Haussmann's renovation of Paris was a vast public works programme commissioned by Emperor Napoleon III and directed by his prefect of Seine, Georges-Eugène Haussmann, between 1853 and 1870. It included the demolition of medieval neighbourhoods that were deemed overcrowded and unhealthy by officials at the time; the building of wide avenues; new parks and squares; the annexation of the suburbs surrounding Paris; and the construction of new sewers, fountains and aqueducts. Haussmann's work was met with fierce opposition, and he was finally dismissed by Napoleon III in 1870; but work on his projects continued until 1927. The street plan and distinctive appearance of the centre of Paris today are largely the result of Haussmann's renovation.

Background

Overcrowding, disease, crime and unrest in the centre of the old Paris

In the middle of the 19th century, the centre of Paris was viewed as overcrowded, dark, dangerous, and unhealthy. In 1845, the French social reformer Victor Considerant wrote: "Paris is an immense workshop of putrefaction, where misery, pestilence and sickness work in concert, where sunlight and air rarely penetrate. Paris is a terrible place where plants shrivel and perish, and where, of seven small infants, four die during the course of the year." The street plan on the Île de la Cité and in the neighbourhood called the "quartier des Arcis", between the Louvre and the "Hôtel de Ville" (City Hall), had changed little since the Middle Ages. The population density in these neighbourhoods was extremely high, compared with the rest of Paris; in the neighbourhood of Champs-Élysées, population density was estimated at 5,380 per square kilometre (22 per acre); in the neighbourhoods of Arcis and Saint-Avoye, located in the present Third Arrondissement, there was one inhabitant for every three square metres (32 sq ft). In 1840, a doctor described one building in the Île de la Cité where a single 5-square-metre room (54 sq ft) on the fourth floor was occupied by twenty-three people, both adults and children. In these conditions, disease spread very quickly. Cholera epidemics ravaged the city in 1832 and 1848. In the epidemic of 1848, five percent of the inhabitants of these two neighbourhoods died.

Traffic circulation was another major problem. The widest streets in these two neighborhoods were only five metres (16 feet) wide; the narrowest were one or two meters (3–7 feet) wide. Wagons, carriages and carts could barely move through the streets.

The centre of the city was also a cradle of discontent and revolution; between 1830 and 1848, seven armed uprisings and revolts had broken out in the centre of Paris, particularly along the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, around the Hôtel de Ville, and around Montagne Sainte-Geneviève on the left bank. The residents of these neighbourhoods had taken up pavement stones and blocked the narrow streets with barricades, which had to be dislodged by the army.

Earlier attempts to modernize the city

The urban problems of Paris had been recognized in the 18th century; Voltaire complained about the markets "established in narrow streets, showing off their filthiness, spreading infection and causing continuing disorders." He wrote that the façade of the Louvre was admirable, "but it was hidden behind buildings worthy of the Goths and Vandals." He protested that the government "invested in futilities rather than investing in public works." In 1739 he wrote to the young Frederick the Great: "I saw the fireworks which they fired off with such management; would rather they started to have a Hôtel de Ville, beautiful squares, magnificent and convenient markets, beautiful fountains, before having fireworks."

The 18th century architectural theorist and historian Quatremere de Quincy had proposed establishing or widening public squares in each of the neighbourhoods, expanding and developing the squares in front the Cathedral of Nôtre Dame and the church of Saint Gervais, and building a wide street to connect the Louvre with the Hôtel de Ville, the new city hall. Pierre-Louis Moreau-Desproux, the architect in chief of Paris, suggested paving and developing the embankments of the Seine, building monumental squares, clearing the space around landmarks, and cutting new streets. In 1794, during the French Revolution, a Commission of Artists drafted an ambitious plan to build wide avenues, including a street in a straight line from the Place de la Nation to the Louvre, where the Avenue Victoria is today, and squares with avenues radiating in different directions, largely making use of land confiscated from the church during the Revolution, but all of these projects remained on paper.

Napoleon Bonaparte also had ambitious plans for rebuilding the city. He began work on a canal to bring fresh water to the city and began work on the Rue de Rivoli, beginning at the Place de la Concorde, but was able to extend it only to the Louvre before his downfall. "If only the heavens had given me twenty more years of rule and a little leisure," he wrote while in exile on Saint Helena, "one would vainly search today for the old Paris; nothing would remain of it but vestiges."

The medieval core and plan of Paris changed little during the restoration of the monarchy through the reign of King Louis-Philippe (1830–1848). It was the Paris of the narrow and winding streets and foul sewers described in the novels of Balzac and Victor Hugo. In 1833, the new prefect of the Seine under Louis-Philippe, Claude-Philibert Barthelot, comte de Rambuteau, made modest improvements to the sanitation and circulation of the city. He constructed new sewers, though they still emptied directly into the Seine, and a better water supply system. He constructed 180 kilometres of sidewalks, a new street, rue Lobau; a new bridge over the Seine, the Pont Louis-Philippe; and cleared an open space around the Hôtel de Ville. He built a new street the length of the Île de la Cité and three additional streets across it: rue d'Arcole, rue de la Cité and rue Constantine. To access the central market at Les Halles, he built a wide new street (today's rue Rambuteau) and began work on the Boulevard Malesherbes. On the Left Bank, he built a new street, rue Soufflot, which cleared space around the Panthéon, and began work on the rue des Écoles, between the École Polytechnique and the Collège de France.

Rambuteau wanted to do more, but his budget and powers were limited. He did not have the power to easily expropriate property to build new streets, and the first law which required minimum health standards for Paris residential buildings was not passed until April 1850, under Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, then president of the French Second Republic.

Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte comes to power, and the rebuilding of Paris begins (1848–1852)

King Louis-Philippe was overthrown in the February Revolution of 1848. On 10 December 1848, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, won the first direct presidential elections ever held in France with an overwhelming 74.2 percent of the votes cast. He was elected largely because of his famous name, but also because of his promise to try to end poverty and improve the lives of ordinary people. Though he had been born in Paris, he had lived very little in the city; from the age of seven, he had lived in exile in Switzerland, England, and the United States, and for six years in prison in France for attempting to overthrow King Louis-Philippe. He had been especially impressed by London, with its wide streets, squares and large public parks. In 1852 he gave a public speech declaring: "Paris is the heart of France. Let us apply our efforts to embellishing this great city. Let us open new streets, make the working class quarters, which lack air and light, more healthy, and let the beneficial sunlight reach everywhere within our walls". As soon as he was President, he supported the building of the first subsidized housing project for workers in Paris, the Cité-Napoléon, on the rue Rochechouart. He proposed the completion of the rue de Rivoli from the Louvre to the Hôtel de Ville, completing the project begun by his uncle Napoléon Bonaparte, and he began a project which would transform the Bois de Boulogne (Boulogne Forest) into a large new public park, modelled after Hyde Park in London but much larger, on the west side of the city. He wanted both these projects to be completed before the end of his term in 1852, but became frustrated by the slow progress made by his prefect of the Seine, Jean-Jacques Berger. The prefect was unable to move the work forward on the rue de Rivoli quickly enough, and the original design for the Bois de Boulogne turned out to be a disaster; the architect, Jacques Ignace Hittorff, who had designed the Place de la Concorde for Louis-Philippe, followed Louis-Napoléon's instructions to imitate Hyde Park and designed two lakes connected by a stream for the new park, but forgot to take into account the difference of elevation between the two lakes. If they had been built, the one lake would have immediately emptied itself into the other.

At the end of 1851, shortly before Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte's term expired, neither the rue de Rivoli nor the park had progressed very far. He wanted to run for re-election in 1852, but was blocked by the new Constitution, which limited him to one term. A majority of members of parliament voted to change the Constitution, but not the two-thirds majority required. Prevented from running again, Napoléon, with the help of the army, staged a coup d'état on 2 December 1851 and seized power. His opponents were arrested or exiled. The following year, on 2 December 1852, he declared himself Emperor, adopting the throne name Napoléon III.

Haussmann's renovation

Haussmann begins work – the Croisée de Paris (1853–59)

Napoléon III dismissed Berger as the Prefect of the Seine and sought a more effective manager. His minister of the interior, Victor de Persigny, interviewed several candidates, and selected Georges-Eugène Haussmann, a native of Alsace and Prefect of the Gironde, who impressed Persigny with his energy, audacity, and ability to overcome or get around problems and obstacles. He became Prefect of the Seine on 22 June 1853, and on 29 June, the Emperor showed him the map of Paris and instructed Haussmann to aérer, unifier, et embellir Paris: to give it air and open space, to connect and unify the different parts of the city into one whole, and to make it more beautiful.

Haussmann went to work immediately on the first phase of the renovation desired by Napoléon III: completing the grande croisée de Paris, a great cross in the centre of Paris that would permit easier communication from east to west along the rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine, and north-south communication along two new Boulevards, Strasbourg and Sébastopol. The grand cross had been proposed by the National Convention during the Revolution, and begun by Napoléon I; Napoléon III was determined to complete it. Completion of the rue de Rivoli was given an even higher priority, because the Emperor wanted it finished before the opening of the Paris Universal Exposition of 1855, only two years away, and he wanted the project to include a new hotel, the Grand Hôtel du Louvre, the first large luxury hotel in the city, to house the Imperial guests at the Exposition.

Under the Emperor, Haussmann had greater power than any of his predecessors. In February 1851, the French Senate had simplified the laws on expropriation, giving him the authority to expropriate all the land on either side of a new street; and he did not have to report to the Parliament, only to the Emperor. The French parliament, controlled by Napoléon III, provided fifty million francs, but this was not nearly enough. Napoléon III appealed to the Péreire brothers, Émile and Isaac, two bankers who had created a new investment bank, Crédit Mobilier. The Péreire brothers organised a new company which raised 24 million francs to finance the construction of the street, in exchange for the rights to develop real estate along the route. This became a model for the building of all of Haussmann's future boulevards.

To meet the deadline, three thousand workers laboured on the new boulevard twenty-four hours a day. The rue de Rivoli was completed, and the new hotel opened in March 1855, in time to welcome guests to the Exposition. The junction was made between the rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine; in the process, Haussmann restyled the Place du Carrousel, opened up a new square, Place Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois facing the colonnade of the Louvre, and reorganized the space between the Hôtel de Ville and the place du Châtelet. Between the Hôtel de Ville and the Bastille square, he widened the rue Saint-Antoine; he was careful to save the historic Hôtel de Sully and Hôtel de Mayenne, but many other buildings, both medieval and modern, were knocked down to make room for the wider street, and several ancient, dark and narrow streets, rue de l'Arche-Marion, rue du Chevalier-le-Guet and rue des Mauvaises-Paroles, disappeared from the map.

In 1855, work began on the north-south axis, beginning with Boulevard de Strasbourg and Boulevard Sébastopol, which cut through the center of some of the most crowded neighborhoods in Paris, where the cholera epidemic had been the worst, between the rue Saint-Martin and rue Saint-Denis. "It was the gutting of old Paris," Haussmann wrote with satisfaction in his Memoires: of the neighborhood of riots, and of barricades, from one end to the other." The Boulevard Sébastopol ended at the new Place du Châtelet; a new bridge, the Pont-au-Change, was constructed across the Seine, and crossed the island on a newly built street. On the left bank, the north-south axis was continued by the Boulevard Saint-Michel, which was cut in a straight line from the Seine to the Observatory, and then, as the rue d'Enfer, extended all the way to the rue d'Orléans. The north-south axis was completed in 1859.

The two axes crossed at the Place du Châtelet, making it the center of Haussmann's Paris. Haussmann widened the square, moved the Fontaine du Palmier, built by Napoléon I, to the center and built two new theaters, facing each other across the square; the Cirque Impérial (now the Théâtre du Châtelet) and the Théâtre Lyrique (now Théâtre de la Ville).

The second phase – a network of new boulevards (1859–1867)

In the first phase of his renovation Haussmann constructed  of new boulevards, at a net cost of 278 million francs. The official parliamentary report of 1859 found that it had "brought air, light and healthiness and procured easier circulation in a labyrinth that was constantly blocked and impenetrable, where streets were winding, narrow, and dark." It had employed thousands of workers, and most Parisians were pleased by the results. His second phase, approved by the Emperor and parliament in 1858 and begun in 1859, was much more ambitious. He intended to build a network of wide boulevards to connect the interior of Paris with the ring of grand boulevards built by Louis XVIII during the restoration, and to the new railroad stations which Napoleon III considered the real gates of the city. He planned to construct  of new avenues and streets, at a cost of 180 million francs. Haussmann's plan called for the following:

On the right bank:
 The construction of a large new square,  (the modern ). This involved demolishing the famous theater street known as "", made famous in the film ; and the construction of three new major streets: the  (the modern ); the  and . Boulevard Voltaire became one of the longest streets in the city, and became the central axis of the eastern neighborhoods of the city. It would end at the  (the modern ).
 The extension of  to connect it with the new railway station, the .
 The construction of , to connect the  to the new  neighborhood. The construction of this street obliterated one of the most sordid and dangerous neighborhoods in the city, called , where Paris policemen rarely ventured at night.
 A new square, , in front of the  railway station. The station was served by two new boulevards,  and . In addition, the  was extended and two other streets,  (the modern ) and , were built in this neighborhood.
  was redesigned and replanted, and part of the old park made into a residential quarter.
 The  and , under a new name, , was extended to .
 The , around the , was completely redesigned. A star of new avenues radiated from the ;  (now ); ;  (now );  (now avenues Mac-Mahon and Niel);  (now ); and a wider  (now ), forming with Champs-Elysées and other existing avenues a star of 12 avenues.
  was built as far as the new , a huge new park being constructed on the east edge of the city.
 The hill of  was leveled, and a new square created at the . Three new boulevards were built in this neighborhood:  (the present avenue George V);  (the present ), which connected the ,  and . In addition, four new streets were built in that neighborhood: , ,  and .

On the left bank:
 Two new boulevards,  and , were constructed, beginning from the .
 The  was extended as far as the .
 A new street, , was constructed, to open up .
 A new street,  (today's ) was built up to the intersection .
 The streets around the  on  were extensively changed. A new street, , was created, and part of  was expanded. Another new street, , was created on the east, while another new street, , on the south. , built by , was entirely rebuilt.

On the :

The island became an enormous construction site, which completely destroyed most of the old streets and neighborhoods. Two new government buildings, the Tribunal de Commerce and the , were built, occupying a large part of the island. Two new streets were also built, the  and the . Two bridges, the  and the  were completely rebuilt, along with the embankments near them. The  and  were extensively modified. At the same time, Haussmann preserved and restored the jewels of the island; the square in front of the Cathedral of Notre Dame was widened, the spire of the Cathedral, pulled down during the Revolution, was restored, whilst  and the ancient  were saved and restored.

The grand projects of the second phase were mostly welcomed, but also caused criticism. Haussmann was especially criticized for his taking large parts of the  to make room for the present-day , and for its connection with the . The Medici Fountain had to be moved further into the park, and was reconstructed with the addition of statuary and a long basin of water. Haussmann was also criticized for the growing cost of his projects; the estimated cost for the  of new avenues had been 180 million francs, but grew to 410 million francs; property owners whose buildings had been expropriated won a legal case entitling them to larger payments, and many property owners found ingenious ways to increase the value of their expropriated properties by inventing non-existent shops and businesses, and charging the city for lost revenue.

Haussmann found creative ways to raise more money for the grand projects while circumventing the Legislative Assembly, whose approval was otherwise needed for direct borrowing increases. The City of Paris began paying its contractors on the new works projects with vouchers instead of money; the vouchers were then purchased from the contractors by the city's lenders, mainly the mortgage bank Crédit Foncier. In this way Haussmann indirectly raised 463 million francs by 1867; 86% of this debt was owned by Crédit Foncier. This debt conveniently did not have to be included on the city's balance sheets. Another method was the creation of a fund, the Caisse des Travaux de Paris, decreed by Napoléon III on 14 November 1858. Ostensibly it was intended to give the city greater freedom in executing the grand projects. Revenue from the sale of materials salvaged from the demolitions and the sale of lots left over from the expropriations went into this fund, amounting to some 365 million francs between 1859 and 1869. The fund expended much more than it took in, some 1.2 billion francs towards the grand projects during the ten years it existed. To offset some of the deficit, which the City of Paris was responsible for, Haussmann issued 100 million francs in securities from the fund guaranteed by the city. He only needed the approval of the city council to raise this new sum, and, like the voucher scheme, the securities were not included in the city's official debt obligations.

Paris doubles in size – the annexation of 1860

On 1 January 1860 Napoleon III officially annexed the suburbs of Paris out to the ring of fortifications around the city. The annexation included eleven communes; Auteuil, Batignolles-Monceau, Montmartre, La Chapelle, Passy, La Villette, Belleville, Charonne, Bercy, Grenelle and Vaugirard, along with pieces of other outlying towns. The residents of these suburbs were not entirely happy to be annexed; they did not want to pay the higher taxes, and wanted to keep their independence, but they had no choice; Napoleon III was Emperor, and he could arrange boundaries as he wished. Haussmann was keen to expand the boundaries as well, since the enlarged tax base would provide vital funding for the public works then underway. Numerous factories and workshops had been established in the suburbs, some to specifically avoid paying the Octroi, a tax on goods and materials paid at entry points into Paris. With the annexation, these facilities now had to pay tax on the raw materials and fuel they used. This was a deliberate way of discouraging the development of heavy industry in the environs of Paris, which neither Haussmann nor the city council wished to take root.

With the annexation Paris was enlarged from twelve to twenty arrondissements, the number today. The annexation more than doubled the area of the city from 3,300 hectares to 7,100 hectares, and the population of Paris instantly grew by 400,000 to 1,600,000 people. The annexation made it necessary for Haussmann to enlarge his plans, and to construct new boulevards to connect the new arrondissements with the center. In order to connect Auteuil and Passy to the center of Paris, he built rues Michel-Ange, Molitor and Mirabeau. To connect the plain of Monceau, he built avenues Villers, Wagram, and boulevard Malesherbes. To reach the northern arrondissements he extended boulevard Magenta with boulevard d'Ornano as far as the Porte de la Chapelle, and in the east extended the rue des Pyrénées.

The third phase and mounting criticism (1869–70)
The third phase of renovations was proposed in 1867 and approved in 1869, but it faced much more opposition than the earlier phases. Napoleon III had decided to liberalize his empire in 1860, and to give a greater voice to the parliament and to the opposition. The Emperor had always been less popular in Paris than in the rest of the country, and the republican opposition in parliament focused its attacks on Haussmann. Haussmann ignored the attacks and went ahead with the third phase, which planned the construction of twenty-eight kilometers (17 miles) of new boulevards at an estimated cost of 280 million francs.

The third phase included these projects on the right bank:
 The renovation of the Jardins des Champs-Élysées.
 Finishing the place du Château d'Eau (now Place de la Republique), creating a new avenue des Amandiers and extending avenue Parmentier.
 Finishing the place du Trône (now Place de la Nation) and opening three new boulevards: avenue Philippe-Auguste, avenue Taillebourg, and avenue de Bouvines.
 Extending the rue Caulaincourt and preparing a future Pont Caulaincourt.
 Building a new rue de Châteaudon and clearing the space around the church of Notre-Dame de Lorette, making room for connection between the Gare Saint-Lazare, the Gare du Nord and Gare de l'Est.
 Finishing the place in front of the Gare du Nord. Rue Maubeuge was extended from Montmartre to the boulevard de la Chapelle, and rue La Fayette was extended to the porte de Pantin.
 The Place de l'Opéra had been created during the first and second phases; the opera itself was to be built in the third phase.
 Extending Boulevard Haussmann from the Place Saint-Augustin to rue Taitbout, connecting the new quarter of the Opera with that of Etoile.
 Creating the Place du Trocadéro, the starting point of two new avenues, the modern President-Wilson and Henri-Martin.
 Creating the Place Victor Hugo, the starting point of avenues Malakoff and Bugeaud and rues Boissière and Copernic.
 Finishing the Rond-Point of the Champs-Élysées, with the construction of avenue d'Antin (now Franklin Roosevelt) and rue La Boétie.

On the left bank:
 Building the Boulevard Saint-Germain from the Pont de la Concorde to rue du Bac; building rue des Saints-Pères and rue de Rennes.
 Extending the rue de la Glacière and enlarging place Monge.

Haussmann did not have time to finish the third phase, as he soon came under intense attack from the opponents of Napoleon III.

The downfall of Haussmann (1870) and the completion of his work (1927)
In 1867, one of the leaders of the parliamentary opposition to Napoleon, Jules Ferry, ridiculed the accounting practices of Haussmann as Les Comptes fantastiques d'Haussmann ("The fantastic (bank) accounts of Haussmann"), a play-on-words based on the "Les Contes d'Hoffman" Offenbach operetta popular at the time. In the autumn of 1867, the voucher program was ruled as official debt by the Court of Accounts, rather than as the "deferred payments" which Haussmann argued they were. This made the voucher scheme illegal, since the City of Paris had not obtained the permission of the Legislative Assembly before borrowing. The City was forced to enter into renegotiations with the Crédit Foncier to convert the vouchers into regular debt. Two separate agreements were made with the Crédit Foncier; the city agreed to repay 465 million francs in total over 40 years and 39 years respectively. The debates in the Legislative Assembly surrounding the authorization of these new agreements lasted 11 sessions, with critics attacking Haussmann's borrowing, his questionable funding mechanisms, and the City of Paris's governing structure. The result was a new law, passed on April 18, 1868, which gave the Legislative Assembly oversight of the city's finances.

In the parliamentary elections of May 1869, the government candidates won 4.43 million votes, while the opposition republicans won 3.35 million votes. In Paris, the republican candidates won 234,000 votes to 77,000 for the Bonapartist candidates, and took eight of the nine seats of Paris deputies. At the same time Napoleon III was increasingly ill, suffering from gallstones which were to cause his death in 1873, and preoccupied by the political crisis that would lead to the Franco-Prussian War. In December 1869 Napoleon III named an opposition leader and fierce critic of Haussmann, Emile Ollivier, as his new prime minister. Napoleon gave in to the opposition demands in January 1870 and asked Haussmann to resign. Haussmann refused to resign, and the Emperor reluctantly dismissed him on 5 January 1870. Eight months later, during the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III was captured by the Germans, and the Empire was overthrown.

In his memoirs, written many years later, Haussmann had this comment on his dismissal: "In the eyes of the Parisians, who like routine in things but are changeable when it comes to people, I committed two great wrongs: Over the course of seventeen years, I disturbed their daily habits by turning Paris upside down, and they had to look at the same face of the Prefect in the Hôtel de Ville. These were two unforgivable complaints."

Haussmann's successor as prefect of the Seine appointed Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, the head of Haussmann's department of parks and plantations, as the director of works of Paris. Alphand respected the basic concepts of his plan. Despite their intense criticism of Napoleon III and Haussmann during the Second Empire, the leaders of the new Third Republic continued and finished his renovation projects.
 1875: completion of the Paris Opéra
 1877: completion of the boulevard Saint-Germain
 1877: completion of the avenue de l'Opéra
 1879: completion of the boulevard Henri IV
 1889: completion of the avenue de la République
 1907: completion of the boulevard Raspail
 1927: completion of the boulevard Haussmann

Green space – parks and gardens

Prior to Haussmann, Paris had only four public parks: the Jardin des Tuileries, the Jardin du Luxembourg, and the Palais Royal, all in the center of the city, and the Parc Monceau, the former property of the family of King Louis Philippe, in addition to the Jardin des Plantes, the city's botanical garden and oldest park. Napoleon III had already begun construction of the Bois de Boulogne, and wanted to build more new parks and gardens for the recreation and relaxation of the Parisians, particularly those in the new neighborhoods of the expanding city. Napoleon III's new parks were inspired by his memories of the parks in London, especially Hyde Park, where he had strolled and promenaded in a carriage while in exile; but he wanted to build on a much larger scale. Working with Haussmann, Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, the engineer who headed the new Service of Promenades and Plantations, whom Haussmann brought with him from Bordeaux, and his new chief gardener, Jean-Pierre Barillet-Deschamps, also from Bordeaux, laid out a plan for four major parks at the cardinal points of the compass around the city. Thousands of workers and gardeners began to dig lakes, build cascades, plant lawns, flowerbeds and trees. construct chalets and grottoes. Haussmann and Alphand created the Bois de Boulogne (1852–1858) to the west of Paris: the Bois de Vincennes (1860–1865) to the east; the Parc des Buttes-Chaumont (1865–1867) to the north, and Parc Montsouris (1865–1878) to the south. In addition to building the four large parks, Haussmann and Alphand redesigned and replanted the city's older parks, including Parc Monceau, and the Jardin du Luxembourg. Altogether, in seventeen years, they planted six hundred thousand trees and added two thousand hectares of parks and green space to Paris. Never before had a city built so many parks and gardens in such a short time.

Under Louis Philippe, a single public square had been created, at the tip of the Ile-de-la-Cité. Haussmann wrote in his memoirs that Napoleon III instructed him: "do not miss an opportunity to build, in all the arrondissements of Paris, the greatest possible number of squares, in order to offer the Parisians, as they have done in London, places for relaxation and recreation for all the families and all the children, rich and poor." In response Haussmann created twenty-four new squares; seventeen in the older part of the city, eleven in the new arrondissements, adding  of green space. Alphand termed these small parks "green and flowering salons." Haussmann's goal was to have one park in each of the eighty neighborhoods of Paris, so that no one was more than ten minutes' walk from such a park. The parks and squares were an immediate success with all classes of Parisians.

The architecture of Haussmann's Paris

Napoleon III and Haussmann commissioned a wide variety of architecture, some of it traditional, some of it very innovative, like the glass and iron pavilions of Les Halles; and some of it, such as the Opéra Garnier, commissioned by Napoleon III, designed by Charles Garnier but not finished until 1875, is difficult to classify, coming to be known as Second Empire style. Many of the buildings were designed by the city architect, Gabriel Davioud, who designed everything from city halls and theaters to park benches and kiosks.

His architectural projects included:
 The construction of two new railroad stations, the Gare du Nord and the Gare de l'Est; and the rebuilding of the Gare de Lyon.
 Six new mairies, or town halls, for the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 7th and 12th arrondissements, and the enlargement of the other mairies.
 The reconstruction of Les Halles, the central market, replacing the old market buildings with large glass and iron pavilions, designed by Victor Baltard. In addition, Haussmann built a new market in the neighborhood of the Temple, the Marché Saint-Honoré; the Marché de l'Europe in the 8th arrondissement; the Marché Saint-Quentin in the 10th arrondissement; the Marché de Belleville in the 20th; the Marché des Batignolles in the 17th; the Marché Saint-Didier and Marché d'Auteuil in the 16th; the Marché de Necker in the 15th; the Marché de Montrouge in the 14th; the Marché de Place d'Italie in the 13th; the Marché Saint-Maur-Popincourt in the 11th.
 The Paris Opera (now Palais Garnier), begun under Napoleon III and finished in 1875; and five new theaters; the Châtelet and Théâtre Lyrique on the Place du Châtelet; the Gaîté, Vaudeville and Panorama.
 Five lycées were renovated, and in each of the eighty neighborhoods Haussmann established one municipal school for boys and one for girls, in addition to the large network of schools run by the Catholic church.
 The reconstruction and enlargement of the city's oldest hospital, the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris on the Île-de-la-Cité.
 The completion of the last wing of the Louvre, and the opening up of the Place du Carousel and the Place du Palais-Royal by the demolition of several old streets.
 The building of the first railroad bridge across the Seine; originally called the Pont Napoleon III, now called simply the Pont National.
Since 1801, under Napoleon I, the French government was responsible for the building and maintenance of churches. Haussmann built, renovated or purchased nineteen churches. New churches included the Saint-Augustin, the Eglise Saint-Vincent de Paul, the Eglise de la Trinité. He bought six churches which had been purchased by private individuals during the French Revolution. Haussmann built or renovated five temples and built two new synagogues, on rue des Tournelles and rue de la Victoire.

Besides building churches, theaters and other public buildings, Haussmann paid attention to the details of the architecture along the street; his city architect, Gabriel Davioud, designed garden fences, kiosks, shelters for visitors to the parks, public toilets, and dozens of other small but important structures.

The Haussmann building

The most famous and recognizable feature of Haussmann's renovation of Paris are the Haussmann apartment buildings which line the boulevards of Paris. Street blocks were designed as homogeneous architectural wholes. He treated buildings not as independent structures, but as pieces of a unified urban landscape.

In 18th-century Paris, buildings were usually narrow (often only six meters wide [20 feet]); deep (sometimes forty meters; 130 feet) and tall—as many as five or six stories. The ground floor usually contained a shop, and the shopkeeper lived in the rooms above the shop. The upper floors were occupied by families; the top floor, under the roof, was originally a storage place, but under the pressure of the growing population, was usually turned into a low-cost residence. In the early 19th century, before Haussmann, the height of buildings was strictly limited to 22.41 meters (73 ft 6 in), or four floors above the ground floor. The city also began to see a demographic shift; wealthier families began moving to the western neighborhoods, partly because there was more space, and partly because the prevailing winds carried the smoke from the new factories in Paris toward the east.

In Haussmann's Paris, the streets became much wider, growing from an average of twelve meters (39 ft) wide to twenty-four meters (79 ft), and in the new arrondissements, often to eighteen meters (59 ft) wide.

The interiors of the buildings were left to the owners of the buildings, but the façades were strictly regulated, to ensure that they were the same height, color, material, and general design, and were harmonious when all seen together.

The reconstruction of the rue de Rivoli was the model for the rest of the Paris boulevards. The new apartment buildings followed the same general plan:
 ground floor and basement with thick, load-bearing walls, fronts usually parallel to the street. This was often occupied by shops or offices.
 mezzanine or entresol intermediate level, with low ceilings; often also used by shops or offices.
 second, piano nobile floor with a balcony. This floor, in the days before elevators were common, was the most desirable floor, and had the largest and best apartments.
 third and fourth floors in the same style but with less elaborate stonework around the windows, sometimes lacking balconies.
 fifth floor with a single, continuous, undecorated balcony.
 mansard roof, angled at 45°, with garret rooms and dormer windows. Originally this floor was to be occupied by lower-income tenants, but with time and with higher rents it came to be occupied almost exclusively by the concierges and servants of the people in the apartments below.

The Haussmann façade was organized around horizontal lines that often continued from one building to the next: balconies and cornices were perfectly aligned without any noticeable alcoves or projections, at the risk of the uniformity of certain quarters. The rue de Rivoli served as a model for the entire network of new Parisian boulevards. For the building façades, the technological progress of stone sawing and (steam) transportation allowed the use of massive stone blocks instead of simple stone facing. The street-side result was a "monumental" effect that exempted buildings from a dependence on decoration; sculpture and other elaborate stonework would not become widespread until the end of the century.

Before Haussmann, most buildings in Paris were made of brick or wood and covered with plaster. Haussmann required that the buildings along the new boulevards be either built or faced with cut stone, usually the local cream-colored Lutetian limestone, which gave more harmony to the appearance of the boulevards. He also required, using a decree from 1852, that the façades of all buildings be regularly maintained, repainted, or cleaned, at least every ten years. under the threat of a fine of one hundred francs.

Underneath the streets of Haussmann's Paris – the renovation of the city's infrastructure

While he was rebuilding the boulevards of Paris, Haussmann simultaneously rebuilt the dense labyrinth of pipes, sewers and tunnels under the streets which provided Parisians with basic services. Haussmann wrote in his mémoires: "The underground galleries are an organ of the great city, functioning like an organ of the human body, without seeing the light of day; clean and fresh water, light and heat circulate like the various fluids whose movement and maintenance serves the life of the body; the secretions are taken away mysteriously and don't disturb the good functioning of the city and without spoiling its beautiful exterior."

Haussmann began with the water supply. Before Haussmann, drinking water in Paris was either lifted by steam engines from the Seine, or brought by a canal, started by Napoleon I, from the River Ourcq, a tributary of the River Marne. The quantity of water was insufficient for the fast-growing city, and, since the sewers also emptied into the Seine near the intakes for drinking water, it was also notoriously unhealthy. In March 1855 Haussmann appointed Eugène Belgrand, a graduate of the École Polytechnique, to the post of Director of Water and Sewers of Paris.

Belgrand first addressed the city's fresh water needs, constructing a system of aqueducts that nearly doubled the amount of water available per person per day and quadrupled the number of homes with running water. These aqueducts discharged their water in reservoirs situated within the city. Inside the city limits and opposite Parc Montsouris, Belgrand built the largest water reservoir in the world to hold the water from the River Vanne.

At the same time Belgrand began rebuilding the water distribution and sewer system under the streets. In 1852 Paris had  of sewers, which could carry only liquid waste. Containers of solid waste were picked up each night by people called vidangeurs, who carried it to waste dumps on the outskirts of the city. The tunnels he designed were intended to be clean, easily accessible, and substantially larger than the previous Parisian underground. Under his guidance, Paris's sewer system expanded fourfold between 1852 and 1869.

Haussmann and Belgrand built new sewer tunnels under each sidewalk of the new boulevards. The sewers were designed to be large enough to evacuate rain water immediately; the large amount of water used to wash the city streets; waste water from both industries and individual households; and water that collected in basements when the level of the Seine was high. Before Haussmann, the sewer tunnels (featured in Victor Hugo's Les Miserables) were cramped and narrow, just  high and 75 to 80 centimeters (2 ft 6 in) wide. The new tunnels were 2.3 meters (7 ft 6 in) high and 1.3 meters (4 ft 3 in) wide, large enough for men to work standing up. These flowed into larger tunnels that carried the waste water to even larger collector tunnels, which were  high and  wide. A channel down the center of the tunnel carried away the waste water, with sidewalks on either side for the égoutiers, or sewer workers. Specially designed wagons and boats moved on rails up and down the channels, cleaning them. Belgrand proudly invited tourists to visit his sewers and ride in the boats under the streets of the city.

The underground labyrinth built by Haussmann also provided gas for heat and for lights to illuminate Paris. At the beginning of the Second Empire, gas was provided by six different private companies. Haussmann forced them to consolidate into a single company, the Compagnie parisienne d'éclairage et de chauffage par le gaz, with rights to provide gas to Parisians for fifty years. Consumption of gas tripled between 1855 and 1859. In 1850 there were only 9000 gaslights in Paris; by 1867, the Paris Opera and four other major theaters alone had fifteen thousand gas lights. Almost all the new residential buildings of Paris had gaslights in the courtyards and stairways; the monuments and public buildings of Paris, the arcades of the Rue de Rivoli, and the squares, boulevards and streets were illuminated at night by gaslights. For the first time, Paris was the City of Light.

Critics of Haussmann's Paris

Contemporaneous

Haussmann's renovation of Paris had many critics during his own time. Some were simply tired of the continuous construction. The French historian Léon Halévy wrote in 1867, "the work of Monsieur Haussmann is incomparable. Everyone agrees. Paris is a marvel, and M. Haussmann has done in fifteen years what a century could not have done. But that's enough for the moment. There will be a 20th century. Let's leave something for them to do." Others regretted that he had destroyed a historic part of the city. The brothers Goncourt condemned the avenues that cut at right angles through the center of the old city, where "one could no longer feel in the world of Balzac." Jules Ferry, the most vocal critic of Haussmann in the French parliament, wrote: "We weep with our eyes full of tears for the old Paris, the Paris of Voltaire, of Desmoulins, the Paris of 1830 and 1848, when we see the grand and intolerable new buildings, the costly confusion, the triumphant vulgarity, the awful materialism, that we are going to pass on to our descendants."

Later era

The 20th century historian of Paris René Héron de Villefosse shared: "in less than twenty years, Paris lost its ancestral appearance, its character which passed from generation to generation... the picturesque and charming ambiance which our fathers had passed onto us was demolished, often without good reason." Héron de Villefosse denounced Haussmann's central market, Les Halles, as "a hideous eruption" of cast iron. Describing Haussmann's renovation of the Île de la Cité, he wrote: "the old ship of Paris was torpedoed by Baron Haussmann and sunk during his reign. It was perhaps the greatest crime of the megalomaniac prefect and also his biggest mistake...His work caused more damage than a hundred bombings. It was in part necessary, and one should give him credit for his self-confidence, but he was certainly lacking culture and good taste...In the United States, it would be wonderful, but in our capital, which he covered with barriers, scaffolds, gravel, and dust for twenty years, he committed crimes, errors, and showed bad taste."

The Paris historian, Patrice de Moncan, in general an admirer of Haussmann's work, faulted Haussmann for not preserving more of the historic streets on the Île de la Cité, and for clearing a large open space in front of the Cathedral of Notre Dame, while hiding another major historical monument, Sainte-Chapelle, out of sight within the walls of the Palais de Justice, He also criticized Haussmann for reducing the Jardin du Luxembourg from thirty to twenty-six hectares in order to build the rues Medici, Guynemer and Auguste-Comte; for giving away a half of Parc Monceau to the Pereire brothers for building lots, in order to reduce costs; and for destroying several historic residences along the route of the Boulevard Saint-Germain, because of his unwavering determination to have straight streets.

The debate about the military purposes of Haussmann's boulevards

Some of Haussmann's critics said that the real purpose of Haussmann's boulevards was to make it easier for the army to manoeuver and suppress armed uprisings; Paris had experienced six such uprisings between 1830 and 1848, all in the narrow, crowded streets in the center and east of Paris and on the left bank around the Panthéon. These critics argued that a small number of large, open intersections allowed easy control by a small force. In addition, buildings set back from the center of the street could not be used so easily as fortifications. Emile Zola repeated that argument in his early novel, La Curée; "Paris sliced by strokes of a saber: the veins opened, nourishing one hundred thousand earth movers and stone masons; criss-crossed by admirable strategic routes, placing forts in the heart of the old neighborhoods.

Some real-estate owners demanded large, straight avenues to help troops manoeuvre. The argument that the boulevards were designed for troop movements was repeated by 20th century critics, including the French historian, René Hérron de Villefosse, who wrote, "the larger part of the piercing of avenues had for its reason the desire to avoid popular insurrections and barricades. They were strategic from their conception." This argument was also popularized by the American architectural critic, Lewis Mumford.

Haussmann himself did not deny the military value of the wider streets. In his memoires, he wrote that his new boulevard Sebastopol resulted in the "gutting of old Paris, of the quarter of riots and barricades." He admitted he sometimes used this argument with the Parliament to justify the high cost of his projects, arguing that they were for national defense and should be paid for, at least partially, by the state. He wrote: "But, as for me, I who was the promoter of these additions made to the original project, I declare that I never thought in the least, in adding them, of their greater or lesser strategic value." The Paris urban historian Patrice de Moncan wrote: "To see the works created by Haussmann and Napoleon III only from the perspective of their strategic value is very reductive. The Emperor was a convinced follower of Saint-Simon. His desire to make Paris, the economic capital of France, a more open, more healthy city, not only for the upper classes but also for the workers, cannot be denied, and should be recognised as the primary motivation."

There was only one armed uprising in Paris after Haussmann, the Paris Commune from March through May 1871, and the boulevards played no important role. The Communards seized power easily, because the French Army was absent, defeated and captured by the Prussians. The Communards took advantage of the boulevards to build a few large forts of paving stones with wide fields of fire at strategic points, such as the meeting point of the Rue de Rivoli and Place de la Concorde. But when the newly organized army arrived at the end of May, it avoided the main boulevards, advanced slowly and methodically to avoid casualties, worked its way around the barricades, and took them from behind. The Communards were defeated in one week not because of Haussmann's boulevards, but because they were outnumbered by five to one, they had fewer weapons and fewer people trained to use them, they had no hope of getting support from outside Paris, they had no plan for the defense of the city; they had very few experienced officers; there was no single commander; and each neighborhood was left to defend itself.

As Paris historian Patrice de Moncan observed, most of Haussmann's projects had little or no strategic or military value; the purpose of building new sewers, aqueducts, parks, hospitals, schools, city halls, theaters, churches, markets and other public buildings was, as Haussmann stated, to employ thousands of workers, and to make the city more healthy, less congested, and more beautiful.

Social disruption

Haussmann was also blamed for the social disruption caused by his gigantic building projects. Thousands of families and businesses had to relocate when their buildings were demolished for the construction of the new boulevards. Haussmann was also blamed for the dramatic increase in rents, which increased by three hundred percent during the Second Empire, while wages, except for those of construction workers, remained flat, and blamed for the enormous amount of speculation in the real estate market. He was also blamed for reducing the amount of housing available for low income families, forcing low-income Parisians to move from the center to the outer neighborhoods of the city, where rents were lower. Statistics showed that the population of the first and sixth arrondissements, where some of the most densely populated neighborhoods were located, dropped, while the population of the new 17th and 20th arrondissements, on the edges of the city, grew rapidly.

Haussmann's defenders noted that he built far more buildings than he tore down: he demolished 19,730 buildings, containing 120,000 lodgings or apartments, while building 34,000 new buildings, with 215,300 new apartments and lodgings. French historian Michel Cremona wrote that, even with the increase in population, from 949,000 Parisians in 1850 to 1,130,500 in 1856, to two million in 1870, including those in the newly annexed eight arrondissements around the city, the number of housing units grew faster than the population.

Recent studies have also shown that the proportion of Paris housing occupied by low-income Parisians did not decrease under Haussmann, and that the poor were not driven out of Paris by Haussmann's renovation. In 1865 a survey by the prefecture of Paris showed that 780,000 Parisians, or 42 percent of the population, did not pay taxes due to their low income. Another 330,000 Parisians or 17 percent, paid less than 250 francs a month rent. Thirty-two percent of the Paris housing was occupied by middle-class families, paying rent between 250 and 1500 francs. Fifty thousand Parisians were classified as rich, with rents over 1500 francs a month, and occupied just three percent of the residences.

Other critics blamed Haussmann for the division of Paris into rich and poor neighborhoods, with the poor concentrated in the east and the middle class and wealthy in the west. Haussmann's defenders noted that this shift in population had been underway since the 1830s, long before Haussmann, as more prosperous Parisians moved to the western neighborhoods, where there was more open space, and where residents benefited from the prevailing winds, which carried the smoke from Paris's new industries toward the east. His defenders also noted that Napoleon III and Haussmann made a special point to build an equal number of new boulevards, new sewers, water supplies, hospitals, schools, squares, parks and gardens in the working class eastern arrondissements as they did in the western neighborhoods.

A form of vertical stratification did take place in the Paris population due to Haussmann's renovations. Prior to Haussmann, Paris buildings usually had wealthier people on the second floor (the "etage noble"), while middle class and lower-income tenants occupied the top floors. Under Haussmann, with the increase in rents and greater demand for housing, low-income people were unable to afford the rents for the upper floors; the top floors were increasingly occupied by concierges and the servants of those in the floors below. Lower-income tenants were forced to the outer neighborhoods, where rents were lower.

Legacy

The Baron Haussmann's transformations to Paris improved the quality of life in the capital. Disease epidemics (save tuberculosis) ceased, traffic circulation improved and new buildings were better-built and more functional than their predecessors.

The Second Empire renovations left such a mark on Paris' urban history that all subsequent trends and influences were forced to refer to, adapt to, or reject, or to reuse some of its elements. By intervening only once in Paris's ancient districts, pockets of insalubrity remained which explain the resurgence of both hygienic ideals and radicalness of some planners of the 20th century.

The end of "pure Haussmannism" can be traced to urban legislation of 1882 and 1884 that ended the uniformity of the classical street, by permitting staggered façades and the first creativity for roof-level architecture; the latter would develop greatly after restrictions were further liberalized by a 1902 law. All the same, this period was merely "post-Haussmann", rejecting only the austerity of the Napoleon-era architecture, without questioning the urban planning itself.

A century after Napoleon III's reign, new housing needs and the rise of a new voluntarist Fifth Republic began a new era of Parisian urbanism. The new era rejected Haussmannian ideas as a whole to embrace those represented by architects such as Le Corbusier in abandoning unbroken street-side façades, limitations of building size and dimension, and even closing the street itself to automobiles with the creation of separated, car-free spaces between the buildings for pedestrians. This new model was quickly brought into question by the 1970s, a period featuring a reemphasis of the Haussmann heritage: a new promotion of the multifunctional street was accompanied by limitations of the building model and, in certain quarters, by an attempt to rediscover the architectural homogeneity of the Second Empire street-block.

Certain Parisian suburban towns, for example Issy-les-Moulineaux and Puteaux, have built new quarters that even by their name "Quartier Haussmannien", claim the Haussmannian heritage. The Belgian capital Brussels also followed suit at the end of the same century and conducted an extensive (but smaller scale compared to Paris) demolition and renovation, carving out new central boulevards that were straight lined and flanked by Haussmann style row of apartments.

See also
 Demographics of Paris
 Hobrecht-Plan, a similar urban planning approach in Berlin conducted by James Hobrecht, created in 1853

References
 Attribution
 Portions of this article have been translated from its equivalent in the French language Wikipedia.

Notes and citations

Bibliography
 Carmona, Michel, and Patrick Camiller. Haussmann: His Life and Times and the Making of Modern Paris (2002)
 Centre des monuments nationaux. Le guide du patrimoine en France (Éditions du patrimoine, 2002),
 de Moncan, Patrice. Le Paris d'Haussmann (Les Éditions du Mécène, 2012),
 de Moncan, Patrice. Les jardins du Baron Haussmann (Les Éditions du Mécène, 2007),
 Jarrassé, Dominique. Grammaire des jardins Parisiens (Parigramme, 2007),
 Jones, Colin. Paris: Biography of a City (2004)
 Kirkland, Stephane. Paris Reborn: Napoléon III, Baron Haussmann, and the Quest to Build a Modern City (St. Martin's Press, 2013), ()
 Maneglier, Hervé. Paris Impérial. La vie quotidienne sous le Second Empire (2009), Armand Colin, Paris ()
 Milza, Pierre. Napoleon III (Perrin, 2006),
 Pinkney, David H. Napoleon III and the Rebuilding of Paris (Princeton University Press, 1958)
 Weeks, Willet. The Man Who Made Paris: The Illustrated Biography of Georges-Eugène Haussmann (2000)

Further reading
 Hopkins, Richard S. Planning the Greenspaces of Nineteenth-Century Paris (LSU Press, 2015).
 Paccoud, Antoine. "Planning law, power, and practice: Haussmann in Paris (1853–1870)". Planning Perspectives 31.3 (2016): 341–61.
 Pinkney, David H. "Napoleon III's Transformation of Paris: The Origins and Development of the Idea", Journal of Modern History (1955) 27#2 pp. 125–34. .
 Pinkney, David H. "Money and Politics in the Rebuilding of Paris, 1860–1870", Journal of Economic History (1957) 17#1 pp. 45–61. .
 Richardson, Joanna. "Emperor of Paris Baron Haussmann 1809–1891", History Today (1975), 25#12 pp. 843–49.
 Saalman, Howard. Haussmann: Paris Transformed (G. Braziller, 1971).
 Soppelsa, Peter S. The Fragility of Modernity: Infrastructure and Everyday Life in Paris, 1870–1914 (ProQuest, 2009).
 Walker, Nathaniel Robert. "Lost in the City of Light: Dystopia and Utopia in the Wake of Haussmann's Paris". Utopian Studies 25.1 (2014): 23–51. . .

External links

1853 establishments in France
1870 disestablishments in France
1850s in Paris
1860s in Paris
1870s in Paris

History of Paris

Urban planning in France
City plans
Napoleon III

Haussmann's renovation of Paris


In 2008, Tricom was the first Australian broking house in many years to fail to settle its trades with the ASX. Controversially, it held ownership of shares that its borrowers had used margin loans to purchase until the loan was repaid. Tricom would then lend those shares to other traders so that they could be sold, as a form of short selling.

References

Defunct financial services companies of Australia

Tricom


Brian Arthur Roland Binley (1 April 1942 – 25 December 2020) was a British Conservative Party politician. He was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Northampton South from 2005 to 2015.

Early life
Educated at Finedon Mulso Secondary Modern School on Wellingborough Road, (now a Junior School), in the town of Finedon in Northamptonshire, Brian Binley joined the Conservative Party in 1958. He was an organiser with the National Young Conservatives from 1965 to 1968. He was chairman of the Wellingborough-based BCC Marketing Services Ltd, the company he founded from 1988 to 2001, when it was liquidated by the company that had bought it in late 2001.

Parliamentary career
Binley was the Parliamentary Agent for the Wyre Forest Conservative Association during the 1997 general election campaign. He was elected to Northamptonshire County Council in 1997, where he was a Cabinet Member. He was selected to contest the Labour-held Parliamentary marginal seat of Northampton South, and defeated the sitting Labour MP Tony Clarke at the 2005 general election by over 4,000 votes. Binley made his maiden speech on 25 May 2005.

He was also a Northamptonshire County Councillor for Hackleton division but did not restand for the county council at elections held in 2009.

Binley was re-elected in the 2010 general election, with an increased majority of 6,004.

In March 2012, Binley was reported as being one of the Conservative MPs to have spoken critically of Party Co-Chairman Sayeeda Warsi at a meeting of the 1922 Committee, following Lady Warsi's handling of Roger Helmer MEP's defection to UKIP and later called on her to resign saying she was guilty of "self-destructive lunacy".
He was also a critic of David Cameron calling on him to "smell the coffee" after the Conservatives faced a terrible defeat in the 2012 local elections and even criticised Number 10 more widely and their attitude towards Conservative backbenchers. He also criticised David Cameron's decision to hire Andy Coulson.

Expenses
On 17 June 2009 it was revealed that Binley had claimed over £50,000 in expenses, renting a flat from his own company, BCC Marketing. Two months after beginning to rent the flat, expenses rules were changed to clarify that MPs could no longer rent properties from businesses in which they had an interest. Binley appealed to the Speaker of the House Michael Martin, whilst still claiming for the flat. Binley lost his appeal after two and a half years, during which time he still claimed for the flat in question. Binley was not required to repay the £57,000 he received while the Speaker deliberated.

Personal life
Binley lived in the constituency for over 20 years, and had two grown sons. In 2006, he became the victim of identity theft, when someone tried to divert his bank statements and unsuccessfully attempted to steal £9,000 from him whilst he was in India. The perpetrator wrote to Binley boasting of his exploits.

He received a six-month driving ban in May 2007 having totted up 12 points on his licence when caught doing 37 mph in a 30 mph zone in Wellingborough, Northamptonshire. With nine points already, he was given three more and a ban by Towcester magistrates.

In January 2013, Binley revealed he was suffering from "low-grade lymphoma affecting white blood cells" and would undergo chemotherapy. In July 2013 Binley stated he would not stand again at the next general election in 2015.

Binley died at Northampton General Hospital on 25 December 2020, aged 78.

References

External links
 Brian Binley MP Blog official site
 Jacquie Binley & Friends Charity Sky Dive official site
 Brian Binley MP biography at the site of the Conservative Party
 BBC Politics profile

1942 births
2020 deaths
20th-century English businesspeople
21st-century English businesspeople
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Conservative Party (UK) councillors
English marketing people
Members of Northamptonshire County Council
People from West Northamptonshire District
People from Wellingborough
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015

Brian Binley


Joseph Lambert Massart (19 July 1811 – 13 February 1892) was a Belgian violinist who has been credited with the origination of the systematic vibrato. He compiled The Art of Working at Kreutzer's Etudes, a supplement that contains 412 fingerings and bowings taken from his time studying with Rodolphe Kreutzer. He was an excellent String quartet player who gave many delightful chamber concerts, having also played Beethoven's Kreutzer Sonata in A minor with Franz Liszt on 23 May 1843.

Biography
Massart was born in Liège, and was taught music first by his father Joseph Marie and later by his father's eldest brother Jean-Joseph, a disciple of Leonard-Joseph Gaillard. With the death of his uncle, Massart studied under the guidance of Ambroise Delaveux who then secured for him, from the local authorities of Liège, a scholarship at the Conservatoire de Paris, where his admission was then blocked by Luigi Cherubini on the grounds that Massart was a foreigner. He became then the favorite pupil and protégé of Kreutzer and his younger brother, Auguste Kreutzer, who took his brother's post as professor at the conservatory upon his death.

Despite being sponsored by King William I of the Netherlands, he was not accepted at the Conservatoire de Paris until 1829 because of his foreign status. He was appointed professor of violin at the Conservatoire de Paris in 1843 and subsequently taught there for 47 years as music professor. Among his pupils were Fritz Kreisler, Eugène Ysaÿe, Léon Reynier, Henryk Wieniawski, Alfred De Sève, Isidor Lotto, Teresina Tua, and Charles Martin Loeffler.

References

Further reading
Cutter, Benjamin: How to Study Kreutzer: A Handbook for the Daily Use of Violin Teachers and Students on the Internet Archive Website

External links
 Famous Violinists of To-day and Yesterday by Henry Charles Lahee on Project Gutenberg

Belgian classical violinists
Academic staff of the Conservatoire de Paris
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
Musicians from Liège
1811 births
1892 deaths
19th-century classical violinists
Male classical violinists
19th-century Belgian male musicians

Lambert Massart


Teatro San Samuele was an opera house and theatre located at the Rio del Duca, between Campo San Samuele and Campo Santo Stefano, in Venice. One of several important theatres built in that city by the Grimani family, the theatre opened in 1656 and operated continuously until a fire destroyed the theatre in 1747. A new structure was built and opened in 1748, but financial difficulties forced the theatre to close and be sold in 1770. The theatre remained active until 1807 when it was shut down by Napoleonic decree. It reopened in 1815 and was later acquired by impresario Giuseppe Camploy in 1819. In 1853 the theatre was renamed the Teatro Camploy. Upon Camploy's death in 1889, the theatre was bequeathed to the City of Verona. The Venice City Council in turn bought the theatre and demolished it in 1894.

History
One of the most important Venetian theatres of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Teatro San Samuele was constructed in 1656 through a commission made by the Grimani family a year earlier. Initially the theatre was used primarily for plays but in the 18th century the house became more closely associated with opera and ballet. The famous playwright and librettist Carlo Goldoni notably served as the theatre's director from 1737 to 1741, and many of his works were premiered at the theatre during his career.

The original Teatro San Samuele was destroyed by fire on the last night of September 1747. A new theatre was built in almost identical design and opened in May 1748 as opulent competition for the Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo. The new theatre became associated with the opera buffa repertoire, as the Grimani family preferred to stage opera seria and other more dramatic works at their other theatre, the Teatro San Benedetto (built 1755).

At the end of the 18th century the Teatro San Samuele lost much of its former prestige. In 1770 the Grimani family had been forced to sell the theatre due to the economic crisis that hit the Venetian aristocracy. The theatre continued to operate until 6 April 1807 when it was ordered closed by a Napoleonic decree which also shut down the Teatro San Cassiano, the Teatro San Angelo, and the Teatro San Luca. The San Samuele and the San Luca were re-opened after a 21 April 1815 Austrian decree.

In 1819 the Teatro San Samuele was acquired by impresario Giuseppe Camploy. With the exception of the 1840s when performances were sporadic, the theatre remained continuously active until Camploy's death in 1889. In 1853 the theatre was renamed as the Teatro Camploy.  In the third edition of  Murray's Hand-book for travellers in northern Italy (1847) Sir Francis Palgrave reported "It is a pretty theatre well adapted for hearing. Opera buffas are performed here"  In his will, Camploy bequeathed the theatre to the City of Verona. The Venice City Council bought it and, after demolishing the theatre in 1894, built the A. Scarsellini elementary school on the former site of the theatre.

Selected premieres
 Mutio Scevola, opera in 3 Acts, music by Francesco Cavalli, libretto by Giovanni Faustini and Nicolò Minato, 26 January 1665.
 L'Artaxerse, dramma per musica in 3 acts, music by Carlo Grossi, libretto by Aurelio Aureli, 28 December 1668.
 Scipione nelle Spagne, dramma per musica in 3 acts, music by Tomaso Albinoni, libretto by Apostolo Zeno, 25 May 1724.
 Dalisa, opera seria, music by Johann Adolf Hasse, libretto by Domenico Lalli after Nicolò Minato, 17 May 1730.
 Griselda, dramma per musica in 3 acts, music by Antonio Vivaldi, libretto by Apostolo Zeno after Giovanni Boccaccio, 18 May 1735.
 La contessina, pasticcio, music by Niccolò Jommelli, libretto by Goldoni, 1743.
 La ritornata di Londra, dramma giocoso in 3 Acts, music by Domenico Fischietti, libretto by Goldoni, 7 February 1756.
 Catone in Utica, opera seria in 3 Acts, music by Florian Leopold Gassmann, libretto by Metastasio, 29 April 1761.
 L'idolo cinese, dramma giocoso in 3 acts, music by Giacomo Rust, libretto by Giovanni Battista Lorenzi, 28 December 1773.
 Le gelosie villane,  dramma giocoso in 3 Acts, music by Giuseppe Sarti, libretto by Tommaso Grandi, November 1776.
 Giannina e Bernardone, dramma giocoso in 2 Acts, music by Domenico Cimarosa, libretto by Filippo Livigni, Autumn of 1781.
 La morte di Cesare, opera seria in 3 Acts, music by Francesco Bianchi, libretto by Gaetano Sertor, 27 December 1788.
 Il servo padrone, opera buffa in 2 Acts, music by Niccolò Piccinni, libretto by Caternio Mazzolà, 17 January 1794.
 L'accademia di musica, farsa per music in 1 Act, music by Simon Mayr, libretto by Gaetano Rossi after F. Albergati Capacelli, 24 November 1799.
 Pietro il grande, opera buffa in 2 Acts, music by Gaetano Donizetti, libretto by Gherardo Bevilacqua-Aldobrandini, 26 December 1819.
 Marco Visconti, opera seria in 2 Acts, music by Antonio Pedrocco, libretto by Nicolò Foramiti after Tommaso Grossi, 16 April 1853.

See also
Opera houses and theatres of Venice

References

Buildings and structures completed in 1656
Theatres in Venice
San Samuele
Theatres completed in 1656
Theatres completed in 1748
Music venues completed in 1656
Music venues completed in 1748
Buildings and structures demolished in 1894
Demolished buildings and structures in Italy
18th-century architecture in Italy

Teatro San Samuele


The Sussex dialect refers to the Southern English vernacular speech of the historic county of Sussex. Much of the distinctive vocabulary of the Sussex dialect has now died out, although a few words remain in common usage and some individuals still speak with the traditional Sussex accent.

The Sussex dialect is a subset of the Southern English dialect group.  Historically, there were three main variants to the dialect: west Sussex (west of Shoreham and the river Adur), mid Sussex (between the Adur and Hastings) and east Sussex (from Hastings eastwards).  There were also differences between downland and Wealden communities. In particular, the people of the Weald were thought to have the most impenetrable accents.  The Sussex dialect shows remarkable continuity: the three main dialect areas reflect the historic county's history. The west and mid dialect areas reflect the ancient division of Sussex between East and West, which until the creation of the rape of Bramber in the 11th century lay along the river Adur.  The eastern dialect area reflects the unique history of the Hastings area, which was home to the kingdom of the Haestingas until the 8th century.

Sussex dialect words have their sources in many historic languages including Anglo-Saxon, Old Dutch, a dash of 14th-century Middle French, and a little Scandinavian.  Many words are thought to have derived from Sussex's fishermen and their links with fishermen from the coasts of France and the Netherlands.

Features

Accent
Below is a set of features of pronunciation in the dialect used across Sussex:
 before double d becomes  in such words as ladder
 before double  is pronounced  in words as fallow
 before t is expanded into ea; rate, mate, plate, gate
 before ct becomes , as in satisfaction
 before ct becomes , as in affection, effect and neglect
 is pronounced as  in such words as sheep, week, or field
 is pronounced as , and thus mice, hive, dive are pronounced
 sometimes becomes , as in pet for pit or spet for spit
io and oi change places respectively, so violet and violent become  and , while boiled and spoiled are  and
o before n is expanded into oä in such words as pony, don't, and bone to be pronounced a poäny, doänt, and boän
 is pronounced as , so that cord and morning become carn and marning; perhaps in a card-cord merger
Father-bother merger:  becomes  in such words as rod and cross, which sound like rad and crass
 (ou) is elongated into aou in words like hound, pound and mound so they are pronounced ,  and
The final ow is pronounced er, as faller for fallow
Double t is traditionally pronounced as  or , so that little and butter sound like liddle and budder; see Intervocalic alveolar flapping
Th-stopping:  is invariably : these and them become dese and dem
 in its turn is occasionally changed into , turning fodder into fother
Metathesis of final "sp" in such words as wasp, clasp, and hasp, pronounced as wapse, clapse, and hapse
Words ending in  have an additional syllable in the possessive case and the plural; therefore, instead of saying "the birds had built their nests near the posts of Mr. West's gate," a Sussex boy would traditionally say "the birds had built their nestes near the postes of Mr. Westes' gate;" see reduplicated plural

In the 19th century, William Durrant Cooper found that the people in eastern parts of Sussex spoke many words with a French accent.  For instance, the word day was pronounced dee, and mercy as in the French merci.  In Rye, the word bonnet was pronounced bunnet and Mermaid Street was pronounced Maremaid Street.

Gender
Gender is almost always feminine.  There is a saying in Sussex dialect that 'Everything in Sussex is a She except a Tom Cat and she's a He.'

Pronouns
In the western variant of the Sussex dialect, 'en' and 'un' (sometimes written as 'n) were used for 'he' and 'it' and 'um' was used for 'them.'

Places
Ahson - Alciston
Arndel - Arundel
Bodjum -  Bodiam
Burush - Burwash
Chanklebury - Chanctonbury
Charnton - Chalvington
Chiddester - Chichester
Envul - Henfield
Furrel - Firle
Gorun - Goring
Heffel - Heathfield
Helsum - Hailsham
Hors-am - Horsham
Lunnon - London
Medhas - Midhurst
Merricur - America
Pemsy - Pevensey
Pettuth - Petworth
Stammer - Stanmer
Tarrun - Tarring
The Sheeres - Shires England outside of Sussex, Kent and Surrey
Simpson - Selmeston
Storrin'on - Storrington

Fishermen's names
In a seafaring county such as Sussex, fishermen were given nicknames, which by extension also sometimes applied to all residents of a town.  These names include:
Chop-backs - Hastings
Jugs - Brighton
Mudlarks - Rye
Pork-bolters - Worthing
Winnicks or Willicks - Eastbourne (also the dialect name of a guillemot or wild person)

Landscape words

Bostal (or borstal) - a steep path, particularly over the Downs
Knap, knep or kneb - a small hill (as in Knepp Castle, which is built on a small hill)
Hill - the Sussex Downs
Laines - open tracts of land at the base of the Downs (originally as in the North Laine area of Brighton)
Rife - a small river, especially across the West Sussex coastal plain (as in the Ferring Rife)
Totty land - high land
Fret - a sea fog
Went - crossroads

Flora and fauna
Ammot - ant
Brown-bird - thrush
Culver - pigeon or dove
Cutty - wren
Dumbledore - bumblebee
Flittermouse - bat
Humbledore - hornet
God Almighty's cow - ladybird
Kime or kine - weasel
Kiss me - wild heartsease
Mousearnickle - dragonfly
Neddie - warble fly
Old man's beard - wild clematis
Old man's nightcap - hooded bindweed
Pook fly - fairyfly
Prickleback urchin - hedgehog
Puck - nightjar
Puck stool - toadstool
Reynold or Reynard - fox
Ship - sheep
Snag or sneg - snail
Snottgogs - yew berries
Sprod - junction of branch with trunk of a tree
Tottle grass - high grass
Varm - bracken
Winnick or Willick - a guillemot
Yaffle - green woodpecker
Windhover - kestrel

Words for mud
While there is a popular belief that the Inuit have an unusually large number of words for snow, the Sussex dialect is notable in having an unusually large number of words for mud, thought to be over 30 different terms.  Some of the words are:
Clodgy - muddy and wet, like a field path after heavy rain
Gawm - especially sticky, foul-smelling mud
Gubber - black mud of rotting organic matter
Ike - a mess or area of mud
Pug - a kind of loam, particularly the sticky yellow Wealden clay
Slab - the thickest mud
Sleech - mud or river sediment used for manure
Slob - thick mud
Slough - a muddy hole
Slub - thick mud
Slurry - diluted mud, saturated with so much water that it cannot drain
Smeery - wet and sticky surface mud
Stoach - to trample ground, like cattle; also the silty mud at Rye harbour
Stodge - thick puddingy mud
Stug - watery mud
Swank - a bog

Other dialect words

Boco - much (from the French word beaucoup)
Beasted - tired out
Bread-and-cheese-friend - a true friend (as distinguished from a cupboard-lover)
Caterwise - diagonally
Chipper - happy
Chog - apple core
Dosset - small portion
Druv - driven (as in the unofficial Sussex motto 'We wunt be druv')
Dursn't - must not
Farisees - fairies
Goistering - loud feminine laughter
Gurt - big
Jiggered - surprised
Kiddy - friend or workmate
Somewhen - sometime
Steddle stones- a dialectal variation of Staddle stones, used to support a base or platform on which hay or corn is stacked
Strombolo - a type of lignite found on local beaches; sometimes used as fuel in the 18th and 19th centuries, but it emitted a strong sulphurous smell when burnt
Surelye - this word is often added to the end of a sentence to round it off or add emphasis
Twitten - a path or alleyway
Wapple way (or waffle way) - bridle path
Woddle - the game of bat and trap

Links to American English
Phoebe Earl Griffiths, an American writer in the 19th century, commented that Sussex dialect had considerable similarities with the dialect of New England at the time. Some phrases common to Sussex were common in New England as well, such as "you hadn't ought to" or "you shouldn't ought", the use of "be you?" for "are you?" and "I see him" for "I saw him."

There are also significant links with the dialect of East Sussex and the dialect of African Americans in the southern United States. In particular, the use of dem, dat, and dese for them, that, and these was common in the 19th century both in Sussex and in the southern United States.

Other phrases that may appear to be Americanisms were widely used in Sussex dialect. Examples include the use of "the fall" for autumn, "mad" for "angry," "I guess," and "I reckon".

Significant numbers of Sussex people moved to the United States in the 18th and 19th centuries. Even earlier than that, the founder of the Province of Pennsylvania, Quaker William Penn, left Sussex for New England with around 200 Sussex Quakers. For several years before the voyage in 1681, Penn lived at Warminghurst Place in Sussex, worshipping near Thakeham. Later, there was also a major migration from Sussex to Ohio in 1822.

Future prospects
The Sussex dialect and accent are facing extinction. Commuting is on the increase in Sussex, caused by the lack of local employment opportunities coupled with high housing expenses and proximity to London. This has caused people with other accents to move to Sussex and the corresponding loss of the southern dialect.

Works in dialect
 Tom Cladpole's Jurney to Lunnon, told by himself, and written in pure Sussex doggerel by his Uncle Tim – Richard Lower, 1830
 A Glossary of the Provincialisms in use in the County of Sussex – William Durrant Cooper, 1834, 1853
 Jan Cladpole's Trip to Merricur, written all in rhyme by his Father, Tim Cladpole – Richard Lower, 1844
 "Sussex Dialect from the Authorized English Version by T. Spencer Baynes," in The Song of Solomon in Twenty-Four Dialects – Mark Antony Lower, 1862
 Puck of Pook's Hill (1906) and the sequel Rewards and Fairies (1910) – Rudyard Kipling,
 Sussex Gorse - the Story of a Fight – Sheila Kaye-Smith, 1916
 Joanna Godden – Sheila Kaye-Smith, 1921
 Summat 'bout Sussex an sum Sussexers, by Jim Cladpole – James Richards, 1930
 Cold Comfort Farm – parody by Stella Gibbons, 1932

See also
 English language in southern England

References

Bibliography

External links
A Dictionary Of The Sussex Dialect by Rev. W.D. Parish, Vicar of Selmeston, Sussex free online version at Sussex History website
Sussex Dialect on the British Library website
"Learning the Sussex Dialect with Tim Cladpole - Jan Cladpole's Trip to Merricur" a humorous work written in Sussex dialect by Richard Lower, first published in the 19th century.  Free version on Funnell's Wood website.

British English
English language in England
Sussex

Sussex dialect


Phantasmagoria was a type of live entertainment and horror show from the 1800s. It use one or more magic lanterns to project frightening images  such as skeletons, demons, and ghosts onto walls, smoke, or semi-transparent screens. Typically rear projection was used to keep the lantern out of sight. Mobile or portable projectors were used; this allowed the projected image to move and change size on the screen, and multiple projecting devices allowed for quick switching of different images. In many shows the use of spooky decoration, total darkness, sound effects, (auto-)suggestive verbal presentation and sound effects were also key elements. Some shows added all kinds of sensory stimulation, including smells and electric shocks. Even required fasting, fatigue (late shows) and drugs have been mentioned as methods of making sure spectators would be more convinced of what they saw. The shows started under the [[guise]] of actual séances in Germany in the late 18th century, and gained popularity through most of Europe (especially England) throughout the 19th century.

Theatres
Movies

Phantasmagoria


Keymer  is a village in West Sussex, England. It can be found on the B2116 road 2.4 miles south of Burgess Hill.

Keymer used to be a village on its own until it was merged into the modern day village of Hassocks. Keymer's records go back as far as The Domesday Book. Keymer is situated just to the east of Hassocks and is only a matter of a few hundred yards from the boundary with East Sussex. It has a fine parish church unusually called St Cosmas and St Damian Church. The oldest part of Keymer can be found in the area of this church and the Greyhound Pub.

To the north-east of Keymer can be found Oldland Mill dating from the 17th Century. It is one of the few remaining windmills still standing in the south-east. The new burial ground that is now run by Hassocks Parish Council can be found located to the east of the Greyhound Pub.

References

Villages in West Sussex

Keymer


"Hallo Bandoeng" is a song by the Dutch levenslied singer Willy Derby (real name: Willem Frederik Christiaan Dieben, 1886-1944). It was released in 1929 and sold more than 50,000 copies, an astronomical number for that time. It was one of Derby's songs that became part of Dutch culture. The phrase "Hallo Bandoeng" was well known at that time, as the usual opening used by Radio Kootwijk when establishing a connection with Bandung (in Dutch: "Bandoeng"), one of the most important cities in the then Dutch East Indies.

Narrative
The song tells the story of an old woman, who spends the last of her money at Radio Kootwijk so that, for the first time in years, she can hear the voice of her son, who lives in Bandoeng with his "little brown wife" and their children. In the refrain, the son greets his mother and, with a sob, she greets her dearest boy. The son asks how she's doing ("how are you, old woman"), but her answer is only that she misses him so much. When the woman asks about his wife, her son tells her that they talk about her every day and that the children pray for the grandmother they've never met each evening and kiss her portrait before going to sleep. In only four more years he'll be back in Holland and will hug her. He then tells her that his youngest son is with him and the boy greets her: "dear grandmother, tabe, tabe" (a greeting in Indonesian). Upon hearing this the woman thanks the Lord for allowing her to have heard her grandsons voice and collapses crying. The last version of the refrain is modified. The son calls his mother again, but only hears a sob. The last sentence has the woman dead and the child calling "Tabe".

Original lyrics

References

Dutch pop songs
Dutch-language songs
Songs about Indonesia
Levenslied songs
1929 songs

Hallo Bandoeng


The London Accord is a collaboration between investment banks, research houses, academics and NGOs to produce free research on climate change for financial investors.

It is intended as a reference guide for investors in the climate change sector.

The London Accord is the largest cooperative project in the world on investment opportunities in avoiding climate change (about 7 million UK pounds).

History
The London Accord began in 2005, was launched formally in March 2007 and published its first results on 19 December 2007 launching them at a roll out meeting at Mansion House in London.  These findings are freely available from its website.

Its main summary of December 2007 said:

The IPCC shows that the world needs to act to avoid disastrous climate change, and act now.
The Stern Report shows that the overall cost of strong early action is much less than the cost of inaction.
The International Energy Agency shows the changes in fuel mix and energy usage that are necessary to stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations at a safe level.
The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change shows how much money is required by region and by technology to realise a scenario that achieves stabilisation.
The UNFCCC report shows further that 86% of that investment has to come from the private sector. That equates to private sector investment through 2030 in excess of $600bn per year.
The London Accord report shows investors and policy makers by technology how attractive that private investment is, at the end of 2007.

Findings
The findings of the research carried out show that:
energy investment is going to become much, much riskier
key governmental focus should be on establishing cap-and-trade markets, then international carbon standards, then regulation; not taxation
forestry is a big unknown – governments should fund research into the real extent of abatement potential and the real costs of forestation
carbon capture and sequestration/storage (CCS) seems an unrealistic investment

Since 2007 the London Accord has become one of the leading sources for policy-makers of investment research on environmental, social and governance issues.  By the end of 2011, over 250 research reports had been released to the public.  Funding for the London Accord has come from the City of London Corporation, Z/Yen Group and Gresham College.

Quotes about the London Accord
David Lewis (Lord Mayor) said:

See also
The Carbon Principles

References

External links
London Accord website
Barclays report on its work with the London Accord

Climate change assessment and attribution
Climate change organizations
Carbon finance
2007 in London

The London Accord


Private law is that part of a civil law legal system which is part of the  that involves relationships between individuals, such as the law of contracts and torts (as it is called in the common law), and the law of obligations (as it is called in civil legal systems). It is to be distinguished from public law, which deals with relationships between both natural and artificial persons (i.e., organizations) and the state, including regulatory statutes, penal law and other law that affects the public order. In general terms, private law involves interactions between private individuals, whereas public law involves interrelations between the state and the general population.

Concept
One of the five capital lawyers in Roman law, Domitius Ulpianus, (170–223) – who differentiated ius publicum versus ius privatum – the European, more exactly the continental law, philosophers and thinkers want(ed) to put each branch of law into this dichotomy: Public and Private Law. "huius studdii duæ sunt positiones: publicum et privatum. Publicum ius est, quod statum rei Romanæ spectat, privatum, quod ad singulorum utilitatem; sunt enim quædam publice utila, quædam privatim". (Public law is that, which concerns Roman state, private law is concerned with the interests of citizens.) In the modern era Charles-Louis Montesquieu (1689–1755) amplified supremely this distinction: International (law of nations), Public (politic law) and Private (civil law) Law, in his major work: (On) The Spirit of the Law (1748). "Considered as inhabitants of so great a planet, which necessarily contains a variety of nations, they have laws relating to their mutual intercourse, which is what we call the law of nations. As members of a society that must be properly supported, they have laws relating to the governors and the governed, and this we distinguish by the name of politic law. They have also another sort of law, as they stand in relation to each other; by which is understood the civil law."

Private law in common law jurisdictions
The concept of private law in common law countries is a little broader, in that it also encompasses private relationships between governments and private individuals or other entities. That is, relationships between governments and individuals based on the law of contract or torts are governed by private law, and are not considered to be within the scope of public law.

European Union law
The European Commission and Council have stated a desire to achieve greater approximation of private law across its (now) 27 member states of the European Union, including within the fields of contract law, property law and family law.)

Areas of private law
Agricultural law
Business law
Company law
Commercial law
Civil law
Law of obligations
Contract law
Tort law
Law of unjust enrichment and quasi-contracts
Trust law
Law of agency
Property law
Family law - family-related issues and domestic relations including marriage, civil unions, divorce, spousal abuse, child custody and visitation, property, alimony, and child support awards, child abuse issues, and adoption.
Succession - estate planning, testate and intestate succession, probate, and law of wills
Consumer protection
International private law
Labour law
Transport law

See also
 International Institute for the Unification of Private Law
 International Journal of Private Law
Polycentric law
 Private law society
 Social law

References

Private law


Ronald Kantowski (18 December 1939) is a theoretical cosmologist, well known in the field of general relativity as the author, together with Rainer K. Sachs, of the Kantowski–Sachs dust solutions to the Einstein field equation. These are a widely used family of inhomogeneous cosmological models.

Life and career

Kantowski received his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of Texas at Austin, where he wrote a dissertation on cosmological models.
He was a research scientist at the South West Center for Advanced Studies during 1967-1968.
He was hired by the Physics & Astronomy department of the University of Oklahoma in 1968, where he became a full professor in 1981.

Besides the Kantowski-Sachs solutions to the Einstein's field equations, Kantowski's second widely recognized contribution to cosmology was developing the now used theory of transparent gravitational lenses. This theory was completed some four years before multiply imaged quasars were detected. There were only four papers written in all at that time.
Kantowski was also among the first to study the distance-redshift relation in inhomogeneous Universe using Swiss cheese universe models.

His recent research has centered on issues of mass inhomogeneities and topological quantum field theories.

Bibliography

References

American cosmologists
21st-century American physicists
American relativity theorists
University of Texas at Austin alumni
Living people
University of Oklahoma faculty
Year of birth missing (living people)

Ronald Kantowski


Strike pay is a payment made by a trade union to workers who are on strike to help in meeting their basic needs while on strike, often out of a special reserve known as a strike fund. Union workers reason that the availability of strike pay increases their leverage at the bargaining table and actually decreases the probability of a strike, since the employers are aware that their employees have this financial resource available to them if they choose to strike.

By countries

Spain
The main unions providing a strike fund in Spain are  (USO) and the Basque Basque Workers' Solidarity (ELA-STV).
According to ELA, its fund received 13.7 million euros between 2008 and 2011, 15.1% of its expenses, and 19.1 M€ between 2012 and 2016 (16,24%).
It receives amounts to 25% of the dues of its members.

ELA-STV strikers can receive between €1,000 /month (the minimum wage in Spain) and €1,243 .
Another Basque union  provides a maximum of €30 /day (€900 /month) after the second day of the strike.

Strikes funded by ELA-STV can become long: 235 days at Tubacex, 285 among the cleaners of the Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, over 1,000 days at Novaltia.

United Kingdom
Whilst some trade unions make payments to members who are on an official strike there is no requirement to do so. The UK Government makes the presumption that workers on official strike action are being paid strike pay, and so they may not be entitled to state benefits.

Strike fund
A strike fund is a reserve set up by a union ahead of time (through special assessments or from general funds) and used to provide strike pay or for other strike-related activities.

Sources
European Employment and Industrial Relations Glossaries Online

References

External links
 Legamus audiorecording of "Strike-Pay" by D. H. Lawrence read by Martin Geeson.

Labor relations
Trade unions
Pay
Payments

Strike pay


Site 32 at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome is a launch complex formerly used by Tsyklon-3 carrier rockets. It consists of a two launch pads, Site 32/1 and Site 32/2, which were used between 1977 and 2009. It has the GRAU index 11P868. Site 32 is, along with Site 35 and Site 41 one of three sites under consideration for the Angara programme.

History
In 1970, the building of a highly-automated launch complex for Tsyklon-3 booster began at Site 32, which was designed by Omsk Transmash Design Bureau led by Chief Designer Vladimir Nikolayevich Chelomey. The first launch from Site 32 was conducted from pad 2 on 24 June 1977, with the first from Site 32/1 following on 23 January 1980. The last launch from Site 32/1 occurred on 28 December 2001. Site 32/2 was retired on 30 January 2009, along with the Tsyklon-3. All 122 Tsyklon-3 launches were conducted from the site. 57 launches were recorded as having been from pad 1 and 65 were recorded from pad 2.

References

Plesetsk Cosmodrome

Plesetsk Cosmodrome Site 32


Elattostachys microcarpa, commonly named scrub tamarind, is a species of rainforest trees of north-eastern Australia. They grow naturally in the relatively seasonal rainforests, which may have a drought season and often in association with Kauri pine.

The name Elattostachys refers to "little spikes", a flower feature of other plants in this genus. The specific name microcarpa refers to the small woody seeds.

Description

A tree up to  tall, with a stem diameter of up to . Leaves pinnate and arranged alternately on the stem. Leaflet blades approximately . Young shoots and terminal buds covered with short pale hairs.

Cream flowers form on panicle, followed by round pink or red fruit which split to reveal black glossy seeds

References

External links

Sapindaceae
Sapindales of Australia
Trees of Australia
Flora of Queensland

Elattostachys microcarpa