The Island of Sodor is a fictional island that is the setting for The Railway Series books by the Rev. Wilbert Awdry (and his son Christopher). It is also the setting of the Thomas & Friends television series, though it is significantly different from the island in the books. Sodor is depicted in the Irish Sea between the Isle of Man and the English mainland near Barrow-in-Furness in Cumbria; the real-life Walney Island is included in Sodor.

Inspiration and creation
Awdry wanted a consistent set of locations for The Railway Series. He wanted them to be in Great Britain, but sufficiently isolated from British Railways to allow him to write the stories he wanted. He was inspired during a 1950 visit to the Isle of Man, which forms the Diocese of Sodor and Man. Awdry noted that while there was an Isle of Man, there was no island of Sodor. He decided to create a fictional island of "Sodor" as the setting for his books. Sodor would be between England and the Isle of Man, isolated from British railway system, but somewhere that readers could easily imagine.

Awdry and his younger brother George worked out Sodor's history, geography, industry and language ("Sudric"). Inspiration came from various sources. Dryaw was an anagram of Awdry. Elsbridge was named after Wilbert's parish of Elsworth in Cambridgeshire. Some place names were Sudric equivalents or near-equivalents of those in the real world (for instance, Skarloey was a rough Sudric equivalent of the Welsh Talyllyn: logh (Manx) = llyn (Welsh) = "lake"). They created more details of Sodor than would ever be used in The Railway Series stories.

Their abridged notes were published in 1987 in a book titled: The Island of Sodor: Its People, History and Railways (Republished with some minor modifications by Christopher Awdry in 1992 under the title: Sodor: Reading Between the lines)

Etymology
The bishop of the Isle of Man is known as Bishop of "Sodor and Man". This is because the Isle of Man was part of the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles, which included the Hebrides, known in Old Norse as the , (anglicised as "The Sudreys") i.e. "Southern Isles" compared to  ("The Nordreys"), or the "Northern Isles", i.e. Orkney and Shetland (also known as Zetland). "Sudreys" became "Sodor", in the name of the Diocese, and retained it long after it ceased to have any authority over the Scottish Islands.

Awdry noted that although the Bishop had the title "Sodor and Man", he had only Man for his diocese. "Everybody knew that there was an Isle of Man, but we decided to 'discover' another island – the Island of Sodor – and so give the poor deprived Bishop the other half of his diocese!" (Rev. W. Awdry) Awdry decided to create Sodor in the Irish Sea, between the Isle of Man and Barrow-in-Furness in Lancashire (Barrow later became part of the new county of Cumbria during the 1974 re-organisation).

Language
The fictional native language of Sodor is "Sudric" or Sudrian, a language similar to Manx.

Many of the place names are based on Manx words, but often conforming to English word order, e.g. Killdane, which comes from "Keeill-y-Deighan" (Church of the Devil), and the hills, called Knock and Cronk. The names of some of the 'historical' characters – used in the background but not appearing in the stories – were taken from locations on the Isle of Man, such as Sir Crosby Marown (Crosby is a village in the parish of Marown) and Harold Regaby (Regaby is a tiny hamlet on the parish boundary between Andreas and Bride).

Below are some words and phrases, and place-names translated into English:

Geography

Sodor is usually shown as much larger than the Isle of Man. The island is roughly diamond-shaped,  wide east to west and  long north to south. Its north-west coast is separated from the Isle of Man by a sea strait called the Sudrian Sea (Faarkey-y-Sudragh), four miles (6 km) wide. Its north-east edge overrides and replaces the real Walney Island. Its highest mountain is Culdee Fell, which was modelled on Snowdon: the ridge of Devil's Back copies the Clogwyn ridge on Snowdon. The summit is reached by the Culdee Fell Railway, which is based on the Snowdon Mountain Railway in Wales.

The capital and administrative centre of Sodor is the city of Suddery; Tidmouth is the largest town on the island. One of the more famous settlements on Sodor is Ffarquhar, the terminus of Thomas's branch line.

Railways
The railways of Sodor include standard and narrow gauge railways, a rack railway and a 15-inch gauge railway. The first few stories concerned standard-gauge engines (including Thomas the Tank Engine). Stories set around the narrow gauge railways soon followed.

The standard-gauge railway system consists of a mainline and several branch lines. They are linked to and interoperable with each other and with the mainland system, so the standard-gauge engines can visit locations in Britain under their own power. In Gordon Goes Foreign several of the engines recount working in London when they were younger, and later in the same story Gordon pulls a train of mainland rolling stock to London. In the story The Fat Controller's Engines several of the famous engines visit London.

There are three narrow-gauge railways: the Skarloey Railway, the rack-and-pinion Culdee Fell Mountain Railway, and the Arlesdale Railway. On the west side of the island, the  gauge Arlesdale Railway runs from Arlesdale West along the trackbed of the abandoned Mid-Sodor Railway. In the center of the island, the Culdee Fell Mountain Railway runs west from Kirk Machan to the summit of Culdee Fell. On the eastern side of the island, the Skarloey Railway runs northwest from Crovan's Gate up the valley to its namesake, Skarloey Lake. Rolling stock is moved to and from the narrow-gauge railways on flatbed wagons on the standard-gauge system; for example, Rheneas is sent away for repairs in Skarloey Remembers and returns in Gallant Old Engine.

Each of the narrow-gauge railways links to the standard-gauge system at an interchange station:
 the Skarloey Railway at Crovan's Gate
 the Culdee Fell Railway at Kirk Machan
 the Arlesdale Railway at Arlesburgh West

Description of lines

 The North Western Railway is the main railway company featured in the books. It controls the mainline railway and many of the branch lines on the island and is often referred to as The Fat Controller's Railway.
 The Main Line runs from Barrow-in-Furness on the mainland, joining the island at Vicarstown and transversing the island to Tidmouth. Its main traffic is the Wild Nor' Wester', an express train from Tidmouth to London, a stopping passenger service dubbed "The Local" and freight traffic.
 The Ffarquhar Branch Line runs from Knapford to Ffarquhar. It is operated by Thomas's push-pull train and Daisy the diesel railcar. 8 trains a day are provided each way.
 The Brendam Branch Line goes all the way to Brendam from Wellsworth. It links the china-clay works at Brendam to the mainline. It is run by Edward, who manages passenger traffic and possibly more locomotives. At peak hours there is an extended commuter service, during which trains run all the way to Tidmouth.
 The Little Western, also known as Duck's Branch Line, runs along the coast from Tidmouth to Arlesburgh. It has an hourly service operated by Duck and Oliver with their GWR-style auto-trains.
 The Peel Godred Branch runs from Kildane to Peel Godred and connects with the Culdee Fell Railway. There are 8 trains both ways hauled by electric locomotives, being the only line on Sodor that is electrified. 4 of these trains, presumably the ones in peak hours, continue to Cronk. The line also serves the Aluminium Works at Peel Godred, and has to handle heavy freight traffic of bauxite and aluminium products. The line is technically a Light railway, which means trains on it are limited to 25 mph.
 Four other North Western Railway branch lines detailed on the maps of Sodor have not featured in The Railway Series. They run from:
 Vicarstown to Norramby, via Ballahoo. This line has hourly trains as well as a half-hourly suburban service at peak hours. The suburban trains are operated as a joint service between the NWR and The Other Railway (which was originally the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, later British Rail and currently Northern Trains.
 Kellsthorpe Road to Kirk Ronan
 The Arlesdale Railway (also known as Small Railway), a 15 inch gauge railway, takes waste from the mines in the hills to Arlesburgh where it could be distributed to the rest of the Island. It also carries tourists.
 The Culdee Fell Railway, a narrow-gauge rack-and-pinion mountain railway, runs from the summit of Culdee Fell down to Kirk Machan where it links to the standard-gauge line from Kildane to Peel Godred.
 The Mid Sodor Railway, a narrow-gauge railway, closed in 1947. It ran from Arlesburgh to King 'Orry's Bridge. Part of its route is now on the 15-inch gauge Arlesdale Railway.
 The Other Railway refers to the nationalised British Railways company that ran the Railway System in the United Kingdom until 1997, and later simply the National Rail.
 The Skarloey Railway, a narrow-gauge railway, runs from Crovan's Gate up to Skarloey.

On-screen portrayal
The Island of Sodor in the Thomas & Friends television series differs significantly from that in the books. Wilbert and Christopher Awdry's notes have been largely overlooked. The television version of Sodor appears quite larger and has more industry. The connection to the British mainland was not acknowledged until the 2013 feature-length film special King of the Railway, which introduces "The Vicarstown Rolling Bridge", connecting Sodor to mainland Britain. The connection was further acknowledged in that special (though perhaps indirectly), by having king Godred's crown hidden secretly below Ulfstead Castle in a chest.

Notes

See also

United Kingdom
Irish Sea
Walney Channel

References

Further reading
 Timpson, Trevor (4 July 2011). "Where is Sodor, home of Thomas the Tank Engine?". BBC News website. Retrieved on 4 July 2011.

External links
 The Mapping of Sodor

Fictional elements introduced in 1945
United Kingdom in fiction
England in fiction
Cumbria in fiction
Fictional islands
Fictional populated places in England
Islands of Furness
Thomas & Friends locations
Manx language

Sodor (fictional island)


Dried meat is a feature of many cuisines around the world. Examples include:
Kulen Slanina Pečenica
Aliya, sun-dried meat from Kenya
 Bakkwa or rougan, Chinese salty-sweet dried meat sheets.
 Biltong, a cured meat that originated in Southern Africa.
 Bògoǫ, a dried and smoked meat, often caribou, of the Dené people of northern Canada.
 Borts, air-dried strips of horse or cow meat used as traveling food or to last the winter in Mongolia. Often ground into powder and mixed with water to create soup.
 Bresaola, air-dried salted beef originally from the Valtellina valley in northern Italy.
 Brési, made in the canton of Jura and in Jura Bernois in Switzerland and in the department of Doubs in France.
 Bündnerfleisch, air-dried meat from Kanton Graubünden in Switzerland.
 Carne-de-sol, sun-dried salt beef from Brazil.
 Carne seca, air-dried meat from Mexico.
 Cecina, lightly smoked, dried, and salted meat from northwestern Spain (Asturias, León, Cantabria), Cuba, Nicaragua and Mexico.
 Charqui, made from llama or alpaca, in South America.
 Chipped beef, partially dried beef sold in small, thin, flexible leaves in jars or plastic packets.
 Droëwors, from South Africa, dried sausage
 Fenalår from Norway is the salted, dried thigh of a sheep predominantly, but it can also come from other animals such as roe deer, deer, moose or reindeer.
 Hunter beef, a corned beef from Pakistan marinated and baked for use in sandwiches and salads.
Idiyirachi is a traditional Kerala-style delicacy made of pounded and shredded buffalo dry meat.
 Jerky, meat that has been trimmed of fat, cut into strips, marinated, and dried or smoked.
 Kawaab, air-dried, spiced meat of the Hyderabadi community of India.
 Kilishi, a dried, spicy Nigerian meat. Coated with a peanut sauce as well as other spices.
 Kuivaliha, air-dried salted meat (often reindeer) of northern Finland.
 Laap mei, also called "wax meats" or air-dried meats, are a southern Chinese speciality.
 Lahndi or qadid, air-dried salted meat (often lamb) of Pushtoon Tribe of Pakistan, Northern Afghanistan and Northern Africa (gueddid).
 Mipku, air-dried strips of meat, often caribou or reindeer, of the Inuvialuit people of Northern Canada.
 Pânsâwân, smoked dried strips of bison meat traditionally of the plains Cree peoples of Western Canada and the United States.
 Pastirma, air-dried salted and often spiced meat of in Armenia, Greece, Turkey, and the Balkans.
 Pemmican, a meat mixture, sometimes with dried fruit, used by the native peoples of North America.
 Pindang, dried buffalo meat from the Philippines.
 Po, dried meat in Korean cuisine.
 Yukpo, dried beef in Korean cuisine.
Vatti Mamsam or Endu Mamsam is fresh meat of goat, sheep, beef dried in sun mixed with turmeric and salt from Rayalaseema, Andhra Pradesh in India.
Uppukandam, dried boneless salted mutton from Tamil Nadu in India
Sukhad is a dried game meat from Bhopal,India.
 Suho meso, a smoked beef eaten in Bosnia.
 Sukuti, air-dried, spiced meat of the Newari community of Nepal.
 Walliser Rohschinken, air-dried ham from Kanton Wallis in Switzerland.
 Walliser Trockenfleisch, air-dried beef from Kanton Wallis in Switzerland.
 Walliser Trockenspeck, air-dried bacon from Kanton Wallis in Switzerland.
 Walliser Trockenwurst, air-dried sausage from Kanton Wallis in Switzerland.
 Gakhaj, sun or oven-dried meat from Gakh region in Azerbaijan.

See also

 List of dried foods
 List of smoked foods

References

Dried meat


The Galápagos Islands are located off the west coast of South America straddling the equator. The Galápagos are located at the confluence of several currents including the cold Humboldt Current traveling north from South America and the Panama Current traveling south from Central America make the islands cooler and provide the perfect environment for the unique mix of wildlife that inhabits the islands.

These islands are volcanic in origin and were never attached to any continent. Galapagos wildlife arrived here in one of three ways: flying, floating or swimming.  Birds might have flown there by accident and decided to settle there due to favourable conditions. Mammals or reptiles might have floated on a piece of wood and drifted to the islands. Some animals like marine iguanas, might have swum there. Where in most environments larger mammals are normally the predators at the top of the food chain, these animals were unable to survive the journey. Thus the giant Galápagos tortoise became the largest land animal on the islands, and due to the lack of natural predators, the wildlife in the Galápagos is known for being extremely tame without instinctual fear.

The Galápagos Islands are noted as a home to a large number of endemic species. The stark rocky islands (many with few plants) made it necessary for many species need to adapt to survive here and by doing so evolving into new endemic species. It was after visiting the Galápagos and studying the endemic wildlife that inhabit the islands that a young Charles Darwin developed his theory of evolution.

Fauna

One of the best-known is the Galápagos tortoise, which lived on ten of the islands. Nowadays, some species are either extinct or extinct in the wild and it lives on six of the islands. It has an average lifespan of more than 130 years.

The marine iguana is also extremely unusual, since it is the only iguana adapted to life in the sea. Land iguanas, lava lizards, geckos and harmless snakes can also be found in the islands. The large number and range of birds is also of interest to scientists and tourists. Around 56 species live in the archipelago, of which 27 are found only in the Galápagos. Some of these are found only on one island.

The most outstanding are the Galapagos penguins, which live on the colder coasts, Darwin's finches, frigatebirds, albatrosses, gulls, boobies, pelicans and Galápagos hawks, among others. The flightless cormorant, a peculiar bird which has lost the ability to fly due to lack of natural predators, and the Galapagos crake, nearly flightless, are also part of this rich fauna.

On the other hand, there are many mammal species, mostly sea mammals such as whales, dolphins and sea lions.  A few species of endemic Galapagos mice (or rice rats)  the Santiago Galapagos mouse and the Fernandina Galapagos mouse  have also been recently rediscovered.

Charles Darwin was the one who discovered over 100 new species of birds on the island. The most famous of his discoveries are Darwin's finches.

Flora
On the larger Galápagos Islands, four ecological zones have been defined: coastal, low or dry, transitional and humid. In the first, species such as myrtle, mangrove and saltbush can be found. In the second grow cactus, the Bursera graveolens (the incensé tree), carob tree, Manchineel (the poison apple tree), chala and yellow cordia, among others. In the transitional zone taller trees, epiphytes and perennial herbs can be seen. The best known varieties are the cat's claw, espuela de gallo. In the humid sector are the Cogojo, Galapagos guava, Cat's claw, Galapagos coffee, passionflower and some types of moss, ferns and fungus.

Invasive species
An invasive species is an alien organism that is not native to a habitat and introduced to a new area that wreaks havoc on the ecosystem, infrastructure and economy. These species can be introduced via natural events or more commonly, through human interactions like colonization, tourism, and the releasing of exotic pets. There are approximately over 1,300 total invasive species within the Galapagos Islands consisting of over 500 insects, over 750 plants and over 30 vertebrates. Most of the plants were brought for agricultural and aesthetic reasons. The Galapagos Islands are highly susceptible to the introduction of foreign species. The islands are credited with being Ecuador's most prized feature because they are well-known for their intense biodiversity. Scientists who study the flora and fauna in the Galapagos agree that the increasing amount of invasive species in the region is  "the single greatest threat to the terrestrial ecosystems". The islands are specifically vulnerable because of their geographic location away from the mainland Ecuador. This distance separates the existing species in the Galapagos from their counterparts on the mainland, therefore when foreign species invade the islands, they can easily proliferate until they are the majority.

Feral goats introduced by humans to the islands for agricultural reasons had a huge impact on the ecosystem. Feral goats are dangerous to the environment because they eat everything in sight, destroying many habitats. These goats did not have natural predators, thus their population continued to grow, which led to a decrease in native organisms they prey on. The goats had a huge impact on a specific species on the island, the Galapagos tortoise. The goats ate all of the food and resources needed by the tortoises, eventually driving the tortoises towards near extinction.

Fixing the problems of the invasive species in the Galapagos is not easy as it is very expensive and takes a long time to rid an island of an invasive species. There are many organizations that dedicate themselves to help keep invasive species out of the Galapagos and help eradicate them as well like the Charles Darwin Foundation who helped create the Galapagos Inspection and Quarantine System (SICGAL) that checks the luggage brought into the Galapagos Islands for animals and plants that could be released onto the island. Another example of a proposed solution is Project Isabela Project Isabela which was proposed to rid the island of the feral goats before they caused any extreme damage to the island and the animals living on it. This proposition was very gruesome due to the large massacre of goats which left large amounts of dead goats on the ground for everyone to see. They left the slaughtered goats on the ground so that the nutrients from the goats would be put back into the ecosystem. Other invasive species that were successfully eradicated were fire ants, rock pigeons, cats and a species of blackberry bush. Scientists have also suggested the release of natural enemies to control population growth amongst the invasive species.

References

External links

 Birding Site Guide provides birders with free, where to watch birds information worldwide

Fauna of Ecuador
Flora of the Galápagos Islands
Biota of archipelagoes

Galápagos wildlife


Intensional logic is an approach to predicate logic that extends first-order logic, which has quantifiers that range over the individuals of a universe (extensions), by additional quantifiers that range over terms that may have such individuals as their value (intensions).  The distinction between intensional and extensional entities is parallel to the distinction between sense and reference.

Overview
Logic is the study of proof and deduction as manifested in language (abstracting from any underlying psychological or biological processes). Logic is not a closed, completed science, and presumably, it will never stop developing: the logical analysis can penetrate into varying depths of the language (sentences regarded as atomic, or splitting them to predicates applied to individual terms, or even revealing such fine logical structures like modal, temporal, dynamic, epistemic ones).

In order to achieve its special goal, logic was forced to develop its own formal tools, most notably its own grammar, detached from simply making direct use of the underlying natural language. Functors (also known as function words) belong to the most important categories in logical grammar (along with basic categories like sentence and individual name): a functor can be regarded as an "incomplete" expression with argument places to fill in. If we fill them in with appropriate subexpressions, then the resulting entirely completed expression can be regarded as a result, an output. Thus, a functor acts like a function sign, taking on input expressions, resulting in a new, output expression.

Semantics links expressions of language to the outside world. Also logical semantics has developed its own structure. Semantic values can be attributed to expressions in basic categories: the reference of an individual name (the "designated" object named by that) is called its extension; and as for sentences, their truth value is their extension.

As for functors, some of them are simpler than others: extension can be attributed to them in a simple way. In case of a so-called extensional functor we can in a sense abstract from the "material" part of its inputs and output, and regard the functor as a function turning directly the extension of its input(s) into the extension of its output. Of course, it is assumed that we can do so at all: the extension of input expression(s) determines the extension of the resulting expression. Functors for which this assumption does not hold are called intensional.

Natural languages abound with intensional functors; this can be illustrated by intensional statements. Extensional logic cannot reach inside such fine logical structures of the language, but stops at a coarser level. The attempts for such deep logical analysis have a long past: authors as early as Aristotle had already studied modal syllogisms. Gottlob Frege developed a kind of two dimensional semantics: for resolving questions like those of intensional statements, Frege introduced a distinction between two semantic values: sentences (and individual terms) have both an extension and an intension. These semantic values can be interpreted, transferred also for functors (except for intensional functors, they have only intension).

As mentioned, motivations for settling problems that belong today to intensional logic have a long past. As for attempts of formalizations, the development of calculi often preceded the finding of their corresponding formal semantics. Intensional logic is not alone in that: also Gottlob Frege accompanied his (extensional) calculus with detailed explanations of the semantical motivations, but the formal foundation of its semantics appeared only in the 20th century. Thus sometimes similar patterns repeated themselves for the history of development of intensional logic like earlier for that of extensional logic.

There are some intensional logic systems that claim to fully analyze the common language:
 Transparent intensional logic
 Modal logic

Modal logic

Modal logic is historically the earliest area in the study of intensional logic, originally motivated by formalizing "necessity" and "possibility" (recently, this original motivation belongs to alethic logic, just one of the many branches of modal logic).

Modal logic can be regarded also as the most simple appearance of such studies: it extends extensional logic just with a few sentential functors: these are intensional, and they are interpreted (in the metarules of semantics) as quantifying over possible worlds. For example, the Necessity operator (the 'box') when applied to a sentence A says 'The sentence "('box')A" is true in world i if and only if it is true in all worlds accessible from world i'. The  corresponding Possibility operator (the 'diamond') when applied to A asserts that "('diamond')A" is true in world i if and only if A is true in some worlds (at least one) accessible to world i. The exact semantic content of these assertions therefore depends crucially on the nature of the accessibility relation. For example, is world i accessible from itself? The answer to this question characterizes the precise nature of the system, and many exist, answering moral and temporal questions (in a temporal system, the accessibility relation relates states or 'instants' and only the future is accessible from a given moment. The Necessity operator corresponds to 'for all future moments' in this logic. The operators are related to one another by similar dualities to those relating existential and universal quantifiers (for example by the analogous correspondents of De Morgan's laws). I.e., Something is necessary if and only if its negation is not possible, i.e. inconsistent. Syntactically, the operators are not quantifiers, they do not bind variables, but govern whole sentences. This gives rise to the problem of Referential Opacity, i.e. the problem of quantifying over or 'into' modal contexts. The operators appear in the grammar as sentential functors, they are called modal operators.

As mentioned, precursors of modal logic include Aristotle. Medieval scholastic discussions accompanied its development, for example about de re versus de dicto modalities: said in recent terms, in the de re modality the modal functor is applied to an open sentence, the variable is bound by a quantifier whose scope includes the whole intensional subterm.

Modern modal logic began with the Clarence Irving Lewis, his work was motivated by establishing the notion of strict implication. The possible worlds approach enabled more exact study of semantical questions. Exact formalization resulted in Kripke semantics (developed by Saul Kripke, Jaakko Hintikka, Stig Kanger).

Type-theoretical intensional logic

Already in 1951, Alonzo Church had developed an intensional calculus. The semantical motivations were explained expressively, of course without those tools that we now use for establishing semantics for modal logic in a formal way, because they had not been invented then: Church did not provide formal semantic definitions.

Later, the possible worlds approach to semantics provided tools for a comprehensive study in intensional semantics. Richard Montague could preserve the most important advantages of Church's intensional calculus in his system. Unlike its forerunner, Montague grammar was built in a purely semantical way: a simpler treatment became possible, thank to the new formal tools invented since Church's work.

See also
 Extensionality
 Frege–Church ontology
 Kripke semantics
 Temperature paradox
 Relevance

Notes

References
Melvin Fitting (2004). First-order intensional logic.  Annals of Pure and Applied Logic 127:171–193.  The 2003 preprint  is used in this article.
— (2007). Intensional Logic.  In the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
 . Translation of the title: "Classical, modal and intensional logic".
 .  Original: "The Development of Logic". Translation of the title of the Appendix by Ruzsa, present only in Hungarian publication: "The last two decades".
 . Translation of the title: "Syntax and semantics of logic".
 .
  Translation of the title: "Introduction to modern logic".

External links

Non-classical logic
Philosophical logic
Predicate logic

Intensional logic


Akintola Olufemi Eyiwunmi, CON (May 27, 1936 – June 20, 2008) was a Nigerian jurist, former judge at the High Court of Lagos State and Justice of the Supreme Court of Nigeria.

Early life
Justice Eyiwunmi was born in May 1936 in Lagos State, Southwestern Nigeria. He attended CMS Grammar School and the Methodist Boys' High School, Lagos where he obtained the West Africa School Certificate in 1948.  In 1957, he proceeded to the University of Hull where he obtained a bachelor's degree in Law in July 1961.

Law career
After he was called to the English bar, he returned to Nigeria as law clerk in the Supreme Court of Nigeria in 1962.  In 1963, he joined the Oyo State Ministry of Justice at Ibadan where he bagged a scholarship award to study for an LL.M. in International Air and Space Law at McGill University in Canada, which he completed in 1964.  He returned to the Ministry of Justice, Ibadan in 1964 and was appointed a Crown Counsel at the Director of Public Prosecutions's office and was deployed to Lagos State in 1967, the same year the state was established.

In 1974, he was appointed director of Public Prosecution, Lagos State and later Solicitor General in 1978, a position he held till May 23, 1979, when he was appointed to the bench of the High Court of Lagos State as a Judge and in 1988, he became a Justice at the courts of appeals.
On November 26, 1998, he was appointed to the bench of the Supreme Court of Nigeria, where he retired on May 27, 2006, as Justice.

On March 15, 2006, before his retirement, he served as Chairman of the Presidential Commission on Reform of the Administration of Justice System in Nigeria.
In 2008, two years after his retirement, he became a member of the Nigerian Police Service Commission, a position he held until his demise on June 20, 2008.

See also
List of Justice of the Nigerian courts of appeals

References

1936 births
Nigerian jurists
People from Lagos State
2008 deaths
Yoruba legal professionals
Alumni of the University of Hull
McGill University Faculty of Law alumni
Methodist Boys' High School alumni
CMS Grammar School, Lagos alumni
Lagos State judges
Supreme Court of Nigeria justices

Akintola Olufemi Eyiwunmi


The Rumford Archaeological Sites are a collection of prehistoric Native American sites in the vicinity of the Androscoggin River near Rumford, Maine. These six sites provide a window of observation into the movements and practices of Native Americans from c. 7,000 BCE (the early Archaic period) to the Late Woodland period and contact with Europeans. These sites are the subject of three separate listings on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972: the Rumford Falls I-IV Sites, the Rumford V Site, and the Town of Rumford Site. The locations of these sensitive sites are not generally publicized.

Rumford Falls I
This site, Maine Survey Number 49.24, is located on a terrace above the river, and has been undisturbed by plowing.  The site is deeply stratified,   and has been dated to the Archaic period, with evidentiary finds dating to the early Archaic.  Finds at this site include stone tools sourced from Mount Jasper in Berlin, New Hampshire.

Rumford Falls II
This site, Maine Survey Number 49.25, is located on the banks of the river. has been dated to the Woodland period.  The site is stratified in time across much of the Woodland period; ten high-quality ceramic vessels were found here.  The number and quality of the ceramics found here are the best in the area.  Relatively few stone artifacts were found here.  The style of the ceramics found are consistent with finds elsewhere dated to the Early and Middle Woodland Periods.

Rumford Falls III
This site, Maine Survey Number 49.26, is located on a terrace above the river.  Its features include a depression, which may be evidence of occupation (a house pit).  Most of the artifacts collected at this site consist of fire-cracked rock, but stone artifacts from material mined at Mount Jasper were also recovered.  The site has been dated to the Woodland period.

Rumford Falls IV
This heavily stratified site, Maine Survey Number 49.27, has been dated to the Archaic period, although there is evidence of later occupation or use. The site includes an open hearth dated to c. 5,000 BCE.  Finds at this site include stone tools sourced from Mount Jasper in Berlin, New Hampshire. This site is among the highest above the river, and was intensively used during the Middle Archaic.

Rumford Falls V
This site, Maine Survey Number 49.28, has been dated to the Archaic period, although there is evidence of later occupation or use. It is also where the earliest radiocarbon dates in this group has been found, and it includes a heavily stratified area documenting significant environmental events. Finds at this site include a toolmaking workshop area, and stone tools sourced from Mount Jasper in Berlin, New Hampshire.

Town of Rumford Site
The Town of Rumford Site, Maine Survey Number 49.20, is a Woodland period site, encompassing a particularly well-defined living area.  The site is particularly significant because it encompasses at least two separate occupation periods, clearly separated by the site's stratigraphy to periods 500 years apart.  Ceramics of the types found in these layers, when found at other sites, had traditionally been folded into a general Late Woodland-Contact Period grouping, but this site's finds moade it possible to differentiate them.  The site suffers from erosion, particular during exceptionally high-water events.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Oxford County, Maine

References

Sources

Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
Rumford, Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Oxford County, Maine

Rumford Archaeological Sites


WWSW-FM (94.5 MHz) – branded 94.5 3WS – is a commercial FM radio station that is located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It airs a classic hits radio format, but switches to all-Christmas music for most of November and December each year.

This station is owned by iHeartMedia, Inc. Its studios and offices are located on Abele Rd. in Bridgeville next to 1-79, along with its sister stations. The transmitter is situated off Rising Main Avenue at Lanark Street, on a tower that is shared with WPXI-TV and other FM stations in the Pittsburgh radio market.  WWSW-FM broadcasts using HD Radio technology, with its digital subchannel playing 1960s and 70s oldies.

WWSW is notable for being an FM "superpower station". Its effective radiated power (ERP) is 50,000 watts on a tower that is 247 meters (810 ft) tall. The standard height above average terrain (HAAT) for Class B FM signals found in Pennsylvania is 152 meters (500 ft) for a station broadcasting at 50,000 watts.

History

Early years
On August 13, 1940, Walker & Downing Radio Corporation applied to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for a construction permit to build a new FM station. It broadcast on 43.5 MHz in the original FM broadcast band, which was located between 42 and 50 MHz. The FCC granted the permit on December 12, 1940, while reallocating the station to 44.7 MHz and assigning the station the call sign W47P. The station was granted its first license by the FCC on May 20, 1942. On September 23, 1942, the FCC modified the station's license when Walker & Downing Radio Corporation changed its name to WWSW, Inc., named after co-owned WWSW (970 AM).

On November 1, 1943, the station was assigned the WTNT call sign, followed by another call sign change to WMOT effective October 3, 1945.

The FCC created the current FM broadcast band on June 27, 1945. The commission granted WWSW, Inc. the authority to cease operations effective December 12, 1945, so the station could be converted to a new frequency on the new band.

On July 25, 1946, the FCC reallocated the station to 94.5 MHz, and granted WWSW, Inc. a construction permit for operation on the new frequency effective November 13, 1947. On February 24, 1949, the call sign was changed to WWSW-FM. Following a series of modifications to the construction permit from 1947 to 1954, the FCC granted the station a new license with the new facilities on January 11, 1954.

The station's license was voluntarily reassigned to WWSW Radio, Inc. effective August 1, 1955. On December 21, 1957, the FCC granted the new owner a construction permit to increase the station's effective radiated power (ERP) to 50,000 watts while increasing the antenna height above average terrain (HAAT) to 940 feet. A new license with the upgraded facilities was granted by the FCC on September 25, 1958.

Due to subsequent regulations adopted by the FCC that significantly limit the height placement for Class B FM stations corresponding to their ERP, WWSW-FM is recognized as a grandfathered "superpower" station.

WWSW Radio, Inc. was granted a construction permit by the FCC on August 6, 1967, to install a new transmitter and antenna. The permit lowered the station's HAAT to 810 feet. The FCC granted a new license with the new facilities on August 1, 1969.

Top 40 hits
Until the late 1960s, WWSW-FM had mostly simulcast its AM counterpart on 970 AM.  By this point, the FCC was requiring AM-FM combo stations to offer separate programming for most of the broadcast day; as a result, WWSW-FM switched to an automated Top 40 format with limited interruptions, while WWSW (AM) remained a Top 40 station with live disc jockeys and hourly newscasts.

On November 18, 1973, the station's call sign was changed to WPEZ, carving out its own identity apart from WWSW. WPEZ was a successful Top 40 station for the next seven years. On Labor Day, 1980, the station gave up Top 40 hits for an adult contemporary format. The station's call sign was changed back to WWSW-FM on September 28, 1980.

For most of the 1980s, WWSW-FM began to add more oldies titles into its playlist to distinguish it from other Pittsburgh AC stations.

Oldies
The AM and FM stations both flipped to all-oldies in February 1988, simulcasting for part of the time. When not simulcasting, the FM played a core blend of oldies hits from the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s, while the AM leaned more towards 1950s and early 1960s titles. In 1991, the AM's independent programming was abandoned and began simulcasting the FM full-time.

The AM split from the FM in August 2000 and adopted a sports radio format as WBGG. In 2006, Pitt Panthers football and basketball games would be aired on WWSW-FM. This lasted until 2012, when the team's games switched to KDKA-FM.

Classic hits
Like many FM oldies stations in the early 2000s, WWSW-FM had been de-emphasizing music of the 1950s and 1960s in favor of more songs from the 1970s and a few early 1980s titles. It also stopped using the word "oldies" on the air.

In 2006, the music was adjusted forward with some 1970s hits and a larger selection of 1980s titles.

The station started to play artists it had ignored before, including Styx, Huey Lewis & the News, Prince and Bruce Springsteen, while dropping long-time staples of an earlier vintage like the Dave Clark Five, Little Richard, Gary Lewis and the Playboys and Herman's Hermits. However, The Beatles and Motown continued to be a staple of the station's playlist.

By the 2010s, the only 1960s tracks that remain on the station's playlist were those that had a high level of popularity over the years, including songs by The Beatles, Simon and Garfunkel, The Supremes, and The Rolling Stones. In addition, the station began to incorporate some tracks from the early 1990s into the playlist, including hits from Bryan Adams, R.E.M., Prince and Sheryl Crow. The station's playlist began focusing on the mid-1970s all the way up through 1989, with a few late 1960s, early 1970s, and early 1990s tracks also getting airtime.

Christmas music
Beginning each year in early to mid-November, WWSW switches to all Christmas music, including both classic Christmas standards and some recent material. During the holidays, WWSW suspends some features such as the "All Request Cafe," "The Ultimate Radio Party" and replays of 1970s/1980s versions of American Top 40.

Airstaff
Currently, WWSW has only four live and local weekday airstaffers - Jonny Hartwell (5-10 a.m.), Tall Cathy (10 a.m.-2 p.m.), and Mike Frazer (2-8 p.m.). Bonnie Diver, morning traffic director for iHeartMedia Pittsburgh and former 3WS midday host, also contributes to the morning drive show. Outside of local programming, the station carries talent from iHeartMedia's Premium Choice network (which is also utilized when Cathy and Frazer are absent), which is voice-tracked from out-of-market, as well as several nationally syndicated shows.

Past air personalities on 3WS include Jim Merkel, Gary Dickson, Kenny Woods, Steve Hansen, Cris Winter, Bumper Morgan (deceased), RD Summers (deceased), Theresa Colaizzi, Ray Walker (deceased), Clarke Ingram, Lani Daniels, Mike Steele (deceased), Steve Grenato, Sheri Van Dyke, and Kate Harris. During the prime years at 3WS, the morning show featured Merkel and Dickson.

Longtime air personality Jim Merkel was released from 3WS on October 4, 2010, after more than thirty-one years on the station, and Sheri Van Dyke after thirty years on November 6, 2020.

Concerts and Awards
The station had oldies concerts that filled Three Rivers Stadium many times with oldies acts, and even legendary oldies DJ Wolfman Jack made an appearance on February 23, 1991. The station received three Marconi Awards for best oldies station in the United States, while the morning show received five AIR awards (Achievement in Radio) for best morning show in Pittsburgh.

WWSW-FM HD2
On April 25, 2006, WWSW-FM's HD2 subchannel began carrying a format focusing on Rhythmic Oldies, which was originally heard on the former WJJJ (104.7 FM).

In 2016, when 3WS cancelled its weekly "Sunday Night Diner" program, the format of the HD2 station was changed to 1950s and 60s oldies, similar to what was heard on the diner program each week. In addition, the subchannel carried Duquesne Dukes football and men's basketball games, as well as pre-game, post-game, and coaches shows for both sports.

A couple of years later, the HD2 station moved its focus to 1960s and 70s oldies, and was branded as "3WS HD2."

References

External links

List of "grandfathered" FM radio stations in the U.S.
Sunday Night Oldies Diner Website.
Jeff Roteman's tribute to 3WS RADIO

WSW-FM
IHeartMedia radio stations
Classic hits radio stations in the United States
Radio stations established in 1940
1940 establishments in Pennsylvania

WWSW-FM