation and development in the Middle Ages
Deventer was probably founded around 768 AD by the English missionary Lebuinus, who built a wooden church on the east bank of the river IJssel.  In January 772 AD the sack and burning of this church by a Saxon expedition was the cause for the first punitive war waged by Charlemagne to the Saxons, in which, in retribution, the Irminsul (the Saxon sacred tree, probably near modern Paderborn) was destroyed.  This was not the first human settlement at the location; between 1981 and 2006, remains of a late Roman Iron Age settlement (dated to c.300 AD) were excavated at Colmschate, 4 km east of the current city

The village of Deventer, already important because of a trading road crossing the river IJssel, was looted and burnt down by the Vikings in 882. It was immediately rebuilt and fortified with an earthen wall (in the street Stenen Wal remains of this wall have been excavated and restored).

Deventer received city rights in 956, after which fortifications were built or replaced by stone walls around the city for defense.  Between 1000 and 1500, Deventer grew to be a flourishing trade city because of its harbour on the river IJssel, which was capable of accommodating large ships. The city eventually joined the Hanseatic League.

One of the commodities it traded in, dried haddock and cod from Norway, gave the citizens the nickname they carry to this day: "Deventer Stokvis" In the 15th century, Deventer had a common mint, where coins for the three IJssel cities Deventer, Zwolle, and Kampen were made.

Deventer is the birthplace of Geert Groote and home to his Brethren of the Common Life, a school of religious thought that influenced Thomas a Kempis and Erasmus in later times.  Together with Haarlem it was among the first cities to have printing presses, dating back to as early as 1477.  From around 1300, it also housed a Latin School, which became internationally renowned, and remained in service in changing forms until 1971.  Its most well-known student was the scholar Desiderius Erasmus, who was born in 1466 and attended the school from 1475 to 1484.

16th–18th centuries

Between 1500 and 1800, the volume of water flowing through the IJssel decreased, decreasing the importance of Deventer's harbour. The competition with trade centres in Holland, as well as the religious war between 1568 and 1648, brought a decline in the city's economy.

In the 18th century, the iron industry came to Deventer. East of the town, so-called "oer", riversand containing iron, was found as early as 900. From this material, ore was produced and brought to town. The main road of the villages Okkenbroek, Lettele and Schalkhaar is still named Oerdijk (Ore Dyke).

Modern times

In the 19th century, Deventer became an industrial town. Bicycles (Burgers), carpets (Koninklijke Deventer Tapijtfabriek), tins and cans for food and drinks (Thomassen & Drijver), cigars (Horst & Maas en Bijdendijk & Ten Hove), foundry and heavy machinery (Nering Bögel), and textiles (Ankersmit) were produced until the mid to late 20th century. Some of these industries are still thriving today, such as beds and accessories (Auping) and publishing (Wolters Kluwer, now headquartered in Alphen aan den Rijn)

The city's trade and industry is still of some importance. The city is host to a factory producing central heating systems, as well as Wolters Kluwer, a global information services and publishing company.

The Deventer honey cake (Bussink Deventer Koek), produced in Deventer for over 500 years, is still manufactured locally and sold all over the Netherlands and beyond.

World War II

Deventer has seen few military engagements throughout its long history, although it was a garrison city of the Dutch cavalry. The IJssel bridge area and harbour were bombed heavily during World War II. The city centre has been largely spared, but many Allied bombs, meant to shell the IJssel railway bridge, came down on buildings in the city centre. The Deventer railway bridge was considered strategically important, being a part of the main railway connection between Amsterdam and the German city of Osnabrück, leading from there to either Berlin, Hamburg or Bremen. The railway bridge, constructed of steel, was difficult to hit. Many bombs were bounced down into the river or its banks, exploding in the areas around the bridge or failing to explode at all. The three heaviest of about 15 attacks were on October 28, 1944, causing 35 mortalities, on December 15, 1944, killing 33 people, and on February 6, 1945, causing the death of 61 people. In the aftermath of this last bombardment, the German occupying forces committed a war crime. The German army used a cool warehouse in Deventer for its military food supplies. In the city centre, the retirement home of the United Foundations, originally dating back as far as the 13th century, caught fire by the shellings, as well as the army food warehouse. The Germans allowed local fire fighters only to extinguish the fire in the cool warehouse. The retirement home burnt down as good as totally. Over twenty of the elderly living there perished in the flames.

The Jewish poet and writer Etty Hillesum lived in Deventer during the war before being deported to Auschwitz.

In Schalkhaar, a village only 2 km northeast of the city centre, barracks were used by the German occupying forces to train Nazi policemen. The compound is now a centre for asylum seekers.

In a forested area between Lettele and Okkenbroek, about 10 kilometres east of Deventer, the Germans operated a V-1 flying bomb launching ramp. It was used from December, 1944, until March, 1945. Some of the 400 V-1 missiles launched there hit already liberated Belgium, including the city of Antwerp, killing many people. A war monument in the village of Lettele consists of concrete blocks from this launching site, that is a war monument itself as well.

Deventer has been somewhat popular with the film industry. During the production of the 1977 film A Bridge Too Far, all of the scenes taking place in nearby Arnhem were filmed in Deventer - as Arnhem itself had lost its historic centre.

By the end of the 1950s, the buildings had reached the boundaries of the municipality. In 1960, for further expansion, the part of the municipality of Diepenveen was annexed that now covers the Keizerslanden, Borgele and Platvoet districts, all three realized in the 1960s; all together roughly the area up to (west of) the Zandwetering.

After a plan to expand the city across the IJssel, the so-called Double City Plan, was deemed unfeasible at the end of the 1960s, Deventer turned its attention to the east again: in 1974 part of Diepenveen was once again annexed. On January 1, 1999, the municipality of Diepenveen was dissolved and added to Deventer. The same happened with the municipality of Bathmen on 1 January 2005.

Demographics
Deventer has 101.378 Inhabitants on 1 July 2021.

Inhabitants by nationality
 77.37% is Dutch
 9.23% western migration background
 13.4% non western migration background

Geography

Associated hamlets at second level

The population centres in the municipality are:
 Deventer (see below)
 Snippeling (a small community about 2 km east of the city centre)
 De Worp, the quarter west of the IJssel river
 Colmschate (Deventer suburb quarters surrounding eponymous village 4 km east of the city centre, ice skating hall, small railway station)
 De Bannink
 Oxe
 Diepenveen, a village 4 km to the north, surrounded by forest
 Molenbelt
 Rande
 Tjoene
 Lettele, in a forest area
 Linde
 Oude Molen (old mill)
 Zandbelt
 Okkenbroek
 Schalkhaar (former centre of Diepenveen municipality including Lettele and Okkenbroek until 1999)
 Averlo
 Frieswijk
Bathmen (independent municipality until 2005)
 Apenhuizen
Dortherhoek
Loo
Pieriksmars
Zuidloo

Climate
Deventer is in the northern hemisphere. Summer here starts at the end of June and ends in September. Deventer experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) similar to almost all of the Netherlands.

Water

The Deventer settlement was founded on a river dune on the IJssel. This river has played a major role for the city over the centuries, because of the trade that this waterway brought with it. In 1241 the city had received the Katentol on long lease from the Elten stift. This toll, which is named after the Katerveer under Zwolle, had to be paid in the Deventer toll house near the Zandpoort, and generated a lot of money in the Middle Ages.

The IJssel has also caused many problems over the centuries, because it often overflowed its banks. Nowadays Deventer has a flood defence, but the Welle ('wal', the name of the street over the quay) is still regularly under water during high water. Dike breaches of the IJssel have created many gullies in and around the city , such as the Douwelerkolk and the Klinkenbeltskolk.

In addition to the IJssel, Deventer has a large number of waters. The Schipbeek is a brook partly dug on behalf of the city that rises in Germany and flows into the IJssel near Deventer. In the past, the stream was navigable, so that wood and Bentheimer sandstone could be brought in, among other things. Another waterway that was built for shipping and which flows into the IJssel in Deventer is a branch of the Overijssels canal, through which Deventer was connected to a large system of canals through Overijssel. It was dug in the mid-19th century and opened in 1858.

Culture

Sights

 The Grote Kerkhof square (Grand Churchyard)
 The Saint Lebuïnuskerk (St. Lebuin's Church) in Gothic style, with ceiling paintings and an organ. Its tower can be climbed in summer.
 The City Hall with a façade built in 1693 in Dutch Baroque style
 The Brink (market square) with houses, shops, and cafes dating from 1575 to 1900. The market square is also the centre of Deventer nightlife. Alongside this square there is the Bussink "Koekhuisje", where the honey-cake Deventer Koek is been sold. Markets take place every Friday (including one on Good Friday, following a medieval tradition) and Saturday.
 The Waag (Weighing-house) on the edge of the Brink square, built in 1550 and restored in 2003. The Deventer City Museum is housed inside the Waag. The Museum's collections include industrial and trading history, paintings by Gerard Terborch and Han van Meegeren, silver objects, and prehistoric findings). Thea Beckman's novel Het wonder van Frieswijck ("The Frieswijck Miracle") features the Waag.
 On the outer wall of the Waag hung until 2016 a large kettle that is over 500 years old, said to have been used for a public execution in the late Middle Ages; a man who had produced counterfeit coins was cooked to death in it. According to local tradition, there are holes in the kettle shot by footmen of Napoleon's army around 1809. In 2017 the kettle has been placed inside the building, at the entrance of the museum.
 The Speelgoedmuseum (Toy Museum) behind the Waag, housed in an old house in the city called De Drie Haringen ('The Three Herrings')
 The Great Synagogue of Deventer in Neo-Renaissance style with Moorish influences
 The medieval Bergkerk (Mountain Church), on top of a small hill (old river dune), now a place for expositions and concerts.
 The old streets around the Bergkerk, known as Bergkwartier (Mountain Quarter) situated on and around the old river dune.
 The Broederenkerk (Friars church) in Gothic and neo-Gothic style
 The Stadsarchief en Athenaeumbibliotheek (City Archive and Athenaeum Library), the oldest scientific library of the Netherlands (founded in 1560).
 De Proosdij in the Sandrasteeg is the oldest stone house of the Netherlands still in use. The earliest parts dating back to around 1130.

Sports

Deventer is the home of professional Football club Go Ahead Eagles, who are housed in stadium De Adelaarshorst. De Adelaarshorst is situated in a 1930s neighbourhood and one of the oldest stadiums still in use today. The club was founded in 1902 as Be Quick, although the name was soon changed to Go Ahead at the request of the Dutch Football Association. The suffix Eagles was added in 1971, following a suggestion from the then coach, Barry Hughes. Go Ahead Eagles has been the club of Marc Overmars, Paul Bosvelt, and Bert van Marwijk, whilst providing Henk ten Cate and Leo Beenhakker with their first experience of management.

The 1992 founded skating rink De Scheg, which is semi-indoor since 2011, is in the top 10 of fastest skating tracks of the Netherlands. It has been the training accommodation of skaters including Olympic champion Mark Tuitert and the retired former world champion sprint Erben Wennemars.

Deventer also houses a number of watersports clubs, due to its situation on the banks of the river IJssel.

Events and festivals
 In the first weekend of July, the city centre is the scene of the open air festival "Deventer op stelten" (Deventer on Stilts). Actors and artists give performances in the streets and on the Brink square. Originally all actors used stilts during their acts.
 In August, Deventer is home to Europe's largest book fair, attracting 125,000 visitors.
 The Dickens Festival in December sees some of the oldest streets and alleys in the city dressed up in the style of the Victorian era. In 2018, the festival attracted 125,000 visitors.

Government

City Council

In the redivision elections of November 17, 2004 , a municipal executive was elected for the period 2005-2010. This municipal election was earlier than in the rest of the Netherlands, because the municipality of Deventer was merged with the then municipality of Bathmen. The March 2006 elections were therefore skipped.

An issue that has occupied the municipal council and public opinion in Deventer since 2006 was the housing of municipal officials and public services in a (new) municipal office adjacent to the old town hall of Deventer. In 2009, the college fell over it. At the end of January 2012, the Municipal Executive approved an adapted design for the new city office by architect Michiel Riedijk. However, a 'popular poll' by telephone two weeks later would have shown that only 13% of the population of Deventer supported the plans. On March 21 that year, a large majority of the city council voted in favor of the municipal office. In October 2013, the Council of State ruledpositive about the arrival of the municipal office, after objections were raised. On December 6 of that year, the official opening act for construction was performed. In December 2015, the complex was completed and municipal staff moved in. In November 2017, the architect received the Abe Bonnema Prize for the design.

Economy

Business
Girasolar, founded in 2003

Education

Deventer is also home to one of the three campuses of Saxion University of Applied Sciences (Saxion Hogeschool), a polytechnical school offering internationally recognized Bachelor's degrees and Master's degrees in a wide range of fields, including engineering, economics, social work, investigations and health care. The other campuses are located in Enschede and Apeldoorn.

In 1912 the Secondary Colonial Agricultural School was founded, which grew out of the National Agricultural School Wageningen. After decolonization took effect, the name was changed into Tropical Agricultural School. In 1957 the school was transformed into the National Higher School for Tropical Agriculture. After a merger with study programs from Boskoop, Wageningen and Velp, it became the International Agricultural College Larenstein. The school was located at the Ceintuurbaan/Brinkgreverweg intersection. The building was given a residential destination in 2018.

Transport

Rail

Since 1989, Deventer has two train stations, Deventer railway station and Deventer Colmschate station. Previously, Deventer has known several so-called stopping points. Most of them closed around 1920. In addition to the current rail connections from Deventer train station, over the Arnhem–Leeuwarden railway, Apeldoorn–Deventer railway, and Deventer–Almelo railway lines, a train connection existed from 1910 to 1935 on the Deventer–Ommen railway line. This was operated by the Overijsselsche Lokaalspoorweg-Maatschappij Deventer - Ommen (OLDO), but had to stop the train service due to competition from the bus.

Public transport

In the 19th and 20th centuries, Deventer was connected to the extensive tram network of the Achterhoek. The tram line between Deventer and Borculo was operated from 1885 to 1944 by the Geldersch-Overijsselsche Stoomtram Maatschappij (GOSM) and its successors. Another tram company, the Tramweg Maatschappij Zutphen-Emmerik, operated the tram line between Deventer and Zutphen. The tram station of Deventer stood on the Pothoofd. It was not combined with Deventer train station because the trams were too heavy to drive over two intermediate bridges. It seemed unprofitable for the tram company to reinforce two bridges, so they used the Pothoofd as a terminal station. After the Second World War, the tram lines were dismantled.

Since the end of 2020, bus transport has been provided by Keolis Nederland under the name RRReis, with the exception of the lines from the Achterhoek, which are provided by Arriva.

Notable residents

Public thinking & Public Service

 Lebuinus (??-ca.775) the Apostle of the Frisians and patron of Deventer
 Saint Radboud (before 850 – 917) Bishop of Utrecht 899 to 917
 Geert Groote (1340–1384) a Dutch Roman Catholic deacon, founder of the Brethren of the Common Life
 Gerlac Peterssen (ca.1377 – 1411) a Dutch mystic
 Alexander Hegius von Heek (ca.1435–1498) a German humanist who settled in Deventer
 Jacobus Revius (1586–1658) a Dutch poet, Calvinist theologian and church historian
 Samuel Holland (1728–1801) a Royal Engineer and Surveyor General of British North America
 Abraham Josias Sluysken (1736-1799) last Governor of the Dutch Cape Colony
 Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck (1761–1825) a Dutch jurist, ambassador, politician and Grand Pensionary of the Batavian Republic
 Frans Adam van der Duyn van Maasdam (1771-1848) nobleman, officer and politician
 Louis Gerlach Pareau (1800–1866) a theologian and academic, co-founded Groningen theology
 Willem Jan Knoop (1811–1894) a Dutch lieutenant-general, military historian, and politician
 W. R. van Hoëvell (1812–1879) a minister in the Dutch East Indies, politician and reformer
 Elisabeth van Dedem Lecky (1842–1912) a Dutch-Irish writer, historian and suffragist
 Martinus Theunis Steyn (1857–1916) a South African lawyer, politician and statesman
 Han Hollander (1886–1943) the first Dutch radio sports journalist
 Etty Hillesum (1914–1943) wrote about the persecutions of the Jews during the German occupation
 Bé Udink (1926–2016) a Dutch politician, government minister, diplomat and businessman
 Willem Scholten (1927–2005) a Dutch politician, government minister and economist
 Jomanda (born 1948) a controversial Dutch healing medium
 Guusje Ter Horst (born 1952) a retired Dutch politician and psychologist

The Arts

 Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1562–1621) a Dutch composer, organist and pedagogue
 Bartholomeus Breenbergh (1598–1657) a Dutch Golden Age painter of Italianate landscapes
 Gerard Ter Borch (1617–1681) a Dutch Golden Age genre painter
 Justus Hiddes Halbertsma (1789–1869) a Frisian writer, poet, minister and linguist
 Han van Meegeren (1889–1947) a Dutch painter, portraitist and art forger
 Truus Schröder-Schräder (1889–1985) a Dutch socialite, involved with avant-garde artists and architects of the De Stijl movement, lived in the Rietveld Schröder House
 Mannus Franken (1899–1953) a Dutch filmmaker, developed the Indonesian cinema
 Jan Kleinbussink (born 1946) a classical musician, cantor-organist of the Lebuïnus Church
 Pieter Jan Brugge (born 1955) a Dutch film producer
 Rob Voerman (born 1966) a Dutch graphic artist, sculptor and installation artist
 Clara Wildschut (1906-1950), a Dutch composer

Science & Business

 Jacob van Deventer (ca. 1500 in Kampen – 1575) a Dutch cartographer of the Renaissance
 John Groenveldt M.D. (ca.1647-ca.1710) a physician, member of the Royal College of Physicians
 Willem ten Rhijne (1647–1700) a doctor and botanist with the Dutch East India Company
 Johannes C. H. de Meijere (1866–1947) a Dutch zoologist and entomologist
 Lourens Baas Becking (1895–1963) a Dutch botanist and microbiologist
 David de Wied (1925–2004) a Dutch professor of pharmacology at the University of Utrecht
 Hubert Schoemaker (1950–2006) a Dutch biotechnologist

Sport

 Gerard le Heux (1885–1973) a horse rider, team bronze medallist at the 1928 Summer Olympics
 Jan Bultman (born 1942) a former water polo player, competed at the 1964 Summer Olympics
 Dick Schneider (born 1948) a retired Dutch footballer with over 500 club appearances
 Bert van Marwijk (born 1952) a Dutch former footballer with 468 club appearances and current manager
 Jan van Dijk (born 1956) a footballer with 465 club appearances with FC Groningen and current manager
 René Temmink (born 1960) a Dutch former football referee
 Gertjan Verbeek (born 1962) a Dutch former footballer with 285 club appearances and current manager
 Ron Dekker (born 1966) a breaststroke swimmer, competed at the 1988 Summer Olympics
 Jan Michels (born 1970) a Dutch footballer with over 400 club appearances
 Marc Overmars (born 1973) footballer with 399 club appearances, director of football at AFC Ajax
 Victor Sikora (born 1978) a Dutch football player with 330 club appearances
 Marloes Coenen (born 1981 in Olst) a retired Dutch mixed martial artist
 Boaz Meylink (born 1984) a Dutch rower, team bronze medallist at the 2016 Summer Olympics
 Bas Dost (born 1989) a Dutch professional footballer with over 300 club appearances
 Carlijn Achtereekte (born 1990) a long-distance speed skater, gold medallist at the 2018 Winter Olympics
 Elis Ligtlee (born 1994) a Dutch track cyclist, gold medallist at the 2016 Summer Olympics

International relations
Deventer is twinned with four cities:

Gallery

References

External links

Official Tourist website

Cities in the Netherlands
Members of the Hanseatic League
Municipalities of Overijssel
Populated places in Overijssel
Salland

Deventer


Anthony Dryden Marshall (né Kuser; May 30, 1924 – November 30, 2014) was an American theatrical producer and C.I.A. intelligence officer and ambassador. After being convicted of financially exploiting his mother Brooke Astor, Marshall was sentenced to prison, though stayed there for only eight weeks in 2013 before receiving medical parole. He died on November 30, 2014, at the age of 90.

Early life and family
Known as Tony, Marshall was the only child of the American philanthropist Brooke Astor and her first husband, New Jersey state senator John Dryden Kuser.  Marshall was the stepson of Charles H. Marshall (his mother's second husband, whose surname he adopted at the age of 18).

By his father's second marriage, he had a half-sister, Suzanne Dryden Kuser (born November 24, 1931), who served with the U.S. Department of State, was an intelligence officer with the Central Intelligence Agency, and has been a consultant to the National Security Agency. He also had two stepsiblings, Peter Marshall and Helen Huntington Marshall (born April 6, 1918), wife of the composer Ernest Schelling and later of the cellist János Scholz.

Marshall attended Brooks School in North Andover, Massachusetts. After enlisting in 1942 during World War II, he served with the U.S. Marine Corps (his grandfather John H. Russell Jr. had served as commandant of the Marine Corps before the war) and led his platoon in the battle of Iwo Jima, attaining the rank of captain and earning a Purple Heart. After the end of the war he enrolled in Brown University.

Career
Marshall was the U.S. consul in Istanbul, Turkey (1958–1959). During the Nixon administration he served as the U.S. ambassador to the Malagasy Republic (1969–1971). Later he served as ambassador to Trinidad and Tobago (1972–1974) and Kenya (1973) as well as to the Seychelles (1976) during the Ford administration. He was also appointed special assistant to Richard Mervin Bissell Jr. to oversee the development of the U-2 reconnaissance aircraft.

In the 1980s Marshall was an officer with United States Trust Company of New York where he assisted the bank with the management of large estate accounts.

Theatrical productions
Anthony Marshall's first production was the Tony-nominated Alice in Wonderland which he produced with Sabra Jones and WNET. He and his wife Charlene formed Delphi Productions in 2003 with producer David Richenthal and produced the Tony Award-winning Long Day's Journey into Night (Tony Award, Best Revival of a Play in 2003), and I Am My Own Wife (Tony Award, Best Play in 2004).

Personal life
Marshall was married three times. His first wife was Elizabeth Cynthia Cryan, whom he married on July 26, 1947, in Wynnewood, Pennsylvania. The groom's stepfather Charles Marshall was his best man. They had twin sons:
 Alexander R. Marshall (born May 14, 1953), a photographer
 Philip Cryan Marshall (born May 14, 1953), a tenured professor and director of historic preservation at Roger Williams University until 2017 when he left the position to dedicate his efforts full-time to elder justice as the founder of Beyond Brooke.

His second wife was his former secretary Thelma Hoegnell (born May 11, 1928), whom he married on December 29, 1962. The couple were divorced on January 24, 1992, reportedly following Marshall's affair with Charlene Gilbert, the wife of an Episcopal priest in Northeast Harbor, Maine.

His third wife and widow, whom he married in 1992, is the former Charlene Detwiler Tyler (born July 28, 1945), the former wife of Paul E. Gilbert, a naval officer turned Episcopal priest, and a daughter of Charles Matthew Tyler, an insurance actuary and businessman of Charleston, S.C. By this marriage Marshall had two stepdaughters Arden (born 1969) and Inness (born 1972) and a stepson Robert (born 1976).

In July 2006 Philip Marshall filed suit against his father alleging mistreatment of his grandmother Brooke Astor and mismanagement of her funds. He requested that Anthony Marshall be dismissed as her guardian and replaced by family friend Annette de la Renta. That request was granted temporarily pending a court hearing on August 8, 2006. In December 2006 based on a Court Evaluator's report Anthony Marshall was found not guilty of elder abuse.

Trial
On November 27, 2007, Marshall surrendered to authorities at the Manhattan district attorney's office to face indictment on sixteen counts relating to the handling of Brooke Astor's will and financial affairs.  The charges included conspiracy, grand larceny and possession of stolen property. Attorney Francis X Morrissey was also charged with six counts including conspiracy, forgery and possession of a forged instrument.

At a press conference following Marshall's arrest, Manhattan district attorney Robert M. Morgenthau stated that "Marshall and Morrissey took advantage of Mrs. Astor's diminished mental capacity in a scheme to defraud her and others out of millions of dollars". He further said that "Marshall abused his power of attorney and convinced Mrs. Astor to sell property by falsely telling her that she was running out of money. He is charged with stealing money from her as well as stealing valuable art work from her Park Avenue apartment."

The trial of Marshall and Morrissey started March 30, 2009, coincidentally his late mother's birthday. On October 8, 2009, Marshall was found guilty of 14 of the 16 charges, including first-degree grand larceny. Although he had his mother's General Durable Power of Attorney since the 1970s, jurors convicted him of giving himself an unauthorized raise bringing his salary up to about $1 million for managing his mother's finances which he had managed since 1977 earning $82 million.

On December 21, 2009, Marshall was sentenced to one to three years in New York State prison. Marshall's attorneys appealed citing jury tampering but the appeal was rejected. 89-year-old Marshall reported to prison on June 21, 2013.

However, after serving just eight weeks of his sentence, the 89-year-old Marshall had grown so sick and frail that he was granted medical parole on August 22, 2013. His health problems included Parkinson's disease and congestive heart failure; his lawyers claimed he could not walk, stand or dress himself. Marshall died on November 30, 2014, at the age of 90 with his wife Charlene by his side.

References

External links
Steve Fishman, "Mrs. Astor's Baby: The Fight for A Mother's Love, And Money", New York Magazine, November 12, 2007
Indictment, New York v. Anthony D. Marshall and Francis Morrissey

1924 births
2014 deaths
Brown University alumni
American theatre managers and producers
Ambassadors of the United States to Madagascar
Ambassadors of the United States to Seychelles
Ambassadors of the United States to Kenya
Ambassadors of the United States to Trinidad and Tobago
United States Marine Corps officers
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
Military personnel from New York City
New York (state) Republicans
Ambassadors of the United States to the Comoros
Brooks School alumni
20th-century American diplomats

Anthony Dryden Marshall


Isidor Arthur Gunsberg (also spelled Günzberg, ; 1 November 1854 – 2 May 1930) was a Hungarian chess player, best known for narrowly losing the 1891 World Chess Championship match to Wilhelm Steinitz.

Biography
Gunsberg began his career as the player operating the remote-controlled chess automaton Mephisto, but later became a chess professional. He moved to Great Britain in 1876, later becoming a naturalized British citizen on 12 May 1908.

In the late 1880s and early 1890s Gunsberg was one of the top players in the world. He decisively won a national tournament in London in July 1885, and a few weeks later won the 4th German Chess Congress in Hamburg. In match play, he defeated Joseph Blackburne and Henry Bird in 1886. In 1887, he shared first with Amos Burn in the London tournament. In 1890 he drew a match with Mikhail Chigorin, a former and future challenger for the world chess championship. Later that year, Gunsberg himself challenged Wilhelm Steinitz for the world title. The match took place in New York City and Gunsberg lost with four wins, six losses, and nine draws.

In 1916 he sued the Evening News for libel when they said that his chess column contained "blunders". He won the suit after the High Court accepted a submission that in chess matters, eight oversights did not make a "blunder".

Chess strength
Arpad Elo calculates that Gunsberg's best 5-year average Elo rating was 2560. According to Chessmetrics, Gunsberg's best single performance was his 1887 match against Blackburne, where he scored 8 of 13 possible points (62%). Also, Gunsberg's performance in the world championship match against Steinitz indicated he was a part of the world elite in the late 1880s and early 1890s.  However, in the year he qualified for the match against Steinitz, 1889, Gunsberg played in three different international tournaments: Amsterdam, the German Chess Congress, and the US Chess Congress.  At Amsterdam, he finished in 5th place out of 9 competitors with an exact 50% score, 4/8, behind Burn, a young Emanuel Lasker, Mason, and Van Vliet. At the German Chess Congress, he finished tied for 4th–7th places out of 18 competitors, with a +3 score, 10/17, behind Tarrasch, Burn, and Mieses. Finally, at the US Chess Congress, his best result, and the reason he was allowed to challenge Steinitz, he finished in lone 3rd place out of 20 competitors, with a +19 score, 28½/38, behind Weiss and Chigorin.

Later on, Gunsberg's position among the foremost chess masters would slip. In the famous Hastings 1895 chess tournament, Gunsberg finished with a −3 score of 9/21, good for a share of 15th–16th place out of 22 competitors.

See also
 List of Jewish chess players

Notes

References

External links
"Isidor Gunsberg" by Edward Winter

"Chess in the Courts"
CN 3824, July 2005, "Libel Suit"
CN 5113, August 2007, "Isidor Gunsberg"
CN 5136, September 2007, "An Interview with Gunsberg"

1854 births
1930 deaths
19th-century chess players
20th-century chess players
Hungarian Jews
Emigrants from Austria-Hungary to the United Kingdom
Hungarian chess players
British chess players
Jewish chess players
Sportspeople from Budapest
Chess players from Austria-Hungary

Isidor Gunsberg


Aguinaldo It is a genre of Puerto Rican and Venezuelan traditional and cultural music, popular in several Latin American countries., based on Spanish Christmas carols or villancicos which is traditionally sung on Christmas itself or during the holiday season. Aguinaldo music is often performed by parrandas - a casual group of people, often family or friends, who merrily go from house to house taking along their singing. The instruments used are four, maracas and drums.  Some popular aguinaldos are Burrito Sabanero (Venezuela), El Asalto (Puerto Rico), Feliz Navidad (Puerto Rico), and De la Montaña Venimos (Puerto Rico).

Venezuelan aguinaldo
In Venezuela, aguinaldo is a genre of Christmas music and generally have six verses. Played by "parranderos" or "aguinalderos"  that announce their arrival in song and seek to gain entry to the community houses to relate the story of the birth of Christ, and to share in the joy of the message of Peace on Earth and to all People of Good Will. Aguinaldos are played with typical instruments such as the cuatro (a small, four-string guitar), furruco, and maracas. Other instruments often used are violin, guitar, tambourine, mandolin, bandol, caja (a percussive box instrument), and marímbula (an Afro-Venezuelan instrument). In exchange for the entertainment, "parranderos" are traditionally given food and drink: hallacas, panettone, rum and "Ponche Crema" (a form of alcoholic eggnog).  Aguinaldos are also played at Christmas church celebrations.

Puerto Rican aguinaldo

In Puerto Rico, the aguinaldo is a musical gift offered during the Christmas season and is a tradition inherited from the island's Spanish colonizers.  As a musical gift, aguinaldos are mostly played by "parranderos" or "trullas" during the Christmas holidays. While , showing up at a residence late at night, with a group of Christmas carolers, is a practice that is slowly being lost in Puerto Rico, a Puerto Rican  album debuted in the top 10 Billboard Tropical Albums in December 2019.

Originally, aguinaldos were  "villancicos" with strong religious connotations but soon evolved to "coplas" (quartets) and "decimas" (ten-verses compositions) about all kinds of everyday topics. Aguinaldos were played with typical instruments such as the bordonúa, a tiple, a cuatro, a carracho or güiro, a cowbell, barriles de bomba, an accordion, and maracas. With bordonua players becoming more difficult to find, the guitar became a staple accompanying the cuatro. Today, panderos (also known as "pleneras"), brass instruments and whatever makes noise, are used.

As a genre, the aguinaldo is played mostly on the radio on key Christmas holidays in Puerto Rico; the day before Christmas and in Christmas, on New Year's Eve and New Year's Day, and the day before Three Kings Day and on Three King's Day (January 6). Aguinaldos are also played at Christmas church celebrations.

Philippine aguinaldo
In the Philippines, the word aguinaldo has come to refer instead to the gift—usually cash or coins—collected by small groups of children that go carolling. A traditional instrument used is a makeshift tambourine made of several tansan (aluminium bottle caps) strung on some wire. Carollers solicit homeowners with the chant "Namamasko po!" (approx. "wassailing!"), and after singing wait to be rewarded with aguinaldo.

Trinidadian aguinaldo
Aguinaldo or Serenal is a music genre used in Parang (Parranda) a type of Christmas music that came to Trinidad and Tobago from Venezuela. Singers and instrumentalists (collectively known as  "parranderos") travel from house to house in the community, often joined by friends and neighbours family, using whatever instruments are to hand. Popular parang instruments include the cuatro and maracas (locally known as chac-chacs).

See also
 Music of Puerto Rico
 Venezuelan music
 Trinidadian music

References

 Atlas de Tradiciones de Venezuela, Fundación Bigott, 1998.

External links
 La Parranda Puertorriquena: The Music, Symbolism, and Cultural Nationalism of Puerto Rico's Christmas Serenading Tradition
 Espinosa, Juan (1984). Breve Prontuario en Torno a Nuestra Tradición Navideña

Puerto Rican music
Venezuelan music
Christmas music
Christmas traditions

Aguinaldo (music)


Dora Observatory is on the South Korean side of the 38th parallel.  Situated on top of Dorasan (Mount Dora) in Paju, the observatory provides scenic views across the Demilitarized Zone.  Visitors can see the North Korean territory through binoculars from the 304 square feet, 500-person capacity observatory. They are able to see the North Korean propaganda village situated in the DMZ, and can also see the city of Kaesong.  The observatory is very close to the Third North Korean Infiltration Tunnel dug by North Koreans into the South.  The Dorasan Station, also nearby, is designed to be the station that connects the railroads of the South and North one day in the future.

See also
 Daeseong-dong

External links
 Life in Korea

Tourist attractions in Gyeonggi Province
Buildings and structures in Paju

Dora Observatory


Harihareshwar is a town in Raigad district, in Maharashtra, India. It is surrounded by three hills named Harihareshwar, Harshinachal and Pushpadri. The river Savitri enters the Arabian Sea from the town of Harihareshwar. Towards the north of the town is the temple of Lord Harihareshwar, said to have been blessed by Lord Shiva. Hence Harihareshwar is often referred to as Dev-ghar or "house of God". It is also known as Dakshin Kashi.

Besides a major pilgrimage center, Harihareshwar is a popular beach resort with two beaches, one to the north and the other to the south of the temple. Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation has a resort on the south beach. Harihareshwar, along with Shrivardhan and Diveagar Beach forms a popular weekend beach destination from Pune (190 km) and Mumbai (210 km).

The Kalbhairav Jayanti Utsav (Festival on Birthday of Deity Kalbhairav) was initiated by Mr. Yashawant Balawant Nagle who was Sardar of Queen of Janjira Administering Harihareshwar village. He donated quite a large part of his property for funding the Temple management.

Harihareshwar Temple

Harihareshwar Temple complex has two adjacent temples. The smaller Kalbhairav temple is expected to be visited first, before entering the main Harihareshwar temple housing an ancient Shiva Linga. A pradakshina route goes around the temple, along the sea shore. It is not advisable to go on this route during high tide.

Harihareshwar's ambience

Harihareshwar is renowned tourist spot in Konkan for its temples and beaches. Moreover, it is said as Devbhumi or Temple Town. Harihareshwar alone have two beaches − one, straight beach about 2.4 km long in front of Harihareshwar Temple, and the other beach is about 2 km in an L shape just in front of MTDC Resort. Harihareshwar is an evergreen place and one may visit it in any season. It is placed in the heart of nature and bounded with Sahyadri's hills. One can spend his three or four days of holiday easily. There is no problem staying in Harihareshwar as there are MTDC (a Governmental body) and few private resorts, also some Bed and Breakfasts that provide stays in homes.
Harihareshwar Beach is a well set up beach.

External links
 Harihareshwar Beach Resort's official website - contains detail information on harihareshwar
 More info about Harihareshwar

References

Beaches of Maharashtra
Cities and towns in Raigad district
Geography of Raigad district
Tourist attractions in Raigad district

Harihareshwar


Anne de Vries (22 May 1904 – 29 November 1964) was a Dutch teacher and writer, particularly famous in the Netherlands for his novels of regional life.

Born in the village of Kloosterveen near Assen, de Vries married Alida Gerdina van Wermeskerken in 1930 and the couple had five children. In 1972, de Vries gained national recognition when his novel Bartje was made into a television series by Willy van Hemert. The personnage of Bartje subsequently came to symbolize the Dutch province of Drenthe.

De Vries wrote a number of regional novels, most famously the coming-of-age novel Bartje and then Bartje Seeks Happiness. He also wrote Journey through the Night, a children's book about World War II which was published in four volumes between 1951 and 1958. His Bartje books may be considered Bildungsromane.

De Vries died, aged 60, in Zeist.

Selected works
 Jongens van de straat, 1934
 Bartje, 1935
 De stroper, 1935
 Jaap en Gerdientje, 1937
 Op de grote heide, 1937
 De grote veenbrand, 1937
 Groot vertelboek voor de Bijbelse geschiedenis, 1938
 Verhalen voor Kersttijd, 1948
 Honderd vertellingen uit de bijbel, 1949
 Het boek van Jan Willem, 1950
 Reis door de nacht, 1951–1958
 De ring van de profeet (Anne de Vries and Jan Fabricius), 1952
 Kinderkleurbijbel (Oude testament), 1961
 Twee meisjes in de tropen 1964

References

1904 births
1964 deaths
Dutch writers
People from Assen

Anne de Vries


A cramp is a sudden, involuntary, painful skeletal muscle contraction or overshortening associated with electrical activity; while generally temporary and non-damaging, they can cause significant pain and a paralysis-like immobility of the affected muscle. A cramp usually goes away on its own over a period of several seconds or (sometimes) minutes. Cramps are common and tend to occur at rest, usually at night (nocturnal leg cramps). They are also often associated with pregnancy, physical exercise or overexertion, age (common in older adults), in such cases, cramps are called idiopathic, because there is no underlying pathology. In addition to those benign conditions cramps are also associated with many pathological conditions.

Cramp definition is narrower than the definition of muscle spasm: spasms include any involuntary abnormal muscle contractions, while cramps are sustained and painful. True cramps can be distinguished from other cramp-like conditions. Cramps are different from muscle contracture, which is also painful and involuntary, but which is electrically silent. The main distinguishing features of cramps from dystonia are suddenness with acute onset of pain, involvement of only one muscle and spontaneous resolution of cramps or their resolution after stretching the affected muscle. Restless leg syndrome is not considered the same as muscle cramps and should not be confused with rest cramps.

Causes
Skeletal muscle cramps may be caused by muscle fatigue or a lack of electrolytes such as sodium (a condition called hyponatremia), potassium (called hypokalemia), or magnesium (called hypomagnesemia). Some skeletal muscle cramps do not have a known cause. Motor neuron disorders (e.g., amyotrophic lateral sclerosis), metabolic disorders (e.g., liver failure), some medications (e.g., diuretics and inhaled beta‐agonists), and haemodialysis may also cause muscle cramps.

Causes of cramping include hyperflexion, hypoxia, exposure to large changes in temperature, dehydration, or low blood salt. Muscle cramps can also be a symptom or complication of pregnancy; kidney disease; thyroid disease; hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, or hypocalcaemia (as conditions); restless legs syndrome; varicose veins; and multiple sclerosis.

As early as 1965, researchers observed that leg cramps and restless legs syndrome can result from excess insulin, sometimes called hyperinsulinemia.

Skeletal muscle cramps

Under normal circumstances, skeletal muscles can be voluntarily controlled. Skeletal muscles that cramp the most often are the calves, thighs, and arches of the foot, and in North America are sometimes called a "Charley horse" or a "corky". Such cramping is associated with strenuous physical activity and can be intensely painful; however, they can even occur while inactive and relaxed. Around 40% of people who experience skeletal cramps are likely to endure extreme muscle pain, and may be unable to use the entire limb that contains the "locked-up" muscle group. It may take up to a week for the muscle to return to a pain-free state, depending on the person's fitness level, age, and several other factors.

Nocturnal leg cramps

Nocturnal leg cramps are involuntary muscle contractions that occur in the calves, soles of the feet, or other muscles in the body during the night or (less commonly) while resting. The duration of nocturnal leg cramps is variable, with cramps lasting anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. Muscle soreness may remain after the cramp itself ends. These cramps are more common in older people. They happen quite frequently in teenagers and in some people while exercising at night. Besides being painful, a nocturnal leg cramp can cause much distress and anxiety. The precise cause of these cramps is unclear. Potential contributing factors include dehydration, low levels of certain minerals (magnesium, potassium, calcium, and sodium, although the evidence has been mixed), and reduced blood flow through muscles attendant in prolonged sitting or lying down. Nocturnal leg cramps (almost exclusively calf cramps) are considered "normal" during the late stages of pregnancy. They can, however, vary in intensity from mild to extremely painful.

A lactic acid buildup around muscles can trigger cramps; however, they happen during anaerobic respiration when a person is exercising or engaging in an activity where the heartbeat rises. Medical conditions associated with leg cramps are cardiovascular disease, hemodialysis, cirrhosis, pregnancy, and lumbar canal stenosis. Differential diagnoses include restless legs syndrome, claudication, myositis, and peripheral neuropathy. All of them can be differentiated through careful history and physical examination.

Gentle stretching and massage, putting some pressure on the affected leg by walking or standing, or taking a warm bath or shower may help to end the cramp. If the cramp is in the calf muscle, dorsiflexing the foot (lifting the toes back toward the shins) will stretch the muscle and provide almost immediate relief. There is limited evidence supporting the use of magnesium, calcium channel blockers, carisoprodol, and vitamin B12.

Quinine is no longer recommended for treatment of nocturnal leg cramps due to potential fatal hypersensitivity reactions and thrombocytopenia. Arrhythmias, cinchonism, and hemolytic uremic syndrome can also occur at higher dosages.

Cramps caused by treatments
Various medications may cause nocturnal leg cramps:
 Diuretics, especially potassium sparing
 Intravenous (IV) iron sucrose
 Conjugated estrogens
 Teriparatide
 Naproxen
 Raloxifene
 Long acting adrenergic beta-agonists (LABAs)
 Hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitors (HMG-CoA inhibitors or statins)

Statins may sometimes cause myalgia and cramps among other possible side effects. Raloxifene (Evista) is a medication associated with a high incidence of leg cramps. Additional factors, which increase the probability for these side effects, are physical exercise, age, history of cramps, and hypothyroidism. Up to 80% of athletes using statins experience significant adverse muscular effects, including cramps; the rate appears to be approximately 10–25% in a typical statin-using population. In some cases, adverse effects disappear after switching to a different statin; however, they should not be ignored if they persist, as they can, in rare cases, develop into more serious problems. Coenzyme Q10 supplementation can be helpful to avoid some statin-related adverse effects, but currently there is not enough evidence to prove the effectiveness in avoiding myopathy or myalgia.

Treatment
Stretching, massage, and drinking plenty of liquids may be helpful in treating simple muscle cramps.

Medication
The antimalarial drug quinine is a traditional treatment that may be slightly effective for reducing the number of cramps, the intensity of cramps, and the number of days a person experiences cramps. Quinine has not been shown to reduce the duration (length) of a muscle cramp. Quinine treatment may lead to haematologic and cardiac toxicity. Due to its low effectiveness and negative side effects, its use as a medication for treating muscle cramps is not recommended by the FDA.

Magnesium is commonly used to treat muscle cramps. Moderate quality evidence indicates that magnesium is not effective for treating or preventing cramps in older adults. It is not known if magnesium helps cramps due to pregnancy, liver cirrhosis, other medical conditions, or exercising. Oral magnesium treatment does not appear to have significant major side effects, however, it may be associated with diarrhea and nausea in 11-37% of people who use this medicine.

With exertional heat cramps due to electrolyte abnormalities (primarily potassium loss and not calcium, magnesium, and sodium), appropriate fluids and sufficient potassium improves symptoms. Vitamin B complex, naftidrofuryl, lidocaine, and calcium channel blockers may be effective for muscle cramps.

Prevention
Adequate conditioning, stretching, mental preparation, hydration, and electrolyte balance are likely helpful in preventing muscle cramps.

References

External links
 Muscle Cramps (of Skeletal Muscles)

Muscular disorders
Symptoms and signs: musculoskeletal system

Cramp


The Environment Triptych, by sculptor Jon Edgar, is a group of three portrait heads of environmental thinkers of the day. First assembled in 2008, it is composed of the terracotta heads of James Lovelock, proposer of the Gaia hypothesis, moral philosopher Mary Midgley, and writer Richard Mabey. Edgar worked with the three in either Cornwall, Newcastle upon Tyne or Norfolk during visits in 2006 and 2007.

The heads have a relevance as individual portraits, but the interplay of the three heads plinthed together seemed to add something; perhaps emphasising the sitters' diverse efforts in influencing human behaviour and our interaction with the planet and its other organisms. The Triptych has led to the Environment Series of heads of environmentally aware sitters, including Chris Rapley, Gordon Murray, Tim Smit, and Guy Watson.

References

2008 sculptures
English sculpture
Environmental art
Portraits of historical figures
Terracotta sculptures

Environment Triptych


National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS) is a system of protected areas of the United States managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), an agency within the Department of the Interior. The National Wildlife Refuge System is the system of public lands and waters set aside to conserve America's fish, wildlife, and plants. Since President Theodore Roosevelt designated Florida's Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge as the first wildlife refuge in 1903, the system has grown to over 568 national wildlife refuges and 38 wetland management districts encompassing about .

Background
The mission of the refuge system is "To administer a national network of lands and waters for the conservation, management, and where appropriate, restoration of fish, wildlife, and plant resources and their habitats within the United States for the benefit of the present and future generations of Americans" (National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997). The system maintains the biological integrity, diversity, and environmental health of these natural resources and enables for associated public enjoyment of these areas where compatible with conservation efforts.

National Wildlife Refuges manage a range of habitat types, including wetlands, prairies, coastal and marine areas, and temperate, tundra, and boreal forests. The management of each habitat is a complex process of controlling or eradicating invasive species, using fire in a prescribed manner, assuring adequate water resources, and assessing external threats such as development or contamination.

Hundreds of national refuges are home to some 700 species of birds, 220 species of mammals, 250 reptile and amphibian species, and more than 1000 species of fish. Endangered species are a priority of National Wildlife Refuges, with nearly 60 refuges having the primary purpose of conserving in aggregate 280 threatened or endangered species.

The National Wildlife Refuge System welcomes about 65 million visitors each year to participate in outdoor recreational activities. The system manages six wildlife-dependent recreational uses in accordance with the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997, including hunting, fishing, birding, photography, environmental education, and environmental interpretation. Hunters visit more than 350 hunting programs on refuges and on about 36,000 waterfowl production areas. Opportunities for fresh or saltwater fishing are available at more than 340 refuges. At least one wildlife refuge is in every state.

National Wildlife Refuge System employees are responsible for planning, biological monitoring and habitat conservation, contaminants management, visitor services, outreach and environmental education, heavy equipment operation, law enforcement, and fire management.

The National Wildlife Refuge System deals with urban intrusion/development, habitat fragmentation, degradation of water quantity and quality, climate change, invasive species, increasing demands for recreation, and increasing demands for energy development. The system has provided a habitat for endangered species, migratory birds, plants, and numerous other valuable animals, implemented the NWRS Improvement Act, acquired and protected key critical inholdings, and established leadership in habitat restoration and management.

Under the act, the NWRS has created Comprehensive Conservation Plans (CCPs) for each refuge, developed through consultation with private and public stakeholders. These began a review process by stakeholders beginning in 2013. The CCPs must be consistent with the FWS goals for conservation and wildlife management.

The CCPs outline conservation goals for each refuge for 15 years into the future, with the intent that they will be revised every 15 years thereafter. The comprehensive conservation planning process requires a scoping phase, in which each refuge holds public meetings to identify the public's main concerns; plan formulation, when refuge staff and FWS planners identify the key issues and refuge goals; writing the draft plan, in which wildlife and habitat alternatives are developed, and the plan is submitted for public review; revision of the draft plan, which takes into consideration the public's input; and plan implementation.

Each CCP is required to comply with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and must consider potential alternatives for habitat and wildlife management on the refuge, and identify their possible effects on the refuge. The NEPA requires FWS planners and refuge staff to engage the public in this planning process to assist them with identifying the most appropriate alternative.

Completed CCPs are available to the public and can be found on the FWS website.

History
A partial history of the Refuge System is at . For a much more thorough and complete history, see "The History and Future of our National Wildlife Refuge System" compiled by the National Wildlife Refuge Association and referenced below.

Management activities (as of Q3 2015)

Comprehensive wildlife and habitat management demands the integration of scientific information from several disciplines, including understanding ecological processes and monitoring status of fish, wildlife and plants. Equally important is an intimate understanding of the social and economic drivers that impact and are affected by management decisions and can facilitate or impede implementation success. Service strategic habitat conservation planning, design, and delivery efforts are affected by the demographic, societal, and cultural changes of population growth and urbanization, as well as people's attitudes and values toward wildlife. Consideration of these factors contributes to the success of the service's mission to protect wildlife and their habitats.

The refuge system works collaboratively internally and externally to leverage resources and achieve effective conservation. It works with other federal agencies, state fish and wildlife agencies, tribes, nongovernmental organizations, local landowners, community volunteers, and other partners. Meaningful engagement with stakeholders at a regional, integrated level adds to the effective conservation achievements of the FWS and allows individual refuges to respond more effectively to challenges.

Wildlife and habitat management activities include:

 Monitoring plant and animal populations
 Restoring wetland, forest, grassland, and marine habitats
 Controlling the spread of invasive species
 Reintroducing rare fish, wildlife and plants to formerly occupied habitats
 Monitoring air quality
 Investigating and cleaning contaminants
 Preventing and controlling wildlife disease outbreaks
 Assessing water quality and quantity
 Understanding the complex relationship between people and wildlife through the integration of social science
 Managing habitats through manipulation of water levels, prescribed burning, haying, grazing, timber harvest, and planting vegetation

During fiscal year 2015, the refuge system manipulated 3.1 million acres of habitat (technique #10 from the preceding list) and managed 147 million acres of the system without habitat manipulation (using techniques #1 through 9 from the preceding list).

 Uplands managed: 1.9 million acres
 Wetlands managed: 1.0 million acres
 Open water managed: 0.2 million acres
 Treated by prescribed burning: 0.3 million acres
 Treated to control invasive plants: 0.2 million acres
 Protected but not manipulated: 147 million acres

Refuges attract about 65 million visitors each year who come to hunt, fish, observe, and photograph wildlife, and are a significant boon to local economies. According to the FWS's 2013 Banking on Nature Report, visitors to refuges positively impact the local economies. The report details that 47 million people who visited refuges that year:

 Generated $2.4 billion of sales in regional economies
 Supported over 35,000 jobs
 Generated $342.9 million in tax revenues at the local, county, state, and federal levels
 Contributed a total of $4.5 billion to the nation's economy

The refuge system has a professional cadre of law enforcement officers that supports a broad spectrum of service programs by enforcing conservation laws established to protect the fish, wildlife, cultural, and archaeological resources the service manages in trust for the American people. They also educate the public about the FWS's mission, contribute to environmental education and outreach, provide safety and security for the visiting public, assist local communities with law enforcement and natural disaster response and recovery through emergency management programs, and help protect native subsistence rights. They are routinely involved with the greater law enforcement community in cooperative efforts to combat the nation's drug problems, address border security issues, and aid in other security challenges.

Prevention and control of wildland fires is also a part of refuge management. Completion of controlled burns to reduce fuel loading, and participation in the interagency wildland fire suppression efforts, are vital for management of refuge lands.

A considerable infrastructure of physical structures is also essential to proper management of refuge lands. As of September 30, 2019, the refuges had 15,257 roads, bridges, and trails; 5,204 buildings; 8,407 water management structures; and 8,414 other structures such as visitor facility enhancements (hunting blinds, fishing piers, boat docks, observation decks, and information kiosks). The overall facility infrastructure is valued at over $36 billion.

Physical features
 Area of land and water under management: 856 million acres
 Number of management units: 568 refuges, 38 wetland management districts, 5 marine national monuments
 Number of wilderness areas: 74
 Area of wilderness: 20.7 million acres (about 20% of overall federal wilderness)
 Length of rivers within the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System: 1,086 miles (1,748 km)
 Length of refuge boundary with Mexico: 120 miles (190 km)

The area of the refuge system is heavily influenced by large areas devoted to protecting wild Alaska and to protecting marine habitats in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans; however, the number of units and public visitation overwhelmingly occurs in the lower 48 states, though these refuges and wetland management districts constitute only about 2% of the area of the system.

Today's Refuge System (September 30, 2022 data) has been assembled through a variety of
different administrative and funding mechanisms. Setting aside the sections of Marine National Monuments outside refuge boundaries (685.7 million of the 759 million total acres in Marine National Monuments), leaves 151 million acres of the more traditional Refuges and Wetland Management Districts. These 151 million acres were acquired as follows:

 93% (140 million acres) was withdrawn from the public domain or transferred from another federal entity (within this amount, 1.2 million acres of former military bases have become part of the Refuge System)
 4% (6 million acres) was acquired using funds from the popular "Duck Stamp" program
 1.14% (1.7 million acres) was acquired with funds from the Land and Water Conservation Fund
 0.46% (694 thousand acres) was acquired using other funds
 1.13% (1.7 million acres) was acquired through donations (although relatively modest in terms of acreage [0.27% of refuge acres and 9.3% of wetland management district acres] it is worth noting that 58% of refuges and 70% of the counties in wetland management districts had land donated to them)

Visitation
 Wildlife observation visits in FY 2021: 41.7 million
 Nature photography visits in FY 2021: 15.1 million
 Fishing visits in FY 2021: 8.0 million
 Interpretive program visits in FY 2021: 2.5 million
 Hunting visits in FY 2021: 2.5 million
 Environmental education visits in FY 2021: 0.4 million
 Other visits in FY 2021:  10.9 million
 Total visits in FY 2021: 65 million

Volunteers
 Total volunteers in FY 2014: 36,000
 Total volunteer hours in FY 2014: 1.4 million

Personnel
 Total staff: 2,424 full-time equivalents, thus two half-time employees count as one FTE; FY 2022 total
 Number of Federal Wildlife Officers: 214 (source: FY 2024 Budget Justification)
 Number of firefighters: 460 (360 permanent and 100 temporary staff)

Special designation areas
In addition to refuge status, the "special" status of lands within individual refuges may be recognized by additional designations, either legislatively or administratively. Special designation may also occur through the actions of other legitimate agencies or organizations. The influence that special designations may have on the management of refuge lands and waters may vary considerably.

Special designation areas within the refuge system as of September 30, 2014, included:

 Biosphere reserves (3 units)
 Maine Protected Areas (106 units)
 National Historic Landmarks (10 units)
 National Monuments (7 units)
 National Natural Landmarks (43 units)
 National Recreation Trails (72 units)
 National Wild and Scenic Rivers (13 units)
 Ramsar wetlands of international importance (26 units)
 Research natural areas (207 units)
 Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network (19 units)
 Wilderness areas (74 units) (the system has 20.7 million acres of wilderness, 19% of U.S. wilderness)
 World Heritage sites (1 unit)

List of refuges

See also
 Congressional Wildlife Refuge Caucus
 National Wildlife Refuge Association
 State wildlife trails
 Timeline of environmental events
 Wilderness preservation systems in the United States

References

Further reading
 Fischman, Robert (Fall 2005). "The Significance of National Wildlife Refuges in the Development of U.S. Conservation Policy".  Journal of Land Use and Environmental Law 21:1–?. Indiana Legal Studies Research Paper No. 19. .
 Grannemann, Ken (April 2023) "History and Future of our National Wildlife Refuge System" by National Wildlife Refuge Association
 Schroeder, R. (2008). "Comprehensive conservation planning and ecological sustainability within the United States National Wildlife Refuge System". Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy 4(1):38–44.

External links
 FWS.gov: official National Wildlife Refuge System−NWRS website
 FWS.gov: "Meet the National Wildlife Refuge System - Special Places Where Wildlife and People Thrive"
 FWS.gov: NWRS - Refuge Planning
 FWS.gov: NWRS establishment legislation
 National Wildlife Refuge Association — nonprofit association supporting the National Wildlife Refuge System.
 The Cooperative Alliance for Refuge Enhancement (CARE)

United States Fish and Wildlife Service

Protected areas of the United States
Protected areas established in 1903
1903 establishments in the United States
1903 in the environment

National Wildlife Refuge


A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. The origin of the word "cap" comes from the Old French word "chapeau" which means "head covering". Over time, the word has evolved and changed its meaning, but it still retains its association with headwear. Caps typically have a visor, or no brim at all. They are popular in casual and informal settings, and are seen in sports and fashion.  They are typically designed for warmth, and often incorporate a visor to block sunlight from the eyes. They come in many shapes, sizes, and are of different brands. Baseball caps are one of the most common types of cap.

Types

 Ascot cap
 Ayam
 Baggy green
 Balmoral
 Beanie (North America)
 Bearskin
 Beret
 Biretta
 Busby
 Canterbury cap
 Cap and bells
 Cap of maintenance
 Casquette
 Caubeen
 Caul
 Coif
 Combination cap (also known as a service cap)
 Coppola
 Cricket cap
 Deerstalker
 Do-rag
 Dutch cap
 Dixie cup, an enlisted sailor's cap, also worn by first-year midshipmen at Annapolis
 Fez
 Flat cap (also known as a Kerry cap in Ireland (slang of Paddy cap – see also Caubeen), longshoreman's cap, scally cap, Wigens cap, ivy cap, golf cap, duffer cap, driving cap, bicycle cap, Jeff cap, or in Scotland, bunnet, or in Wales, Dai cap, or in England or New Zealand, cheese-cutter)
 Forage cap
 Gandhi cap
 Garrison cap
 Glengarry
 Greek fisherman's cap (also known as a Breton cap or a fiddler's cap)
 Juliet cap
 Kalpak, a traditional Turkic cap
 Karakul
 Kepi
 Kippah (also known as yarmulke or skull cap) — worn by Jewish males
 Knit cap (also known as a Tuque, stocking cap, wool cap, watch cap, ski cap, bobble hat)
 Kufi (also known as a kofia; an African cap worn with a dashiki)
 Lika cap
 M43 field cap
 Mao cap
 Meyrick Helmet
 Monmouth cap
 Newsboy cap
 Nightcap
 Nurse cap
 Ochipok
 Pakol
 Papakhi
 Patrol cap
 Peaked cap
 Phrygian cap
 Rastacap
 Sailor cap
 Shako
 Shower cap
 Sindhi cap
 Sports visor
 Square academic cap
 Stormy Kromer cap
 Swim cap
 Tam o' Shanter
 Taqiyah, worn by Muslim males
 Toque
 Tubeteika
 Ushanka
 Utility cover
 Zucchetto

Baseball caps

 Baseball cap
 Fitted cap
 Snapback
 Trucker hat

Present day depictions of caps
Caps might have started off as a way to keep people shaded from the sun, but now they are much more than that. Caps have been made a staple in both the sports and fashion industries, one leading into the other.

Sports
As stated earlier, caps are typically designed with a visor which makes it perfect for keeping a person cool from the heat and sheltering a person's eyes from the sun, so it was a matter of time before they made it to the sports industry. The first sport to adopt wearing caps was baseball, the hats was made out of straw and were worn on April 24, 1849, by the New York Knickerbockers. However, within a few years time the team began to wear a cap made of fine merino wool, that featured a crown and an attached visor. This design became the prototype for caps of that time and still the most popular in present day. It's also not the only design for baseball hats but other sports as well, such as cricket, golf and tennis.

Fashion
Sportswear found its way to fashion in the nineteenth century and on the contrary to what many believe it began to actually cater to the wants and needs of women. Sports cap however made an impact on the fashion industry around the 1980s when the company New Era, who had been designing hats for sports teams, began designing and selling hats to the general public. Baseball caps, fitted caps, snapback caps and truckers hats would then be seen in music videos, films, runways and even on Princess Diana's head, which helped nurture her appearance as the "people's princess." Along with hats, sports jerseys also became available in the 1980s as well, and now licensed apparel is a multi-billion dollar industry.

See also
 Bonnet, until about 1700, the usual word for brimless male headgear
 Cap (sport), metaphorical term
 List of headgear

References

Headgear

Cap


Cantor can mean:
 The Latin word for singer, e.g. the main singer of a cantus
 Hazzan, in Judaism, the English name for a professional singer who leads prayer services (Kantor is a frequently noted Jewish patronym)
 Cantor (church), an ecclesiastical officer leading liturgical music in several branches of the Christian Church
 Cantor (crater), a lunar crater

In mathematics Cantor may refer to:
 The Cantor set or Cantor dust
 The Cantor function
 The Cantor space

Cantor as a surname may refer to:
 Andrés Cantor, Spanish-language soccer announcer
 Brian Cantor, Vice-Chancellor of the University of York, UK
 David Cantor (born 1954), American actor and singer
 Eddie Cantor (1892-1964), American comedian, singer, actor, songwriter
 Eric Cantor (born 1963), American politician
 Georg Cantor (1845-1918), German mathematician, founder of set theory
 Moritz Cantor (1829-1929), German historian of mathematics
 Nancy Cantor, Chancellor and President of Syracuse University
 Norman Cantor (1929-2004), Canadian medievalist
 Theodore Edward Cantor (1809-1860), Danish biologist

Cantor is a shortened form of these names and terms:
 Cantor Fitzgerald, a financial services firm

Related pages
cant
Precentor
Kantor
Canter

Surnames

Cantor


Merge sort (or mergesort) is an divide and conquer algorithm for sorting a list of items. John von Neumann first presented it in 1945. It is similar to quicksort, developed in 1960. The difference is that with merge sort,  dividing the lists is trivial, and merging them together isn't. With quicksort, dividing the lists is more complex, but the merging step is trivial.

Usage
Merge sort is a stable sorting algorithm, while quicksort is not. It has a worst-case complexity of O(n*log(n)). Merge sort is also highly parallelizable. It can be used for solving the inversion counting problem.

Algorithm
 If the list contains only one item, then return the list
 Divide the list into two lists of half the size of the list
 Apply the algorithm to each of the two lists
 Merge the two sorted lists together

Searching and sorting algorithms

Merge sort


Homeobox protein Hox-C11 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HOXC11 gene.

This gene belongs to the homeobox family of genes. The homeobox genes encode a highly conserved family of transcription factors that play an important role in morphogenesis in all multicellular organisms.

Mammals possess four similar homeobox gene clusters, HOXA, HOXB, HOXC and HOXD, which are located on different chromosomes and consist of 9 to 11 genes arranged in tandem. This gene is one of several homeobox HOXC genes located in a cluster on chromosome 12. The product of this gene binds to a promoter element of the lactase-phlorizin hydrolase. It also may play a role in early intestinal development. An alternatively spliced variant encoding a shorter isoform has been described but its full-length nature has not been determined.

References

Further reading

External links

Transcription factors

HOXC11


Heungseon Daewongun (Hangul: , Hanja: , 21 December 1820 - 22 February 1898) was the title of Korean politician and regent of the Joseon dynasty Yi Ha-eung. Yi Ha-eung received the title when he became regent for King Gojong who was a child when he became King of Korea. Yi ruled between 1863 and 1874, during his rule he tried to close Korea from foreign influences and protect the traditional Korean way of life; when Christian missionaries threatened the traditional Korean social hierarchy, he became a persecutor of Christians martyring Korean converts and Western missionaries.

1820 births
1898 deaths
Korean politicians
Regents

Heungseon Daewongun


Moshe Wolman (November 10, 1914 – September 5, 2009) was an Israeli neuropathologist. He is considered one of the fathers of histochemistry. In 1954, he described Wolman's disease.

Biography
Moshe Wolman was born in 1914 in Warsaw, Poland. He immigrated to Mandate Palestine in 1925. He grew up in Tel Aviv and graduated from the prestigious Herzliya Gymnasium (academic secondary school). He studied medicine in Italy (Florence 1932-1935 and Rome, 1935–1938). In 1939, he married Brigitte "Bigi" Koebbel with whom he had four children: filmmaker Dan Wolman, philosopher Ruth Manor (1944–2005), psychiatrist Naomi Oren, and composer Amnon Wolman.

Medical career
From 1938 to 1940, he worked in the Cancer Research Institute of the Hebrew University and did residency at the department of Internal Medicine of the Hadassah Hospital. In the 1940s, he volunteered to serve in the British Army and joined the 101 Military Mission (the famous Gideon Force of Orde Wingate). He was involved in the operation in 1941 that brought Emperor Haile Selassie back to occupied Ethiopia and was in charge of a medical ward and clinical laboratory in the Menelik Hospital in Addis Ababa in  1941-1944. In 1944, he was posted in the Central Pathology Laboratory of the Middle East Forces located in Cairo, Egypt. In 1945 he was appointed as head of the Pathology Laboratory of the 27th General Hospital in Tel-El-Kabir, Egypt.

After his release from the army in 1946, Wolman joined the department of Pathology of the Hadassah Hospital in Jerusalem and was involved in histochemical research. He taught at the newly founded Medical School of the Hebrew University. In this period, he studied the chemical significance of the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) staining method and showed that the method is not specific for carbohydrates as was thought at the time, but also stains lipids.

In 1951 his research included histochemistry of viral and non-viral inclusion bodies and he continued to study chemical fixatives and fixation techniques. He showed that proteoglycans and polysaccharides of different pK values in their end groups can be differently stained which resulted in the development of Bi-Col procedure (Wolman, 1956). In fact, advances in our understanding of the chemical nature of ground substance remained largely neglected for a generation.

Wolman also studied chemical factors underlying various impregnation procedures for the nervous system. He was also involved in research on demyelination of peripheral nerve sheaths and also showed that black osmium staining light microscopy and its electron density for electron microscopy, appears first in carbohydrates before it stains unsaturated lipids. He also demonstrated the presence of a carbohydrate-containing moiety in myelin (later shown by others to be different proteoglycans) and its importance in myelin breakdown. His research was focused on the oxidation of lipids, the formation of lipid peroxides, their polymerization, and the pathogenesis and nature of lipid pigments.

In 1959, Wolman was appointed head of the Department of Pathology of the Tel Hashomer Government Hospital (later renamed as the Chaim Sheba Medical Center). He continued to study peripheral nerve demyelinization and membrane structures. Using enzyme histochemical methods, he and his coworkers were able to prove that changes in ion concentrations can induce phase changes in cell membranes. Another study dealt with the substance (or substances) called amyloid (Wolman 1971).

Understanding of the chemistry involved in histological techniques enabled Moshe Wolman in the 1950s to determine that the storage disease, that was later named after him is known as lysosomal acid lipase deficiency or Wolman disease, is caused by accumulation in cells of a mixture of cholesterol and triglycerides and differed substantially from Niemann–Pick disease. (Wolman, 1989).

Wolman formulated the theory and use of polarization microscopy in routine pathology and diagnostic molecular research. He was one of the first to recognize that polarized light microscopy is a powerful tool, which allows the detection of structures that otherwise be obtained only with great difficulty (Wolman, 1970).

In 1964, Wolman was appointed full professor and head of the Department of Pathology at the newly founded Medical School of Tel Aviv University. In 1967, he was also appointed chair of the Department of Cell Biology and Histology.

Wolman authored more than 200 publications and contributions to books. Over the years, he contributed chapters to many textbooks and served on numerous editorial boards including Histochemie.

He was deeply interested in educational and ethical questions. He published a book on ethics and demagoguery and served as chairperson of the ethics committee of the Israel Medical Association. He was concerned with the issues of medical errors and published a book on the subject together with his daughter, Ruth Manor, "Doctor's Errors and Mistakes of Medicine: Must Health Care Deteriorate?" (2004).

Awards and legacy
Wolman was a member of the Histochemical Society (USA), the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine and the Israel Association of Pathologists and the Gesellschaft fur Histochemie. In 1966, he was elected as a member of the Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina. In 1984, he founded the Israel Society for Histochemistry and Cytochemistry and served as its president until 1990.

Wolman  was the first recipient of the Pearse Prize for Histochemistry awarded by the Royal Microscopical Society (Wolman, 1989) and also received the Pioneer Award of the International Federation of Histochemical Societies (Carpenter, 1990). In 2000, an annual Wolman lecture was inaugurated by the Israel Society for Histochemistry and Cytochemistry. He was appointed emeritus professor of the Tel Aviv University in 1985 and despite being formally retired remained active and remained a continued source of knowledge and wisdom well into his eighties. His opening remarks in his Pearse Prize Lecture show the wisdom of a great scientist, "…after all, our scientific work is amply rewarded by the clear moments when complex and difficult problems become simple and understandable" (Wolman, 1989).

In 2002, Coleman attributed the enormous progress in the development of histochemistry in Israel  to the "pioneering research and wisdom of Moshe Wolman."

Published works

Editor
The Healing and Scarring of Atheroma.  Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, New York, 1984, volume 168.
Pigments in Pathology, Academic Press, New York, NY. 1969

Author
A histochemical method for the differential staining of acidic tissue components (particularly ground-substance polysaccharides), Bull Res Council Israel. 1956
Histochemistry and lipids in pathology. Handbuch of Histochemie. Fischer, Stuttgart, Germany. 1964
On the Use of polarized microscopy in pathology, Pathol Annu. 1970
Amyloid, its nature and molecular structure, Lab Invest. 1971
Biological peroxidation of lipids and membranes, Israel J Med Sci. 1975
An experiment in teaching histology and cell biology, Med Teacher. 1985
Macrophages and their acid esterase in atherosclerosis. Pearse Prize Lecture Speech delivered 5 January 1988) Pro Roy Microsc Soc. 1989
Lipid pigments, Fischer, Stuttgart, Germany. 1993
Doctors' Errors and Mistakes of Medicine: Must Health Care Deteriorate? (Biomedical and Health Research, Volume 59) by Moshe Wolman and Ruth Manor (Hardcover - Jun 1, 2004)
The Healing and Scarring of Atheroma (Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology) by Moshe Wolman (Hardcover - Feb 1984)
Pigments in Pathology by Moshe Wolman (Hardcover - Jan 1, 1969)
Histochemistry of lipids in pathology (Handbuch der Histochemie) by Moshe Wolman (Unknown Binding - 1964)
Biological peroxidation of lipids and membranes (Israel journal of medical sciences) by Moshe Wolman (Unknown Binding - 1975)

See also
Health care in Israel

References

Israeli scientists
Academic staff of Tel Aviv University
1914 births
2009 deaths
Israeli military doctors
Israeli pathologists
British Army personnel of World War II
Polish emigrants to Mandatory Palestine

Moshe Wolman


A nude beach is a beach where people can swim (or do other activitiers) without having clothes on. These beaches usully come in different varietires:

 Beaches thatrequire people to be nude, if the weather permits it. People that are not nude, will not be tolerated. Usually, these beaches are part of a holiday resort, or a club.
 Beaches where people have the choice of going nude, or partly clothed. In Europe, this will apply to most beaches which are part of a commune, which designated the beach as a nude beach.

Young children running around naked are often tolerated, on most beaches in Europe.This applies to children aged to about 5 years old.

In many parts of Europe, nudity on the beach is often at least tolerated. The beaches where it is forbidden, and the ban is enacted are rare.

Situation in the United States
For example, there is a public nude beach called Haulover Beach near Miami, Florida. There is a public nude park usually called Hippie Hollow Park (but officially called McGregor Park) on a lake near Austin, Texas. There is an admission charge and children are not allowed. There are several nude beaches in California. People are nude at one end of a public nude beach called Crystal Crescent Beach near Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. There is a public nude beach called Hanlan's Point Beach on an island near downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada. There is a public nude beach called Wreck Beach in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.  There is a public nude beach close to New York City called Gunnison in Sandy Hook, New Jersey.

There are many nude beaches in Europe and Australia

References

Beaches
Nudity

Nude beach