Peter J. Panuthos (born 1943 in New York City) a special trial judge of the United States Tax Court.

Education
Panuthos attended public schools in New York City and graduated from Erasmus Hall High School in 1961.  He attended Bernard Baruch School of Business of CUNY, and received a B.S. from Bryant College in 1966.  He attended law school at Suffolk University, where he received a J.D. in 1969.  He also received an LL.M. in taxation from Boston University School of Law in 1972.

Career
From 1970 to 1983, Panuthos was a trial attorney and assistant district counsel at the Boston Office of Chief Counsel of the Internal Revenue Service. He was appointed a Special Trial Judge of the United States Tax Court on June 12, 1983.  He has also taught tax procedure and substantive tax courses as an adjunct professor at Bentley College, The Catholic University of America, Columbus School of Law, and the David A. Clarke School of Law, University of District of Columbia.  He has served as Chief Special Trial Judge from June 1, 1992.

References
Material on this page was adapted from the website of the United States Tax Court, which is published by a United States government agency and is therefore in the public domain.

1943 births
Special trial judges of the United States Tax Court
Living people
Boston University School of Law alumni
Suffolk University Law School alumni
Baruch College alumni
Bryant University alumni
Columbus School of Law faculty
David A. Clarke School of Law faculty
Erasmus Hall High School alumni

Peter Panuthos


Daube is a French slow-cooked stew, usually of beef, but other meat is sometimes used. The best-known is the , a provençal stew made with cheaper cuts of beef braised in wine, with vegetables, garlic and herbs, and traditionally cooked in a daubière – a braising pot.

Terminology and history
The Oxford English Dictionary defines a daube as "A braised meat (usually beef) stew with wine, spices, etc". In The Oxford Companion to Food, Philip and Mary Hyman note that the word is a French culinary term indicating both a method of cooking and a type of dish. The Dictionnaire de l'Académie française dates the word to the 16th century, and says that it derives from the Occitan , a marinade.

In the 18th century daubes were a speciality of the French town of Saint-Malo. The Hymans comment that there were many different types: "artichokes , celery, pork cutlets, goose – all these and many other foodstuffs besides were prepared ". Most were made to be eaten cold. Daubes remained popular in 19th century France, but by then were nearly always meat dishes, usually of beef, eaten hot. By the end of the 20th century the term was largely confined to . The dish came to be seen as rustic and old fashioned and the copper pots – daubières – in which it was traditionally cooked became "a curiosity in antique markets".

Description

Meat
Cooks differ widely as regards the meat for a daube. There is common consent that it should have a long marinade before cooking, but some say it should be cooked as a whole piece, others that it should be cubed or sliced. In their Mastering the Art of French Cooking, Simone Beck and Julia Child describe  as a braised pot roast of beef with wine, tomatoes, and provençal flavourings:

Their insistence that the dish contains a whole piece of beef is not shared by some other cooks. Elizabeth David writes in French Provincial Cooking:

The recommended cuts of meat for a daube vary. David favours top rump (also called thick flank); Beck and Child's preference is for topside; Auguste Escoffier, referring to French butchers' cuts, specifies paleron or gîte; Prosper Montagné favours the more expensive rump; Paula Wolfert opts for short rib; Joël Robuchon recommends ox cheeks (and notes that in Provence a daube is sometimes made with beef from the Camargue bull or with lamb shoulder); and Patricia Wells advises using at least three cuts of beef from different parts of the animal, arguing that some – such as plats de cétes – enhance flavour with their cartilaginous bones, others  – such as tende de tranche – provide purer meat with little muscle separation, and others – such as  add both meat and muscle for added texture.

Cooking pot

There is, similarly, no unanimity about what a daube is cooked in. In Larousse Gastronomique Prosper Montagné specifies a daubière, a traditional cooking pot, which may be made of stoneware, earthenware or tinned copper.  Wells and Wolfert opt for earthenware. In her 2009 book Mediterranean Clay Pot Cooking Wolfert calls the daubière "instantly recognizable by its tall, potbellied shape and distinctive lid … designed so that the ingredients can be packed inside with only a small amount of liquid and then set over low heat to braise". Daubières slowly convey heat up from the bottom, causing the tough connective tissues in the meat to transform into gelatine. According to Robuchon a daubière or other clay casserole is  ideal, but he suggests as alternatives a cast-iron casserole or other heavy pan.

David writes that the cooking pot may be earthenware, cast iron, copper or aluminium, "wide rather than deep"; Beck and Child call for a heavy, covered casserole, without specifying what it is made of.

Wine and other ingredients
The wine in a daube is usually red, but for the  Montagné and Wolfert specify white. David, Escoffier, Robuchon and Wells use red, as do Beck and Child, who recommend a complete bottle of strong young red such as Mâcon or Beaujolais. Tomatoes, onions, herbs, garlic, salt and pepper are common to most daubes. Some cooks add other ingredients, which may include anchovies, carrots, cloves, marrow bones, mushrooms, nutmeg, olives, pancetta, orange peel, pork rind, salt pork, tomato purée, and wine vinegar. Some recipes include a small amount of flour to thicken the braising liquid.

Other daubes
Other beef daubes include:
 – a pig's trotter and a calf's foot are added to the cooking liquid along with diced beef.
 – a whole piece of rump, marinated and cooked in white wine and brandy.
 – diced rump, marinated in red wine and brandy and cooked in the marinade with added beef stock.
 – a whole piece of rolled rib of beef, slowly cooked without wine (fresh tomatoes add sufficient liquid); new potatoes cooked in oil or butter are added along with mushrooms as the dish nears the end of its cooking time.
 – a New Orleans recipe, in which rum takes the place of wine in the cooking liquid. David comments that few people would detect the difference in the alcoholic ingredient or could say in what precise way the stew differs from the French original.
 – to the usual beef, red wine, onions and tomatoes are added leeks, smoked pork sausage and haricot beans.
 – raw ham, celery and lemon peel are added to slices of beef in the marinade and cooking liquid.
Montagné mentions daubes of chicken, turkey and pheasant, and David prints a recipe for , in which mutton or lamb is used, rather than beef. Tomatoes are not used, but otherwise the ingredients are the same as for a typical .

Notes, references and sources

Notes

References

Sources

See also

 List of stews

Cuisine of Provence
French stews

Daube


Château  La Lagune is a winery in the Haut-Médoc appellation of the Bordeaux region of France. The wine produced here was classified as one of fourteen Troisièmes Crus (Third Growths) in the historic Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855.

Rescued from dereliction in 1954 by Georges Brunet, La Lagune was subsequently sold to the Ducellier family of Champagne Ayala. In 2000, both La Lagune and Champagne Ayala were sold to the Frey family. Ayala was then sold to the House of Bollinger, and the Frey family acquired Maison Jaboulet in the Rhone. The Freys are also a substantial but not majority shareholders of Billecart-Salmon, the producer in Mareuil-sur-Aÿ.

Located in the commune of Ludon, La Lagune has  under vine with a grape variety distribution of 60% Cabernet Sauvignon, 20% Merlot, 10% Cabernet Franc, and 10% Petit Verdot.

References

External links
Château La Lagune official site

Bordeaux wine producers

Château La Lagune


Antone Rosa (November 10, 1855 – September 9, 1898) was a politician, lawyer and judge of the Kingdom of Hawaii and Republic of Hawaii. He served as Attorney General of Hawaii, and as a private secretary and vice chamberlain to King Kalākaua.

Early life
He was born at Kalae, on the island of Molokai, on November 10, 1855. His mother was a Native Hawaiian while his father Antone Rosa Sr. (1825–1896) was a fisherman of Portuguese descent. The senior Rosa immigrated to the Hawaiian Islands from Portugal in 1850. He had five sons: Antone Jr., Manuel, Joseph, Levi and George.
However, the younger Rosa rarely referred to himself as "Jr." Educated at the Roman Catholic College of ʻĀhuimanu and later Honolulu's Royal School under Anglican Rev. Alexander Mackintosh, Rosa became fluent in English, Hawaiian and French.

Career

He clerked for Chief Justice Charles Coffin Harris, and served as Deputy Clerk of the Supreme Court October 25, 1877, to September 3, 1882, but he was not allowed to practice as an attorney, because he had never studied law. After taking a two-year career sabbatical to study law, he passed his exam in October 27, 1884, and was admitted to the Bar. He was serving as Deputy Attorney-General in 1885 when King Kalākaua appointed him Attorney-General on November 15 to fill a vacancy caused by the departure of John Lot Kaulukou. He held that position until June 1887.

Rosa's name was placed in nomination as an Independent candidate for representative from Honolulu in 1887. The Kaumakapili Church hosted numerous meetings for Hawaiians to hear candidate positions on the issues of the day.  At Rosa's appearances, he spoke in the Hawaiian language and expressed support for the new Bayonet Constitution, but disdained how Kalākaua had been forced into signing it. He denounced both the Honolulu Rifles and the Reform Party of Hawaii for their actions in obtaining that constitution, and for what he purported were later illegal exchanges of money after the document became the law of the Kingdom. He was defeated by the Reform Party candidate at the September 12 election.

In October 1887, Kalākaua appointed him as his private secretary and Vice Chamberlain of the Royal Household, where he held the rank of Major. Due to a temporary absence of Curtis P. Iaukea and John Owen Dominis during that same period, Rosa was assigned the temporary reins of their positions: Acting Commander-in-Chief of the Forces of the Kingdom (Dominis), Acting Adjutant General of the Forces of the Kingdom (Iaukea) and Acting Governor of Oahu (Iaukea).

During the February 1890 general election, Rosa ran unopposed on the National Reform candidate for Representative of Oahu winning a seat in the legislative assembly. During this session, Rosa and his fellow legislators ousted the Reform cabinet led by Lorrin A. Thurston.

When Kalākaua died January 31, 1891, a series of gatherings at the Kaumakapili Church were held to deal with "the nation's calamity". The Kalākaua Monument Association was formed to raise funds for a memorial. Samuel Parker was elected as its president, and the membership included high-profile names of the day. Trustees were Rosa, John F. Colburn and E. C. Marfalane.  Rosa was appointed in March by Queen Liliuokalani to her Privy Council of State. During the political crisis prior to the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii, Rosa supported the queen. He and other royalist leaders met at ʻIolani Palace and addressed the crowds of people gather there, on January 16, 1893. They formed the Committee of Law and Order, a counter to the Committee of Safety which led to the deposition of the Hawaiian monarchy the next day.

Judge S. L. Austin of the Third and Fourth Circuit courts died suddenly in 1896, and Rosa was appointed as his replacement under the Republic of Hawaii. He eventually resigned the judgeship and returned to private practice.

Rosa died on September 9, 1898, at his residence in Pawaa, Honolulu, after a lengthy illness. The funeral was held on the same day at the Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of Peace officiated by Bishop Gulstan Ropert, and he was buried at the Honolulu Catholic Cemetery.

Personal life
Rosa was married twice. His first marriage, on January 1, 1883, was to Joanna Niaukololani Drew Ladd (1847–1891), daughter of Mr. Drew and Abigail Kamaio Elwell, who was also of part-Hawaiian descent. She was the widow of William Newton Ladd, by whom she had three daughters: Helen, Mabel and Emily. She notably received two hundred dollars as a minor devisee in the will of Bernice Pauahi Bishop. Joanna died on August 19, 1891. After Joanna's death and much to the surprise of his friends, Rosa remarried on December 12, 1891, to his stepdaughter Helen Nina Ladd (1865–1931). The Ladd family were the founders of Ladd & Co. sugarcane business, and later land speculators. Helen and their three children William Ladd Rosa, Mahealani A. Rosa and Rose Rosa survived him.

He and his friend, former Minister of Interior John F. Colburn, were arrested in March 1898 for driving their carriage into a fish market, claiming they were trying to get the open-topped vehicle out of the rain. Rosa's and Colburn's defense was that it was not against the law, which was confirmed by their release.

Rosa left an estate estimated at $8,000, most of it in land holdings, with Colburn named as the executor of his will. The court ordered that Rosa's widow be paid $10 a week from the estate.

Citations

References

External links

"A List of All the Cabinet Ministers Who Have Held Office in the Hawaiian Kingdom"

Includes a list of Attorneys General for the Kingdom of Hawaii, their salaries and budgets

1855 births
1898 deaths
People from Molokai
Native Hawaiian politicians
Hawaii people of Portuguese descent
Hawaiian Kingdom Roman Catholics
Lawyers from Hawaii
Hawaiian Kingdom politicians
Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom House of Representatives
Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom Privy Council
Hawaiian Kingdom Attorneys General
Governors of Oahu
Republic of Hawaii judges
Hawaiian Kingdom military officers
Saint Louis School alumni
Burials at Honolulu Catholic Cemetery
Royal School (Hawaii) alumni

Antone Rosa


The 2019–20 Wessex Football League season (known as the Sydenhams Football League (Wessex) for sponsorship reasons) was the 34th in the history of the Wessex Football League since its establishment in 1986. The league consisted of two divisions: the Premier Division and Division One. The season was abandoned on 26 March 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

The constitution was announced on 19 May 2019. This season, the Premier Division champions were to be promoted to Step 4. The runners-up in this division and ten other Step 5 divisions in other leagues were to be ranked according to PPG (points per game), and the top four in that ranking would also have been promoted. The remaining seven runners-up would have competed in "winner takes all" play-offs with seven clubs finishing bottom in Step 4 leagues, the winners being placed at Step 4 and the losers at Step 5 for 2020–21.

The bottom clubs in all 14 Step 5 divisions were to be ranked according to PPG, and the 12 lowest-ranked clubs were to be relegated to Step 6.

In Division One, the top four clubs were to be promoted to Step 5, with the bottom two liable to relegation to Step 7.

League suspension and abandonment
Despite other leagues suspending all matches from 13 March due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Wessex League continued to hold matches on 14 March. On 16 March, the Football Association decided to postpone all matches across all their competitions until 3 April, and a league statement confirmed the postponement of all matches for the foreseeable future.

On 26 March 2020, the league season was formally abandoned, with all results being expunged, and no promotion or relegation taking place to, from, or between the two divisions. On 30 March, sixty-six non-league clubs sent an open letter to the Football Association requesting that they reconsider their decision.

Premier Division
The Premier Division remained at 20 clubs after Sholing were promoted to the Southern League, and Andover New Street and Bemerton Heath Harlequins were relegated to Division One. Three teams joined the division:

AFC Stoneham, champions of Division One.
Amesbury Town, runners-up in Division One.
Fleet Town, relegated from the Southern League Division One South.
Team Solent F.C. were renamed Solent University F.C.

League table at the time of abandonment

Division One
Division One was increased from 19 clubs to 20 after AFC Stoneham and Amesbury Town were promoted to the Premier Division. Three clubs joined the division:

Andover New Street, relegated from the Premier Division.
Bemerton Heath Harlequins, relegated from the Premier Division.
Pewsey Vale, transferred from Hellenic League Division One West.

League table at the time of abandonment

References

External links
 Wessex Football League official site

Wessex Football League seasons
9
Wessex Football League

2019–20 Wessex Football League


In economics and business decision-making, a sunk cost (also known as retrospective cost) is a cost that has already been incurred and cannot be recovered. Sunk costs are contrasted with prospective costs, which are future costs that may be avoided if action is taken. In other words, a sunk cost is a sum paid in the past that is no longer relevant to decisions about the future. Even though economists argue that sunk costs are no longer relevant to future rational decision-making, people in everyday life often take previous expenditures in situations, such as repairing a car or house, into their future decisions regarding those properties.

Bygones principle

According to classical economics and standard microeconomic theory, only prospective (future) costs are relevant to a rational decision. At any moment in time, the best thing to do depends only on current alternatives. The only things that matter are the future consequences. Past mistakes are irrelevant. Any costs incurred prior to making the decision have already been incurred no matter what decision is made. They may be described as "water under the bridge", and making decisions on their basis may be described as "crying over spilt milk". In other words, people should not let sunk costs influence their decisions; sunk costs are irrelevant to rational decisions. Thus, if a new factory was originally projected to yield $100 million in value, and after $30 million is spent on it the value projection falls to $65 million, the company should abandon the project rather than spending an additional $70 million to complete it. Conversely, as a rational actor, if the value projection falls to $75 million the company should continue the project.  This is known as the bygones principle or the marginal principle.

The bygones principle is grounded in the branch of normative decision theory known as rational choice theory, particularly in expected utility hypothesis. Expected utility theory relies on a property known as cancellation, which says that it is rational in decision-making to disregard (cancel) any state of the world that yields the same outcome regardless of one's choice. Past decisions—including sunk costs—meet that criterion.

The bygones principle can also be formalised as the notion of "separability". Separability requires agents to take decisions by comparing the available options in eventualities that can still occur, uninfluenced by how the current situation was reached or by eventualities that are precluded by that history. In the language of decision trees, it requires the agent's choice at a particular choice node to be independent of unreachable parts of the tree. This formulation makes clear how central the principle is to standard economic theory by, for example, founding the folding-back algorithm for individual sequential decisions and game-theoretical concepts such as sub-game perfection.

Until a decision-maker irreversibly commits resources, the prospective cost is an avoidable future cost and is properly included in any decision-making process. For instance, if someone is considering pre-ordering movie tickets, but has not actually purchased them yet, the cost remains avoidable.

Both retrospective and prospective costs could be either fixed costs (continuous for as long as the business is operating and unaffected by output volume) or variable costs (dependent on volume). However, many economists consider it a mistake to classify sunk costs as "fixed" or "variable". For example, if a firm sinks $400 million on an enterprise software installation, that cost is "sunk" because it was a one-time expense and cannot be recovered once spent. A "fixed" cost would be monthly payments made as part of a service contract or licensing deal with the company that set up the software. The upfront irretrievable payment for the installation should not be deemed a "fixed" cost, with its cost spread out over time. Sunk costs should be kept separate. The "variable costs" for this project might include data centre power usage, for example.

There are cases in which taking sunk costs into account in decision-making, violating the bygones principle, is rational. For example, for a manager who wishes to be perceived as persevering in the face of adversity, or to avoid blame for earlier mistakes, it may be rational to persist with a project for personal reasons even if it is not the benefit of their company. Or, if they hold private information about the undesirability of abandoning a project, it is fully rational to persist with a project that outsiders think displays the fallacy of sunk cost.

Fallacy effect
The bygones principle does not always accord with real-world behavior. Sunk costs often influence people's decisions, with people believing that investments (i.e., sunk costs) justify further expenditures. People demonstrate "a greater tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made". This is the sunk cost fallacy, and such behavior may be described as "throwing good money after bad", while refusing to succumb to what may be described as "cutting one's losses". People can remain in failing relationships because they "have already invested too much to leave". Other people are swayed by arguments that a war must continue because lives will have been sacrificed in vain unless victory is achieved. Individuals caught up in psychic scams will continue investing time, money and emotional energy into the project, despite doubts or suspicions that something is not right. These types of behaviour do not seem to accord with rational choice theory and are often classified as behavioural errors.

Rego, Arantes, and Magalhães point out that the sunk cost effect exists in committed relationships. They devised two experiments, one of which showed that people in a relationship which they had invested money and effort in were more likely to keep that relationship going than end it; and in the second experiment, while people are in a relationship which they had invested enough time in, they tended to devote more time to the relationship. It also means people fall into the sunk cost fallacy. Although people should ignore sunk costs and make rational decisions when planning for the future, time, money, and effort often make people continue to maintain this relationship, which is equivalent to continuing to invest in failed projects.

According to evidence reported by De Bondt and Makhija (1988), managers of many utility companies in the United States have been overly reluctant to terminate economically unviable nuclear plant projects. In the 1960s, the nuclear power industry promised "energy too cheap to meter". Nuclear power lost public support in the 1970s and 1980s, when public service commissions around the nation ordered prudency reviews. From these reviews, De Bondt and Makhija find evidence that the commissions denied many utility companies even partial recovery of nuclear construction costs on the grounds that they had been mismanaging the nuclear construction projects in ways consistent with throwing good money after bad.

There is also evidence of government representatives failing to ignore sunk costs. The term "Concorde fallacy" derives from the fact that the British and French governments continued to fund the joint development of the costly Concorde supersonic airplane even after it became apparent that there was no longer an economic case for the aircraft. The British government privately regarded the project as a commercial disaster that should never have been started. Political and legal issues made it impossible for either government to pull out.

The idea of sunk costs is often employed when analyzing business decisions. A common example of a sunk cost for a business is the promotion of a brand name. This type of marketing incurs costs that cannot normally be recovered. It is not typically possible to later "demote" one's brand names in exchange for cash. A second example is research and development (R&D) costs. Once spent, such costs are sunk and should have no effect on future pricing decisions. A pharmaceutical company's attempt to justify high prices because of the need to recoup R&D expenses would be fallacious. The company would charge a high price whether R&D cost one dollar or one million. R&D costs and the ability to recoup those costs are a factor in deciding whether to spend the money on R&D in the first place.

Dijkstra and Hong proposed that part of a person's behavior is influenced by a person's current emotions. Their experiments showed that emotional responses benefit from the sunk cost fallacy. Negative influences lead to the sunk cost fallacy. For example, anxious people face the stress brought about by the sunk cost fallacy. When stressed, they are more motivated to invest in failed projects rather than take additional approaches. Their report shows that the sunk cost fallacy will have a greater impact on people under high load conditions and people's psychological state and external environment will be the key influencing factors.

The sunk cost effect may cause cost overrun. In business, an example of sunk costs may be an investment into a factory or research that now has a lower value or none. For example, $20 million has been spent on building a power plant; the value now is zero because it is incomplete (and no sale or recovery is feasible). The plant can be completed for an additional $10 million or abandoned and a different but equally valuable facility built for $5 million. Abandonment and construction of the alternative facility is the more rational decision, even though it represents a total loss of the original expenditure—the original sum invested is a sunk cost. If decision-makers are irrational or have the "wrong" (different) incentives, the completion of the project may be chosen. For example, politicians or managers may have more incentive to avoid the appearance of a total loss. In practice, there is considerable ambiguity and uncertainty in such cases, and decisions may in retrospect appear irrational that were, at the time, reasonable to the economic actors involved and in the context of their incentives. A decision-maker might make rational decisions according to their incentives, outside of efficiency or profitability.  This is considered to be an incentive problem and is distinct from a sunk cost problem. Some research has also noted circumstances where the sunk cost effect is reversed; that is, where individuals appear irrationally eager to write off earlier investments in order to take up a new endeavor.

Plan continuation bias
A related phenomenon is plan continuation bias, which is recognised as a subtle cognitive bias that tends to force the continuation of a plan or course of action even in the face of changing conditions. In the field of aerospace it has been recognised as a significant causal factor in accidents, with a 2004 NASA study finding that in 9 out of the 19 accidents studied, aircrew exhibited this behavioural bias.

This is a hazard for ships' captains or aircraft pilots who may stick to a planned course even when it is leading to fatal disaster and they should abort instead. A famous example is the Torrey Canyon oil spill in which a tanker ran aground when its captain persisted with a risky course rather than accepting a delay. It has been a factor in numerous air crashes and an analysis of 279 approach and landing accidents (ALAs) found that it was the fourth most common cause, occurring in 11% of cases. Another analysis of 76 accidents found that it was a contributory factor in 42% of cases.

There are also two predominant factors that characterise the bias. The first is an overly optimistic estimate of probability of success, possibly to reduce cognitive dissonance having made a decision. The second is that of personal responsibility: when you are personally accountable, it is difficult for you to admit that you were wrong.

Projects often suffer cost overruns and delays due to the planning fallacy and related factors including excessive optimism, an unwillingness to admit failure, groupthink and aversion to loss of sunk costs.

Psychological factors

Evidence from behavioral economics suggests that there are at least five specific psychological factors underlying the sunk cost effect:

 Framing effects, a cognitive bias where people decide on options based on whether the options are presented with positive or negative connotations; e.g. as a loss or as a gain. People tend to avoid risk when a positive frame is presented but seek risks when a negative frame is presented.
 An overoptimistic probability bias, whereby after an investment the evaluation of one's investment-reaping dividends is increased.
 The requisite of personal responsibility. Sunk cost appears to operate chiefly in those who feel a personal responsibility for the investments that are to be viewed as a sunk cost.
The desire not to appear wasteful—"One reason why people may wish to throw good money after bad is that to stop investing would constitute an admission that the prior money was wasted."

Taken together, these results suggest that the sunk cost effect may reflect non-standard measures of utility, which is ultimately subjective and unique to the individual.

Framing effect
The framing effect which underlies the sunk cost effect builds upon the concept of extensionality where the outcome is the same regardless of how the information is framed. This is in contradiction to the concept of intentionality which is concerned with whether the presentation of information changes the situation in question.

Take two mathematical functions:

 f(x) = 2x + 10
 f(x) = 2 ⋅ (x + 5)

While these functions are framed differently, regardless of the input 'x', the outcome is analytically equivalent. Therefore, if a rational decision maker were to choose between these two functions, the likelihood of each function being chosen should be the same. However, a framing effect places unequal biases towards preferences that are otherwise equal.

The most common type of framing effect was theorised in Kahneman & Tversky, 1979 in the form of valence framing effects. This form of framing signifies types of framing. The first type can be considered positive where the 'sure thing' option highlights the positivity whereas if it is negative, the 'sure thing' option highlights the negativity, while both being analytically identical. For example, saving 200 people from a sinking ship of 600 is equivalent to letting 400 people drown. The former framing type is positive and the latter is negative.

Ellingsen, Johannesson, Möllerström and Munkammar have categorised framing effects in a social and economic orientation into three broad classes of theories. Firstly, the framing of options presented can affect internalised social norms or social preferences - this is called variable sociality hypothesis. Secondly, the social image hypothesis suggests that the frame in which the options are presented will affect the way the decision maker is viewed and will in turn affect their behaviour. Lastly, the frame may affect the expectations that people have about each other's behaviour and will in turn affect their own behaviour.

Overoptimistic probability bias

In 1968, Knox and Inkster approached 141 horse bettors: 72 of the people had just finished placing a $2.00 bet within the past 30 seconds, and 69 people were about to place a $2.00 bet in the next 30 seconds. Their hypothesis was that people who had just committed themselves to a course of action (betting $2.00) would reduce post-decision dissonance by believing more strongly than ever that they had picked a winner. Knox and Inkster asked the bettors to rate their horse's chances of winning on a 7-point scale. What they found was that people who were about to place a bet rated the chance that their horse would win at an average of 3.48 which corresponded to a "fair chance of winning" whereas people who had just finished betting gave an average rating of 4.81 which corresponded to a "good chance of winning". Their hypothesis was confirmed: after making a $2.00 commitment, people became more confident their bet would pay off. Knox and Inkster performed an ancillary test on the patrons of the horses themselves and managed (after normalization) to repeat their finding almost identically. Other researchers have also found evidence of inflated probability estimations.

Sense of personal responsibility

In a study of 96 business students, Staw and Fox gave the subjects a choice between making an R&D investment either in an underperforming company department, or in other sections of the hypothetical company. Staw and Fox divided the participants into two groups: a low responsibility condition and a high responsibility condition. In the high responsibility condition, the participants were told that they, as manager, had made an earlier, disappointing R&D investment. In the low responsibility condition, subjects were told that a former manager had made a previous R&D investment in the underperforming division and were given the same profit data as the other group. In both cases subjects were then asked to make a new $20 million investment. There was a significant interaction between assumed responsibility and average investment, with the high responsibility condition averaging $12.97 million and the low condition averaging $9.43 million. Similar results have been obtained in other studies.

Desire not to appear wasteful

A ticket buyer who purchases a ticket in advance to an event they eventually turn out not to enjoy makes a semi-public commitment to watching it. To leave early is to make this lapse of judgment manifest to strangers, an appearance they might otherwise choose to avoid. As well, the person may not want to leave the event, because they have already paid, so they may feel that leaving would waste their expenditure. Alternatively, they may take a sense of pride in having recognized the opportunity cost of the alternative use of time.

See also

 Disposition effect
 Endowment effect
 Foot-in-the-door technique
 Prospect theory
 Psychology of previous investment
 Thinking, Fast and Slow

References

Further reading

 Bade, Robin; and Michael Parkin. Foundations of Microeconomics. Addison Wesley Paperback 1st Edition: 2001.
 Bernheim, D. and Whinston, M. "Microeconomics". McGraw-Hill Irwin, New York, NY, 2008. .

 Kahneman, D. (2011) Thinking, Fast and Slow, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, . (Reviewed by Freeman Dyson in New York Review of Books, 22 December 2011, pp. 40–44.)
 Klein, G. and Bauman, Y. The Cartoon Introduction to Economics Volume One: Microeconomics Hill and Wang 2010 .
 Samuelson, Paul; and Nordhaus, William. Economics. McGraw-Hill International Editions: 1989.
 Sutton, J. Sunk Costs and Market Structure. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1991 .
 Varian, Hal R. Intermediate Microeconomics: A Modern Approach. Fifth Ed. New York, 1999 .

Costs
Cost engineering
Cognitive biases
Behavioral finance
Game theory

Sunk cost


A concrete grinder can come in many configurations, the most common being a hand-held angle grinder, but it may be a specialized tool for countertops or worktops. Angle grinders are small and mobile, and allow one to work on harder to reach areas and perform more precise work.

There are also purpose-built floor grinders that are used for grinding and polishing marble, granite and concrete. Machines that grind concrete floors are usually made to handle much more stress and will have more power to drive the unit as concrete has a much higher sliding friction than marble or granite which is also worked wet, therefore with less friction. In fact some types of marble will spark when it is ground dry, causing deep damage to the marble surface. Floor grinders are most suitable to polishing a concrete floor slab as it can cover large surfaces more quickly, and they have more weight on them, therefore making the actual grinding process more efficient.

Attachments
All concrete grinders use some sort of abrasive to grind or polish such as diamond tools or silicon carbide. The diamond tools used for grinding most commonly are diamond grinding cup wheels, other machines may use diamond segments, mounted on varies plates, slide on diamond grinding shoes and for polishing are usually circular Resin diamond polishing pads.
The use of diamond attachments is the most common type of abrasive used under concrete grinders and come in many grits that range from 6 grit to the high thousands, although 1800 grit is considered by the insurance industry as the highest shine to apply to a floor surface.

Wet or dry usage
Concrete can be ground wet or dry, although dust extraction equipment needs to be used when grinding dry.

To grind concrete dry, a grinding shroud can sourced for most angle grinder sizes, and floor grinders usually have them inbuilt. This provides the necessary vacuum attachment where one can connect a vacuum or HEPA filter-equipped vacuum  to capture the fine dust produced when grinding dry. Of course concrete can also be ground wet in which case no vacuum is used. An issue with dry grinding is that is can be time-consuming as is a slower method of keeping the diamond tools cutting and the fine dust particles quickly blocks up the HEPA filters in the vacuum. Continuously stopping to clean or replace filters can be time-consuming and this is where a dust separator can be beneficial. It is connected between the concrete grinder and the vacuum cleaner and works by capturing the larger particles of concrete in its drum, so only the fine particles reach the vacuum cleaner.

The benefit of grinding concrete wet is that it requires less attachments than when grinding dry. The water makes the dust particles heavy by turning them into a slurry or paste and prevents them from being dispersed into the air. This significantly reduces health risks from breathing in concrete dust, but it does use a lot of water and make a bit of mess.

Dust precautions
When grinding concrete it is important to ensure steps are taken to mitigate exposure to concrete dust. According to the Cancer Council, approximately 230 people develop lung cancer each year due to past exposure to silica dust at work. Fine concrete dust contains silica which is very harmful to the lungs and can lead to silicosis so all effort should be made to avoid breathing concrete dust. In construction, mining and other industrial type jobs that expose workers to dust and small particles, one should wear a respirator mask commonly known as a N95 mask, FFP2 mask, P2 Mask or Kn95 mask to protect from inhaling concrete dust. This is because  such a respiratory mask can block 94-95% of non-oil based particulates that are larger than 0.3 microns. Concrete Dust particles can be as small as 0.5 microns, which is larger than 0.3 microns, which means that a N95 respirator provides effective protection against concrete dust when fitted properly.

For green building methods many regulators LEED's have seen the benefit of using concrete grinders that are designed to finish concrete to a very stable wear surface, that can safely be used for many years as a floor or tabletop surface.  These machines are usually powered by higher electrical power such as 240 volts or higher as they require motor power larger than 120 volts can supply. Some machine are powered by LP gas such as used on forklifts so that they can be run in well ventilated areas without a power cord, but these machines usually have fewer features that a fully electric unit.

References

Grinding machines
Power tools

Concrete grinder


Bartolomeo (or Bartolommeo) Zaccaria (died 1334) was the first husband of Guglielma Pallavicini (married 1327) and thus Marquess of Bodonitsa in her right. He also carried the title Lord of Damala during his lifetime.

As the eldest son of Martino Zaccaria, born into the Genoese Zaccaria family which ruled Chios, Bartolomeo was a fitting match for the highborn Frankish heiress, who co-ruled with her mother, Maria dalle Carceri, and stepfather, Andrea Cornaro. As a youth, he was forced to help raise a ransom for his captured father.

During a Catalan invasion, Bartolomeo was captured and carted off to a Sicilian prison. Only by the beseeching of Pope John XXII was he released.

He was still young when he died, though he left a daughter named Marulla.

Sources

1334 deaths
Christians of the Crusades
Bartolomeo
Year of birth unknown
Bartolommeo
Barons of Veligosti-Damala
14th-century Genoese people

Bartolomeo Zaccaria


Judea, Judaea, or Judah (;  ; , ; ) is a mountainous region of the Levant. Traditionally dominated by the city of Jerusalem, it is now part of Palestine and Israel.

The name's usage is historic, having been used in antiquity and still into the present day; it originates from Yehudah, a Hebrew name. Yehudah was a son of Jacob, who was later given the name "Israel" and whose sons collectively headed the Twelve Tribes of Israel. Yehudah's progeny among the Israelites formed the Tribe of Judah, with whom the Kingdom of Judah is associated.

Related nomenclature continued to be used under the rule of the Babylonians (the Yehud province), the Persians (the Yehud province), the Greeks (the Hasmonean Kingdom), and the Romans (the Herodian Kingdom and the Judaea province). Under the Hasmoneans, the Herodians, and the Romans, the term was applied to an area larger than the historical region of Judea. In 132 CE, the Roman province of Judaea was merged with Galilee to form the enlarged province of Syria Palaestina.

The term Judea was revived by the Israeli government in the 20th century, as part of the Israeli administrative district name "Judea and Samaria Area" for the territory that is generally referred to as the West Bank.

Etymology
The name  Judea is a Greek and Roman adaptation of the name "Judah", which originally encompassed the territory of the Israelite tribe of that name and later of the ancient Kingdom of Judah. Nimrud Tablet K.3751, dated c. 733 BCE, is the earliest known record of the name Judah (written in Assyrian cuneiform as Yaudaya or KUR.ia-ú-da-a-a).

Judea was sometimes used as the name for the entire region, including parts beyond the river Jordan. In 200 CE Sextus Julius Africanus, cited by Eusebius (Church History 1.7.14), described "Nazara" (Nazareth) as a village in Judea. The King James Version of the Bible refers to the region as "Jewry".

"Judea" was a name used by English speakers for the hilly internal part of Mandatory Palestine until the Jordanian rule of the area in 1948. For example, the borders of the two states to be established according to the UN's 1947 partition scheme were officially described using the terms "Judea" and "Samaria" and in its reports to the League of Nations Mandatory Committee, as in 1937, the geographical terms employed were "Samaria and Judea". Jordan called the area ad-difa'a al-gharbiya (translated into English as the "West Bank"). "Yehuda" is the Hebrew term used for the area in modern Israel since the region was captured and occupied by Israel in 1967.

Historical boundaries

Roman-era definition
The first century Roman-Jewish historian Josephus wrote (The Jewish War 3.3.5):In the limits of Samaria and Judea lies the village Anuath, which is also named Borceos. This is the northern boundary of Judea. The southern parts of Judea, if they be measured lengthways, are bounded by a village adjoining to the confines of Arabia; the Jews that dwell there call it Jordan. However, its breadth is extended from the river Jordan to Joppa. The city Jerusalem is situated in the very middle; on which account some have, with sagacity enough, called that city the Navel of the country. Nor indeed is Judea destitute of such delights as come from the sea, since its maritime places extend as far as Ptolemais: it was parted into eleven portions, of which the royal city Jerusalem was the supreme, and presided over all the neighboring country, as the head does over the body. As to the other cities that were inferior to it, they presided over their several toparchies; Gophna was the second of those cities, and next to that Acrabatta, after them Thamna, and Lydda, and Emmaus, and Pella, and Idumea, and Engaddi, and Herodium, and Jericho; and after them came Jamnia and Joppa, as presiding over the neighboring people; and besides these there was the region of Gamala, and Gaulonitis, and Batanea, and Trachonitis, which are also parts of the kingdom of Agrippa. This [last] country begins at Mount Libanus, and the fountains of Jordan, and reaches breadthways to Lake Tiberias; and in length is extended from a village called Arpha, as far as Julias. Its inhabitants are a mixture of Jews and Syrians. And thus have I, with all possible brevity, described the country of Judea, and those that lie round about it.

Elsewhere, Josephus wrote that "Arabia is a country that borders on Judea."

Geography

Judea is a mountainous region, part of which is considered a desert. It varies greatly in height, rising to an altitude of  in the south at the Hebron Hills,  southwest of Jerusalem, and descending to as much as  below sea level in the east of the region. It also varies in rainfall, starting with about  in the western hills, rising to  around western Jerusalem (in central Judea), falling back to  in eastern Jerusalem and dropping to around  in the eastern parts, due to a rain shadow: this is the Judaean Desert. The climate, accordingly, moves between Mediterranean in the west and desert climate in the east, with a strip of semi-arid climate in the middle. Major urban areas in the region include Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Gush Etzion, Jericho and Hebron.

Geographers divide Judea into several regions: the Hebron hills, the Jerusalem saddle, the Bethel hills and the Judaean Desert east of Jerusalem, which descends in a series of steps to the Dead Sea. The hills are distinct for their anticline structure. In ancient times the hills were forested, and the Bible records agriculture and sheep farming being practiced in the area. Animals are still grazed today, with shepherds moving them between the low ground to the hilltops as summer approaches, while the slopes are still layered with centuries-old stone terracing. The Jewish Revolt against the Romans ended in the devastation of vast areas of the Judean countryside.

Mount Hazor marks the geographical boundary between Samaria to its north and Judea to its south.

Narrative of the biblical patriarchs
Judea is central to much of the narrative of the Torah, with the Patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob said to have been buried at Hebron in the Tomb of the Patriarchs.

History

Israel and Judah, Assyrian and Babylonian periods

The early history of Judah is uncertain; the biblical account states that the Kingdom of Judah, along with the Kingdom of Israel, was a successor to a united monarchy of Israel and Judah, but modern scholarship generally holds that the united monarchy is ahistorical. Regardless, the Northern Kingdom was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 720 BCE. The Kingdom of Judah remained nominally independent, but paid tribute to the Assyrian Empire from 715 and throughout the first half of the 7th century BCE, regaining its independence as the Assyrian Empire declined after 640 BCE, but after 609 again fell under the sway of imperial rule, this time paying tribute at first to the Egyptians and after 601 BCE to the Neo-Babylonian Empire, until 586 BCE, when it was finally conquered by Babylonia.

Persian and Hellenistic periods

The Babylonian Empire fell to the conquests of Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE. Judea remained under Persian rule until the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, eventually falling under the rule of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire until the revolt of Judas Maccabeus resulted in the Hasmonean dynasty of kings who ruled in Judea for over a century.

Early Roman period

Judea lost its independence to the Romans in the 1st century BCE, becoming first a tributary kingdom, then a province, of the Roman Empire. The Romans had allied themselves to the Maccabees and interfered again in 63 BCE, at the end of the Third Mithridatic War, when the proconsul Pompey ("Pompey the Great") stayed behind to make the area secure for Rome, including his siege of Jerusalem in 63 BCE. Queen Salome Alexandra had recently died, and a civil war broke out between her sons, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. Pompeius restored Hyrcanus but political rule passed to the Herodian dynasty, who ruled as client kings.

In 6 CE, Judea came under direct Roman rule as the southern part of the province of Judaea, although Jews living there still maintained some form of independence and could judge offenders by their own laws, including capital offences, until c. 28 CE. The province of Judea, during the late Hellenistic period and early Roman Empire was also divided into five conclaves: Jerusalem, Gadara, Amathus, Jericho, and Sepphoris, and during the Roman period had eleven administrative districts (toparchies): Jerusalem, Gophna, Akrabatta, Thamna, Lod, Emmaus, Pella, Idumaea, Ein Gedi, Herodeion, and Jericho.

Jewish–Roman wars
In 66 CE, the Jewish population rose against Roman rule in a revolt that was unsuccessful. Jerusalem was besieged in 70 CE. The city was razed, the Second Temple was destroyed, and much of the population was killed or enslaved.

In 132 CE, the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) broke out. After an initial string of victories, rebel leader Simeon Bar Kokhba was able to form an independent Jewish state that lasted several years and included most of the district of Judea, including the Judean Mountains, the Judean Desert, and northern Negev desert, but probably not other sections of the country. When the Romans finally put an end to the uprising, most of the Jews in Judea were killed or displaced, and a sizable number of captives were sold into slavery, leaving the district mostly depopulated. Jews were expelled from the area surrounding Jerusalem. No village in the district of Judea whose remains have been excavated so far has not been destroyed during the revolt. Roman emperor Hadrian, determined to root out Jewish nationalism, changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria Palaestina. The province's Jewish population was now mainly concentrated in the Galilee, the coastal plain (especially in Lydda, Joppa, and Caesarea), and smaller Jewish communities continued to live in the Beth She'an Valley, the Carmel, and Judea's northern and southern frontiers, including the southern Hebron Hills and along the shores of the Dead Sea.

The suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt led to widespread destruction and displacement throughout Judea, and the district saw a decline in population. The Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina, which was built on the ruins of Jerusalem, remained a backwater for the duration of its existence. The villages around the city were depopulated, and arable lands in the region were confiscated by the Romans. Having no alternative population to fill the empty villages led the authorities to establish imperial or legionary estates and monasteries on confiscated village lands to benefit the elites and, later, the church. This also initiated a process of romanization that took place during the Late Roman period, with pagan populations penetrating the region and settling alongside Roman veterans. There was only a revival of village settlement on the eastern edges of Jerusalem's hinterland, on the transition between the arable highlands and the Judaean Desert. Those settlements grew on marginal lands with vague ownership and unenforced state land dominion.

Byzantine period

Judea's decline only came to an end in the fifth century CE, when it developed into a monastic center, and Jerusalem became a major Christian pilgrimage and ecclesiastical hub. Under Byzantine rule, the regional population, composed of pagan populations who had migrated there after Jews were driven out following the Bar Kokhba revolt, gradually converted to Christianity.

The Byzantines redrew the borders of the land of Palestine. The various Roman provinces (Syria Palaestina, Samaria, Galilee, and Peraea) were reorganized into three dioceses of Palaestina, reverting to the name first used by Greek historian Herodotus in the mid-5th century BCE: Palaestina Prima, Secunda, and Tertia or Salutaris (First, Second, and Third Palestine), part of the Diocese of the East. Palaestina Prima consisted of Judea, Samaria, the Paralia, and Peraea with the governor residing in Caesarea. Palaestina Secunda consisted of Galilee, the lower Jezreel Valley, the regions east of Galilee, and the western part of the former Decapolis with the seat of government at Scythopolis. Palaestina Tertia included the Negev, southern Jordan—once part of Arabia—and most of Sinai, with Petra as the usual residence of the governor. Palestina Tertia was also known as Palaestina Salutaris. According to historian H.H. Ben-Sasson, this reorganisation took place under Diocletian (284–305), although other scholars suggest this change occurred later, in 390.

Crusader period
According to Ellenblum, the Franks tended to settle in the southern half of the region between Jerusalem and Nablus since there was a sizable Christian population there.

Mamluk period
Most of the people living in the northern portion of Judea in the late 16th century were Muslims; some of them resided in towns that today have significant Christian populations. According to the 1596–1597 Ottoman census, Birzeit and Jifna, for instance, were wholly Muslim villages, while Taybeh had 63 Muslim families and 23 Christian families. There were 71 Christian families and 9 Muslim families in Ramallah, although the Christians there were recent arrivals who had moved from the Kerak area only a few years previously. According to Ehrlich, the region's Christian population decreased as a result of a combination of factors including impoverishment, oppression, marginalization, and persecution. Sufi activity took place in Jerusalem and the surrounding area, which most likely pushed Christian villagers in the region to convert to Islam.

Timeline
 Around 900–586 BCE: Kingdom of Judah
 586–539 BCE: Yehud, Babylonian Empire
 539–332 BCE: Yehud Medinata, Persian Empire
 332–305 BCE: Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great
 305–198 BCE: Ptolemaic Egypt
 198–141 BCE: Seleucid Empire
 141–37 BCE: The Hasmonean kingdom established by the Maccabees, under the Roman Empire after 63 BCE
 63 BCE: Pompey's conquest of Jerusalem
 37 BCE – 132 CE: Herodian dynasty ruling Judea as a vassal state of the Roman Empire (37–4 BCE Herod the Great, 4 BCE – 6 CE Herod Archelaus, 41–44 CE Agrippa I), interchanging with direct Roman rule (6–41, 44–132)
 c. 25 BCE: Caesarea Maritima is built by Herod the Great, replacing Jerusalem as the capital
 6 CE the Roman Empire deposed Herod Archelaus and converted his territory into the Roman province of Judea.
 Census of Quirinius, too late to correspond to census related to Jesus' birth
 26–36: Pontius Pilate prefect of Roman Judea during the Crucifixion of Jesus
 66–73: First Jewish–Roman War, includes Destruction of the Second Temple in 70
 115–117: Kitos War
 132: Judea was merged with Galilee into the enlarged province of Syria Palaestina.

Selected towns and cities
Judea, in the generic sense, also incorporates places in Galilee and in Samaria.

See also
 Timeline of the name "Judea"
 Seleucid Empire vs. Maccabean Revolt
 History of Palestine
 Ioudaios
 Kitos War
 Judaea (Roman province)
 State of Judea

References

External links

 Judea and civil war
 The subjugation of Judea
 Judaea 6–66 CE
 Judea photos
 The Jewish History Resource Center—Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, Hebrew University of Jerusalem

Historical regions in Israel
Geography of the State of Palestine
Hebrew Bible regions
New Testament regions
West Bank

Judea


This page is a list of heirs to the Swedish throne. The list includes all individuals who were considered to inherit the throne of the Kingdom of Sweden, either as heir apparent or as heir presumptive, since the accession of the House of Holstein-Gottorp on 25 March 1751. Those who succeeded as King of Sweden are shown in bold in the table below.

In 1809 a coup d'état against King Gustav IV replaced him with his uncle Karl XIII. As the new king was childless, he and the ruling government arranged for the adoption of an heir to succeed him.

See also
Duchies in Sweden
Succession to the Swedish throne

Swedish monarchy
Sweden
Sweden
Heirs to the Swedish throne
Heirs to the Swedish throne

List of heirs to the Swedish throne


RDF/XML is a syntax, defined by the W3C, to express (i.e. serialize) an RDF graph as an XML document.   RDF/XML is sometimes misleadingly called simply RDF because it was introduced among the other W3C specifications defining RDF and it was historically the first W3C standard RDF serialization format.

RDF/XML is the primary exchange syntax for OWL 2, and must be supported by all OWL 2 tools.

References

External links
 RDF/XML Syntax Specification
 RDF Primer
 RFC 3870: application/rdf+xml Media Type Registration

Resource Description Framework
Semantic Web
XML-based standards

RDF/XML


Melesio Morales (sometimes spelled Melisio Morales) (December 4, 1838 – May 12, 1908) was a Mexican composer.

Morales was born and died in Mexico City, where he studied music; two of his operas, written in Italian, were performed there. He lived in Europe from 1865-1868, and his success in Florence with the opera Ildegonda in 1866 made him a star in his native country. He composed, conducted, and taught in Mexico City until his death. His works include ten operas, two cantatas, and orchestral and choral works.

Operas
Note: This list is incomplete.
Romeo e Giulietta, 1860
Ildegonda, drama lírico, 1864
Gino Corsini, ossia La Maledizione, 1877
Cleopatra, 1891
Anita, ca. 1900

1838 births
1908 deaths
19th-century classical composers
20th-century classical composers
Mexican classical composers
Mexican male classical composers
Mexican Romantic composers
Musicians from Mexico City
Mexican opera composers
Male opera composers
20th-century male musicians
19th-century male musicians

Melesio Morales


Peggy Annette Whitson (born February 9, 1960) is an American biochemistry researcher, retired NASA astronaut, former NASA Chief Astronaut, and an active Axiom Space astronaut. Whitson has a total of 675 days in space, more than any other American or woman.

Her first space mission was in 2002: an extended stay aboard the International Space Station as a member of Expedition 5. On her second mission, Expedition 16 in 2007-2008, she became the first woman to command the ISS. In 2009, she became the first woman to serve as NASA's Chief Astronaut, the most senior position in the NASA Astronaut Corps. In 2017, Whitson became the first woman to command the International Space Station twice. Her 289-day flight was the longest single space flight by a woman until Christina Koch's 328-day flight.

Whitson holds the records for the oldest woman spacewalker and the most spacewalks by a woman. Whitson's cumulative EVA time is 60 hours, 21 minutes, which places her in fifth place for total EVA time. At age 57 on her final NASA flight, she was the oldest woman ever in space at that time - a record broken in 2021 by Wally Funk. She is still the oldest woman to orbit the Earth, a record she broke in 2023, at 63.

On June 15, 2018, Whitson retired from NASA. She later became a consultant for Axiom Space and is the commander of Axiom Mission 2.

Whitson was included in Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People of 2018.

Early life and background
Whitson grew up on a farm outside the town of Beaconsfield, Iowa, with her sister, Kathy, her brothers, Brian and Hugh, and her parents, Keith and Beth. Her parents were farmers. She decided to become an astronaut after she watched the first Moon landing on television as a child in 1969. Whitson graduated from Mount Ayr Community High School in 1978 and received a Bachelor of Science degree in biology and chemistry from Iowa Wesleyan College in 1981. She then went on to earn her doctorate degree in biochemistry from Rice University in 1986 under the direction of Kathleen Matthews, then continued at Rice as a Robert A Welch Post-doctoral Fellow until October 1986. She is married to Clarence F. Sams.

Research career
After her fellowship at Rice, she began working at Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, as a National Research Council Resident Research Associate. From April 1988 until September 1989, Whitson served as the Supervisor for the Biochemistry Research Group at KRUG International, a medical sciences contractor at NASA-JSC.

From 1991 through 1997, Whitson became an adjunct assistant professor in the Department of Internal Medicine and the Department of Human Biological Chemistry and Genetics at the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston, Texas. In 1997, Whitson began teaching as adjunct assistant professor at Rice University in the Maybee Laboratory for Biochemical and Genetic Engineering.

From 1992 to 1995, she served as project scientist for the Shuttle-Mir Program, then until 1996, as deputy division chief for the Medical Sciences division at the Johnson Space Center.

NASA career

From 1989 to 1993, Whitson worked as a research biochemist in the Biomedical Operations and Research Branch at NASA-JSC. From 1991 to 1993, she served as technical monitor of the Biochemistry Research Laboratories in the Biomedical Operations and Research Branch. From 1991 through 1992, she was the payload element developer for Bone Cell Research Experiment (E10) aboard SL-J (STS-47), and was a member of the US-USSR Joint Working Group in Space Medicine and Biology. In 1992, she was named the project scientist of the Shuttle-Mir Program (STS-60, STS-63, STS-71, Mir 18, Mir 19), and served in this capacity until the conclusion of the Phase 1A Program in 1995. From 1993 through 1996, Whitson held the additional responsibilities of the deputy division chief of the Medical Sciences Division at NASA-JSC. From 1995 to 1996, she served as co-chair of the U.S.-Russian Mission Science Working Group.

In April 1996, Whitson was selected as an astronaut candidate; she started training in August 1996. Upon completing the two years of training and evaluation, she was assigned technical duties in the Astronaut Office Operations Planning Branch, and served as the lead for the Crew Test Support Team in Russia from 1998 to 1999.  In June 2003, Whitson commanded the NEEMO 5 mission aboard the Aquarius underwater laboratory, living and working underwater for 14 days.  From November 2003 to March 2005, she served as deputy chief of the Astronaut Office. From March 2005 to November 2005, she served as chief of the Station Operations Branch, Astronaut Office.

Chief of the Astronaut Office
Whitson was appointed NASA Chief of the Astronaut Office in October 2009, replacing Steven W. Lindsey. Whitson was the first female, and first non-pilot to serve as Chief Astronaut. She resigned when she went back on active flight status in July 2012, replaced by Robert Behnken. Whitson has also served twice as the commander of the International Space Station.

Involvement with Axiom Space
She is the Director of Human Space Flight for Axiom Space.
In January 2021 it was announced that she is back-up commander of Axiom Mission 1, raising the possibility that she could fly a later Axiom Space mission.

Commander of Axiom Mission 2
In May 2021, Whitson was confirmed as commander of the second Axiom mission Axiom Mission 2.

Spaceflight experience

Expedition 5

The Expedition 5 crew launched on June 5, 2002, aboard STS-111 and docked with the International Space Station on June 7, 2002. During her six-month stay aboard the Space Station, Whitson installed the Mobile Base System, the S1 truss segment, and the P1 truss segment using the space station remote manipulator system; performed a 4-hour and 25 minute spacewalk in a Russian Orlan space suit to install micrometeoroid shielding on the Zvezda Service Module; and activated and checked out the Microgravity Sciences Glovebox, a facility class payload rack.

Whitson was named the first NASA science officer during her stay, and she conducted 21 investigations in human life sciences and microgravity sciences, as well as commercial payloads. The Expedition 5 crew returned to Earth aboard STS-113 on December 7, 2002. Completing her first flight, Whitson logged 184 days, 22 hours and 14 minutes in space.

Expedition 16

Her second mission, Expedition 16, launched October 10, 2007, on Soyuz TMA-11. Along with her Expedition 16 crew member Yuri Malenchenko and spaceflight participant Yi So-yeon, she returned to Earth in Soyuz TMA-11 on April 19, 2008. The re-entry was remarkable for the failure of the Soyuz propulsion module to separate properly, and the subsequent "ballistic reentry" which subjected the crew to forces about eight times that of Earth surface gravity. She spent 191 days, 19 hrs and 8 mins in space on this mission.

On December 18, 2007, during the fourth spacewalk of Expedition 16 to inspect the S4 starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ), the ground team in Mission Control informed Whitson that she had become the female astronaut with the most cumulative EVA time in NASA history, as well as the most EVAs, with her fifth EVA. Three hours and 37 minutes into the spacewalk, Whitson surpassed NASA astronaut Sunita Williams with a total time at that point of 29 hours and 18 minutes. At the completion of Whitson's fifth EVA, the 100th in support of ISS assembly and maintenance, Whitson's cumulative EVA time became 32 hours, and 36 minutes, which placed her in 20th place for total EVA time.  Her sixth spacewalk, also during Expedition 16, brought her cumulative EVA time to 39 hours, 46 minutes, which ranked her 23rd for total EVA time as of November 2009.

Expedition 50/51/52

Peggy Whitson arrived at the International Space Station on November 19, 2016, on Expedition 50/51, which was launched on November 17, 2016, from the Baikonur cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. She became the commander of Expedition 51. With the launch of Expedition 50/51 with her on it, Whitson, at age 56, became the oldest woman to fly into space. During the mission, she broke the record for cumulative time spent in space by a U.S. astronaut, surpassing the previous record of 534 days set by Jeff Williams. In early April 2017, her mission was extended by an additional 3 months at the International Space Station. On September 3, she returned in a previously vacant seat on the Soyuz capsule accompanied by NASA's Jack Fischer and Fyodor Yurchikhin of Roscosmos.

In January 2017, Whitson performed her seventh EVA. along with Expedition 50 commander Shane Kimbrough. During the EVA, they installed three new adapter plates and hooked up electrical connectors preparing the way to replace the ISS batteries. The EVA lasted 6 hours and 32 minutes. Whitson now holds the record for the oldest female spacewalker, and is now tied with the record for total spacewalks by a woman (seven), along with Sunita Williams. After completion of the seventh EVA, Whitson's cumulative EVA time became 46 hours, 18 minutes, which placed her in 13th place for total EVA time.

On April 24, 2017, Whitson officially broke the record for longest amount of time spent in space by any NASA astronaut.  As a result, she received a televised phone call from the Oval Office from US President Donald Trump, the President's daughter Ivanka, and fellow astronaut Kathleen Rubins. When interviewed on that day she declared 'It is actually a huge honor to break a record like this, but it is an honor for me back to be representing all the folks at NASA'.

On May 12, 2017, Whitson performed her ninth career EVA with Jack Fischer. After a short delay due to leaking equipment, they replaced an avionics box on the starboard truss called an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier (ELC), a storage platform. The duration was 4 hours and 13 minutes, and it was the 200th EVA to be performed on the ISS.

On May 23, 2017, Whitson performed her tenth career EVA with Fischer. They replaced a backup multiplexer-demultiplexer (MDM) unit that had failed on May 20, 2017. The duration was 2 hours and 46 minutes, making Whitson's cumulative EVA time more than 60 hours, placing her third on the list for most EVA time.

On June 1, 2017, Whitson passed over the command of the International Space Station to Fyodor Yurchikhin, who was named commander of Expedition 52 until he, Whitson and Jack Fischer returned to Earth aboard Soyuz MS-04 in September 2017.

Whitson returned to Earth on September 3, 2017, after she accrued a total of 665 days in space over the course of her career. This total was more time in space than any other woman worldwide and any other American. As of April 2021 she is ranked ninth on the list of total time spent in space. The duration of her stay in space during expeditions 50/51/52 was 289 days, 5 hours and 1 minute. In June 2020, Whitson was a guest (along with two imposters) on an ABC-TV To Tell the Truth episode in which Patti LaBelle correctly selected her as the record-holding time in space astronaut.

Axiom 2

Axiom 2 lifted off on 21 May 2023 from Launch Complex 39A at Kennedy Space Center, onboard a Falcon 9 Block 5 rocket. The mission, which was the second flight of Crew Dragon Freedom, docked with the International Space Station a day later.

During the mission, the crew performed public outreach activities along with scientific research, including studies into the effects of microgravity on stem cells and other biological experiments.

After eight days docked to the ISS, Axiom 2 undocked and returned to Earth twelve hours later. Freedom splashed down successfully in the Gulf of Mexico off the coast of Panama City, Florida. It was recovered by SpaceX's recovery ship Megan.

Awards and honors

 NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal (2006)
 NASA Space Flight Medal (2002)
 Patents awarded (1997, 1998)
 Group Achievement Award for Shuttle-Mir Program (1996)
 American Astronautical Society Randolph Lovelace II Award (1995)
 NASA Tech Brief Award (1995)
 NASA Space Act Board Award (1995, 1998)
 NASA Silver Snoopy Award (1995)
 NASA Exceptional Service Medal (1995, 2003, 2006)
 NASA Space Act Award for Patent Application
 NASA Certificate of Commendation (1994)
 NASA Sustained Superior Performance Award (1990)
 Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration" (Russia, April 12, 2011) – for outstanding contribution to the development of international cooperation in manned space flight
 Krug International Merit Award (1989)
 NASA-JSC National Research Council Resident Research Associate (1986–1988)
 Robert A. Welch Postdoctoral Fellowship (1985–1986)
 Robert A. Welch Predoctoral Fellowship (1982–1985)
 Summa cum laude from Iowa Wesleyan College (1981)
 President's Honor Roll (1978–1981)
 Orange van Calhoun Scholarship (1980)
 State of Iowa Scholar (1979)
 Academic Excellence Award (1978)
 Included in the Time 100 list of influential people for 2018.
 Women in Space Science Award (2019).
International Air and Space Hall of Fame (2018)
"Women on the Move" Award (2010)
Space Flight Award (2017)
She was recognized as one of the BBC's 100 women of 2017.

References

External links

 NASA biography
 Spacefacts biography of Peggy Whitson
 NASA Expedition 16
 Peggy Whitson   Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America

1960 births
Living people
American astronauts
Aquanauts
Crew members of the International Space Station
Women astronauts
Commanders of the International Space Station
Iowa Wesleyan University alumni
People from Ringgold County, Iowa
Rice University alumni
Recipients of the NASA Exceptional Service Medal
Recipients of the Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration"
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Axiom Space
Spacewalkers
Iowa Women's Hall of Fame Inductees

Peggy Whitson


Federsee is a lake located just north of Bad Buchau in the region of Upper Swabia in Southern Germany. It is surrounded by moorland, partially overgrown with reeds. With a size of 33 km2 (8,155 acres), the area is one of the largest, groundwater fed, connected moorlands in Southern Germany. At its deepest point, Lake Federsee has a depth of 2 metres (6.5 feet). Federsee translates to 'feather lake' and its shape resembles that of a feather. However, the origin of its name is locally debated, with one camp defending the shape theory, and another championing the idea that the amount of feathers found on the lake's surface gave rise to its name. The most probable explanation for the origin of the name is, however, the Celtic word "pheder" which means marsh. Therefore, the name refers to the origin of the lake itself and the surrounding landscape. The lake is encircled by the town of Bad Buchau, and the villages of Moosburg, Alleshausen, Seekirch, Tiefenbach, and Oggelshausen.

The lake and its immediate surroundings are a designated Special Protection Area for the conservation of wild birds. Around 265 bird species live in the vicinity of the lake, 107 of which are breeding here. The lake is also populated by 200 breeding pairs of whinchats and 18 breeding pairs of marsh harriers. Both are endangered species.

The Lake Federsee area has been declared a Special Protection Area under the European Union Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds and the Habitats Directive. Furthermore, the area is  part of the European ecology network Natura 2000.

The basin of Lake Federsee is famous for its excavations of Stone Age and Bronze Age artifacts, which are prominently displayed at the Federsee Museum.

Since the lake is completely surrounded by belts of reed and bogs, it is impossible to access the lake directly. Therefore, a narrow wooden boardwalk approx  in length was constructed. Starting near the parking area at the Federsee Museum, it leads through the reed belt until open water is reached. Here one finds an observation platform and boat rental facility. There are a variety of piers leading to different parts of the protected area, which otherwise would be inaccessible by foot.

The village of Tiefenbach is located closest to the water. When Lake Federsee's surface is frozen during the winter months it is possible to walk from Tiefenbach to Bad Buchau across the frozen lake.

External links
Federseemuseum

Nature and Conservation Centre Federsee

Archaeological sites in Germany
Biberach (district)
Württemberg
Lakes of Baden-Württemberg
Special Protection Areas
Wetlands of Germany
Upper Swabia
Iller-Lech Plateau
Bogs of Baden-Württemberg

Federsee


Pashtun nationalism (; ) is an ideology that claims that the Pashtuns form a distinct nation and that they should always be united to preserve their culture and homeland. In Afghanistan, those who advocate Pashtun nationalism favour the idea of a "Greater Afghanistan", which includes Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and be ruled directly under Pashtun principles.

History

Another early Pashtun nationalist was the 17th-century "warrior-poet" Khushal Khan Khattak, who was imprisoned by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb for trying to incite the Pashtuns to rebel against the rule of the Mughals. However, despite sharing a common language and believing in a common ancestry, the Pashtuns first achieved unity in the 18th century after being under foreign rule for many centuries. The eastern parts of Pashtunistan was ruled by the Mughal Empire, while the western parts were ruled by the Persian Safavids as their easternmost provinces. During the early 18th century, Pashtun tribes led by Mirwais Hotak successfully revolted against the Safavids in the city of Kandahar. In a chain of events, he declared Loy Kandahar and other parts of what is now southern Afghanistan independent. By 1738 the Mughal Empire had been defeated and their capital sacked and looted by forces of a new Iranian ruler Nader Shah Afshar. Besides Persian, Turkmen, and Caucasian forces, Nader was also accompanied by the young Ahmad Shah Durrani and 4,000 well-trained Pashtun troops.

After the death of Nader Shah in 1747 and the disintegration of his massive empire, Ahmad Shah Durrani established Durrani Empire, which included most of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, among other regions. The famous couplet by Ahmad Shah Durrani describes the association the people have with the regional city of Kandahar:
Da Dilī takht zə hērawəma chē rāyād kṛəm, zəmā da ṣ̌hkuləi Paṣ̌htūnkhwā da ghrō sarūna.Translation: "I forget the throne of Delhi when I recall, the mountain peaks of my beautiful Pashtunkhwa."

The last Afghan Empire was established in 1747 and united different tribes as well as many other ethnic groups. Parts of the Pashtunistan region around Peshawar was invaded by Ranjit Singh and his Sikh army in the early part of the 19th century, but a few years later they were defeated by the British, which reached the Pashtunistan region from the east.

Famous Pashtun independence activists against the rule of the British Raj include Bacha Khan, Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai, and Mirzali Khan (Faqir of Ipi). Bacha Khan and his followers, the Khudai Khidmatgars, strongly opposed the All-India Muslim League's demand for the partition of India. When the Indian National Congress declared its acceptance of the partition plan without consulting the Khudai Khidmatgar leaders, Bacha Khan felt very sad and told the Congress "you have thrown us to the wolves." In June 1947, Bacha Khan, Mirzali Khan, and the Khudai Khidmatgar movement declared the Bannu Resolution, demanding that the Pashtuns be given a choice to have an independent state of Pashtunistan composing all Pashtun territories of British India, instead of being made to join Pakistan. However, the British refused to comply with the demand of this resolution due to which the Khudai Khidmatgars boycotted the 1947 North-West Frontier Province referendum.

After the establishment of Pakistan, Bacha Khan pledged his allegiance to the newly independent country in the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, and said that he would continue to work for greater autonomy within the framework of the state of Pakistan. However, Mirzali Khan and his followers refused to recognize Pakistan and continued their guerrilla war against the new state's government from their base in Gurwek, Waziristan, receiving support from the Afghan government, but they did not receive much success and later, Mirzali Khan, himself, expressed regret and said that Afghanistan deceived and used him for its political gains in the name of Islam. He also instructed his supporters that they should never help Afghanistan against Pakistan with any plots made against Pakistan.

In the decades following the independence of Pakistan, various ethnic groups of the country, including the Pashtuns, assimilated together to form a Pakistani society and identity, bringing their regional cultures and languages together, which has seen a drop in ethnic nationalism. The Pashtuns also play a huge role in the politics and the running of the day-to-day state of Pakistan.

See also
Pashtunistan
Pashtunization
Pashtoons Social Democratic Party
Durand Line
Kabir Stori
Khudai Khidmatgar
Bacha Khan
Bannu Resolution
Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai
Mirzali Khan
Mullah Powindah
Sartor Faqir
Umra Khan
Awami National Party
Pashtunkhwa Milli Awami Party
Afghan Millat Party
Pashtun colonization of northern Afghanistan

References

Durand Line
Pashtun politics

Pashtun nationalism


is the concept album by Yen Town Band, fictional music group from the 1996 motion picture Swallowtail directed by Shunji Iwai. The album was actually recorded by a Japanese singer-songwriter Chara who played the starring role in the film. It was released by the Sony Music Entertainment Japan in September 1996.

Background
Yen Town Band is the name of the band featured in the film. Glico, the character Chara plays, is the main vocalist of the band, made up of residents from the Shanghai section of the Yentown slum. The concept album was a collaboration between Chara and the producer Takeshi Kobayashi. Kobayashi elaborated a Beatlesque sound on the whole album.

Reception
The theme song for the movie, "", was released in July 1996, two months prior to the film's release. It was a slow hit, selling over 70,000 copies between July and August. In September, when major promotion for the film began, the single finally broke the top 20 (at #18).

The album was released simultaneously with the film in mid September. It debuted at number-one the Oricon charts for 2 weeks (selling 227,400 and 127,290 units in each respective week), becoming the performer's first chart-topping hit. The album eventually spent 18 weeks on the top 100, with cumulative sales of 785,000 units just in Japan.

"Mama's Alright" was featured as a B-side of the "Swallowtail Butterfly (Ai no Uta)" single, and the track "" was featured in Sprite commercials that starred Chara herself. The closing track My Way is a standard cover of the English version originally recorded by Frank Sinatra.

Track listing
All songs arranged and produced by Takeshi Kobayashi

Singles

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

References

Chara (singer) albums
Albums produced by Takeshi Kobayashi
1996 albums

Montage (Yen Town Band album)


In chemistry and biology a cross-link is a bond or a short sequence of bonds that links one polymer chain to another. These links may take the form of covalent bonds or ionic bonds and the polymers can be either synthetic polymers or natural polymers (such as proteins).

In polymer chemistry "cross-linking" usually refers to the use of cross-links to promote a change in the polymers' physical properties.

When "crosslinking" is used in the biological field, it refers to the use of a probe to link proteins together to check for protein–protein interactions, as well as other creative cross-linking methodologies.

Although the term is used to refer to the "linking of polymer chains" for both sciences, the extent of crosslinking and specificities of the crosslinking agents vary greatly.

Synthetic polymers

Crosslinking generally involves covalent bonds that join two polymer chains. The term curing refers to the crosslinking of thermosetting resins, such as unsaturated polyester and epoxy resin, and the term vulcanization is characteristically used for rubbers. When polymer chains are crosslinked, the material becomes more rigid. The mechanical properties of a polymer depends strongly on the cross-link density. Low cross-link densities increase the viscosities of polymer melts. Intermediate cross-link densities transform gummy polymers into materials that have elastomeric properties and potentially high strengths. Very high cross-link densities can cause materials to become very rigid or glassy, such as phenol-formaldehyde materials.

In one implementation, unpolymerized or partially polymerized resin is treated with a crosslinking reagent. In vulcanization, sulfur is the cross-linking agent. Its introduction changes rubber to a more rigid, durable material associated with car and bike tires. This process is often called sulfur curing. In most cases, cross-linking is irreversible, and the resulting thermosetting material will degrade or burn if heated, without melting. Chemical covalent cross-links are stable mechanically and thermally. Therefore, cross-linked products like car tires cannot be recycled easily. A class of polymers known as thermoplastic elastomers rely on physical cross-links in their microstructure to achieve stability, and are widely used in non-tire applications, such as snowmobile tracks, and catheters for medical use. They offer a much wider range of properties than conventional cross-linked elastomers because the domains that act as cross-links are reversible, so can be reformed by heat. The stabilizing domains may be non-crystalline (as in styrene-butadiene block copolymers) or crystalline as in thermoplastic copolyesters.

Alkyd enamels, the dominant type of commercial oil-based paint, cure by oxidative crosslinking after exposure to air.

Physical cross-links
In contrast to chemical cross-links, physical cross-links are formed by weaker interactions. For example, sodium alginate gels upon exposure to calcium ions, which form ionic bonds that bridge between alginate chains. Polyvinyl alcohol gels upon the addition of borax through hydrogen bonding between boric acid and the polymer's alcohol groups. Other examples of materials which form physically cross-linked gels include gelatin, collagen, agarose, and agar agar.

Measuring degree of crosslinking
Crosslinking is often measured by swelling tests. The crosslinked sample is placed into a good solvent at a specific temperature, and either the change in mass or the change in volume is measured. The more crosslinking, the less swelling is attainable. Based on the degree of swelling, the Flory Interaction Parameter (which relates the solvent interaction with the sample), and the density of the solvent, the theoretical degree of crosslinking can be calculated according to Flory's Network Theory. Two ASTM standards are commonly used to describe the degree of crosslinking in thermoplastics. In ASTM D2765, the sample is weighed, then placed in a solvent for 24 hours, weighed again while swollen, then dried and weighed a final time. The degree of swelling and the soluble portion can be calculated. In another ASTM standard, F2214, the sample is placed in an instrument that measures the height change in the sample, allowing the user to measure the volume change. The crosslink density can then be calculated.

In biology

Lignin
Lignin is a highly crosslinked polymer that comprises the main structural material of higher plants.  A hydrophobic material, it is derived from precursor monolignols.  Heterogeneity arises from the diversity and degree of crosslinking between these lignols.

In DNA

Intrastrand DNA crosslinks have strong effects on organisms because these lesions interfere with transcription and replication. These effects can be put to good use (addressing cancer) or they can be lethal to the host organism. The drug cisplatin functions by formation of intrastrand crosslinks in DNA.  Other crosslinking agents include mustard gas, mitomycin, and psoralen.

Proteins
In proteins, crosslinks are important in generating mechanically stable structures such as hair and wool, skin, and cartilage. Disulfide bonds are common crosslinks.  Isopeptide bond formation is another type of protein crosslink.

The process of applying a permanent wave to hair involves the breaking and reformation disulfide bonds. Typically a mercaptan such as ammonium thioglycolate is used for the breaking. Following this, the hair is curled and then "neutralized". The neutralizer is typically an acidic solution of hydrogen peroxide, which causes new disulfide bonds to form, thus permanently fixing the hair into its new configuration.

Compromised collagen in the cornea, a condition known as keratoconus, can be treated with clinical crosslinking.

In biological context crosslinking could play a role in atherosclerosis through advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), which have been implicated to induce crosslinking of collagen, which may lead to vascular stiffening.

Reseach
Proteins can also be cross-linked artificially using small-molecule crosslinkers.  This approach has been used to elucidate protein–protein interactions. Crosslinkers bind only surface residues in relatively close proximity in the native state. Common crosslinkers include the imidoester crosslinker dimethyl suberimidate, the N-Hydroxysuccinimide-ester crosslinker BS3 and formaldehyde. Each of these crosslinkers induces nucleophilic attack of the amino group of lysine and subsequent covalent bonding via the crosslinker. The zero-length carbodiimide crosslinker EDC functions by converting carboxyls into amine-reactive isourea intermediates that bind to lysine residues or other available primary amines. SMCC or its water-soluble analog, Sulfo-SMCC, is commonly used to prepare antibody-hapten conjugates for antibody development. An in-vitro cross-linking method is PICUP (photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins). Typical reagents are ammonium persulfate (APS), an electron acceptor, the photosensitizer [[tris(bipyridine)ruthenium(II) chloride|tris-bipyridylruthenium (II) cation (). In in-vivo crosslinking of protein complexes, cells are grown with photoreactive diazirine analogs to leucine and methionine, which are incorporated into proteins. Upon exposure to ultraviolet light, the diazirines are activated and bind to interacting proteins that are within a few ångströms of the photo-reactive amino acid analog (UV cross-linking).

See also
Branching (polymer chemistry)
Cross-linked enzyme aggregate
Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX)
Crosslinking of DNA
Fixation (histology)
Phenol formaldehyde resin (phenolic resin)

References

External links
Application note on how to measure degree of crosslinking in plastics

Ageing processes
Polymer chemistry
Protein–protein interaction assays
Rubber properties

Cross-link


"Ei Eerika pääse taivaaseen" ("Eerika Won't Go to Heaven") is a song recorded by Finnish pop rock band Haloo Helsinki! for their second studio album Enemmän kuin elää (2009). The song was released by EMI Finland as a promotional single for airplay on 11 August 2009 and peaked at number 24 on the Official Finnish Download Chart.

Charts

References

2009 songs
Haloo Helsinki! songs

Ei Eerika pääse taivaaseen


Indophenol is an organic compound with the formula OC6H4NC6H4OH.  It is deep blue dye that is the product of the Berthelot's reaction, a common test for ammonia.  The indophenol group, with various substituents in place of OH and various ring substitutions, is found in many dyes used in hair coloring and textiles.

Indophenol is used in hair dyes, lubricants, redox materials, liquid crystal displays, fuel cells and chemical-mechanical polishing. It is an environmental pollutant and is toxic to fish.

Berthelot test
In the Berthelot test (1859), a sample suspected of having containing ammonia is treated with sodium hypochlorite and phenol. The formation of indophenol is used to determine ammonia and paracetamol by spectrophotometry. Other phenols can be used. Dichlorophenol-indophenol (DCPIP), a form of indophenol, is often used to determine the presence of vitamin C (ascorbic acid).

Related compounds
Indophenol blue is a different compound with systematic name N-(p-dimethylaminophenyl)-1,4-naphthoquinoneimine.

References

Indophenol dyes

Indophenol


A retable is a structure or element placed either on or immediately behind and above the altar or communion table of a church. At the minimum, it may be a simple shelf for candles behind an altar, but it can also be a large and elaborate structure. A retable which incorporates sculptures or paintings is often referred to as an altarpiece.

According to the Getty Art & Architecture Thesaurus Online, "A 'retable' is distinct from a 'reredos'; while the reredos typically rises from ground level behind the altar, the retable is smaller, standing either on the back of the altar itself or on a pedestal behind it. Many altars have both a reredos and a retable." This distinction is not always upheld in common use, and the terms are often confused or used as synonyms. In several foreign languages, such as French (also using 'retable'), the usage is different, usually equating the word with the English 'reredos' or 'altarpiece', and this often leads to confusion and incorrect usage in translated texts. The Medieval Latin retrotabulum (modernized retabulum) was applied to an architectural feature set up at the back of an altar, and generally taking the form of a screen framing a picture, carved or sculptured work in wood or stone, or mosaic, or of a movable feature such as the  Pala d'Oro in St Mark's Basilica, Venice, of gold, jewels and enamels. The non-English word "retable" therefore often refers to what should in English be called a reredos. The situation is further complicated by the frequent modern addition of free-standing altars in front of the old integrated altar, to allow the celebrant to face the congregation, or be closer to it.

Dossal is another term that may overlap with both retable and reredos; today it usually means an altarpiece painting rising at the back of the altar to which it is attached, or a cloth usually hanging on the wall directly behind the altar.

The cognate Spanish term, retablo, refers also to a reredos or retrotabulum, although in the specific context of Mexican folk art, it may refer to any two-dimensional depiction (usually a framed painting) of a saint or other Christian religious figure, as contrasted with a bulto, a three-dimensional statue of same.

The retable may hold the altar cross, mostly in Protestant churches, as well as candles, flowers and other things.

References

Altarpieces
Christian art

Retable


Ruth Ann Swenson (born August 25, 1959) is an American soprano who is renowned for her coloratura roles.

Early years
Born in Bronxville, New York and raised in Commack, New York on Long Island, Swenson studied at the Academy of Vocal Arts in Philadelphia and briefly at Hartt College of Music in West Hartford, Connecticut. In the early 1980s she joined the Merola Opera Program at the San Francisco Opera and toured the country as Gilda in Western Opera Theatre's Rigoletto.

Career
Swenson made her San Francisco Opera debut in 1983, as Despina in Mozart's Così fan tutte. But her breakthrough role was Dorinda the shepherdess in Handel's Orlando opposite mezzo Marilyn Horne. Her Metropolitan Opera debut came in 1991, as Zerlina in Mozart's Don Giovanni. In 1993, she won the Richard Tucker Music Foundation Award.

Swenson has appeared on many opera stages, including the Opéra National de Paris, the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden, the Metropolitan Opera, the Berlin State Opera, the Grand Théâtre de Genève, the Hamburg State Opera, the Bavarian State Opera and the Chicago Lyric Opera.

Roles she has played include Liù in Turandot, Rosina in The Barber of Seville, the Four Heroines in The Tales of Hoffmann, Elvira in I Puritani, Zerbinetta in Ariadne auf Naxos, Gilda in Rigoletto (49 performances at the Met alone), Juliette in Roméo et Juliette and Giulietta in I Capuleti e i Montecchi, Violetta in La traviata, Lucia in Lucia di Lammermoor, Adina in L'elisir d'amore, Marguerite in Faust, the Countess in The Marriage of Figaro, and Rodelinda in Rodelinda.

Swenson received an honorary doctorate degree in April 2006 from the San Francisco Conservatory of Music, where she has taught master classes.

In March 2007, she returned to the stage of the Metropolitan Opera, singing the role of Marguerite in Faust. The March 17 performance was broadcast internationally. On April 21, 2007, she performed the role of Cleopatra in Handel's Giulio Cesare at the Met. However, Swenson was unhappy with Metropolitan's General Manager Peter Gelb's apparent decision not to use her as much as his predecessor Joseph Volpe had. Swenson stated: "It's hurtful. I'm a New Yorker. I've sung here for many, many years. I've had great success. I've never let them down. It's so stressful to get up onstage and realize that the top guy doesn't like you, and there's nothing I can do about it. Nothing."

In May 2007 she again sang Marguerite at the Cincinnati Opera, and sang the role of Hannah Glawari in the Dallas Opera's The Merry Widow in November–December 2007 opposite Rod Gilfry.

In June 2008 she sang Ginevra in Handel's Ariodante opposite mezzo Susan Graham at the San Francisco Opera, a production that marked Swenson's 25th anniversary with the company. Also in 2008, she sang Violetta at the Metropolitan Opera.

On July 6, 2008, Swenson was awarded the San Francisco Opera Medal, the company's highest artistic honor. According to David Gockley, General Director of the San Francisco Opera, "Swenson has had a long and illustrious history with this Company, and we are thrilled to honor her significant contributions to San Francisco Opera and the performing arts in this way."

She returned to the Met in 2010 as Musetta in La bohème.

Personal life
Swenson was diagnosed with breast cancer and underwent surgery in October 2006 at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center. She received chemotherapy treatment as a precautionary measure following surgery.

Swenson is married to baritone David Burnakus.

Discography
 Marilyn Horne: Divas in Song, RCA Victor Red Seal CD
 Ruth Ann Swenson: Positively Golden, EMI Classics CD

Videography
 James Levine's 25th Anniversary Metropolitan Opera Gala'' (1996), Deutsche Grammophon DVD, B0004602-09

References

External links
MetOpera database
Associated Entertainment Biography page

American operatic sopranos
1959 births
Living people
Richard Tucker Award winners
Academy of Vocal Arts alumni
University of Hartford Hartt School alumni
EMI Classics and Virgin Classics artists
People from Bronxville, New York
People from Commack, New York
Singers from New York (state)
20th-century American women opera  singers
21st-century American women  opera singers
Classical musicians from New York (state)

Ruth Ann Swenson