Michael Owusu Addo (born 10 July 1988) known professionally as Sarkodie (), is a Ghanaian rapper, songwriter, and entrepreneur from Tema. He started rapping at a young age and has since become a household name in the Ghanaian and Global music industry. His contributions to the Ghanaian music industry have earned him numerous accolades, including the Vodafone Ghana Music Award (VGMA) for "Artiste of the Decade". He was announced the first winner of BET's Best International Flow Artist at the 2019 BET Hip Hop Awards. He is also considered one of the major proponents of the Azonto genre and dance and one of the most successful African rappers of all time. Due to the variety of musical genres he can perform in, Sarkodie is referred to as a "multifaceted rapper" and frequently raps in his native language, Twi.

Life and career

Early life and career beginnings
Sarkodie, the fourth of five children was born on 10 July 1988. He was raised in Koforidua before his parents moved to Tema where he started schooling. He attended Tema Methodist Day Senior High School and proceeded to  IPMC College of Technology, where he earned a degree in graphic design. Sarkodie began his music career as an underground rapper and gained recognition through rap competitions such participating in Adom FM's popular rap competition Kasahare Level. He met his former manager Duncan Williams of Duncwills Entertainment while participating in the aforementioned competition. He also met musicians Edem and Castro, who introduced him to Hammer of The Last Two, an established record producer. Impressed by his rap flows, Hammer allowed Sarkodie to record two tracks for Edems maiden album Volta Regime.

2009–2012: Makye and Rapperholic
Following his collaboration with Hammer, Sarkodie recorded his debut album Makye. Its production was primarily handled by Killbeatz and Jayso. The album features guest appearances from Kwaw Kese, J-Town, Sway, and Paedae of R2Bees. Makye received positive reviews from critics and fans. It was supported by a concert held at Holy City Gardens in Accra. On 16 September 2009, Sarkodie performed alongside Busta Rhymes at the Busta Rhymes Live in Ghana concert. In 2010, his "Push" and "Baby" songs were ranked ninth and thirteenth on Joy FM's Top 50 songs of 2009, respectively. The album's lead single "Baby" which features Mugeez of R2bees became an instant hit and gave Sarkodie exposure.

Sarkodie's second studio album Rapperholic was released in 2012. It features guest appearances from Efya, Chidynma, Mugeez of R2Bees, Obrafour, Jayso and EL. The album was supported by five singles: "Good Bye", "One Time For Your Mind", "You Go Kill Me", "Living Legend", and "Onyame Nhyira". It received positive reviews from music critics. Sarkodie went on a nationwide tour to support the album. Rapperholic earned Sarkodie his first BET nomination and subsequent win. Sarkodie was also featured on the BET Hip Hop Awards cypher alongside Talib Kweli, Jean Grae and Ab-Soul. He was the only African act featured on the cypher.

On 7 July 2012, Sarkodie kicked off his tour of Canada. He toured the United States in August 2012, performing in cities and states such as New York City, Ohio, New Jersey, Maryland, Atlanta, Chicago, Texas and Massachusetts. After releasing Rapperholic, Sarkodie embarked on a tour to promote the album. On 27 August 2012, Sarkodie performed alongside R2Bees, Fally Ipupa and Iyanya at the Africa Unplugged Music Festival. In 2012, Sarkodie performed "How Low" with Ludacris at the 020 Live concerts.

2013–2014: Sarkology, Sarkcess Music, and Africa Rising Campaign
On 30 October 2013, Sarkodie released the official remix of "You Go Kill Me". The song peaked at number 1 on various charts in Ghana. Its remix features vocals from Wizkid, Ice Prince, Navio and EL. In January 2014, Sarkodie released his third studio album Sarkology. Primarily recorded in Twi, the album features guest appearances from Fuse ODG, Davido, Tiwa Savage, Banky W., Timaya, 2 Face Idibia, Efya, Mugeez, Obrafour, Burna Boy, Vivian Chidid, Vector, Silvastone, Sk Blinks, Stonebwoy, Joey B, J Town, Lil Shaker, Raquel, Sian, Kofi B, and AKA. Its production was handled by Magnom, Hammer, Killbeatz, Masterkraft and Silvastone, among others. The album's launch concert was held at the Accra Sports Stadium in December.

Sarkodie released the official remix of "Adonai". It features vocals from Castro and appeared on Capital Xtra's list of the Top 35 Afrobeats Songs. Sarkodie launched the Sarkcess Music record label in 2014. As part of the launch, he premiered the video for "Adonai" (Remix) and "Special Someone". Sarkodie also released the songs "Megye Wo Girl", "Love Rocks", "Chingum", and "Whine Fi Me" under the label.

On 3 May 2014, Sarkodie performed at the 15th edition of the Ghana Music Awards. On 7 June 2014, he joined Miguel on stage to perform the latter's single "How Many Drinks?" at the MTV Africa Music Awards. In June 2014, Sarkodie collaborated with Mi Casa, Lola Rae, Davido, Diamond Platnumz and Tiwa Savage to record "Africa Rising", a song for DSTV's campaign of the same name. The campaign was designed to inspire Africans to partake in community-based social investment projects. The music video for "Africa Rising" was released on 24 June 2014. It was shot and directed by the South African production house Callback Dream.

2015–2018: Mary and Highest
On 10 June 2015, Sarkodie released the Ace Hood-assisted "New Guy". It was released for digital consumption on 10 June 2015, through Sarkcess Music and Ivy League Records. Written by the two artists and produced by CedSolo, "New Guy" is an African hip hop and hip-hop song that contains alternating rap verses, while its lyrics deal with Sarkodie's desire and motivation for success. Development for "New Guy" began in early 2015 when Sarkodie paid a total of $25,000 to cover the production fees associated with the recording. He also wanted Ace Hood to appear on the track because he considered him "one of the world's most powerful rappers".

On 12 September 2015, Sarkodie released Mary, a live album named after his grandmother who died in 2012. "Mewu" was released as the lead single from the album two months prior. An autograph session for the album was held at the West Hills Mall in Accra. Sarkodie sold nearly 4,000 copies of the album on the first day of its release. In February 2016, he spoke to a group of Harvard Business School students. Themed "The Art of the Hustle", his speech was primarily about the challenges associated with being an African musician. Sarkodie also performed at the event following his speech.

Sarkodie held the fourth edition of his Rapperholic concert on Christmas Day. Tickets for the event sold out within 72 hours of its release. The concert featured additional performances from Fuse ODG, R2Bees, Wizkid, Samini, VVIP, Efya and Shatta Wale. On 11 March 2016, Sarkodie performed with the music band, The Composers at the O2's Indigo venue; the event was hosted by DJ Abrantee.

Sarkodie released his fifth studio album Highest on 8 September 2017. It comprises 19 songs, including 3 interludes and a bonus track. Released through Sarkcess Music and Dice Recordings, the album features guest appearances from Jesse Jagz, Moelogo, Flavour, Korede Bello, Victoria Kimani and Big Narstie. Highest was primarily produced by Jayso, with additional production from Masterkraft, TSpize, Ced Solo, Nova and Guilty Beatz.

2019: Alpha and Black Love
Sarkodie released his debut extended play Alpha in June 2019. The 6-track EP features guest appearances from Joey B and Ebony Reigns. Sarkodie teased his collaboration with Reigns during the Ebony Reigns concert, which commemorated the late singer. He released his fifth studio album Black Love on 20 December 2019. It features guest artists such as Mr Eazi, Efya, Donae'o, Idris Elba, Stonebwoy, Tekno, Maleek Berry, Herman Suede, King Promise and Kizz Daniel. The album was supported by the previously released singles "Party & Bullshit", "Saara", "Do You" and "Can't Let Go". In an interview with OkayAfrica in November, Sarkodie said the album explores themes of black love and relationships. On 19 April 2021, Sarkodie announced his soon-to-be-released 7th Studio Album, entitled "No Pressure". A trailer video was uploaded on YouTube, in anticipation of what fans would expect from the album.  However, on 25 July 2021, Sarkodie announced a 5-day countdown of the album which would be released on 30 July 2021.

2021: No Pressure Album
Sarkodie released the album, No Pressure, on 30 July 2021. The album features Wale, Vic Mensa, Giggs, Cassper Nyovest, Harmonize, Oxlade, Kwesi Arthur, Darko Vibes, Medikal, and MOGmusic.

2022: Jamz Album
Sarkodie in the latter parts of 2022 released the album, Jamz which had features from Black Sheriff, King Promise, Inkboy and many top Nigerian acts as well. Major hits amongst them are Labadi with King Promise and Countryside with Black Sheriff winning the award for Best Collaboration at the 2023 Vodafone Ghana Music Awards.

2023:Jamz World Tour
Sarkodie has announced his upcoming tour for 2023 – the JAMZ World tour- via his YouTube page in September 2023. During the Jamz World Tour, rapper Sarkodie visited several countries across Africa and Europe. The tour included nine stops across various European countries, including the UK, France, Sweden, Denmark, Ireland, Netherlands, and Germany. Sarkodie took stages at each stop to deliver unforgettable performance, showcasing his exceptional talent and charismatic stage presence

He however, missed his Jam World Tour show in Detroit due flight issues. He had to do an emergency landing at Delta Air Line on an Island in Portugal, and he blamed the airline for this.

Recognition
Sarkodie often raps in his native language, Twi, a Ghanaian Language and is considered a "multifaceted rapper" due to the various musical styles he possesses. Sarkodie is often named as one of Africa's greatest hip hop artists. MTV Base ranked him sixth on its list of the Hottest African MCs in 2014. In 2013, Lynx TV ranked him first on its list of the "Top 10 Ghanaian Rappers of All Time". In 2015, AfricaRanking.com ranked him third on its list of the "Top 10 African Rappers of 2015". In 2015, The Guardian listed him as one of its top five hip hop acts on the African continent. He was ranked 8th on Forbes and Channel O's 2013 and 2015 list of the Top 10 Richest/Bankable African Artistes. In 2020, he won "Artiste of the Year" during the Ghana Music Awards USA (GMA USA).

Philanthropy
On 13 July 2013, Sarkodie launched The Sarkodie Foundation, a non-profit organization dedicated to supporting underprivileged children. He made generous donations to the Royal Seed Home Orphanage in Kasoa. On 25 December 2014, The Foundation embarked on a "Feed the Kids' Campaign" in Tema, Ghana, where they provided thousands of kids with bags of rice, yogurt and beverage cans. They also gave away school bags, water bottles, hats and other items. Roshi Motman, the CEO of Tigo Telecommunications, was also in attendance to support the campaign.

Business career and endorsements
Sarkodie owns the Sark by Yas clothing line, which was launched on 27 April 2013. The clothing line has accessories for men, women and children. In 2012, he was officially unveiled as the Brand Ambassador for Samsung Electronics at the University of Ghana, Legon. As part of the event, Samsung unveiled the Samsung Galaxy Pocket and Chief Hero Phones that had customized wallpapers of Sarkodie and his signature; users had the opportunity to download exclusive tracks of Sarkodie. He also launched the Obidi Chief headphones and signed an endorsement deal with FanMilk Ghana in 2013. Sarkodie is currently in partnership with Tigo Telecommunications Ghana, a brand that sponsored his 2013 Rapperholic tour. Sarkodie also has endorsement deals with Standard Chartered Bank - a leading banking firm in Africa as well as Guinness Ghana Limited for their Malt drink product. On 30 October 2019, he was appointed as an ambassador for the Year of Return campaign; the honour was conferred on him at the Creative Arts Industry Forum.
In March 2021, Sarkodie and his little daughter were featured in Ghana's leading toothpaste brand - Pepsodent Ghana's #BrushWithMe campaign ad. The campaign was done to rally parents and guardians to start and encourage a day and night tooth-brushing routine with their children. This was done to commemorate World Oral Health Day.

Personal life
Sarkodie married Tracy in a private wedding ceremony held in Tema, Ghana on 17 July 2018. They have two children. In an interview, he disclosed he was separated from his parents during childhood leading to him being an 'introvert and observant approach to life.'

Controversies

Yvonne Nelson
In the memoir titled "I am Not Yvonne Nelson", Ghanaian actress, Yvonne Nelson, narrates her past relationship with Sarkodie. She described how she became pregnant unexpectedly for him and made the decision to end the pregnancy.

Samini
In January 2023, Samini accused Sarkodie of ignoring him after sending Sarkodie a song to work on it with a verse. Later, Sarkodie apologized to Samini but claimed Samini's accusation might not be accurate.

Incidents
The renowned artist, Sarkodie recounted a distressing incident where he faced a near-death experience with Delta Airline. The ordeal involved an emergency landing on a remote island in Portugal, casting a somber shadow on his memories of Saturday, September 9th.

Awards and nominations

Discography

Studio albums
Makye (2009)
Rapperholic (2012)
Sarkology (2014)
Highest (2017)
 Black Love Album (2019)
 No Pressure (2021)
Jamz (2022)

Live albums
Mary (2015)

Collaborative albums
T.M.G (with Jayso) (2013)

EPs
Alpha (2019)

References

External links

Living people
Ghanaian rappers
People from Tema
The Headies winners
1988 births
Ghanaian hip hop musicians
Afrobeats musicians
21st-century Ghanaian musicians
21st-century male singers
Musicians from Accra

Sarkodie (rapper)


The second inauguration of George W. Bush as the 43rd president of the United States happened on January 20, 2005. It was the ceremony that officially said George W. Bush's second term as president and Dick Cheney as vice president was starting.

The ceremony happened on the West Front of the United States Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. It was the 55th presidential inauguration.

Chief Justice William Rehnquist gave the oath of office to Bush. This was the last time Rehnquist gave the presidential oath because he died in September 2005. Dennis Hastert gave the vice presidential oath to Cheney.

References

Other websites

 Video of Bush's Second Inaugural Address from cspan.org (with audio)
 Text of Bush's Second Inaugural Address
 Audio of Bush's Second Inaugural Address

2005 in the United States
Bush, George W.
George W. Bush

Second inauguration of George W. Bush


Philippe Brenninkmeyer (born 3 November 1964) is a Dutch actor. In Germany he is known as Philipp Brenninkmeyer.

Biography

Brenninkmeyer was born in Wimbledon, London. He is a member of the German-Dutch Brenninkmeijer family which founded the clothing store chain C&A. Brenninkmeyer attended boarding schools in Brighton, Meerbusch/Düsseldorf, the Aloisiuskolleg in Bonn, and Switzerland. He then worked for C&A in Cologne before deciding to become an actor.

He studied at the William Esper Studio in New York City from 1997–1999, where he appeared in productions of Macbeth and King Lear with the Frog & Peach Theater. Brenninkmeyer worked with the theatre company "Theatre Tribe" in Los Angeles, California in 2004. He has also studied theater in London, where he performed in the title role of Woyzeck at the Etcetera Theatre.

Brenninkmeyer first achieved success in Germany with the role of hotel manager Christian Dolbien in the German television series girl friends – Freundschaft mit Herz. He has also appeared in several other German shows and telemovies, as well as had supporting roles on the American shows Sex and the City, Law & Order, and Guiding Light. For the American comedy troupe Broken Lizard, Brenninkmeyer has played a Swinging German car thief in Super Troopers, a German beer tournament referee in Beerfest and a perturbed diner in The Slammin' Salmon. Brenninkmeyer starred as an American businessman in the German-Singapore movie House of Harmony opposite the Singaporean film star Fann Wong. He also appeared in the 2008 episode "The Jet Set" of Mad Men.

The actor speaks Dutch, English, French, and German. Brenninkmeyer currently has homes in Los Angeles and Berlin (Germany) and is married to the American actress Tara Lynn Orr.

Filmography

Film

TV series

Video games

References

the Internet Movie Database
Theater performances
Brenninkmeyer's casting agency, Carola Studlar
Profile at ZDF (17 March 2004)
Interview at ZDF (17 March 2004)
Talk show preview at NDR

External links
Philippe Brenninkmeyer's Official Website

Philipp Brenninkmeyer at New-Video.de

1964 births
Living people
Male actors from London
English male film actors
English male television actors
English male stage actors
English people of Dutch descent
English people of German descent
Actors from Wimbledon, London

Philippe Brenninkmeyer


The Popular Front () was an electoral alliance and pact formed in January 1936 to contest that year's general election by various left-wing political organizations during the Second Spanish Republic. The alliance was led by Manuel Azaña. In Catalonia and the modern-day Valencian Community, the coalition was known as the Front of the Lefts ().

The Popular Front included the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), Communist Party of Spain (PCE), and the republicans: Republican Left (IR), (led by Azaña) and Republican Union (UR), led by Diego Martínez Barrio. This pact was supported by Galician (PG) and Catalan nationalists (ERC), the POUM, socialist union Workers' General Union (UGT), and the anarchist trade union, the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT). Many anarchists who would later fight alongside Popular Front forces during the Spanish Civil War did not support them in the election, urging abstention instead.

The Comintern had decided in 1935 that, in response to the growth of Fascism, popular fronts allying Communist parties with other anti-Fascist parties including Socialist and even bourgeois parties were advisable. In Spain, it was a coalition between leftist republicans and workers' organizations to defend social reforms of the first government (1931–1933) of the Second Spanish Republic, and liberate the prisoners, political prisoners according with the front propaganda, held since the Asturian October Revolution (1934).

The Popular Front defeated the  (a collection of right-wing parties) and won the 1936 election, forming the new Spanish Government. Manuel Azaña was elected President of the Republic in May 1936, but the PSOE did not join the government because of the opposition of Francisco Largo Caballero.

In July 1936, conservative/monarchist generals instigated a coup d'état which started the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). The Government dissolved the Spanish Republican Army in the loyal territory and brought weapons to armed groups organized by the unions (UGT and CNT) and workers' parties (PSOE, PCE, POUM) that had initial success in defeating the Francoist forces in Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao and Valencia. In October the same year, the Spanish Republican Army was reorganized. After a protracted war of attrition, General Francisco Franco would defeat the Republican forces and rule Spain as a dictatorship until he died in 1975.

History

Foundation and the manifesto of the Popular Front
The Popular Front was formed in 1936 by a coalition of left-wing republican parties. The Popular Front's founding manifesto condemned the actions of the conservative-led government, demanding the release of political prisoners detained after November 1933, the re-hiring of state employees who had been suspended, fired, or transferred "without due process or for reasons of political persecution", it proposed establishing a judiciary independent from government control, the investigation and prosecution of acts of unwarranted violence by police, and revision of the Law of Public Order to protect the rights of citizens against arbitrary power. The manifesto stressed political moderation against radicalism.

The manifesto advocated a moderate left-leaning economic policy that rejected the idea of nationalization of land and instead supported the provision of state economic assistance to agriculture, a new progressive tenancy law, and promotion of collective forms of production. It supported protectionist measures to defend national industry, encouraged state research to assist national industry, promised protection of small businesses, major expansion of public works, and progressive tax reform. The manifesto declared the Popular Front's opposition to class-based society, stating "The Republic conceived of by the Republican parties is not a Republic dominated by social or economic class interests, but a regime of democratic liberty..." but it promised the restoration of certain economic policies of the 1931–33 Spanish government, including increased wages for farmworkers.

The manifesto promised the restoration of legislation guaranteeing regional autonomy that was revoked by the conservative-led government.

Members
Members to the coalition were:
Spanish Socialist Workers' Party – Socialist
Communist Party of Spain – Communist
Workers' Party of Marxist Unification – Libertarian Marxist
Syndicalist Party – Syndicalist
Republican Left – Republican
Republican Union – Republican

It was also supported by:
Republican Left of Catalonia – Catalan nationalist
Galicianist Party – Galician nationalist
Workers' General Union – Socialist trade union
CNT-FAI – Anarcho-syndicalist trade union

1936 election and immediate aftermath
In the 1936 general election, the Popular Front won the election with its leader Manuel Azaña elected President of Spain. The Popular Front received 4,654,116 votes compared to the opponent combined right-wing vote of 4,503,524 votes. It elected 278 deputies – 99 of which belonged to the Socialists (PSOE), while the right-wing elected 124 deputies – 88 of which belonged to the CEDA. Many of the elected members of the Popular Front were professional persons, several of whom were from wealthy backgrounds. People of various political backgrounds within the Popular Front were appointed to President Azaña's cabinet, such as Amós Salvador, architect and wealthy landowner, and José Alonso Mallol, a former Radical Socialist. Upon the election of the Popular Front, the Popular Front held a victory march in Madrid with over 250,000 supporters, with its Socialist and Communist party components marching in uniform in the thousands. The Popular Front immediately delivered its promise in its manifesto of rehiring workers fired for political reasons without due process and to reimburse them based on individual cases for wages lost to an extent of not less than thirty-nine days' wages nor more than six months.

Azaña responded to the recent surge of acts of violence, arson, and vandalism by radical leftists against right-wing parties and Catholic Church institutions by denouncing these actions. Uncontrolled political violence continued through to March with the greatest disturbance taking place in Granada where a violent act by right-wing political forces provoked a general strike and mass riot by left-wing political forces there. In particular, violence involving Communists and Socialists versus Falangists resulted in multiple murders. By July there had been 269 political killings.

Azaña acceded to demands by left-wing movements for punishment of General Eduardo López Ochoa, the army leader of the 1934 Asturian campaign against workers' movements there. The Spanish Republican government also made major changes to the Spanish Army, pro-Republican or neutral commanders were installed in multiple posts while commanders with questionable loyalties were moved to lesser or remote positions: for example, General Francisco Franco was removed as chief of staff of the army and moved to a position in the Canary Islands and General Emilio Mola was demoted from a major command in Spanish Morocco to a position as commander of a brigade in Pamplona.

The government did not stay in power long, mainly because of the conflict of ideological views by many of the parties.  The only factor working for the government was unity for the conquest of fascism. After the Republican defeat in the Spanish Civil War, the popular front was dissolved, and Franco ruled Spain as a dictator until his death in 1975.

See also
 Spanish Civil War chronology 1936
 Popular Front (France)

References

External links

1936 establishments in Spain
1939 disestablishments in Spain
Communist Party of Spain
Defunct political party alliances in Spain
Defunct socialist parties in Spain
Political parties disestablished in 1939
Political parties established in 1936
Political parties of the Spanish Civil War
Popular fronts
POUM
Republican Left of Catalonia
Republican parties in Spain
Second Spanish Republic
Spanish Socialist Workers' Party

eo:Popola Fronto (gazeto)

Popular Front (Spain)


William M. Beecher (born May 27, 1933) is a former Washington correspondent for The Boston Globe, The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times. He also served as Washington bureau chief for the Minneapolis Star Tribune. He spent two years as a senior official of the Defense Department and ten years as a top official of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. He has authored eight novels. In retirement, he is an adjunct professor at the University of Maryland.

Education

Beecher earned a B.A. from Harvard University, where he was an editor of The Harvard Crimson, and an M.S. from Columbia University. During his college career he worked as campus correspondent for The Boston Globe and The Boston Herald Traveler.

Novelist

Beecher authored the following novels: Mayday Man (1990), Submerged Rage: The Hidden Grievance (2005), The Acorn Dossier (2009), Nuclear Revenge (2010), The KGB Hoax (2013), Arabella Undercover (2014), Double Agent Stallion (2015) and Jihadi Revenge (2016).

References

1933 births
Living people
People from Framingham, Massachusetts
The Boston Globe people
The Wall Street Journal people
The New York Times writers
Star Tribune people
St. Louis Globe-Democrat people
Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism alumni
University of Maryland, College Park faculty
United States Department of Defense officials
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American male writers
Novelists from Massachusetts
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
The Harvard Crimson people
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from New York (state)
Novelists from Maryland
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers

William M. Beecher


The history of books became an acknowledged academic discipline in the 1980s. Contributors to the discipline include specialists from the fields of textual scholarship, codicology, bibliography, philology, palaeography, art history, social history and cultural history. Its key purpose is to demonstrate that the book as an object, not just the text contained within it, is a conduit of interaction between readers and words. Analysis of each component part of the book reveals its purpose, where and how it was kept, who read it, ideological and religious beliefs of the period and whether readers interacted with the text within. Even a lack of evidence of this nature leaves valuable clues about the nature of that particular book.

The earliest forms of writing were etched on stone slabs, transitioning to palm leaves and papyrus in ancient times. Parchment and paper later emerged as important substrates for bookmaking, introducing greater durability and accessibility. Across regions like China, the Middle East, Europe, and South Asia, diverse methods of book production evolved. The Middle Ages saw the rise of illuminated manuscripts, intricately blending text and imagery, particularly during the Mughal era in South Asia under the patronage of rulers like Akbar and Shah Jahan. Prior to the invention of the printing press, made famous by the Gutenberg Bible, each text was a unique handcrafted valuable article, personalized through the design features incorporated by the scribe, owner, bookbinder, and illustrator.

The invention of the printing press in the 15th century marked a pivotal moment, revolutionizing book production. Innovations like movable type and steam-powered presses accelerated manufacturing processes and contributed to increased literacy rates. Copyright protection also emerged, securing authors' rights and shaping the publishing landscape. The Late Modern Period introduced chapbooks, catering to a wider range of readers, and mechanization of the printing process further enhanced efficiency.

The 20th century witnessed the advent of typewriters, computers, and desktop publishing, transforming document creation and printing. Digital advancements in the 21st century led to the rise of e-books, propelled by the popularity of e-readers and accessibility features. While discussions about the potential decline of physical books have surfaced, print media has proven remarkably resilient, continuing to thrive as a multi-billion dollar industry. Additionally, efforts to make literature more inclusive emerged, with the development of Braille for the visually impaired and the creation of spoken books, providing alternative ways for individuals to access and enjoy literature.

Origins
The history of the book became an acknowledged academic discipline in the latter half of the 20th century. It was fostered by William Ivins Jr.'s Prints and Visual Communication (1953) and Henri-Jean Martin and Lucien Febvre's L'apparition du livre (The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing, 1450–1800) in 1958 as well as Marshall McLuhan's Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962). Another notable pioneer in the History of the Book is Robert Darnton.

Chronology
The history of the book starts with the development of writing, and various other inventions such as paper and printing, and continues through to the modern-day business of book printing. The earliest knowledge society has on the history of books actually predates what would conventionally be called "books" today and begins with tablets, scrolls, and sheets of papyrus. (The current format that we consider to be books, with separate sheets fastened together rather than a scroll, is called a codex (plural codices)). Then hand-bound, expensive, and elaborate manuscripts appeared in codex form. These gave way to press-printed volumes and eventually led to the mass-printed volumes prevalent today. Contemporary books may even have no physical presence with the advent of the e-book. The book also became more accessible to the disabled with the advent of Braille and audiobook.

Clay tablets

Clay tablets were used in Mesopotamia in the . The calamus, an instrument with a triangular point, was used to inscribe characters in moist clay. Fire was used to dry the tablets out. At Nineveh, over 20,000 tablets have been found, dating from the ; this was the archive and library of the kings of Assyria, who had workshops of copyists and conservationists at their disposal. This presupposes a degree of organization of books, consideration given to conservation, classification, etc. Such tablets continued to be used until the 19th century in various parts of the world, including Germany, Chile, Philippines, and the Sahara Desert.

Cuneiform and Sumerian writing
Writing originated as a form of record-keeping in Sumer during the  with the advent of cuneiform. Many clay tablets have been found that show cuneiform writing used to record legal contracts, create lists of assets, and eventually record Sumerian literature and myths. Archaeologists have found scribal schools from as early as the , where students were taught the art of writing. Developed in what is now Iraq, "cuneiform" script was later named after the Latin word cuneus, meaning wedge-shaped. Scribes often wrote cuneiform on clay, but sometimes they used precious materials such as gold. Cuneiform was written in different languages, such as Sumerian, Akkadian, and Greek, for more than three thousand years, ending only when the Sassanian Empire conquered Babylon and forced the scribes to stop writing. Some of the surviving cuneiform tablets were written by student scribes.

Papyrus

After extracting the marrow from the stems of papyrus reed, a series of steps (humidification, pressing, drying, gluing, and cutting) produced media of variable quality, the best being used for sacred writing. In Ancient Egypt, papyrus was used as a medium for writing surfaces, maybe as early as the First Dynasty, but first evidence is from the account books of King Neferirkare Kakai of the Fifth Dynasty (about 2400 BCE). A calamus, the stem of a reed sharpened to a point, or bird feathers were used for writing. The script of Egyptian scribes was called hieratic, or sacerdotal writing; it is not hieroglyphic, but a simplified form more adapted to manuscript writing (hieroglyphs usually being engraved or painted). Egyptians exported papyrus to other Mediterranean civilizations including Greece and Rome where it was used until parchment was developed.

Papyrus books were in the form of a scroll of several sheets pasted together, for a total length of 10 meters or more. Some books, such as the history of the reign of Ramses III, were over 40 meters long. Books rolled out horizontally; the text occupied one side and was divided into columns. The title was indicated by a label attached to the cylinder containing the book. Many papyrus texts come from tombs, where prayers and sacred texts were deposited (such as the Book of the Dead, from the early 2nd millennium BCE).

Papyrus was a common substrate to be used as notarial documents, tax registries, and legal contracts. Scrolls were typically held vertically to be read and text was written in long columns. Literary texts, on the other hand, were traditionally transcribed into the codex form. After the latter half of the , leftover papyrus in Egypt was often used by bookbinders for making book covers since paper had replaced papyrus as the dominant substrate for books.

East Asia

China
Before the introduction of books, writing on bone, shells, wood and silk was prevalent in China long before the 2nd century BCE, until paper was invented in China around the 1st century CE. China's first recognizable books called jiance or jiandu, were made of rolls of thin split and dried bamboo bound together with hemp, silk, or leather. The discovery of the process using the bark of the mulberry to create paper is attributed to Cai Lun, but it may be older. Texts were reproduced by woodblock printing; the diffusion of Buddhist texts was a main impetus to large-scale production. The format of the book evolved with intermediate stages of scrolls folded concertina-style, scrolls bound at one edge ("butterfly books"), and so on.

Although there is no exact date known, between 618 and 907 CE —the period of the Tang Dynasty— the first printing of books started in China. The oldest extant printed book is a work of the Diamond Sutra and dates back to 868 CE, during the Tang Dynasty. The Diamond Sutra was printed by method of woodblock printing, a strenuous method in which the text to be printed would be carved into a woodblock's surface, essentially to be used to stamp the words onto the writing surface medium. Woodblock printing was a common process for the reproduction of already handwritten texts during the earliest stages of book printing. This process was incredibly time-consuming.

Because of the meticulous and time-consuming process that woodblock printing was, Bi Sheng, a key contributor to the history of printing, invented the process of Movable type printing (1041–1048 CE). Bi Sheng developed a printing process in which written text could be copied with the use of formed character types, the earliest types being made of ceramic or clay material. The method of movable type printing would later be independently invented and improved by Johannes Gutenberg.

Japan

A lot of extremely detailed text was produced in early 17th century Japan. For instance, Hitomi Hitsudai spent sixty years taking field notes on 499 types of edible flowers and animals for his book Honchō shokkan (The Culinary Mirror of the Realm).  This detailed style of writing was common in the early years when the majority of literate people were of higher classes. Soon afterwards, literacy increased, as hundreds (some say thousands) of schools taught children the vocabulary of geography, history, and individual crafts and callings. The highly detailed style still persisted as it was consistent in many gazetteers, emerging as a social lexicon. In some instances, family almanacs and encyclopedias were put together regionally.

While the highly detailed writing form persisted, a simpler reading style also developed around the 1670s that was written for a popular readership. It used a simpler vernacular language, and was written almost directly for first-time book buyers. These original tales of fiction were popular among common samurai as well as common townspeople. Works went beyond fiction and also depicted certain crafts and manuals specialized for that topic. These more popularized books were written in a newly emerging form of script. Authors had to deal with the idea of the "reading public" for the first time. These authors took into account the different social strata of their audience and had to learn "the common forms of reference that made the words and images of a text intelligible" to the layman.

Authors had reached a new market with their more simplistic writing. After passing this hurdle, they began writing about more than specified crafts and social lexicons. For the first time, writers had the chance to make once private knowledge public, and moved into more regional information guides. Detail-oriented writing still persisted as writing became understood as something that needed to show "quantitative evidence in order to measure continuity against change". The increasing literacy across Japan as well as the proliferation of authors made writing a semi-autonomous system. However, there were still instances of censorship in the late 17th century. Despite the vast depiction of landscape, governmental powers ensured areas that entailed sensitive subjects, such as military households, foreign affairs, Christianity, and other heterodox beliefs, and disturbing current events were kept out of public works. This self-censorship did have drawbacks, as social commentary stayed in the higher social caste where this information was more readily available. Despite these censors, public readings increased across Japan and created new markets that could be shared between the higher elites as well as middlebrow people, albeit with differing subject matter.

Pre-columbian codices of the Americas

In Mesoamerica, information was recorded on long strips of paper, agave fibers, or animal hides, which were then folded and protected by wooden covers. These were thought to have existed since the time of the Classical Period between the 3rd and 8th centuries, CE. Many of these codices were thought to contain astrological information, religious calendars, knowledge about the gods, genealogies of the rulers, cartographic information, and tribute collection. Many of these codices were stored in temples but were ultimately destroyed by the Spanish explorers.

Currently, the only completely deciphered pre-Columbian writing system is the Maya script. The Maya, along with several other cultures in Mesoamerica, constructed concertina-style books written on Amate paper. Nearly all Mayan texts were destroyed by the Spanish during colonization on cultural and religious grounds. One of the few surviving examples is the Dresden Codex.

Although only the Maya have been shown to have a writing system capable of conveying any concept that can be conveyed via speech (at about the same level as the modern Japanese writing system), other Mesoamerican cultures had more rudimentary ideographical writing systems which were contained in similar concertina-style books, one such example being the Aztec codices.

Florentine Codex
There are more than 2,000 illustrations drawn by native artists that represent this era. Bernardino de Sahagun tells the story of the Aztec people's lives and their natural history. The Florentine Codex speaks about the culture religious cosmology and ritual practices, society, economics, and natural history of the Aztec people. The manuscript is arranged in both Nahuatl and in Spanish. The English translation of the complete Nahuatl text of all twelve volumes of the Florentine Codex took ten years. Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble had a decade of long work but made it an important contribution to Mesoamerican ethnohistory. Years later, in 1979, the Mexican government published a full-color volume of the Florentine Codex. Now, since 2012, it is available digitally and fully accessible to those interested in Mexican and Aztec History.

The Florentine Codex is a 16th-century ethnographic research study brought about by the Spanish Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagun. The codex itself was actually named La Historia Universal de las Cosas de Nueva España. Bernardino de Sahagun worked on this project from 1545 up until his death in 1590. The Florentine Codex consists of twelve books. It is 2500 pages long but divided into twelve books by categories such as; The Gods, Ceremonies, Omens, and other cultural aspects of Aztec people.

Wax tablets

Romans used wax-coated wooden tablets or pugillares upon which they could write and erase by using a stylus. One end of the stylus was pointed, and the other was spherical. Usually, these tablets were used for everyday purposes (accounting, notes) and for teaching writing to children, according to the methods discussed by Quintilian in his Institutio Oratoria X Chapter 3. Several of these tablets could be assembled in a form similar to a codex. Also, the etymology of the word codex (block of wood) suggests that it may have developed from wooden wax tablets.

Parchment

Parchment progressively replaced papyrus. Legend attributes its invention to Eumenes II, the king of Pergamon, from which comes the name "pergamineum," which became "parchment." Its production began around the 3rd century BCE. Made using the skins of animals (sheep, cattle, donkey, antelope, etc.), parchment proved to be easier to conserve over time; it was more solid and allowed one to erase text. It was a very expensive medium because of the rarity of the material and the time required to produce a document. Vellum, in particular, is a fine quality parchment, made from calf hide. Exeter Book Riddle 26 describes the process of making parchment through the eyes of an animal. The riddle reads:

Greece and Rome
The scroll of papyrus is called "volumen" in Latin, a word which signifies "circular movement," "roll," "spiral," "whirlpool," "revolution" (similar, perhaps, to the modern English interpretation of "swirl") and finally "a roll of writing paper, a rolled manuscript, or a book."
In the 7th century Isidore of Seville explains the relation between codex, book, and scroll in his Etymologiae (VI.13) as this:

Description
The scroll is rolled around two vertical wooden axes. This design allows only sequential usage; one is obliged to read the text in the order in which it is written, and it is impossible to place a marker in order to directly access a precise point in the text. It is comparable to modern video cassettes. Moreover, the reader must use both hands to hold on to the vertical wooden rolls and therefore cannot read and write at the same time. The only volumen in common usage today is the Jewish Torah.

Book culture
The authors of antiquity had no rights concerning their published works; there were neither authors' nor publishing rights. Anyone could have a text recopied, and even alter its contents. Scribes earned money and authors earned mostly glory unless a patron provided cash; a book made its author famous. This followed the traditional concept of the culture: an author stuck to several models, which he imitated and attempted to improve. The status of the author was not regarded as absolutely personal.

From a political and religious point of view, books were censored very early: the works of Protagoras were burned because he was a proponent of agnosticism and argued that one could not know whether or not the gods existed. Generally, cultural conflicts led to important periods of book destruction: in 303, the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of Christian texts. Some Christians later burned libraries and especially heretical or non-canonical Christian texts. These practices are found throughout human history but have ended in many nations today. A few nations today still greatly censor and even burn books.

But there also exists a less visible but nonetheless effective form of censorship when books are reserved for the elite; the book was not originally a medium for expressive liberty. It may serve to confirm the values of a political system, as during the reign of the emperor Augustus, who skillfully surrounded himself with great authors. This is a good ancient example of the control of the media by political power. However, private and public censorship has continued into the modern era, albeit in various forms.

Proliferation and conservation of books in Greece
Little information concerning books in Ancient Greece survives. Several vases (6th and 5th centuries BCE) bear images of volumina. There was undoubtedly no extensive trade in books, but there existed several sites devoted to the sale of books.

The spread of books, and attention to their cataloging and conservation, as well as literary criticism developed during the Hellenistic period with the creation of large libraries in response to the desire for knowledge exemplified by Aristotle. These libraries were undoubtedly also built as demonstrations of political prestige:
 The Library at Antioch, a public library of which Euphorion of Chalcis was the director near the end of the 3rd century.
 The Library at Athens, the Ptolemaion, which gained importance following the destruction of the Library at Alexandria; the Library of Pantainos, around 100 CE; the library of Hadrian, in 132 CE.
 The Library at Pergamon, founded by Attalus I; it contained 200,000 volumes which were moved to the Serapeion by Mark Antony and Cleopatra, after the destruction of the Museion. The Serapion was partially destroyed in 391, and the last books disappeared in 641 CE following the Arab conquest.
 The Library at Rhodes, a library that rivaled the Library of Alexandria.
 The Library of Alexandria, a library created by Ptolemy Soter and set up by Demetrius Phalereus (Demetrius of Phaleron). It contained 500,900 volumes (in the Museion section) and 40,000 at the Serapis temple (Serapeion). All books in the luggage of visitors to Egypt were inspected and could be held for copying. The Museion was partially destroyed in 47 BCE.

The libraries had copyist workshops and the general organization of books allowed for the following:
 A catalog of books
 Conservation of an example of each text
 Literary criticisms in order to establish reference texts for the copy (example : The Iliad and The Odyssey)
 The copy itself, which allowed books to be disseminated
 Translation (the Septuagint Bible, for example)

Book production in Rome
Book production developed in Rome in the 1st century BC with Latin literature that had been influenced by the Greek. Conservative estimates place the number of potential readers in Imperial Rome at around 100,000 people.

This diffusion primarily concerned circles of literary individuals. Atticus was the editor of his friend Cicero. However, the book business progressively extended itself through the Roman Empire; for example, there were bookstores in Lyon. The spread of the book was aided by the extension of the Empire, which implied the imposition of the Latin tongue on a great number of people (in Spain, Africa, etc.).

Libraries were private or created at the behest of an individual. Julius Caesar, for example, wanted to establish one in Rome, proving that libraries were signs of political prestige.

In the year 377, there were 28 libraries in Rome, and it is known that there were many smaller libraries in other cities. Despite the great distribution of books, scientists do not have a complete picture as to the literary scene in antiquity as thousands of books have been lost through time.

Paper

Papermaking has traditionally been traced to China about 105 CE, when Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial court during the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE), created a sheet of paper using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste.

While paper used for wrapping and padding was used in China since the 2nd century BC, paper used as a writing medium only became widespread by the 3rd century. By the 6th century in China, sheets of paper were beginning to be used for toilet paper as well. During the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. The Song dynasty (960–1279) that followed was the first government to issue paper currency.

Paper as a substrate was introduced from China and practiced in Central Asia by the 8th century CE. Rather than the bast fibers used for Chinese papermaking, artisans used rag fibers which could be locally sourced. Under Arab rule, these artisans enhanced their techniques for beating rag fibers and preparing the surface of the paper to be smooth and porous by utilizing starch. By the latter half of the 10th century CE paper had replaced papyrus as the dominant substrate for books in the regions under Islamic rule.

An important development was the mechanization of paper manufacture by medieval papermakers. The introduction of water-powered paper mills, the first certain evidence of which dates to the 11th century in Córdoba, Spain, allowed for a massive expansion of production and replaced the laborious handcraft characteristic of both Chinese and Muslim papermaking. Papermaking centers began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy, reducing the price of paper to one-sixth of parchment and then falling further.

Middle Ages

By the end of antiquity, between the 2nd and 4th centuries, the scroll was replaced by the codex. The book was no longer a continuous roll, but a collection of sheets attached at the back. It became possible to access a precise point in the text quickly. The codex is equally easy to rest on a table, which permits the reader to take notes while they are reading. The codex form improved with the separation of words, capital letters, and punctuation, which permitted silent reading. Tables of contents and indices facilitated direct access to information. This is still the standard book form, over 1500 years after its appearance. However, it is more likely that its development is attributable to the early Christians who began using it.

Paper would progressively replace parchment. Cheaper to produce, it allowed a greater diffusion of books.

Books in monasteries
A number of Christian books were destroyed at the order of Diocletian in 304. During the turbulent periods of the invasions, it was the monasteries that conserved religious texts and certain works of classical antiquity for the West. There were also important copying centers in Byzantium.

The role of monasteries in the conservation of books is somewhat ambiguous:
 The purpose of book conservation was not exclusively to preserve ancient culture; it was especially relevant to understanding religious texts with the aid of ancient knowledge. Some works were never recopied, having been judged too dangerous for the monks. Moreover, in need of blank media, the monks sometimes scraped off manuscripts, thereby destroying ancient works. The transmission of knowledge was centered primarily on sacred texts.
 Reading was an important activity in the lives of monks, which can be divided into prayer, intellectual work, and manual labor (in the Benedictine order, for example). It was therefore necessary to make copies of certain works. Accordingly, many monasteries had a scriptorium, where monks copied and decorated manuscripts that had been preserved.

Copying and conserving books

Despite this ambiguity, monasteries in the West and the Eastern Empire permitted the conservation of a certain number of secular texts, and several libraries were created: for example, Cassiodorus ('Vivarum' in Calabria, around 550), and Constantine I in Constantinople. Even so, survival of books often depended on political battles and ideologies, which sometimes entailed massive destruction of books or difficulties in production (for example, the distribution of books during the Iconoclasm between 730 and 842). A long list of very old and surviving libraries that now form part of the Vatican Archives can be found in the Catholic Encyclopedia.

To help preserve books and protect them from thieves, librarians would create chained libraries, with books attached to cabinets or desks with metal chains. This eliminated the unauthorized removal of books. One of the earliest chained libraries was in England during the 1500s. Popular culture also has examples of chained libraries, such as in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone by J.K Rowling.

The scriptorium
The scriptorium was the workroom of monk copyists; here, books were copied, decorated, rebound, and conserved. The armarius directed the work and played the role of the librarian.

The role of the copyist was multifaceted: for example, thanks to their work, texts circulated from one monastery to another. Copies also allowed monks to learn texts and to perfect their religious education. The relationship with the book thus defined itself according to an intellectual relationship with God. But if these copies were sometimes made for the monks themselves, there were also copies made on-demand.

The task of copying itself had several phases: the preparation of the manuscript in the form of notebooks once the work was complete, the presentation of pages, the copying itself, revision, correction of errors, decoration, and binding. The book, therefore, required a variety of competencies, which often made a manuscript a collective effort.

Transformation from the literary edition in the 12th century

The revival of cities in Europe would change the conditions of book production and extend its influence, and the monastic period of the book would come to an end. This revival accompanied the intellectual renaissance of the period. The Manuscript culture outside of the monastery developed in these university-cities in Europe at this time. It is around the first universities that new structures of production developed: reference manuscripts were used by students and professors for teaching theology and liberal arts. The development of commerce and of the bourgeoisie brought with it a demand for specialized and general texts (law, history, novels, etc.). It is in this period that writing in the common vernacular developed (courtly poetry, novels, etc.). Commercial scriptoria became common, and the profession of bookseller came into being, sometimes dealing internationally.

There is also the creation of royal libraries as in the case of Saint Louis and Charles V. Books were also collected in private libraries, which became more common in the 14th and 15th centuries.

The use of paper diffused through Europe in the 14th century. This material, less expensive than parchment, came from China via the Arabs in Spain in the 11th and 12th centuries. It was used in particular for ordinary copies, while parchment was used for luxury editions.

Printing press

The invention of the moveable type on the printing press by Johann Fust, Peter Schoffer, and Johannes Gutenberg around 1440 marks the entry of the book into the industrial age. The Western book was no longer a single object, written or reproduced by request. The publication of a book became an enterprise, requiring capital for its realization and a market for its distribution. The cost of each individual book (in a large edition) was lowered enormously, which in turn increased the distribution of books. The book in codex form and printed on paper, as we know it today, dates from the 15th century. Books printed before January 1, 1501, are called incunables. The spreading of book printing all over Europe occurred relatively quickly, but most books were still printed in Latin. The spreading of the concept of printing books in the vernacular was a somewhat slower process.

Western Asia and North Africa

Early period

Since the 7th century CE, parchment was used in the codex form for transcribing the Quran. They ranged from being of a larger size used for public recitations to being pocket sized. Books created in this time period placed greater importance on text over image. In many cases, the parchment was dyed (such as the Blue Quran), which was initially executed in Christian Byzantine manuscripts. Earlier Quran manuscripts were oriented vertically, with the height of the book longer than its width. However, later the standard horizontal orientation was established.

Medieval period
The art of the book as a discipline came to be established in the Medieval Islamic period during the 11th-century CE. This is attributed to the rising availability of paper which replaced parchment and was easier to handle and distribute, and that rounded scripts took the place of previously angular scripts. In this period, an array of book types were produced in addition to the Quran, including scientific notes, poetry and literary narratives.

The conversion of members of the Mongol elite classes to Islam in the 13th century CE to form the Ilkhanate led to a surge in patronage for book production and distribution from Tabriz and Baghdad. Large scale operations of producing Qurans were made possible by the availability of Baghdadi paper. The increase in the volume of books produced was used as a tool to spread publicity about the workings of the papermaking mills established by the Ilkhans. Along with this, the other artisans working in conjunction with the book arts (calligraphers, bookbinders, illuminators, etc.) all benefited from the increased output. Images began to appear on illuminated manuscripts along with text with illustration becoming a focal point of the book, not just calligraphy. The role of the books produced by the Ilkhans were intended to promote either religion or heritage and ranged from holy books to historical ones.

Later period
Manuscript production in the 16th and 17th centuries CE were directed towards royal workshops with the economic power to produce them. Book distribution tied to their use as status symbols in one's collection, or as economic investments and donations. The process of producing a manuscript began with the workshop director designing the overall layout, followed by the process of making the paper (which may be gold-speckled or marbled), the scribe writing the text and finally multiple artisans illustrating the pages with miniature paintings, banners and decorated frontispieces. After the pages were burnished, bookbinders sewed the front cover, spine and back cover with the folios.

Baghdad emerged as the epicenter for book production in the Ottoman Empire. Books produced in Ottoman workshops included biographies, travelogues and genealogies. In the late 16th century CE patronage to the arts declined, including book production, due to an economic crisis. The arts revived under the rule of Ahmet III who established the Topkapi Palace library in Constantinople to commission new manuscripts. The imagery used in these books began to take influence from contemporary European engravings. Until the late 1500s, availability of printed books increased but not acceptance of the printing press, since the scribes and calligraphers felt they would be out of work should it be introduced.

The Persian Safavids held great importance to the book arts and had a thriving book culture. In this era, the kitab-khana ("book house") was a term serving three definitions – first, it was a public library for the storing and preservation of the books; secondly, it also referred to an individual's own private collection of books; and thirdly to a workshop where books were made with calligraphers, bookbinders and papermakers worked together. The Safavid style of manuscript illustrations evolved into its own style building from the arts of the Timurid Period. The most well-known manuscript created by the Safavids is the Shahnama, based on the poem by Ferdowsi.

Introduction to printing
Movable type in the Arabic script was initially created by European printing presses. In the 1530s, the first Quran had been printed in Venice by Paganino Paganini. The embrace of the printing press by the general public in the Arab and Persian worlds occurred in the 18th century CE, despite having been introduced in Europe three centuries earlier. The first Arabic printing press was established in Constantinople in 1720 under the reign of Sultan Ahmed III.

In 1815, Muhammad Ali Pasha sent artisans to Milan to learn the principles of printing in order to set up a press in Egypt. The Bulaq Press was established in 1822 and was headed by Nikula al-Masabiki from Syria, who designed the Arabic typesets. The first published book by the printing press was an Italian–Arabic dictionary.

Lithographic printmaking was introduced as a way of mechanical reproduction of text and image by the 19th century CE, shortly after its invention in the Kingdom of Bavaria. The first Persian book to be printed by lithography was a copy of the Quran, using a printing press imported from Russia to the city of Tabriz. Despite the use of movable typography diminishing between 1852 and 1872, the process of printing from stone lithography flourished in Islamic book production. The advantage of lithography included the medium being well suited to adapt the well established artistic traditions found in traditional Islamic manuscripts. In Persia in the mid 1800s, several "mixed-media" codices were created, employing a hybrid range of both handwritten scribed portions and printed matter.

By the late 1800s movable type increased in popularity again. In Egypt, the majority of the 10,205 books printed from 1822 to 1900 were through letterpress printing. As the arts pertaining to manuscript production such as miniature painting and bookbinding decreased in popularity in the 20th century CE, calligraphy and the art of writing still remain popular.

South Asia

Early manuscripts
In ancient times, stone slabs had been used for writing. The oldest surviving books come from the 10th century CE, the earliest belonging to the Buddhist manuscript tradition. Prior to the adoption of paper, these were written on palm leaves, a naturally abundant resource in the southern part of the subcontinent. The pages were usually three feet wide and two inches tall. The process of preparing the palm leaves consisted of drying, polishing, and treating with starch to form a surface suitable for writing. The pages were bound together by a single piece of string on the shorter edge, and held with the longer edge of the manuscript running alongside the user's chest.

Paper was introduced to the Indian Subcontinent from Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula in the 11th century CE by merchants trading with Gujarat. The first papermaking mills were established in the 15th century CE by artisans arriving from Samarkand. However, palm leaves continued to be used as a substrate for manuscripts in parts of eastern and southern India and Sri Lanka. Paper was commonly used in the Jain manuscript tradition from the 15th century CE onwards. The elongated proportions of the palm leaf manuscripts were dropped for thinner forms made possible by the use of paper, however, the pages still used a horizontal orientation. Images took up around one-third of the page, the rest being filled with text.

Mughal Era
The first Mughal Emperor Babur was not a large patron of the arts, however, he chronicled his endeavors in a biographic manuscript called the Baburnama. Following his exile into the Safavid Empire, in 1540 Babur's successor Humayun brought back artisans of illustrated Persian manuscripts to the Mughal court.

Despite being illiterate himself, the book arts flourished under the patronage of Mughal Emperor Akbar. He established a painting workshop adjacent to the royal library and atelier in Fatehpur Sikri in the late 15th century CE, allowing the production of the book and illustrated manuscript to occur more efficiently. Large scale poster-sized manuscript paintings were used as recitation aids to famous stories and narratives, such as the Hamzanama. Akbar's grandson Shah Jahan established a manuscript decoration tradition that included a strong emphasis on text than his predecessors, as well as margins filled with imagery of flowers and vegetation. Manuscript production had declined from its peak by the time of Shah Jahan's reign and book illustrators and artisans went on to be employed by the regional Rajasthani courts of Bikaner, Bundi and Kota.

During the 17th century CE, the influence of the illustrated book declined. Single sheet artworks became more popular since they were more cost-effective to produce and purchase, and were later assembled into albums with decorative elements added after.

Modern Era

The Late Modern Period
The Late Modern Period saw a lot of development in the types of books being circulated. Chapbooks – short works on cheap paper – were targeted towards lower-class readers and featured a diverse range of subjects. Everything from myth and fairy tales to practical and medical advice and prayers contributed to a steady demand that helped spread literacy among the lower classes. Literacy was in general on the rise, with a near-universal literacy rate in Western Europe, Australia, and the United States of America by 1890, with the inequality between men and women's literacy starting to equalize by 1900.

The printing press became increasingly mechanized. Early designs for metal and steam-powered printing presses were introduced in the early 19th century by inventors like Friederich Koenig and Charles Stanhope. However, they became widely adopted by the 1830s, particularly by newspapers such as the London Times. Around the same time, a revolution was triggered in paper production by Henry Fourdrinier and Thomas Gilpin, whose new paper-making machines output very wide continuous rolls of paper. The only bottleneck to book production was the time-consuming process of composition. This was eventually solved by Ottmar Mergenthaler and Tolbert Lanston who produced the Linotype and Monotype machines respectively. With these barriers removed book production exploded.

Great strides began in the realm of publishing as authors began to enjoy early forms of Copyright protection. The Statute of Anne was passed in 1710, establishing basic rights for the author's intellectual property. This was superseded by the Copyright Act of 1814 which transferred sole rights to print work for twenty-eight years after publication. This was extended in 1842 to the author's lifetime plus seven years, or forty two years after first publication.

During the Enlightenment more books began to pour off European presses, creating an early form of information overload for many readers. Nowhere was this more the case than in Enlightenment Scotland, where students were exposed to a wide variety of books during their education. The demands of the British and Foreign Bible Society (founded 1804), the American Bible Society (founded 1816), and other non-denominational publishers for enormously large inexpensive runs of texts led to numerous innovations. The introduction of steam printing presses a little before 1820, closely followed by new steam paper mills, constituted the two most major innovations. Together, they caused book prices to drop and the number of books to increase considerably. Numerous bibliographic features, like the positioning and formulation of titles and subtitles, were also affected by this new production method. New types of documents appeared later in the 19th century: photography, sound recording and film.

Contemporary Period
Typewriters and eventually, computer-based word processors and printers let people print and put together their own documents. Desktop publishing is common in the 21st century.

Among a series of developments that occurred in the 1990s, the spread of digital multimedia, which encodes texts, images, animations, and sounds in a unique and simple form was notable for the book publishing industry. Hypertext further improved access to information. Finally, the internet lowered production and distribution costs.

E-books and the future of the book
It is difficult to predict the future of the book in an era of fast-paced technological change. Anxieties about the "death of books" have been expressed throughout the history of the medium, perceived as threatened by competing media such as radio, television, and the Internet. However, these views are generally exaggerated, and "dominated by fetishism, fears about the end of humanism and ideas of techno-fundamentalist progress". The print book medium has proven to be very resilient and adaptable. In the 2020s, print books still considerably outsell ebooks in most countries and remain a multi-billion dollar industry.

A good deal of reference material, designed for direct access instead of sequential reading, as for example encyclopedias, exists less and less in the form of books and increasingly on the web. Leisure reading materials are increasingly published in e-reader formats.

Although electronic books, or e-books, had limited success in the early years, and readers were resistant at the outset, the demand for books in this format has grown dramatically, primarily because of the popularity of e-reader devices and as the number of available titles in this format has increased. Since the Amazon Kindle was released in 2007, the e-book has become a digital phenomenon and many theorize that it will take over hardback and paper books in the future. E-books are much more accessible and easier to buy and it is also cheaper to purchase an E-Book rather than its physical counterpart due to paper expenses being deducted. Another important factor in the increasing popularity of the e-reader is its continuous diversification. Many e-readers now support basic operating systems, which facilitate email and other simple functions. The iPad is the most obvious example of this trend, but even mobile phones can host e-reading software.

Reading for the blind
Braille is a system of reading and writing through the use of the finger tips. Braille was developed as a system of efficient communication for blind and partially blind alike. The system consists of sixty-three characters and is read left to right. These characters are made with small raised dots in two columns similar to a modern domino piece to represent each letter. Readers can identify characters with two fingers. Reading speed averages one hundred and twenty-five words per minute and can reach two hundred words per minute.

The making of Braille
Braille was named after its creator Louis Braille in 1824 in France. Braille stabbed himself in the eyes at the age of three with his father's leatherworking tools. Braille spent nine years working on a previous system of communication called night writing by Charles Barbier. Braille published his book "procedure for writing words, music, and plainsong in dots", in 1829. In 1854 France made Braille the "official communication system for blind individuals". Valentin Haüy was the first person to put Braille on paper in the form of a book. In 1932 Braille became accepted and used in English speaking countries. In 1965 the Nemeth Code of Braille Mathematics and Scientific Notation was created. The code was developed to assign symbols to advanced mathematical notations and operations. The system has remained the same, only minor adjustments have been made to it since its creation.

Spoken books
The spoken book was originally created in the 1930s to provide the blind and visually impaired with a medium to enjoy books. In 1932 the American Foundation for the Blind created the first recordings of spoken books on vinyl records. In 1935, a British-based foundation, Royal National Institute for the Blind (RNIB), was the first to deliver talking books to the blind on vinyl records. Each record contained about thirty minutes of audio on both sides, and the records were played on a gramophone. Spoken books changed mediums in the 1960s with the transition from vinyl records to cassette tapes. The next progression of spoken books came in the 1980s with the widespread use of compact discs. Compact discs reached more people and made it possible to listen to books in the car. In 1995 the term audiobook became the industry standard. Finally, the internet-enabled audiobooks to become more accessible and portable. Audiobooks could now be played in their entirety instead of being split onto multiple disks.

Gallery

See also
 Book publishing by country
 Centre for the History of the Book
 Outline of books
 Textual scholarship

Specialized databases in book history
 English Short Title Catalogue
 Early American Imprints: Series I Evans, 1639-1800
 Early English Books Online
 Incunabula Short Title Catalogue
 Universal Short Title Catalogue

References

Works cited

Further reading

Books
 Blair, Ann (2010). Too Much to Know: Managing Scholarly Information before the Modern Age. Yale University Press. .

 Craughwell, Thomas J., and Damon Smith (2004). Q.P.B. Short History of the Paperback, and Other Milestones in Publishing. New and updated ed. New York: Quality Paperback Book Club.

  tr. by David Gerard; ed. by Geoffrey Nowell-Smith and David Wootton; Note : reprint, other reprints by this publisher 1990 & 1984, originally published (London : N.L.B., 1976); Translation of L'apparition du livre.

  Series : History of the book, no. 4.

 Price, Leah (2012). How to Do Things with Books in Victorian Britain. Princeton University Press. .

Publishers' series
 Publishing and Book Culture (Cambridge University Press) Publishing and Book Culture
 Library of the Written Word - The Handpress World (Brill) Library of the Written Word - The Handpress World
 Material Texts (Penn Press) Material Texts
 New Directions in Book History (Palgrave Macmillan) New Directions in Book History
 Studies in Print Culture and the History of the Book (University of Massachusetts Press) Search grid
 Studies in Publishing History: Manuscript, Print, Digital (Routledge) Studies in Publishing History: Manuscript, Print, Digital: Studies in Publishing History: Manuscript, Print, Digital - Book Series - Routledge & CRC Press
 Oxford University Studies in the Enlightenment (SVEC) Oxford University Studies in the Enlightenment

Periodicals
 Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries (Martinus Nijhoff)
 Archiv für Geschichte des Buchwesens (Buchhändler-Vereinigung)
 Book History (Society for the History of Authorship, Reading and Publishing)
 Electronic British Library Journal  (British Library Board)  Formerly the British Library Journal
 Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America (Bibliographical Society of America)
 Papers of the Bibliographical Society of Canada (Bibliographical Society of Canada)
 Quaerendo (Theatrum Orbis Terrarum)
 Revue Française d'Histoire du Livre (Société des bibliophiles de Guyenne)
 Script & Print (Bibliographical Society of Australia and New Zealand) , formerly the Bulletin of the Bibliographical Society of Australia and New Zealand
 Studies in Bibliography (Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia)
 The Library: The Transactions of the Bibliographical Society (Bibliographical Society)
 Histoire et civilisation du livre. Revue internationale
 International journal of the book
 Mémoires du livre/Studies in Book Culture
 The Journal of the Early Book Society for the Study of Manuscripts and Printing History

External links

 .  (Bibliographical essay)
 .  (Assorted articles on book history, mostly UK and US)
 Development of the Printed Page at the University of South Carolina Libraries Digital Collections
 Early Printed and Manuscript Leaf collection, University of Maryland Libraries
 Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries
 Program in the History of the Book in American Culture
 Society for the History of Authorship, Reading and Publishing (SHARP)
 The Atlas of Early Printing
 Museum finder: printing and related museums in Europe and worldwide at Association of European Printing Museums
 Institut d'histoire du livre
 Centre for the Study of the Book at Bodleian Libraries
 Early printed books: resources for learning and teaching

History of literature
Textual criticism
Textual scholarship
History of communication

History of books


The culture of Armenia encompasses many elements that are based on the geography, literature, architecture, dance, and music of the Armenian people. Armenia is a majority Christian country in the Caucasus.

Creative arts

Literature

Armenian literature began in 405 A.D. when Mesrop Mashtots created the Armenian alphabet, according to tradition, probably basing it on the Pahlavi and Greek alphabets. Movses Khorenatsi (Moses of Khorene) was a prominent Armenian writer of the 5th century and the author of the History of the Armenians.

Modern writers include the Russian-Armenian author, poet, and philosopher Mikael Nalbandian, who worked to create a new Armenian literary identity in the 19th century.

Dance

From the fifth to the third millennia B.C., in the higher regions of Armenia there are rock paintings of scenes of country dancing.

The energetic Armenian Yarkhushta is a martial dance mentioned in the medieval works of Movses Khorenatsi, Faustus of Byzantium, and Grigor Magistros. It has traditionally been danced by Armenian soldiers before combat engagements, partly for ritualistic purposes, and partly in order to cast off fear and boost battle spirit.

The dance is performed by men, who face each other in pairs. The key element of the dance is a forward movement when participants rapidly approach one another and vigorously clap onto the palms of hands of dancers in the opposite row.

Architecture

Classical Armenian architecture is divided into four separate periods. The first Armenian churches were built between the 4th and 7th centuries, beginning when the Armenian monarchy converted to Christianity and ending with the Arab invasion of Armenia. The early churches were mostly simple basilicas, some with side apses. By the 5th century the typical cupola cone in the center had become widely used. By the 7th century, centrally-planned churches were built with a more complicated niched buttress and radiating Hripsime style. By the time of the Arab invasion most of classical Armenian architecture had formed.

Carpets

Though women historically dominated carpet-weaving in Armenian communities, several prominent carpet-weavers in Karabakh are known to have been men, and in some cases whole families took up the art. The oldest extant Armenian carpet from the region, referred to as Artsakh during the medieval era, is from the village of Banants (near Gandzak) and dates to the early 13th century. The first time that the Armenian word for carpet, gorg, was used in historical sources was in a 1242-1243 Armenian inscription on the wall of the Kaptavan Church in Artsakh.

Art historian Hravard Hakobyan notes that "Artsakh carpets occupy a special place in the history of Armenian carpet-making. Common themes and patterns found on Armenian carpets were the depiction of dragons and eagles. They were diverse in style, rich in color and ornamental motifs, and were even separated in categories depending on what sort of animals were depicted on them, such as artsvagorgs (eagle-carpets), vishapagorgs (dragon-carpets) and otsagorgs (serpent-carpets). The rug mentioned in the Kaptavan inscriptions is composed of three arches, "covered with vegatative ornaments", and bears an artistic resemblance to the illuminated manuscripts produced in Artsakh.

The art of carpet weaving was in addition intimately connected to the making of curtains as evidenced in a passage by Kirakos Gandzaketsi, a 13th-century Armenian historian from Artsakh, who praised Arzu-Khatun, the wife of regional prince Vakhtang Khachenatsi, and her daughters for their expertise and skill in weaving.

Armenian carpet was also renowned by foreigners who traveled to Artsakh; the Arab geographer and historian Al-Masudi noted that, among other works of art, he had never seen such carpets elsewhere in his life.

Art

The National Art Gallery in Yerevan has more than 16,000 works that date back to the Middle Ages. The National Gallery of Armenia, Modern Art Museum of Yerevan, and the  Matenadaran are three examples of museums displaying various forms of visual art.

Lacemaking

Like Lacis, Armenian needlelace seems to be an obvious descendant of netmaking. Where lacis adds decorative stitches to a net ground, Armenian needlelace involves making the net itself decorative. There is some archaeological evidence suggesting the use of lace in prehistoric Armenia and the prevalence of pre-Christian symbology in traditional designs would certainly suggest a pre-Christian root for this art form.
In contrast to Europe where lace was the preserve of the nobility, in Armenia it decorated everything from traditional headscarves to lingerie. Thus lacemaking was part of many women's lives.

Theater

Born in Cairo, Egypt, Atom Egoyan is now an internationally known filmmaker who is celebrated for his contemporary work, including personal feature films and other related projects. He is the winner of many awards at international film festivals, such as the Grand Prix and international Critics' Awards from the Cannes Film Festival and two Academy Award nominations for "The Sweet Hereafter". Egoyan has also worked in the television and theatre industries, producing Wagner's Die Walkure which was performed by the Canadian Opera Company in April 2004. Egoyan's creation Ararat (2002) is about the 1915 Armenian Genocide perpetrated by Turks in the Turkish Ottoman Empire. It depicts the consequences and suffering of a child survivor Arshile Gorky, and is an incredibly made-movie for both Armenians and non-Armenians.

Music

One of the most important parts of Armenian culture is the music, which has brought new forms of music in recent years, while maintaining traditional styles too. This is evidenced by the world-class Armenian Philharmonic Orchestra that performs at the beautifully refurbished Aram Khachaturian Concert Hall in the Yerevan Opera House, where one can also attend a full season of opera. In addition, several chamber ensembles are highly regarded for their musicianship, including the Komitas Quartet, Hover Chamber Choir, National Chamber Orchestra of Armenia and the Serenade Orchestra. Classical music can also be heard at one of several smaller venues, including the Yerevan State Musical Conservatory, the Komitas Chamber Music Hall and the Komitas Museum. Jazz is popular in Armenia, especially in the summer when live performances are a regular occurrence at one of the city's many outdoor cafés and parks. Armenian rock has made its input to the rock culture. The most known Armenian traditional instrument is the Ծիրանափող, meaning apricot flute, also known as duduk ( or doo-dook).

Modern day Armenian artists have incorporated folk music into more modern jazz and rock genres so that the traditional music still influences their creations, such as Zartong a late 70's Armenian progressive folk band based out of France.

Inga and Anush Arshakyans are an unexpected duo who create ethno, contemporary tracks that are also full of Armenian spirit. After graduating from the Yerevan State Conservatory, the singers started performing together on the professional stage in 2000. Later, in 2009 Inga & Anush represented Armenia in the Eurovision Song Contest in Moscow. They ended up taking the tenth place with 92 points. Their music is a balanced fusion of Armenian folk music, rock, jazz and other contemporary genres.

Another singer from Yerevan, Armenia who is popular among young adults is Armen Gondrachyan, more famously known as 'Armenchik'. The influence of his father, who was also a singer, inspired Armen to start singing at the young age of seven. In 1989, Armen and his family moved to the United States, while in 1995, at the age of fifteen, he found a band and recorded his first album. In 1988, Armen went back to his hometown in Armenia and lived there for a year, and at the same time released the album, "Armen, memories from Armenia." This release initiated his path to star-dom. With his current fame, Armen is still very dedicated to the Armenian community. It was in October 2003 that he had his first concert in Glendale, California. The concert was a sellout, and in that same year, Armen received an award for the best-selling album of the year, "Anunt Inche".

Isabel Bayrakdarian is an opera singer of Armenian descent and is now known and popular both among Armenians and non-Armenians. She graduated from the University of Toronto with a degree in biomedical engineering, but has become very successful in North America as an opera singer and an active concertizer. She is featured on the Grammy-award-winning soundtrack of the film, the Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers. Bayrakdarian is also the winner of four Juno Awards for Best Classical Album (Vocal). Further, she is a featured vocalist of Atom Egoyan's movie, Ararat, in collaboration with the band "Delerium", which brought in another Grammy nomination.

Şahan Arzruni is an internationally renowned concert pianist, born in Istanbul, Turkey. Through his live performances and sound recordings he has disseminated the Armenian piano music throughout the world. He has some two dozen recordings, devoted mostly to the works of Armenian composer. Arzruni is also an author, a lecturer, a producer and impresario. He has been awarded two medals by the Armenian government for furthering Armenian culture. He lives in New York City.

Since 2014, The Naghash Ensemble has been touring in Europe performing new music by American-Armenian composer John Hodian based on sacred Armenian poetry by the medieval painter, poet and priest Mkrtich Naghash. With three female vocalists, duduk, oud, dhol and piano, The Naghash Ensemble combines new classical music and post-minimaslism with Armenian folk and spiritual music.

Cinema

Soviet Armenia (1924) was the first Armenian documentary film. Namus was the first Armenian silent black and white film (1926, ), directed by Hamo Beknazarian and based on a play of Alexander Shirvanzade describing the ill fate of two lovers, who were engaged by their families to each other since childhood, but because of violations of namus (a tradition of honor), the girl was married by her father. In 1969, Sergei Parajanov created The Color of Pomegranates.

Cuisine

Armenian cuisine is as ancient as the history of Armenia, a combination of different tastes and aromas. The food often has quite a distinct smell. Closely related to eastern and Mediterranean cuisine, various spices, vegetables, fish, and fruits combine to present unique dishes. Armenia is also famous for its wine and brandy. In particular, Armenian cognac is renowned worldwide (winner of several awards), and was considered by the late British Prime Minister, Sir Winston Churchill, as his favourite. It has often been referred to as the food of today.

A very important aspect of the Armenian cuisine is the traditional bread called Lavash. In 2014, "Lavash, the preparation, meaning and appearance of traditional bread as an expression of culture in Armenia" was included in the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

The Armenian soup, Khash, also has its own, unique place in the Armenian cuisine. The name khash originates from the Armenian verb khashél (Armenian: խաշել), which means "to boil." The dish, initially called khashoy, is mentioned by a number of medieval Armenian authors, e.g. Grigor Magistros (11th century), Mkhitar Heratsi (12th century), Yesayi Nchetsi (13th century), etc.

The pomegranate, with its symbolic association with fertility represents that nation. The apricot is the national fruit. Since Roman times, the apricot was known as Prunus Armeniaca, literally translated as " Armenian Plum".
According to encyclopedia.com,"A popular Armenian drink to this day is tan, a mixture of water and soured yogurt".

Language

The Armenian language dates to the early period of Indo-European differentiation and dispersion some 5000 years ago, or perhaps as early as 7,800 years ago according to some recent research. Trade and conquest forced the language to change, adding new words into the people's vocabulary. Literature and books written in Armenian appeared by the 4th century. The written language of that time, called classical Armenian or Grabar, remained the Armenian literary language, with various changes, until the 19th century. Meanwhile, spoken Armenian developed independently of the written language. Many dialects appeared when Armenian communities became separated by geography or politics, and not all of these dialects are mutually intelligible. English is a popular language in the business world.

Religion

The dominant religion in Armenia is Christianity and the Armenian Apostolic Church is the national church of Armenia.

Sports

A wide array of sports are played in Armenia. Football is the most popular sport in Armenia. Other popular sports are wrestling, weightlifting, judo, chess, and boxing. Armenia's mountainous terrain provides great opportunities for the practice of sports like skiing and rock climbing. Being a landlocked country, water sports can only be practiced on lakes, notably Lake Sevan. Competitively, Armenia has been very successful at chess, weightlifting, and wrestling at the international level. Armenia is also an active member of the international sports community, with full membership in the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), Federation of International Bandy (FIB), and International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). It also hosts the Pan-Armenian Games.

In Post-Soviet countries, the Armenian football players are well known for their skills and well developed techniques. This is mainly due to the success of the Armenian players such as, Khoren Hovhannisyan, Eduard Markarov, Levon Ishtoyan, Nikita Simonyan, etc. One of the biggest successes of Armenian club was the took place in the golden year of 1973, where the famous Armenian club Ararat Yerevan took both, the title of the Soviet Top League and the Soviet Cup.

Since independence, Armenia has been very successful in chess. Armenia's men team have won the Chess Olympiad 3 times, making them 5th most successful team in chess world history. Famous chess players, such as Tigran Petrosyan and Garry Kasparov are both of Armenian origins.

See also

 Armenian dress
 History of Armenia
 List of museums in Armenia

References

External links
 Music & Dance, By Robert Atayan, Hye Etch

Books
 Nina G. Garsoïan. Church and Culture in Early Medieval Armenia. — Ashgate, 1999.
 Vrej Nersessian, Tim Greenwood. Art of the Armenians. — Sam Fogg, 2004.
 Nira Stone, Michael E. Stone. The Armenians: Art, Culture and Religion. — Chester Beatty Library, 2007.

On folktales:
 Seklemian, A. G. The Golden Maiden and Other Folk Tales and Fairy Stories Told in Armenia. Cleveland and New York: The Helman-Taylor Company. 1898.
 Macler, Frédéric. Contes arméniens. Paris: Ernest Leroux Editeurs. 1905.
 Hoogasian-Villa, Susie. 100 Armenian Tales and Their Folkloristic Relevance. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1966.
 Surmelian, Leon. Apples of Immortality: Folktales of Armenia. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1968.
 Downing, Charles. Armenian Folk-tales and Fables. London: Oxford University Press. 1972. .
 Avakian, Anne M. Armenian Folklore Bibliography. University of California Press. 1994. .

Armenian
Armenian
Armenian

bn:আর্মেনিয়া#সংস্কৃতি

Culture of Armenia


Sittard (;  ) is a city in the Netherlands, situated in the southernmost province of Limburg.

The town is part of the municipality of Sittard-Geleen and has almost 37,500 inhabitants in 2016.

In its east, Sittard borders the German municipality of Selfkant (in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia).

The city centre is located at 45 m above sea level.

History
Archaeological discoveries have dated the first settlement in the Sittard area around 5000 B.C. Present day Sittard is assumed to have been founded around 850 A.D. and to have been built around a motte.  Sittard was first mentioned in 1157. It was granted city rights by the Duke of Limburg in 1243. In 1400 it was sold to the Duchy of Jülich, and remained in its possession until 1794. The city was destroyed and rebuilt repeatedly, due to fires and various conflicts during the 15th-17th century. It was a stronghold until it was largely destroyed in 1677, during the Franco-Dutch War. Under French occupation (1794-1814), Sittard was part of the Roer department. Since 1814, it has been part of the Netherlands, except for the years 1830–1839, when it joined the Belgian Revolution. During the Second World War, it was occupied by the Germans, who incorporated several small municipalities, like Broeksittard, into Sittard. The city was liberated September 18–19, 1944 by the 2nd Armored Division. The historic town was mostly spared destruction, despite lying in the frontline for over four months, in which over 4000 shells and rockets struck the city.

After World War II, Sittard expanded rapidly and many new neighbourhoods were built. The coal mines in the region were the driving force of a booming economy, until closed in the 1960s and 70s. It now has large industrial zones and office premises.

Main sights

Sittard has a small historic city centre with numerous architectural monuments, including several old churches, monasteries and a few half-timbered houses. The city centre is a protected area (beschermd stadsbezicht).

The most important monuments are:
St Peter's Church, 14th-16th century, Gothic style. The 16th century tower received its current steeple in 1875.
Dominican monastery, 17th century, with the Baroque St Michael's Church
Dominican nunnery St.-Agnetenberg, 17th century
Reformed Church, 17th century
Ursulines nunnery and boarding school, 16th-19th century
Basilica of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart (1875–77) and Mariapark (1891), pilgrimage sites
The medieval city wall
Half-timbered houses, 16th-17th century
The Jacob Kritzraedt house, 17th century, Mannerist style
Watermills, 16th-17th century
City park, 1921–27

The central market square has many restaurants and bars. The city has retained part of its city wall. On the south-eastern side of the city centre, the St Rosa chapel crowns the Kollenberg hill. Museum "Het Domein" is situated in a converted nineteenth century school building in the city centre. It focuses on contemporary art, urban history and archaeology. There is also a Commonwealth War Cemetery, where 239 soldiers of the Commonwealth Nations lie buried. Among them Dennis Donnini, the youngest to have received the Victoria Cross in World War II.

Economy

Sittard houses the SABIC European head office and a large DSM office; both companies having large chemical production facilities in nearby Geleen. The head office of the plant hire company Boels Rental is also located in Sittard.

Education

There are several schools for higher vocational education and training (hbo) in the city, including faculties of the Hogeschool Zuyd and Fontys Hogescholen. Large schools for secondary education in Sittard are 'Trevianum Scholengroep' (havo and vwo) and 'Da Capo College' (vmbo).

Sports

Sittard is the home of the professional football club Fortuna Sittard and of the handball club Sittardia.

The biggest Kennedy march of the Netherlands starts and ends in Sittard.

Notable people
Charles Beltjens, poet
Eddy Beugels, cyclist
Rens Blom, athlete competing in pole vault
Mike van Diem, film director
Willy Dullens, professional football player
Toon Hermans, comedian
Frederic Adolph Hoefer, lieutenant-general
Wim Hof, The Iceman, motivational speaker and extreme athlete
Leo Horn, football referee
Francine Houben, architect, director of Mecanoo
Jan Krekels, cyclist, Olympic champion
Danny Nelissen, cyclist
Jan Nolten, cyclist
Jan Notermans, professional football player
Rineke Dijkstra, photographer
Huub Stevens, professional football player and manager
Wilbert Suvrijn, professional football player
Arnold Vanderlyde, boxer
Joost Zweegers, singer and pianist of Novastar
Laurence Stassen, VNL politician

Dialect
The Sittard dialect is a particular variant of Limburgish.

Sister cities
 Valjevo, .
 Hasselt,

See also
 Vansittart, surname derived from the city.

References

External links

Cities in the Netherlands
Municipalities of the Netherlands disestablished in 2001
Populated places in Limburg (Netherlands)
Former municipalities of Limburg (Netherlands)
Sittard-Geleen

Sittard