Goosebumps is a 2015 American  horror film produced by Columbia Pictures, Sony Pictures Animation, Original Film, and Scholastic Entertainment Inc. in association with LStar Capital and Village Roadshow Pictures, and distributed by Sony Pictures Releasing. Directed by Rob Letterman from a screenplay written by Darren Lemke, it is based on R. L. Stine's children's horror book series of the same name. The film stars Jack Black, Dylan Minnette, Odeya Rush, Amy Ryan, Ryan Lee, and Jillian Bell. The plot follows a teen boy who teams up with his neighbor and her father, a fictional version of Stine, to save their hometown after all the monsters from the Goosebumps franchise escape from their books, wreaking havoc in the real world.

Development on a Goosebumps film adaptation began in the 1990's with Tim Burton and George A. Romero attached to direct. After failing to find a script to determine which book to adapt, the project was halted. In early 2008, Columbia acquired the rights to create a Goosebumps-based film, and the project reentered development. Principal photography lasted from April to July 2014 in Candler Park, Atlanta.

Goosebumps was theatrically released in the United States on October 16, 2015, by Sony Pictures Releasing. The film was a commercial success, grossing $158 million against its $84 million budget, and received positive reviews from critics, with praise for its humor, pacing, and faithfulness to the Goosebumps franchise.

A standalone sequel, Goosebumps 2: Haunted Halloween, was released on October 12, 2018, with only Black returning as Stine in an uncredited supporting role.

Plot
After his father's death, teenage Zach Cooper and his mother Gale move from New York City to Madison, Delaware where Gale gets a job as the local high school's new vice-principal. Setting in the neighborhood, Zach meets his neighbor Hannah, whose overprotective father tells him to stay away from her. Zach also befriends a cowardly but friendly student named Champ. Hannah invites Zach to an abandoned amusement park where they get know each other. Upon returning home, Hannah's father again warns him to stay away from them.

That same night, Gale has to supervise the school's spring break dance and leaves Zach with his aunt Lorraine. Fearing Hannah is in danger, Zach tricks her father into going to the police station while he and Champ enter his house. They find a bookshelf with numerous locked manuscripts from the Goosebumps horror book series. Zach accidentally unlocks The Abominable Snowman of Pasadena and the book's titular monster emerges from it. With Hannah's help, they track the snowman to an ice rink where Hannah's father appears and reimprisons the monster in the book.

Hannah's father reveals himself as R. L. Stine, the creator of the Goosebumps franchise; Stine wrote the stories to cope with severe bullying but his creations became real as result of his supernatural imagination and he was forced to keep them imprisoned in their books. Back home, they find Slappy the Dummy from the Night of the Living Dummy series freed from his manuscript. Seeking revenge for his imprisonment, Slappy burns his book and escapes with the entire Goosebumps collection. He unlocks The Haunted Car and Revenge of the Lawn Gnomes books, driving away in the titular possessed car as Stine, Zach, Hannah, and Champ are attacked by living garden gnomes who force them to leave the house.

Slappy rampages through Madison, releasing several monsters from their books to wreak havoc. Mutant plants from You're Plant Food! destroy the cell towers to isolate the town, bug-eyed aliens from Invasion of the Body Squeezers freeze the entire police station and a vampire poodle from Please Don't Feed the Vampire! attacks Lorraine. Zach convinces Stine to write a new Goosebumps book to recapture the monsters, but Stine tells him it can only be done with a special typewriter displayed at the school. On the way, the group is attacked by Brent Green from My Best Friend is Invisible and a giant praying mantis from A Shocker on Shock Street, hiding inside a supermarket. Will Blake from The Werewolf of Fever Swamp chases them to the parking lot where he is run over by Lorraine, who survived the poodle's attack.

The group cut through a cemetery as Lorraine goes to the police station where she is freezed by the aliens. Zach sees Hannah ghost-like glows in the moonlight before being attacked by zombies from Attack of the Graveyard Ghouls. In the school, Stine confesses to Zach that his daughter is Hannah Fairchild from The Ghost Next Door, whom he originally created to cope with his loneliness. They find the typewriter and Stine starts typing a story based on the events around them while Zach and Champ attempt to warn everyone.

Slappy releases all remaining monsters from the Goosebumps franchise and commands them to attack the school. Zach battles mutant bees from Why I'm Afraid of Bees while the monsters get in the school with help of toy robots from Toy Terror: Batteries Included. Slappy finds Stine and breaks his fingers with the typewriter's case before he can finish the book. The group trick the monsters into following a school bus rigged with explosives while they board another and drive to the abandoned amusement park. Slappy tracks them down and releases the titular monster from The Blob That Ate Everyone as the other monsters arrive. Stine confronts it and is devoured while Zach, Hannah, and Champ take refuge in the park's ferris wheel where Zach finishes the story before the structure is damaged by the monsters. Zach refuses to open the story's book because Hannah will also be sucked in but Hannah reveals she knew the truth about herself all along and opens it, sucking all the monsters and herself inside.

Sometime later, Stine begins working as a teacher at the school while starting a relationship with Lorraine. He reveals to Zach that he brought Hannah back into reality by writing a new copy of her book. As Zach and Hannah leave together, Stine incinerates the copy but then finds his typewriter writing by itself. Brent Green reveals he evaded his imprisonment and uses the typewriter to write a new Goosebumps book titled The Invisible Boy's Revenge.

Cast

 Jack Black as R. L. Stine, the creator of the Goosebumps franchise, attempting to keep his identity secret.
 Black also provides the voice of Slappy the Dummy from the Night of the Living Dummy series. Avery Lee Jones and Jake McKinnon provided the puppeteer work for Slappy.
 Black also provides the voice of Brent Green, the invisible boy from My Best Friend is Invisible.
 Dylan Minnette as Zach Cooper, Stine's new neighbor.
 Odeya Rush as Hannah Fairchild / Hannah Stine, Stine's daughter and Zach's new neighbor and love interest, who is secretly Hannah Fairchild from The Ghost Next Door, a character of Stine's brought to life, whom he decided to raise himself.
 Ryan Lee as Champ, a student who becomes Zach's new friend.
 Amy Ryan as Gale Cooper, Zach's widowed mother who becomes the vice-principal at Madison High School.
 Jillian Bell as Lorraine Conyers, Zach's aunt and Gale's sister. She later begins a relationship with Stine.
 Halston Sage as Taylor, a popular student at Madison High School whom Champ has a crush on and later becomes his love interest.
 Steven Krueger as Davidson, a popular student at Madison High School.
 Keith Arthur Bolden as Principal Garrison, the principal of Madison High School.
 Amanda Lund as Officer Brooks, a police officer trainee partnered with Officer Stevens.
 Timothy Simons as Officer Stevens, a police officer working for the Madison Police Department.
 Ken Marino as Coach Carr, the gym teacher at Madison High School who hits on Gale.
 Karan Soni as Mr. Rooney, a teacher at Madison High School.
 Caleb Emery as a dumb jock that gets attacked by the giant mantis from A Shocker on Shock Street.
 John Bernecker as the uncredited motion-capture of Will Blake, the titular werewolf from The Werewolf of Fever Swamp.

The real R. L. Stine has a cameo as Jack Black (Mr. Black), a drama teacher at Madison High School, credited as "Hallway Player". Kumail Nanjiani and Luka Jones appear as two movers who encounter Slappy in an alternate opening sequence featured on home media releases.

Production
Development
In the mid 1990's, George A. Romero wrote a script for a film adaptation of the first original Goosebumps book Welcome to Dead House. It was rejected and was then kept at The University of Pittsburgh.

The popularity of the Fox Kids' Goosebumps television series generated an interest among fans for a full-feature film based upon the show. In 1998, Tim Burton was attached to direct a Goosebumps film for 20th Century Fox. Chris Meledandri, the president of Fox Family Films at the time, said, "I think you'll see us tackling a scale of story that would be prohibitive to do on the small screen". However, the film did not materialize since they could not find a script they liked or determine which book to adapt into a film.

In 2008, Columbia Pictures acquired rights to create a Goosebumps film. Neal Moritz and Deborah Forte, the latter of whom had previously worked on the Goosebumps television series in the 1990s, were chosen to produce the film. Screenwriting team Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski were hired as screenwriters, and wrote the original script for the film. The duo decided against adapting any one book in the series, feeling the individual books in the series were too short. Thinking of ways to create a universe where all the creatures in the books could live together, they elected to do a fake biographical film where R. L. Stine writes a book and the monsters within it become real. In 2010, Carl Ellsworth was chosen to write the screenplay. On January 14, 2012, it was reported that a new draft of the screenplay would be written by Darren Lemke; Lemke co-wrote the screenplays for Shrek Forever After and Bryan Singer's Jack the Giant Slayer. In November 2012, Stine expressed pessimism about the prospect of the film, saying that he would believe that a film can be based on his Goosebumps series when he sees it. The screenplay was rated PG-13. He also mentioned Where the Wild Things Are being adapted into a film almost 50 years after publication.

Casting

In September 2013, it was reported that Jack Black was in talks to "play a Stine-like author whose scary characters literally leap off the page, forcing him to hide from his own creepy creations". Black stated that he tried to make the character "more of a sort of curmudgeonly dark, brooding beast master". He also said that he attempted to approach this film the same way he does others, trying to "make it as funny as possible". Black met with R. L. Stine to get his consent for the film, but determined that his character could not be too similar to the real one; Black explained that he needed the character to be more sinister. Rob Letterman was chosen as the director, reuniting him with Black, after working together on Shark Tale and Gulliver's Travels.

It was announced in February 2014 that Dylan Minnette had been cast as Zach Cooper, and Odeya Rush as the Stine-like author's daughter, Hannah. On February 26, 2014, it was announced that the film would be released on March 23, 2016. On April 4, 2014, it was announced that Amy Ryan and Jillian Bell had joined the cast as Cooper's mother and aunt respectively. On April 10, 2014, Ken Marino joined the cast as Coach Carr. On April 28, 2014, Halston Sage joined the cast. On May 1, 2014, the film's release date was moved up to August 7, 2015. Stine stated on May 20, 2014, that he was going to make a cameo appearance in the film.

The film was promoted at the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con International where Jack Black and Rob Letterstein interacted with Slappy the Dummy. Slappy even brought some of his "friends" out consisting of the Bog Monster from How to Kill a Monster, two Graveyard Ghouls from Attack of the Graveyard Ghouls, Cronby the Troll and a Mulgani from Deep in the Jungle of Doom, the Lord High Executioner from A Night in Terror Tower, Murder the Clown from A Nightmare on Clown Street, the Mummy of Prince Khor-Ru from Return of the Mummy, Captain Long Ben One-Leg from Creep from the Deep, Professor Shock from The Creepy Creations of Professor Shock, Count Nightwing from Vampire Breath, a Creep from Calling All Creeps!, a Body Squeezer from Invasion of the Body Squeezers: Part 1 and Part 2, Carly Beth Caldwell's Haunted Mask form from The Haunted Mask, a Scarecrow from The Scarecrow Walks at Midnight, and a Pumpkin Head from Attack of the Jack-O'-Lanterns. When Jack Black tells Slappy that it is him that Slappy wants, Slappy instructs the Lord High Executioner, Murder the Clown, and Professor Shock to take Jack Black outside to his car. As the monsters leave, Slappy tells Rob some of his pitches causing Rob to leave as well.

Some monsters due for an appearance in the film were cut for budgetary reasons, but Letterman stated that the crew tried to choose the monsters most appropriate to the story. Letterman also stated that he tried to combine both humor and horror in the film, commenting that "[t]he books themselves are legitimately scary, but they're legitimately funny, and we try to capture that". In November 2014, the release date was moved back to April 15, 2016. In January 2015, the release date was pushed forward to October 16, 2015.

Filming
In mid-April 2014, a crew of six spent three days gathering visual data for the film in downtown Madison, Georgia. The crew used a theodolite to collect points in three-dimensional space to complete a detailed survey of the city. The visual data was used to create a CGI background of the downtown. Neal Moritz and Rob Letterman stated that Madison was their first choice for the film after scouting the city. Principal photography on the film began on April 23, 2014, in Candler Park in Atlanta; they were also set to shoot the film in Conyers and Madison. On May 19, filming was taking place in the streets of Madison, with 480 Goosebumps crew members working in Madison and Morgan County. Principal photography ended on July 16, 2014. A stretch of Dawsonville Highway in Georgia was intermittently closed to film a car travelling up and down multiple bridges for the film.

Music and soundtrack

The soundtrack for the film, featuring original music composed by Danny Elfman, was released on CD on October 23, 2015, by Sony Classical Records. The digital version was released by Madison Gate Records the week before.

Songs featured in the film
 "Racketeer" - The Blue Van
 "Headlights" - OPIEN
 "Get Ugly" - Jason Derulo
 "Everybody Have Fun Tonight" by Ryan Perez-Daple
 "Better Than the Rest" - Shock Diamonds
 "Heads Will Roll" (A-Trak Remix) - Yeah Yeah Yeahs
 "Bumps Gonna Goose Ya" - MF Bumps featuring Jack Black

Release

PremiereGoosebumps had its world premiere screening on June 24, 2015, at the CineEurope film distributors' trade fair in Barcelona, Spain, where the film was presented by Black on stage.

Home mediaGoosebumps was released on Blu-ray (2D and 3D) and DVD on January 5, 2016, and includes deleted scenes, a blooper reel, interviews with the cast and crew, an alternate opening, an alternate ending, and a featurette about Slappy.

Reception

Box officeGoosebumps grossed $80.1 million in North America and $70.1 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $150.2 million, against a budget of $58 million.

In the United States and Canada, pre-release trackings indicated the film would open to between $20–31 million at 3,501 theaters. However, Sony was more conservative, and projected the film to take between $12–15 million. The film opened on October 16, 2015, alongside Bridge of Spies, Crimson Peak, and Woodlawn, however box office pundits noted that it did not face serious competition except for The Martian, which was entering its third week. It made $600,000 from its early Thursday night screenings at 2,567 theaters, and $7.4 million on its opening day. In its opening weekend the film grossed $23.5 million, beating studio projections and finishing first at the box office. It marked the fourth Sony film to reign at the top of the box office during the fall. Previously the studio scored No. 1 spots over the last seven weeks with War Room, The Perfect Guy and Hotel Transylvania 2. Families represented the largest demographics with 60%, followed by under 25 with 59% and male/female ratio was split evenly at 50/50.

Outside North America, Goosebumps was released in a total of 66 countries.  Mexico has so far represented its largest opening as well as the biggest market in terms of total earnings with $7.1 million followed by Australia ($6.3 million) and the United Kingdom and Ireland ($6 million). It opened at No. 1 in the United Kingdom and Ireland ($3.9 million). In the United Kingdom, preview takings helped Goosebumps top the box office ahead of the more heavily hyped Dad's Army. In Russia, it opened at No. 2 behind In the Heart of the Sea with $1.27 million. Furthermore, it opened in France with $1 million.

Critical reception
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 78% based on 161 reviews, with an average rating of 6.38/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Goosebumps boasts more than enough of its spooky source material's kid-friendly charm to make up for some slightly scattershot humor and a hurried pace." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 60 out of 100 based on 29 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.

Kevin P. Sullivan of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B rating, citing at the end of his review: "Nothing about Goosebumps is revolutionary—at a certain point you may realize that it's as if Nickelodeon produced Cabin in the Woods—but it's a never-boring trip to a world, where stories and imagination are powerful tools, that just might inspire kids to do the scariest thing of all: pick up a book".

Geoff Berkshire of Variety wrote: "The ADD overload combined with an understandably kid-friendly approach to horror (no one's ever in real danger, and the monsters are never too scary) results in a disposable product intended to appeal to everyone but likely to resonate with no one."

Accolades

Sequel

Development of a sequel was reported in September 2015. Rob Letterman intended to return to direct, but dropped out due to scheduling conflicts, and Ari Sandel replaced him. Jack Black and Odeya Rush were set to reprise their roles as R. L. and Hannah Stine; Black's role was reduced to an uncredited cameo and Rush's role was ultimately cut. Goosebumps 2: Haunted Halloween'' was released in the United States on October 12, 2018.

Television series

On 28 April 2020, it was announced that a reboot live action TV series was in the works by Scholastic Entertainment, Sony Pictures Television Studios and Neal H. Moritz's production company Original Film, who produced the 2015 film and its sequel. In March 2021, R.L. Stine stated that the series found a producer and director. In February 2022, it was announced that the series will be heading to Disney+.

References

External links

Goosebumps
2015 films
2015 3D films
2015 comedy horror films
2015 fantasy films
2010s children's comedy films
2010s children's fantasy films
2010s fantasy comedy films
2010s ghost films
2010s monster movies
American 3D films
American children's comedy films
American children's fantasy films
American comedy horror films
American fantasy comedy films
American dark fantasy films
American films with live action and animation
American ghost films
American werewolf films
Children's horror films
Columbia Pictures films
Columbia Pictures animated films
Films about books
Films about writers
Films based on American horror novels
Films based on children's books
Films based on works by R. L. Stine
Films directed by Rob Letterman
Puppet films
Films produced by Neal H. Moritz
Films scored by Danny Elfman

Films set in Delaware
Films shot in Atlanta
Films with screenplays by Darren Lemke
Original Film films
Sony Pictures Animation films
Village Roadshow Pictures animated films
Village Roadshow Pictures films
2010s English-language films
2010s American films

Goosebumps (film)


Straight Goods was a Canadian online news magazine, usually publishing about twenty new stories every week. Publisher Ish Theilheimer founded it in 1999, with the support of about thirty shareholders.

Its first edition went online in January 2000.  Publication ended in 2013, with some elements being absorbed into rabble.ca.

Overview
Straight Goods' slogan is "Saving you money - Protecting your rights - Untangling spin". In keeping with this slogan, civil and human rights, consumer information and media criticism appear in every weekly issue. As well, SG has at least one weekly column about the labour movement and a strong emphasis on environmental issues. Readers regularly find original articles by thinkers such as Mel Watkins, Stephen Lewis, Linda McQuaig, Armine Yalnizyan, Aaron Freeman, Gordon Guyatt, Cathy Crowe, Stewart Steinhauer and Charles Gordon, as well as "Hot Headlines", which are summaries and links to interesting articles in other publications.

Straight Goods is supported by sponsors, and individual subscribers and donors.  A regular free bulletin is sent out by email and paid subscribers have access to an archive of nearly 7500 articles.

Affiliated sites
In 2007, Straight Goods added a family of new websites. HarperIndex.ca is devoted to analysis and criticism of the government of Stephen Harper, PublicValues.ca and its French sister site Valeurspubliques.ca are devoted to news around the maintenance of public services, and YourDailyClick.ca provides links to activist campaigns and online shopping sites endorsed by the magazine's editorial team.

The Straight Goods Blog was added in 2008.

Personnel
The magazine's editorial team is headed by editor Penney Kome and webmaster Michael Cowley-Owen, who has been the webmaster since the magazine's founding.

References

External links
Straight Goods

Online magazines published in Canada
Canadian political websites
Defunct political magazines published in Canada
Magazines established in 1999
Magazines disestablished in 2013
Online magazines with defunct print editions
1999 establishments in Canada

Straight Goods


Incarnation is a religious belief. It explains how a spiritual being may become a body (incarnates).  Examples of incarnations in various religions include:
 Leimarel Sidabi, of Sanamahism
 Krishna, of Hinduism
 Buddha, of Buddhism
 Jesus, of Christianity
 Guan Yin, of Buddhism
 Kali, of Hinduism
 Durga, of Hinduism
 Parvati, of Hinduism

Theology

Incarnation


Raymond Edgar Taylor (1 December 1888 – 15 February 1952) was an American film director. He directed 159 films between 1926 and 1949.  His debut was the 1926 film serial Fighting with Buffalo Bill.

Ray Taylor was one of the few Hollywood directors who specialized in a single type of film: he was an action specialist. Many action directors would be called upon at one time or another to helm a mainstream drama, romance, or mystery, but Ray Taylor established himself early in westerns and action fare, and he worked in this capacity throughout his career. Even a brief tenure directing the campus-capers "Collegians" shorts for Universal was appropriate for Taylor, as these two-reel subjects often emphasized visual action.

In the 1920s he worked for Fox as an assistant, and soon moved to Universal, where he was given a chance to direct. His effective staging of action scenes earned him a permanent berth at Universal, where he was entrusted with the studio's popular westerns and serials. The project that won Taylor the most notice was Flash Gordon, the Buster Crabbe serial that was phenomenally successful in theaters; unlike most serials that were reserved for weekend juvenile matinees, Flash Gordon played to adult audiences on weeknights alongside prestigious feature films.

Taylor's success with Flash Gordon earned him an invitation to direct serials for Republic Pictures, but his stay was short. Taylor's assistant, William Witney, recalled in his 1996 memoir that Taylor had a drinking problem, which caused him to miss too much work. This was inexcusable on Republic's tight production schedules, and Witney was promoted to full-time director, replacing Taylor.

Taylor's reputation for quality work took precedence over his personal problem, and in 1938 he joined Columbia's new serial unit to co-direct The Spider's Web with James W. Horne. Taylor and Horne joined forces to create one of the best serials of all time; it was easily the most popular serial of 1938, according to a tally of theater bookings. Taylor's Columbia stay was also relatively brief; he returned to his home base at Universal.

Universal kept Taylor extremely busy with westerns and serials for the next six years. Perhaps his best Universal serial is Gang Busters, an action-packed police procedural and, like Flash Gordon, a bid for adult audiences. When Universal had a change of management in 1946, it discontinued its "B" pictures, westerns, and serials, leaving Taylor idle.

For the rest of his career Ray Taylor worked in the movies' minor leagues, making western features for PRC (which shut down in 1947) and Monogram Pictures. He retired in 1949 and died in 1952.

Selected filmography

Son of Billy the Kid (1949)
 Hidden Danger (1948)
Stage to Mesa City (1947)
Law of the Lash (1947)
 Shadow Valley (1947)
Black Hills (1947)
Return of the Lash (1947)
Lost City of the Jungle (1946)
The Scarlet Horseman (1946)
The Royal Mounted Rides Again (1945)
Secret Agent X-9 (1945)
The Master Key (1945)
Jungle Queen (1945)
Mystery of the River Boat (1944)
Raiders of Ghost City (1944)
Adventures of the Flying Cadets (1943)
The Lone Star Trail (1943)
The Adventures of Smilin' Jack (1943)
Don Winslow of the Coast Guard (1943)
Junior G-Men of the Air (1942)
Gang Busters (1942, co-director, with Noel M. Smith))
Don Winslow of the Navy (1942)
Treat 'Em Rough (1942)
Law and Order (1940)
Flash Gordon Conquers the Universe (1940)
Flying G-Men (1939, co-director, with James W. Horne)
Rawhide (1938)
Frontier Town (1938)
The Spider's Web (1938, co-director, with James W. Horne)
Boss of Lonely Valley (1937)
The Three Mesquiteers (1936)
Chandu on the Magic Island (1935)
The Return of Chandu (1934)
Heroes of the West (1932)
Battling with Buffalo Bill (1931)
The Ace of Scotland Yard (1929)
The Pirate of Panama (1929)
Tarzan the Mighty (1928)
The Avenging Shadow (1928)
A Final Reckoning (1928)
The Vanishing Rider (1928)
Whispering Smith Rides (1927)
Fighting with Buffalo Bill (1926)

References

External links

1888 births
1952 deaths
American film directors
Film serial crew
People from Perham, Minnesota

Ray Taylor (director)


Jeff, Who Lives at Home is a 2011 American comedy-drama film written and directed by Jay and Mark Duplass, starring Jason Segel and Ed Helms, and co-starring Judy Greer and Susan Sarandon. The film premiered on September 14, 2011, at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival and then saw a limited release in the United States and Canada on March 16, 2012, after having been pushed back from the original date of March 2. The film received praise for its humor, but grossed only $4.7 million worldwide against a $7.5 million budget.

Plot
Jeff is a 30-year-old unemployed stoner living in his mother Sharon's basement in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. He looks for his destiny in seemingly random occurrences. Finding inspiration in the film Signs reinforces his belief in this.

One day, he answers the telephone; the wrong number is for somebody called "Kevin", and Jeff contemplates its meaning, deciding it is a sign. Getting a call from his irritated mother asking him to buy wood glue to fix a door shutter or find a new place to live, Jeff boards a bus. There, he sees a kid wearing a sports jersey bearing the name Kevin. He follows him to a basketball court, where he joins a pick-up game, and they bond. Jeff agrees to smoke weed with Kevin, but is tricked, beaten, and mugged.

Coming upon a Hooters restaurant, Jeff comes across his older brother Pat, a successful yuppie struggling with his marriage. Pat's wife Linda is spotted across the street with another man. Jeff and Pat spend several hours following them, first to a restaurant and later to a hotel, with Pat's new Porsche being ticketed, crashed, and eventually towed away at various points on the journey. The brothers also visit their father's gravesite and fight over their conflicting life philosophies.

Seeing a truck reading "Kevin Kandy", Jeff runs off to hitch a ride, ending up at the same hotel where Pat has found Linda in a room with another man. Jeff offers to break down the door. The man is her co-worker, Steve. Linda quickly ushers Steve out and then confronts Pat about his role in their problems. Frustrated, she leaves, saying she is going to live with her mother. Jeff and Pat reconcile; Jeff explains how he is struggling to find his destiny, while Pat admits he wants him and Linda to fall in love again. Jeff encourages him to tell her, and they hail a taxi to pursue her.

Interspersed within the main story is the story of Sharon, who is at work, frustrated with her unfulfilled life, and dissatisfied with her sons. The doldrum is interrupted when a paper airplane with a drawing of a flower lands in her cubicle, followed by an anonymous co-worker claiming in an instant message to be a secret admirer. Sharon spends the day trying to deduce their identity. Confiding her frustrations to colleague and friend Carol, she reveals that she has not dated since her husband's death.

Carol encourages her to warm up to the attention she is receiving. Sharon is surprised and confused when the admirer turns out to be Carol herself, and though neither believe themselves to be attracted to their own gender, Carol appeals to Sharon's desire to become close with someone who truly understands her. At that moment, a fire alarm goes off and ceiling sprinklers activate; this is an enlightening moment for Sharon who sets off with Carol on an impulsive trip to New Orleans.

Jeff, Pat, Linda, Sharon, and Carol converge on a bridge, getting stuck in standstill traffic. Pat exits the taxi and runs through the cars to tell Linda how he feels, passing Carol's car; Sharon sees and runs after him, followed by Carol. As Jeff muses to the cab driver about how seeking his destiny is not very exciting, he sees a helicopter flying overhead. He jumps out of the taxi and also runs through the cars, passing Pat, who was sharing his feelings with Linda when Sharon and Carol arrive.

Jeff continues running, seeing the cause of the traffic is an accident in which a car plummeted over the side of the bridge. He dives into the water, rescuing two children and their father; when Jeff then fails to resurface Pat dives in and rescues him. The group reconciles after the ordeal: Sharon celebrates her birthday and Pat and Linda appearing to fare better in their marriage. Jeff sees a news report about his heroics, and learns that the father of the kids he rescued was also named Kevin; now with a sense of purpose, he grabs some wood glue and fixes the shutter.

Cast
 Jason Segel as Jeff Thompkins
 Ed Helms as Pat Thompkins
 Susan Sarandon as Sharon Thompkins
 Judy Greer as Linda Thompkins
 Rae Dawn Chong as Carol
 Steve Zissis as Steve
 Evan Ross as Kevin

Release
The film grossed $840,000 in its opening weekend.

Jeff, Who Lives at Home grossed $4,269,426 in North America and $435,331 elsewhere, for a worldwide total of $4,704,757.

Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 77% based on 141 reviews, with an average rating of 6.77/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Sweet, funny, and flawed, Jeff, Who Lives at Home finds the Duplass brothers moving into the mainstream with their signature quirky charm intact". On Metacritic, the film has a normalized score of 60 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four and described it as:  Peter Travers of Rolling Stone also gave the film three stars out of four and described it as "funny, touching, and vital", praising the Duplass brothers by saying that "their films hit you where you live."

Home media
Jeff, Who Lives at Home was released on DVD and Blu-ray on June 19, 2012.

References

External links

2011 films
2011 independent films
2011 comedy-drama films
American comedy-drama films
American LGBT-related films
Films set in Louisiana
Films shot in Louisiana
Culture of Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Films scored by Michael Andrews
Indian Paintbrush (company) films
Paramount Vantage films
Films produced by Jason Reitman
2011 LGBT-related films
LGBT-related comedy-drama films
Films about brothers
Films about mother–son relationships
2010s English-language films
2010s American films
English-language comedy-drama films

Jeff, Who Lives at Home


Multinational corporations (MNC) or multinational enterprises (MNE) are organizations which own or control production of goods or services in countries other than the home country. They include large corporations which produce or sell goods or services in various countries. They may be referred as 'international' or 'transnational'  or 'stateless' corporations.

MNCs play an important role in globalization. Arguably, the first multinational business organization was the "Knights Templar" , founded in 1120.  After that came the British East India Company in 1600 and the Dutch East India Company which started in1602 and would become the largest company in the world for nearly 200 years. These were made by national legislation to conduct international trade for their home countries.

The behavior of MNCs is much discussed.

Conflict of laws
Conflict of laws is about which legal system and which national jurisdiction applies to a given dispute.

The term comes from situations where here is disagreement as to where a dispute should be legally settled in court. The three branches of conflict of laws are:
 Jurisdiction – whether the forum court has the power to resolve the dispute at hand
 Choice of law – the law being applied to resolve the dispute
 Foreign judgments – the ability to recognize and enforce a judgment from an external forum within the jurisdiction of the adjudicating forum.

Conflict of taxation
Companies usually arrange their affairs to avoid or diminish taxation. This issue attracts much attention. Obviously, tax rates and tax regulations differ from country to country. If an organisation sets up subsidiaries in every country where it has significant business, few problems arise. The subsidiaries pay tax on whatever activities the company does in that place.

However, companies always try to minimise tax. Google uses various tax avoidance strategies. Out of the five largest American technology companies it pays the lowest taxes to countries where its revenue comes from. The company does this partly by licensing technology through subsidiaries in Ireland, Bermuda, the Bahamas, and the Netherlands. This reportedly sparked a 2012 French investigation into Google's "transfer pricing" methods.

Google Vice President Matt Britt in 2013 told the Public Accounts Committee of the UK House of Commons that his UK sales team made no sales, hence owed no sales tax to the UK.

Transnational corporations
A transnational corporation (TNC) differs from a traditional MNC in that it does not identify itself with one national home. While traditional MNCs are national companies with foreign subsidiaries, TNCs spread out their operations in many countries sustaining high levels of local responsiveness. An example of a TNC is Nestlé who employ senior executives from many countries and try to make decisions from a global perspective rather than from one centralized headquarters. Another example of a Transnational Corporation is the Royal Dutch Shell corporation whose headquarters may be in The Hague, Netherlands but its registered office and main executive body where the decisions are made is headquartered in London, United Kingdom.

References

Taxation
Business law

Multinational corporation


Colonel John Biddulph (25 July 1840 – 24 December 1921) was a British soldier, author and naturalist who served in the government of British India.

Biddulph was born in 1840, and was the third son of Robert Biddulph. He was educated at Westminster School, and at the age of 18 joined the 19th Lancers and proceeded to India where he served in Awadh during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Afterwards, he joined the political department of the government of British India. Between 1873 and 1874 he accompanied Thomas Douglas Forsyth, Thomas E. Gordon, Henry Walter Bellew, Ferdinand Stoliczka, Henry Trotter, and R. A. Champman on the Second Yarkand Mission – an expedition across the Himalayas to Chinese Turkestan. During this journey, Biddulph collected numerous specimens of birds and mammals, including an unknown species of Podoces which was later named in his honour by Allan Octavian Hume as Podoces biddulphi.

In 1877 Biddulph was posted at Gilgit, in the extreme north-western corner of Kashmir, and remained there until 1881. During this period he corresponded on ornithology with Hume and his observations and research in this region were published in two papers in the Ibis. After holding many posts as British Resident at various princely states and serving for four years on the staff of the Viceroy of India, Lord Northbrook, Biddulph retired from the service in 1896. He died on 24 December 1921 in Grey Court, London, aged 81.

Writings
Biddulph wrote several works about India and about the history of the British presence there including biographies of Stringer Lawrence and Joseph François Dupleix. These books and his Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh are listed as references for several articles in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.
Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, 1880
The Nineteenth And Their Times, 1899
Stringer Lawrence, The Father Of The Indian Army, 1901
The Pirates Of Malabar, and An Englishwoman In India...,1907
Dupleix, 1910

References

External links

 Duplieix by Colonel John Biddulph, 1910

British biographers
British ornithologists
British writers
Historians of India
British diplomats
British people in colonial India
Central Asian studies scholars
1848 births
1921 deaths
People educated at Westminster School, London

John Biddulph


In geology, aquatic succession is the process in which a glacial lake dries up. Over the lifespan of a glacier it dissolves into a body of water. Aquatic succession is the continuing step of that solid water-turned-lake melting into the ground and further disappearing into limbo. The lakes sometime become underground lakes or rivers. The water tends to remain part of the local hydrosphere by percolating into aquifers.

Glaciology

Aquatic succession


Seamus Kelly (born 6 May 1974) is an Irish former footballer who played as a goalkeeper.

His brother Pádraic played as a keeper for Offaly for many years. Seamus also played as a goalkeeper for Offaly minor team in 1992.

Career
Seamus signed for UCD in the summer of 1993, making his League of Ireland debut on 19 September, from hometown club Tullamore Town and established himself as one of the league's best keepers before joining Cardiff City in 1998 as cover for Jon Hallworth. Kelly began his Cardiff career on the bench but was called upon at the end of the 1998–99 season when Hallworth broke two ribs in a match against Leyton Orient. He played in the final five matches of the season, making his debut in a 1–0 win over Southend United, helping the club clinch promotion to Division Two. The following season saw the same scenario at the opposite end of the table as Kelly played in the final six matches of the year but was unable to help the club to avoid relegation, and was released at the end of the season.

Kelly returned to Dublin to sign for St Patrick's Athletic. After 3 seasons in Inchicore, Stephen Kenny took him to Bohemians where he challenged for the #1 spot with Matt Gregg. Kelly was first choice during Bohemians' UEFA Champions League campaign in 2003 but never made the goalkeeping spot his own during his time at Dalymount Park. Kelly joined Longford Town from Bohs in 2005 and played a crucial role in the club's FAI Cup run in 2007 and also their gallant battle against relegation that same season. Following a mass exodus of players at the end of that season, Kelly remained on as one of only three players for the 2008 season (the others being Daire Doyle and Alan O'Riordan) as then manager Aaron Callaghan attempted to assemble a squad almost from scratch. Due to persistent back problems, Kelly retired during the summer of 2008. In 2010, he became Goalkeeping coach with Sheloburne.

Honours
UCD
Leinster Senior Cup (2): 1994–95, 1995–96

References

1974 births
Living people
Republic of Ireland men's association footballers
League of Ireland players
University College Dublin A.F.C. players
Cardiff City F.C. players
St Patrick's Athletic F.C. players
Bohemian F.C. players
Longford Town F.C. players
English Football League players
Men's association football goalkeepers
Gaelic footballers who switched code
Offaly inter-county Gaelic footballers
Sportspeople from Tullamore, County Offaly
Association footballers from County Offaly

Seamus Kelly (footballer)


In ecology, a priority effect refers to the impact that a particular species can have on community development as a result of its prior arrival at a site. There are two basic types of priority effects: inhibitory and facilitative. An inhibitory priority effect occurs when a species that arrives first at a site negatively affects a species that arrives later by reducing the availability of space or resources. In contrast, a facilitative priority effect occurs when a species that arrives first at a site alters abiotic or biotic conditions in ways that positively affect a species that arrives later. Inhibitory priority effects have been documented more frequently than facilitative priority effects. Studies indicate that both abiotic (e.g. resource availability) and biotic (e.g. predation) factors can affect the strength of priority effects. Priority effects are a central and pervasive element of ecological community development that have significant implications for natural systems and ecological restoration efforts.

Theoretical foundation

Community succession theory
Early in the 20th century, Frederic Clements and other plant ecologists suggested that ecological communities develop in a linear, directional manner towards a final, stable end-point: the climax community. Clements indicated that a site's climax community would reflect local climate. He conceptualised the climax community as a "superorganism" that followed a defined developmental sequence.

Early ecological succession theory maintained that the directional shifts from one stage of succession to the next were induced by the plants themselves. In this sense, succession theory implicitly recognised priority effects; the prior arrival of certain species had important impacts on future community composition. At the same time, the climax concept implied that species shifts were predetermined. This implies that a given species would always appear at the same point during the development of the climax community, and have a predictable impact on community development.

This static view of priority effects remained essentially unchanged by the concept of patch dynamics, introduced by Alex Watt in 1947. Watt conceived of plant communities as dynamic "mechanisms" that followed predetermined succession cycles. They viewed succession as a process driven by facilitation, in which each species made local conditions more suitable for another species.

Individualistic approach
In 1926, Henry Gleason presented an alternative hypothesis in which plants were conceptualised as individuals rather than components of a superorganism. This hypothesis suggested that the distribution of various species across the landscape reflected species-specific dispersal limitations and environmental requirements rather than predetermined associations among species. Gleason contested the idea of a predetermined climax community, recognising that different colonising species could produce alternative trajectories of community development. For example, initially identical ponds colonised by different species could develop through succession into very different communities.

The Initial Floristic Composition model was put forward by Frank Egler to describe community development in abandoned agricultural fields. According to this model, the set of species present in a field immediately after abandonment had strong influences on community development and final community composition.

Alternative stable states
In the 1970s, it was suggested that natural communities could be characterised by multiple or alternative stable states. Multiple stable state models suggested that the same environment could support several different combinations of species. Theorists argued that historical context could play a central role in determining which stable state would be present at any given time. Robert May explained, "If there is a unique stable state, historical accidents are unimportant; if there are many alternative locally stable states, historical accidents can be of overriding significance."

Community assembly theory
Assembly theory explains community development processes in the context of multiple stable states: it asks why a particular type of community developed when other stable community types are possible. In contrast to succession theory, assembly theory was developed largely by animal ecologists and explicitly incorporated historical context.

In 1975, Jared Diamond developed quantitative "assembly rules" to predict avian community composition on an archipelago. This approach emphasizes historical contingency and multiple stable states. Although the idea of deterministic community assembly initially drew criticism, the approach continued to gain support. In 1991, Drake used an assembly model to demonstrate that different community types result from different sequences of species invasions. In this model, early invaders have major impacts on the invasion success of species that arrive later. Other modelling studies suggested that priority effects may be especially important when invasion frequency is low enough to allow species to become established before replacement, or when other factors that could drive assembly (e.g., competition, abiotic stress) are relatively unimportant.

In a 1999 review, Belyea and Lancaster described three basic determinants of community assembly: dispersal constraints, environmental constraints, and internal dynamics. They identified priority effects as a manifestation of the interaction between dispersal constraints and internal dynamics.

Empirical evidence
Although early research focused on animals and aquatic systems, more recent studies have begun to examine terrestrial and plant-based priority effects.

Marine
Most of the earliest empirical evidence for priority effects came from studies on aquatic animals. Sutherland (1974) found that final community composition varied depending on the initial order of larval recruitment in a community of small marine organisms (sponges, tunicates, hydroids, and other species). Shulman (1983) found strong priority effects among coral reef fish. The study found that prior establishment by a territorial damselfish reduced establishment rates of other fish. The authors also identified cross-trophic priority effects; prior establishment by a predator fish reduced establishment rates of prey fishes.

In the late 1980s, several studies examined priority effects in marine microcosms. Robinson and Dickerson (1987) found that priority effects were important in some cases, but suggested, "Being the first to invade a habitat does not guarantee success; there must be sufficient time for the early colonist to increase its population size for it to pre-empt further colonisation." Robinson and Edgemon (1988) later developed 54 communities of phytoplankton species by varying invasion order, rate, and timing. They found that although invasion order (priority effects) could explain a small fraction of the resulting variation in community composition, most of the variation was explained by changes in invasion rate and invasion timing. These studies indicate that priority effects may not be the only or the most important historical factor affecting the trajectory of community development.

In a striking example of cross-trophic priority effects, Hart (1992) found that priority effects explain the maintenance of two alternate stable states in stream ecosystems. While a macroalga is dominant in some patches, sessile grazers maintain a "lawn" of small microalgae in others. If the sessile grazers colonise a patch first, they exclude the macroalga, and vice versa.

Amphibian
In two of the most commonly cited empirical studies on priority effects, Alford and Wilbur documented inhibitory and facilitative priority effects among toad larvae in experimental ponds. They found that hatchlings of a toad species (Bufo americanus) exhibited higher growth and survivorship when introduced to a pond before those of a frog species (Rana sphenocephala). The frog larvae, however, did best when introduced after the toad larvae. Thus, prior establishment by the toad species facilitated the frog species, while prior establishment by the frog species inhibited the toad species. Studies on tree frogs have also documented both types of priority effect. Morin (1987) also observed that priority effects became less important in the presence of a predatory salamander. He hypothesised that predation mediated priority effects by reducing competition between frog species. Studies on larval insects and frogs in water-filled tree holes and stumps found that abiotic factors such as space, resource availability, and toxin levels can also be important in mediating priority effects.

Terrestrial
Terrestrial studies on priority effects are rare, with most studies focusing on arthropods or grassland plant species. In a lab experiment, Shorrocks and Bingley (1994) showed that prior arrival increased survivorship for two species of fruit flies; each fly species had inhibitory impacts on the other. A 1996 field study on desert spiders by Ehmann and MacMahon showed that the presence of species from one spider guild reduced establishment of spiders from a different guild. Palmer (2003) demonstrated that priority effects allowed a competitively subordinate ant species to avoid exclusion by a competitively dominant species. If the competitively subordinate ants were able to colonise first, they altered their host tree's morphology in ways that made it less suitable for other ant species. This study was especially important because it was able to identify a mechanism driving observed priority effects.

A study on two species of introduced grasses in Hawaiian woodlands found that the species with inferior competitive abilities may be able to persist through priority effects. At least three studies have come to similar conclusions about the coexistence of native and exotic grasses in California grassland ecosystems. If given time to establish, native species can successfully inhibit the establishment of exotics. Authors of the various studies attributed the prevalence of exotic grasses in California to the low seed production and relatively poor dispersal ability of native species.

Emerging concepts

Long-term implications: convergence and divergence
Although many studies have documented priority effects, the persistence of these effects over time often remains unclear. Young (2001) indicated that both convergence (in which "communities proceed towards a pre-disturbance state regardless of historical conditions") and divergence (in which historical factors continue to affect the long-term trajectory of community development) are present in nature. Among studies of priority effects, both trends seem to have been observed. Fukami (2005) argued that a community could be both convergent and divergent at different levels of community organisation. The authors studied experimentally-assembled plant communities and found that while the identities of individual species remained unique across different community replicates, species traits generally became more similar.

Trophic ecology
Some studies indicate that priority effects can occur across guilds or trophic levels. Such priority effects could have dramatic impacts on community composition and food web structure. Even intra-guild priority effects could have important consequences at multiple trophic levels if the affected species are associated with unique predator or prey species. Consider, for example, a plant species that is eaten by a host-specific herbivore. Priority effects that influence the ability of the plant species to establish would indirectly affect the establishment success of the associated herbivore. Theoretical models have described cyclical assembly dynamics in which species associated with different suites of predators are able to repeatedly replace one another.

Intra-specific aggregation
In situations where two species are introduced at the same time, spatial aggregation of a species' propagules could cause priority effects by initially reducing interspecific competition. Aggregation during recruitment and establishment could allow inferior competitors to coexist with or even displace competitive dominants over the long-term. Several modelling efforts have begun to examine the implications of spatial priority effects for species coexistence.

Mechanisms and new organisms
A few studies have begun to explore the mechanisms driving observed priority effects. Moreover, although past studies focused on a small subset of species, recent papers indicate that priority effects may be important for a wide range of organisms, including fungi, birds, lizards, and salamanders.

Ecological restoration
Priority effects have important implications for ecological restoration. In many systems, information about priority effects can help practitioners identify cost-effective strategies for improving the survival and persistence of certain species, especially species of inferior competitive ability. For example, in a study on the restoration of native Californian grasses and forbs, Lulow (2004) found that forbs could not establish in plots where bunchgrasses had been previously planted. When bunchgrasses were added to plots where forbs had already been growing for a year, forbs were able to coexist with grasses for at least 3–4 years.

References

Ecology

Priority effect


The 8-track is a music format which first appeared in the 1960s. It is a tape format which was created so people could play music in their cars. Unlike cassettes, 8 tracks are a continuous loop of tape. They did not need to be turned over to keep playing. There were four programs of music on each tape with two tracks on each program to create stereo sound. When the track was over, a very thin piece of metal in the tape would be sensed. This would cause the part of the player that read the tape (the head) to start reading the next track. 8 tracks became very popular in the early 1970s. They were used both in the home and car.

In the 1970s, the cassette tape was improved. It eventually had better quality than 8-tracks. By the late 1970s, cassettes became more popular than 8-tracks. In 1980, 8-tracks were rarely being made. They could still be bought through mail order record clubs until 1987. Today there are still a small number of people who collect 8 tracks. The last 8-tracks from a major label were released in 1988. Some unauthorized (bootleg) releases were made as late as 1995. Some independent labels still occasionally release 8-tracks as a novelty or collectible.

Problems
The 8-track had many problems. Unlike cassettes, the rubber roller was in the cartridge. It would often wear out, or chemically break down. This could cause a gooey substance in the tapes. This happened faster if the cartridge was left in a hot car. This also caused the tapes to wear out quickly. The spacing between the tracks were very narrow. Music from tracks other than the one being played could often be heard. The sensing foil in the tape would sometimes break off. This would stop the tape from changing tracks.

Magnetic tape

8 track tape


The Transitional Charter of October 2022 established Chad as a secular state and affirmed the separation of religion and state; it also provided for freedom of religion.

In 2023, the country was scored 1 out of 4 for religious freedom.

Religious demography

The country has an area of  and a population of 18,278,568 according to the UN estimate for 2023.

According to estimates in 2014–15, 52.1% of the population is Muslim (mainly Sufi Tijaniyah), 23.9% is Protestant, 20% is Roman Catholic, 0.3% is animist, 0.2% are 'other Christian', 2.8% have no religion, and 0.7% did not specify what their beliefs were.

The vast majority of Muslims are adherents of a moderate branch of Sufism known locally as Tijaniyah, which incorporates some local African religious elements. A small minority of Muslims (5 to 10 percent) hold more fundamentalist beliefs, which in some cases may be associated with Saudi-oriented belief systems such as Wahhabism or Salafism.

Roman Catholics represent the largest Christian denomination in the country. Most Protestants, including the Nigeria-based "Winners Chapel", are affiliated with various evangelical Christian groups. Members of the Bahá'í and Jehovah's Witnesses religious communities also are present. Both religious groups were introduced after independence in 1960 and therefore are considered "new" religious groups.

Status of religious freedom

Legal and policy framework
Article 1 of the Chad Constitution declared that the country is a secular state and "affirm[s] the separation of the religions and of the State".

The Office of the Director of Religious and Traditional Affairs under the Ministry of the Interior and Public Security oversees religious matters. The office is responsible for mediating intercommunal conflict, reporting on religious practices, and ensuring religious freedom, as well as organizing the Haij.

All associations (religious and non-religious0, must register with the Ministry of Territorial Administration and Decentralized Territorial Collectivities.  The Transitional Charter states that public education shall be secular; religious instruction can be given in public schools and many Muslim and Christian groups run their own schools.

The High Council for Islamic Affairs is an independent government body which oversees Islamic religious activities. The government approves membership of the council's board. The Grand Imam of N'Djamena is the de jure president of the HCIA and oversees the heads of the HCIA branches and grand imams from each of the country's 23 provinces. The HCIA has jurisdiction for some legal issues, including marriage, property dispositions between spouses, divorce, and parentage.

Status in the early 2000s
While the Government is legally obligated to treat all religious groups or denominations equally, non-Muslims allege that Muslims receive preferential status. In the past the Government reportedly accorded public lands to Muslim leaders for the purpose of building mosques but required representatives of other religious groups to purchase land at market rates to build places of worship.

In the past, religious leaders are also involved in managing the country's wealth. A representative of the religious community sits on the Revenue Management College, the body that oversees the allocation of oil revenues. The seat rotates between Muslim and Christian leaders every 4 years. In 2004 the Muslim representative handed responsibilities over to a Catholic priest designated by the Christian community. The mandate of the Christian representative at the college ended in June 2007.

The Government prohibits activity that "does not create conditions of cohabitation among the populations". This prohibition is understood to mean regulating groups who advocate sectarian tensions in the country. The Al Mountada al Islami and the World Association for Muslim Youth organizations were banned by the government for portraying violence as a legitimate precept of Islam.

Generally, foreign missionaries did not face restrictions; however, they must register and receive authorization from the Ministry of Interior to circulate within the country, as do other foreigners traveling and operating throughout the country. It is difficult to find a report that the Government withheld authorization from any group.

Public schools conduct instruction in French, and public bilingual schools conduct classes in French and Arabic. The Government prohibits religious instruction in public schools but permits all religious groups to operate private schools without restriction. The poor quality of Chad's educational system has prompted many Muslim families to look to Islamic schools as an opportunity for educating children who would otherwise have little or no access to formal schooling. Most large towns have at least one or two private religious schools. Although the Government does not publish official records on school funding, many Islamic schools were commonly understood to be financed by Arab donors (governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and individuals), particularly from Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Libya.

In the past several human rights organizations have reported on the problem of the mahadjirin children, students of certain Islamic schools who are forced by their teachers to beg for food and money. There were no credible estimates as to the number of mahadjirin children. The High Council for Islamic Affairs appealed for an immediate end to such practices, and the Government called for the closure of such schools. Despite attempted reforms, the schools remained open.

Among the numerous private radio stations, religious organizations own several stations broadcasting throughout the country (six Christian and two Islamic). Officials closely monitored radio stations run by both nonprofit and commercial groups.

The Government celebrates both Christian and Islamic holy days as national holidays. Islamic national holidays include Eid al-Adha, the Birth of the Prophet Muhammad, and Eid al-Fitr. Christian holidays include Easter Monday, All Saints' Day, and Christmas Day. It is not uncommon for Muslims and Christians to attend each other's festivities during these holidays.

While most interfaith dialogue takes place on a voluntary basis and not through government intervention, the Government was generally supportive of these initiatives. On March 8, 2007, the Government initiated a campaign for peace, and Christian organizations organized a peaceful march to support the initiative. The Muslim religious establishment also attended, specifically the Imam of the grand mosque on behalf of the High Council of Islamic Affairs.

Restrictions on religious freedom
Burqas and niqabs are forbidden by ministerial decree.

The leading Wahhabi group, Ansar al-Sunna, is banned from participating in the HCIA, although they are able to worship.

Groups who do not register with the government are not allowed to set up bank accounts and may face being banned; group founders and board members can face up to one year in prison and a fine of 50,000 to 500,000 CFA francs.

Societal abuses and discrimination
In April 2007 the Association of Evangelical Churches appealed to the Government for additional assistance in ending the conflict between nomadic herders (who are primarily Muslim) and local farmers (who are primarily Christian) in the southern part of the country; however, the Government did not respond to the appeal. In 2022, tensions continue over land use, as many people associate herders with Islam and farmers with Christianity.

In January 2007 the Catholic Church and Association of Evangelical Churches sent a second official protest to the Government for its failure to respond to a February 2006 rally against the Danish cartoons that resulted in damage to several Christian properties and injury to an evangelical missionary. The Government did not officially respond to the complaint.

There are rarely reports of tension between Christians and Muslims in reaction to proselytizing of traditional believers by evangelical Christians.

See also
Human rights in Chad
Religion in Chad

References

 United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. Chad: International Religious Freedom Report 2007. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.

Chad
Human rights in Chad

Freedom of religion in Chad


Sir David Rowlands KCB (31 May 1947 – 11 May 2014) was a British civil servant who rose to the rank of
Permanent Secretary to the Department for Transport.

Rowlands left the private sector to join the Department of Trade and Industry in 1974. At the DTI he was appointed private secretary to the Minister of State for Industry.

He moved to the then Ministry of Transport in 1983 where he has held a number of posts with responsibilities for finance, aviation, shipping, ports and railways. Before being appointed Permanent Secretary in May 2003, he was the director general for railways, aviation, logistics, maritime and security.

In this role he was central to the creation of Network Rail after Railtrack was put into administration and the delivery of public-private partnerships for the London Underground and the National Air Traffic Services. Rowlands received a knighthood in the Birthday Honours List 2006. He retired at 60.

Since leaving the civil service his career moves were subject to a number of controversies, including government blocks on his attempts to join the Boards of British Airports Authority and Bechtel. At the time of his death his roles in the private sector included chairmanships of Gatwick Airport and Angel Trains. He was also the chairman of High Speed 2 Ltd,.

References

1947 births
2014 deaths
English civil servants
Permanent Under-Secretaries of State for Transport
Civil servants in the Department of Trade and Industry
Civil servants in the Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions
Civil servants in the Department for the Environment, Transport and the Regions
Private secretaries in the British Civil Service
Alumni of St Edmund Hall, Oxford
People educated at St Mary's College, Crosby
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
High Speed 2

David Rowlands (civil servant)


Maria Gloriosa, or the Erfurt Bell, is a well-known bell of Erfurt Cathedral, cast by Geert van Wou in 1497. The world's largest medieval free-swinging bell, it is now swung electrically. It was welded in 1985 to repair a crack, then, in August 2004, the bell was re-fused due to another crack from 2001.

Diameter: , weight: 13 tons 15 cwts. [12555 kg], note: E [1497 standard]. Alternately: 2570mm, 11450 kg, note by today's standards: F-. It is about 2 meters tall.

As with any well-tuned bell the hum tone is near an octave below the strike tone, and all other notes are in tune including the minor third, fifth, octave, and major third and fifth in the second octave that may be heard in large bells.

Sources

Individual bells
Erfurt
1497 works

Maria Gloriosa


The 1893 Championship of Australia was an Australian rules football match that took place on 7 October 1893.

The championship was contested by the premiers of the VFA, Essendon and the premiers of the SAFA, South Adelaide.

The match was played at Victoria Park in Melbourne, Victoria.

The match, played in front of 12,000, was won by Essendon by a margin of 7 goals, giving Essendon its 1st Championship of Australia Title.

This was the last Championship of Australia match to be held until 1907.

Match details

References

Championship of Australia
1893 in Australian sport
Championship of Australia
1893 in sports
October 1893 events

1893 Championship of Australia


A collect call, also called a "reverse charge call", is a type of telephone call. Usually, when a telephone call is made, the person who makes the call pays for the call, rather than the person who receives the call at the other end. In a collect call, though, the person making the call wants the person they are calling to pay for the call instead.

In the past, these kinds of calls could only be done with a operator, who would need to ask the person receiving the call if they want to be charged for it. If the person receiving it does not want to be charged, the call cannot go through. Today, computers have made it possible to make or receive collect calls without talking to a person.

Collect calls used to be made a lot using payphones, but they are becoming less used since mobile phones and VoIP technology has come around and made long-distance calls cheaper to make.

It has been found out that the day of the year in which the most collect calls are made is Father's Day, even though the day when the most phone calls are made altogether is Mother's Day.

References

Telephone

Collect call


Brandreth Park is the oldest family-owned forest preserve in the state of New York.

Description
In 1851 Dr. Benjamin Brandreth, having made a fortune with his "Brandreth's Universal Vegetable Pills", bought Township 39 in Hamilton County of upstate New York, consisting of  in the Adirondacks of New York State; he paid 15 cents an acre. In this manner he established Brandreth Park, the first private preserve in the future Adirondack Park. Included on the property is  Brandreth Lake. Hamilton County is one of the least densely populated counties in the eastern United States. The property is mountainous and heavily forested.

History
Brandreth Park remains in the family today and incorporates a number of cabins and cottages in a preserved wilderness setting. According to Adirondack Life Magazine, Dr. Brandreth commissioned a certain Mr. Blanchard to find him a lake at the top of the watershed, because he didn't want any water flowing into his lake. Blanchard found Township 39 and today the lake is known as Brandreth Lake.

Dr. Brandreth lost the property in 1873 for failing to pay taxes, but his wife bought it at State auction for $5,091. Currently the property contains  and is owned by 90 of Dr. Brandreth's descendants.

At one point the Adirondacks contained 45 such private estates, but as of 2000 only four remained, and Brandreth's is the oldest.

Upon Brandreth's death in 1880, the property was eligible to be inherited by six of his children. Two of his sons, Franklin and Ralph Brandreth, and his son-in-law, General Edwin A. McAlpin, purchased the interests of the other children and consolidated ownership in their hands, and those of their heirs.

Management
Throughout its ownership by the Brandreth family, the property has been managed in a way to preserve as much as possible its native character. In order to preserve the property's primitive character, all development is limited to the north end of Brandreth Lake, and no motor boats are allowed on the lake. The family anticipated the concept of cluster development by concentrating all building on the north side of the lake, thereby ensuring pristine views toward the south. Property owners, all descendants of Dr. Brandreth, need to apply to the building committee of the Brandreth Park Association before building.

The property was not logged for many years, as the family desired to maintain it in a primitive condition. However, in 1911–1919, a softwood harvest was performed by the Mac-a-Mac Lumber Corporation, of which John N. McDonald and Benjamin Brandreth McAlpin, son of Gen. Edwin A. McAlpin, were principals. This first harvest was extensive, with between 30 and 35 railcars of spruce logs shipped daily to the St. Regis Paper Company's plant in Deferiet. Mac-a-Mac stored an additional 70 carloads of cut logs in ponds and lakes for later transport off the property. A second harvest took place in the mid-1920s. Since then the family has permitted occasional selective harvesting.

In the 1950s, the Brandreths sold  and donated an additional  to Syracuse University while retaining recreational usage rights in perpetuity. Around this time the family created the Brandreth Park Association to provide a vehicle for each family member to have a voice in the management of the property, and to help pay for taxes and other operating costs. In 1992, the Association enrolled the property under the New York State Forest Tax Law, which provides for an 80% exemption from property taxes in exchange for a commitment to sustainable timber production. In 2007, some members of the family established a nonprofit organization known as the Shingle Shanty Preserve and Research Station in order to preserve and protect the land adjacent to present-day Brandreth Park, on which the family still retains recreational rights. This tract was last owned by The Nature Conservancy. The Shingle Shanty Preserve and Research Station makes the Shingle Shanty property available to outside parties for research subject to permit.

References

Adirondack Park
Forests of New York (state)
Nature reserves in New York (state)
Protected areas of Hamilton County, New York
Syracuse University
Nature Conservancy preserves

Brandreth Park


Graft, as understood in American English, is a form of political corruption defined as the unscrupulous use of a politician's authority for personal gain. Political graft occurs when funds intended for public projects are intentionally misdirected in order to maximize the benefits to private interests.

Political graft functions when the public officer is directed to purchase goods or services from a specific private interest at a cost far above regular market rates. The private interest then siphons some of the gratuitous profits to government officials who are able to ensure that future government spending continues in the same fashion so that this lucrative relationship continues. A member of a government may misappropriate directly from government funds, but they may also make decisions benefiting their own private economic interests by using inside knowledge of upcoming government decisions to their benefit, in a manner similar to insider trading.

Although the conflict between public and private interests is common to all forms of corruption, the term "graft" is specific to the intentional misdirection of official funds. Although not the original usage of the term, graft in the modern context is commonly used as a blanket term for political embezzlement, influence peddling, or other forms of corruption. While embezzlement and influence peddling are elements sometimes present in graft, the relationship is not deterministic.

George W. Plunkitt coined the term "honest graft" for graft that benefits other parties in addition to the politician committing it.

The British definition is very different - a grafter is a person who works hard and conscientiously.

See also
Corruption
Cronyism
Grift
Inside job
Money trail
Nepotism
Patronage
Political corruption
Political finance

References

Political corruption

Graft (politics)


The American Mafia (or simply Mob or Mafia in the United States) are an Italian American criminal society who do not carry a formal name. Its members refer to it as Cosa Nostra. They are especially active in New York City, Philadelphia, New England, Detroit and Chicago. Smaller families and crews operate in places like Texas and Los Angeles. Most of the activities performed by the American Mafia, however, are over New England, Northeastern United States and Chicago.

A mafia is a type of organized crime syndicate whose primary activities are protection racketeering, arbitrating disputes between criminals, and brokering and enforcing illegal agreements and transactions. The term "mafia" derives from the Sicilian Mafia.

The Mafia continues to make millions and millions of dollars from not only traditional mob rackets but new and innovative schemes. There have been numerous reports of the Mob's demise over the last decade or so, but families in and outside of New York remain.

Organized crime
Mafia

American Mafia


Olympiodorus the Younger (; born , died after 565) was a Neoplatonist philosopher, astrologer and teacher who lived in the early years of the Byzantine Empire, after Justinian's Decree of 529 AD which closed Plato's Academy in Athens and other pagan schools.  Olympiodorus was the last pagan to maintain the Platonist tradition in Alexandria (see Alexandrian School); after his death the School passed into the hands of Christian Aristotelians, and was eventually moved to Constantinople. He is not to be confused with Olympiodorus the Deacon, a contemporary Alexandrian writer of Bible commentaries.

Life
Olympiodorus was the disciple of Ammonius Hermiae at the philosophy school in Alexandria, and succeeded him as its leader when Ammonius died c. 520. He was still teaching and writing in 565, because in his commentary on Aristotle's Meteorology, he mentions a comet that appeared that year. Olympiodorus himself was able to survive the persecution experienced by many of his peers (see, for example, Hierocles of Alexandria), possibly because the Alexandrian School was less involved in politics (for example, the attempts by the Emperor Julian to re-establish Mithraic cults) and also possibly because it was more scholastic and less religious than the Athenian Academy.

He is called "Olympiodorus the Younger" or "The Younger Olympiodorus" in contemporary references because there was an earlier (5th century) Peripatetic philosopher also called Olympiodorus (Olympiodorus the Elder) who also taught in Alexandria.

Writings
Among the extant writings of Olympiodorus the Younger are a biography of Plato, commentaries on several dialogues of Plato and on Aristotle, and an introduction to Aristotelian philosophy.  Olympiodorus also provides information on the work of the earlier Neoplatonist Iamblichus which is not found elsewhere. The surviving works are:

Commentary on Plato's Alcibiades (Σχόλια εἰς τὸν Πλάτωνος Ἀλκιβιάδην)
Commentary on Plato's Gorgias (Σχόλια σὺν θεῷ εἰς τὸν Γοργίαν)
Commentary on Plato's Phaedo (Σχόλια εἰς τὸν Πλάτωνος Φαίδωνα)
Life of Plato (Βίος Πλάτωνος)
Introduction (Prolegomena) to Aristotle's logic (Εἰς τὰ προλεγόμενα τῆς Λογικῆς)
Commentary on Aristotle's Meteorology (Εἰς τὸ πρῶτον τῶν Μετεωρολογικῶν Ἀριστοτέλους σχόλια)
Commentary on Aristotle's Categories (Σχόλια εἰς τὰς Ἀριστοτέλους Κατηγορίας)
Commentary on Aristotle's On Interpretation (Σχόλια εἰς τὸ Ἀριστοτέλους Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας)
a polemical work against Strato

In addition, a Commentary by Olympiodorus is extant on Paulus Alexandrinus' Introduction to astrology (which was written in 378 AD).  Although the manuscript of the Commentary is credited in two later versions to a Heliodorus, L. G. Westerink argues that it is actually the  outline of a series of lectures given by Olympiodorus in Alexandria between May and July 564 AD.  The Commentary is an informative expatiation of Paulus' tersely written text, elaborating on practices and sources.  The Commentary also illuminates the developments in astrological theory in the 200 years after Paulus.

Spurious works
In addition there are three works ascribed to Olympiodorus, but which are now believed to be by other authors:
 An alchemical treatise concerning Zosimus' On the Action, called On the Book Kat'energeian (On the action or According to the action) by Zosimus and on the Sayings of Hermes and the Philosophers (Εἰς τὸ κατ' ἐνέργειαν Ζωσίμου, ὅσα ἀπὸ Ἑρμοῦ καὶ τῶν φιλοσόφων ἦσαν εἰρημένα)
 On the Divine and Sacred Art of the Philosophical Stone (Περί τῆς ἱερᾶς τέχνης τῆς φιλοσοφικῆς λίθου; Latin: De arte sacra lapidis philosophorum)
 A commentary on Plato's Philebus — now thought to be the work of Damascius

Notes

References
 Olympiodorus, Introduction to Aristotle's Categories. [Translated by Sebastian Gertz]. Bloomsbury: London, 2017. .
Late Classical Astrology:  Paulus Alexandrinus and Olympiodorus (with the Scholia of later Latin Commentators).  [Translated by Dorian Gieseler Greenbaum.]  ARHAT , 2001.
"Olympiodorus The Younger." Encyclopædia Britannica from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Olympiodorus-the-Younger> [Accessed September 24, 2017].

L.G. Westerink, "Ein astrologisches Kolleg aus dem Jahre 564," in Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 64, 1971, pp. 6–21.
Bruce M. Metzger, "Ancient Astrological Geography and Acts 2:9-11," W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. Hbk. . pp. 123–133.
 Harold Tarrant, "Olympiodorus and history," in Idem, From the Old Academy to Later Neo-Platonism: Studies in the History of Platonic Thought (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2010) (Variorum Collected Studies Series: CS964).
 Harold Tarrant, "Politike Eudaimonia: Olympiodorus on Plato's Republic," in Idem, From the Old Academy to Later Neo-Platonism: Studies in the History of Platonic Thought (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2010) (Variorum Collected Studies Series: CS964).
 Harold Tarrant, "Restoring Olympiodorus' syllogistic," in Idem, From the Old Academy to Later Neo-Platonism: Studies in the History of Platonic Thought (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2010) (Variorum Collected Studies Series: CS964).
Robert Schmidt, Project Hindsight
Sebastian R. P. Gertz, Death and Immortality in Late Neoplatonism: Studies on the Ancient Commentaries on Plato's Phaedo, Brill: Leiden, 2011.

External links

Olympiodorus of Alexandria - Encyclopedia.com
 . Collection includes Olympiodorus' Life of Plato. George Burges, translator (1855).

495 births
570 deaths
5th-century Byzantine people
6th-century Greek philosophers
Byzantine astrologers
6th-century Byzantine writers
Commentators on Aristotle
Commentators on Plato
Neoplatonists in Athens
Late-Roman-era pagans
6th-century astrologers
6th-century Byzantine scientists
Philosophers in ancient Alexandria

Olympiodorus the Younger


Park Yung-woo (Hangul: 박영우, born 1952) is a South Korean physicist, who has worked in the field of materials science.

Education
Park graduated summa cum laude in 1975 from the Physics Department of Seoul National University in South Korea. He received his Ph.D. from University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, United States in 1980. Park's Ph.D. thesis on the "Electrical Transport Studies of Pure and Doped Polyacetylene" was supervised by Professor Alan J. Heeger.

Work
Park was involved in the original discovery of conducting polymers in 1977 under the guidance of Prof. Alan J. Heeger at the University of Pennsylvania. For this achievement, Prof. Heeger received the Nobel Chemistry Prize in 2000 together with Prof. Alan G. MacDiarmid and Prof. Hideki Shirakawa.

Park, as a Ph.D. student of Prof. Heeger at the time, had measured the electrical conductivity of iodine doped polyacetylene film and found a conductivity increment of 10 million times. He has continued to study the transport properties of newly doped conducting polymer films, as an assistant professor in Seoul National University since September 1980, after he finished his postdoctoral program in the US, from February to August 1980.

He became a full professor at Seoul National University in 1991. ark spent his sabbatical leaves in the University of California at Santa Barbara (1984–1985), the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory of Florida State University in Tallahassee, Florida, USA (1998), the Max Planck Institute of Solid State Physics in Stuttgart, Germany (2004, 2008 three months each) and Göteborg/Chalmers University in Sweden (2004, 2008 three months each).

He was the Vice President of the Korean Physical Society as Editor-in-chief of the journal "Current Applied Physics". He became a member of the Korean Academy of Science and Technology (KAST) in 1999 and received a lifelong membership in 2001. He was a Director for Foreign Affairs of the KAST (2001–2003). He has served as the Director General for Foreign Affairs of the KAST since March 2011. Also, he has been one of the Foreign Members of the Göteborg Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts in Sweden since December, 2004. He has been a member of the Scientific Advisory Board (SAB) of the Fibron Technology, Inc., USA since November, 2009.

Awards
 The Korean Physical Society Academic Award (2010)
 Fellow of the American Physical Society (Division of Condensed Matter Physics) (2009)
 Research Award from The brothers Jacob and Marcus Wallenberg memory foundation administered by the Royal Swedish Academy of Science, KVA (2008)
 Research Award from the College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University (2007)
 Best 50 papers selection in 2007 by the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation
 "Grand Prize for the Nano Research Innovation" (2004) given by the Minister of the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Korea.
 Korea Science Award in Physics in 1991 by the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation (President of Korea prize)
 1991 Korea Science Award

Technical reports
Park has made unique contributions on the synthesis and transport studies of carbon based nanostructures such as conducting polymers, carbon nanotube, organic conductors, molecular conductors and graphene. He has also contributed significantly to the transport and mechanism studies of highly correlated materials, such as high Tc superconductors. In particular, his recent discovery of "Zero magneto resistance in polymer nanofibers" is his most important and seminal achievement.

There has been no such material reported in the history of material sciences in the world. Due to the quenching of orbital motion in the reduced dimension, i.e. the quasi-one-dimensional nature of polymer nanofibers, the intrinsic spin of charge carriers responds to the external field. For this reason, one could probe both spin and charge of the charge carriers (not being dominated by the orbital motion) in the polymer nanofibers by measuring the magneto resistance (MR). The MR vanishes at high electric field remaining zero all the way from H = 0 to 35 tesla in polyacetylene nanofibers.

Other conducting polymers such as polyaniline nanofibers and polythiophene nanofibers do not show the zero MR. Instead, they show positive MR which increases more than 50% as the magnetic field increases to 35 tesla. The zero magneto resistance in polyacetylene nanofibers is understood to be caused from the spinless charge carriers tunneling in high electric field in the quasi-one-dimensional nanofibers.

There would be tremendous applicability of the zero MR characteristics of polymer nanofibers. For example, the high speed magnetic levitation train can be stabilized by using the zero MR switching device made of polymer nanofibers.

There were also other investigated items: the electrospun CNT filled polymer composites and coaxial carbon nanofibers with NiO core, graphene nanorings, perchlorate-doped TTF-diamide nanofibers with double and triple helix structures, CNT based nonvolatile electromechanical memory.
In particular, the CNT based nonvolatile MEMS memory [7] has achieved a 1000 times faster switching speed, applicable to the MP3s, smart phones and cameras with very low power consumption and possible multinary bit devices.

References

External links
 http://ntl.snu.ac.kr

1952 births
Living people
Seoul National University alumni
Academic staff of Seoul National University
South Korean physicists

Park Yung-woo


Ingeborg Spangsfeldt (born Christiane Ingeborg Margrete Olsen; 25 July 1895 – 21 June 1968) was a Danish film actress whose career began in the early 1910s  until her retirement upon getting married in 1924.

Early life
Ingeborg Spangsfeldt was born Christiane Ingeborg Margrete Olsen, the daughter of a merchant, Niels Hansen Olsen and his wife Kirstine Marie Olsen. She began her film career at Nordisk Film in 1912, and was often credited in her earliest performances as Ingeborg Olsen. Her earliest films were often small roles as maids or nurses. Her first film for Nordisk was a small role in the 1913 Holger-Madsen-directed Af elskovs nåde (English: By the Grace of Love), which starred Betty Nansen.

Career
In 1916 and 1917, Spangsfeldt's career built momentum and she began receiving larger roles at Nordisk, appearing opposite such Danish leading men as Carl Lauritzen, Gunnar Sommerfeldt, Valdemar Psilander and Frederik Buch. In all, she appeared in nearly sixty films for Nordisk. At the peak of her career in the late 1910s and early 1920s, she achieved leading lady status and was a very popular film actress, but she chose to retire from film following her marriage to Dr. Tage Iversen on 3 March 1924. Her last film role was a starring role in the Carl Alstrup-directed Kokain-Rusen, filmed in 1924 and released in 1925.

Selected filmography
Praesten i Vejlby (English: The Vicar of Vjelby) - Mette (1922)
Borgslægtens historie (English: Sons of the Soil) - Rúna (1919)
Kærlighed og Mobilisering (credited as Ingeborg Olsen) (1915)

References

External links

De Danske Filminstitut

1895 births
1968 deaths
Danish film actresses
Danish silent film actresses
20th-century Danish actresses
Actresses from Copenhagen

Ingeborg Spangsfeldt