A sauna (, ) is a room or building designed as a place to experience dry or wet heat sessions, or an establishment with one or more of these facilities. The steam and high heat make the bathers perspire. A thermometer in a sauna is typically used to measure temperature; a hygrometer can be used to measure levels of humidity or steam. Infrared therapy is often referred to as a type of sauna, but according to the Finnish sauna organisations, infrared is not a sauna.

History

Areas such as the rocky Orkney islands of Scotland have many ancient stone structures for normal habitation, some of which incorporate areas for fire and bathing. It is possible some of these structures also incorporated the use of steam in a way similar to the sauna, but this is a matter of speculation. The sites are from the Neolithic age, dating to approximately 4000 B.C.E. Archaeological sites in Greenland and Newfoundland have uncovered structures very similar to traditional Scandinavian farm saunas, some with bathing platforms and "enormous quantities of badly scorched stones".

The traditional Korean sauna, called the hanjeungmak, is a domed structure constructed of stone that was first mentioned in the Sejong Sillok of the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty in the 15th century. Supported by Sejong the Great, the hanjeungmak was touted for its health benefits and used to treat illnesses. In the early 15th century, Buddhist monks maintained hanjeungmak clinics, called hanjeungso, to treat sick poor people; these clinics maintained separate facilities for men and women due to high demand. Korean sauna culture and kiln saunas are still popular today, and Korean saunas are ubiquitous.

Western saunas originated in Finland where the oldest known saunas were made from pits dug in a slope in the ground and primarily used as dwellings in winter. The sauna featured a fireplace where stones were heated to a high temperature. Water was thrown on the hot stones to produce steam and to give a sensation of increased heat. This would raise the apparent temperature so high that people could take off their clothes. The first Finnish saunas were always of a type now called savusauna; "smoke sauna". These differed from present-day saunas in that they were operated by heating a pile of rocks called a kiuas by burning large amounts of wood for about 6 to 8 hours and then letting out the smoke before enjoying the löyly, a Finnish term meaning, collectively, both the steam and the heat of a sauna. A properly heated "savusauna" yields heat for up to 12 hours.

As a result of the Industrial Revolution, the sauna evolved to use a wood-burning metal stove with rocks on top, kiuas, with a chimney. Air temperatures averaged around  but sometimes exceeded  in a traditional Finnish sauna. As the Finns migrated to other areas of the globe, they brought their sauna designs and traditions with them. This led to a further evolution of the sauna, including the electric sauna stove, which was introduced in 1938 by Metos Ltd in Vaasa. Although sauna culture is more or less related to Finnish and Estonian culture, the evolution of the sauna took place around the same time in Finland and Baltic countries; all have valued the sauna, its customs and traditions until the present day.

The sauna became very popular especially in Scandinavia and the German-speaking regions of Europe after the Second World War. German soldiers had experienced Finnish saunas during their fight against the Soviet Union on the Soviet-Finnish front of WWII, where they fought on the same side. Saunas were so important to Finnish soldiers that they built them not only in mobile tents but even in bunkers. After the war, the German soldiers brought the custom back to Germany and Austria, where it became popular in the second half of the 20th century. The German sauna culture also became popular in neighbouring countries such as Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.

Sauna culture has been registered in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity under two entries: "Smoke sauna tradition in Võromaa" in 2014 and "Sauna culture in Finland" in 2020.

Etymology
The word sauna is an ancient Finnish word referring to both the traditional Finnish bath and to the bathhouse itself. In Finnic languages other than Finnish and Estonian, sauna and cognates do not necessarily mean a building or space built for bathing. It can also mean a small cabin or cottage, such as a cabin for a fisherman. The word is the best known Finnicism in many languages.

Modern saunas

The sauna known in the western world today originates from Northern Europe. In Finland, there are built-in saunas in almost every house, including communal saunas in the older apartment buildings; since the 80s, private saunas have often been built into the bathrooms of typical Finnish flats in apartment buildings, sometimes even in student housing. There are also a number of public saunas in Finland, including Rajaportin Sauna, a sauna located in Tampere, that was first established in 1906 by Hermanni and Maria Lahtinen. Helsinki even has a sauna built into one of the gondolas of a ferris wheel, SkyWheel Helsinki. Unlike many other countries, Finnish people usually prefer to be naked instead of wearing a swimsuit, towel, or other kind of clothing.

Under many circumstances, temperatures approaching and exceeding  would be completely intolerable and possibly fatal to a person exposed to them for long periods of time. Saunas overcome this problem by controlling the humidity. The hottest Finnish saunas have relatively low humidity levels in which steam is generated by pouring water on the hot stones. This allows air temperatures that could evaporate water to be tolerated and even enjoyed for longer periods of time. Steam baths, such as the Turkish bath, where the humidity approaches 100%, will be set to a much lower temperature of around  to compensate. The "wet heat" would cause scalding if the temperature were set much higher.

In a typical Finnish sauna, the temperature of the air, the room and the benches are above the dew point even when water is thrown on the hot stones and vaporised. Thus, they remain dry. In contrast, the sauna bathers are at about , which is below the dew point, so that water is condensed on the bathers' skin. This process releases heat and makes the steam feel hot.

Finer control over the perceived temperature can be achieved by choosing a higher-level bench for those wishing for a hotter experience, or a lower-level bench for a more moderate temperature. A good sauna has a relatively small temperature gradient between the various seating levels. Doors need to be kept closed and used quickly to maintain the temperature and to keep the steam inside.

Some North American, Western European, Japanese, Russian, and South African public sport centres and gyms include sauna facilities. They may also be present at public and private swimming pools. As an additional facility, a sauna may have one or more jacuzzis. In some spa centers, there are the so-called special "snow rooms," also known as cold saunas or cryotherapy. Operating at a temperature of , the user is in the sauna for a period of only about 3 minutes.

According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the world's largest sauna is the Koi Sauna in the Thermen & Badewelt Sinsheim, Germany. It measures 166 square meters, holds 150 people and sports a koi aquarium. The title may now belong to Cape East Spa in Haparanda, Sweden, which also holds 150 people but is more spacious.
However, in Czeladz, south Poland, there is now a sauna for 300 people, sporting light shows, theatre and needing several sauna masters.

Use

A modern sauna with an electric stove usually takes about 15–30 minutes to heat up. Some users prefer taking a shower beforehand to speed up perspiration in the sauna. When in the sauna, people often sit on a towel for hygiene and put a towel over their heads if the face feels too hot but the body feels comfortable. In Russia, a felt "banya hat" may be worn to shield the head from the heat; this allows the wearer to increase the heat on the rest of the body. The temperature of one's bath can be controlled via:
 the amount of water thrown on the stove: this increases humidity, so that sauna bathers perspire more copiously
 the length of one's stay in the sauna
 positioning: the higher benches are hotter, whereas the lower benches are cooler. Children often sit on the lower benches.

The heat will be greatest closest to the stove. Heating from the air will be lower on the lower benches as the hot air rises. The heat given by the steam can be very different in different parts of the sauna. As the steam rises directly upwards, it will spread across the roof and travel out towards the corners, where it will then be forced downwards. Consequently, the heat of fresh steam may sometimes be felt most strongly in the furthest corners of the sauna. Users increase the duration and the heat gradually over time as they adapt to the sauna. When pouring water onto the stove, it will cool down the rocks, but carry more heat into the air via advection, making the sauna warmer.

Perspiration is the result of autonomic responses trying to cool the body. Users are advised to leave the sauna if the heat becomes unbearable, or if they feel faint or ill. Some saunas have a thermostat to adjust the temperature, but the owner of the sauna and the other bathers expect to be consulted before changes are made. The sauna stove and rocks are very hot—one must stay well clear of them to avoid burns, particularly when water is thrown on the rocks, which creates an immediate blast of steam. Combustibles on, or near the stove have been known to cause fires. Contact lenses  dry out in the heat. Jewelry or anything metallic, including glasses, will get hot in the sauna and can cause discomfort or burning.

The temperature on different parts of the body can be adjusted by shielding one's body with a towel. Shielding the face with a towel has been found to reduce the perception of heat.
 Some may wish to put an additional towel or a special cap over the head to avoid dryness. Few people can sit directly in front of the stove without feeling too hot from the radiant heat, but this may not be reflected in their overall body temperature. As the person's body is often the coolest object in a sauna room, steam will condense into water on the skin; this can be confused with perspiration.

Cooling down by immersing oneself in water (in a shower, lake or pool) is a part of the sauna cycle and is as important as the heating. However, it is advisable that healthy people and heart patients alike should take some precautions if plunging into very cold water straight after coming from the hot room, as the rapid cooling of the body produces considerable circulatory stress. It is considered good practice to take a few moments after exiting a sauna before entering a cold plunge, and to enter a plunge pool or a lake by stepping into it gradually, rather than immediately immersing oneself fully. In summer, a session is often started with a cool shower.

In some countries the closest and most convenient access to a sauna is at a gymnasium. Some public pools, major sports centres and resorts also contain a sauna. Therapeutic sauna sessions are often carried out in conjunction with physiotherapy or hydrotherapy; these are gentle exercises that do not exacerbate symptoms.

Health effects

There has been widespread research into the health benefits and risks that come from sauna usage; most studies have focused on the Finnish sauna specifically. Sauna bathing leads to mild heat stress, which activates heat shock proteins responsible for repairing misfolded proteins, promoting longevity as well as protection against muscle atrophy and chronic illness.

There is significant evidence that lifelong exposure to sauna (once a week or more) reduces the risk of sudden cardiac death; and that risk reduction is correlated with duration and frequency of use; this reduction is more pronounced when sauna bathing is combined with exercise, compared with either of these practices alone. Tentative evidence supports that the heat stress from saunas can reduce blood pressure and arterial stiffness, and therefore also decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease. These benefits are more pronounced in persons with low cardiovascular function. Evidence exists for the benefit of sauna on people with heart failure. Frequent sauna usage (4-7 times per week) is associated with a decreased risk of neurovascular diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and stroke. Individuals suffering from musculoskeletal disorders could have symptomatic improvement from sauna, and it could be beneficial for glaucoma. It can also relieve the symptoms of respiratory illness and reduce its risk. Weight loss in obese people and improvement of appetite loss present with normal body weight is achieveable with sauna bathing.

Evidence for the use of sauna for depression or skin disorders is insufficient, but the frequency of sauna sessions is correlated with a diminished risk of developing psychosis, and it might be beneficial for psoriasis.

Sauna bathing coupled with alcohol consumption or dehydration increases the risk of sudden death; the use of narcotic drugs, such as cocaine, also increases the risk. Being severely obese, having high blood pressure, or being diabetic all serve as reasons to decrease the duration of sauna sessions. Individuals prone to postural hypotension or severe valvular heart disease should use sauna cautiously to reduce the risk of a drop in blood pressure. In people with cardiovascular disease, sauna usage is generally safe, as long as their condition is stable. However, sauna bathing is contraindicated in persons with unstable angina and severe aortic stenosis. A one-year study in Finland showed that only 67 (2.6%) of sudden deaths in saunas were non-accidental, mostly due to coronary heart disease. Pregnant women can use saunas as long as their core temperature does not exceed , as this may be teratogenic. One study has found that genital heat stress from frequent sauna sessions could cause male infertility.

Technologies
Today there are a wide variety of sauna options. Heat sources include wood, electricity, gas and other more unconventional methods such as solar power. There are wet saunas, dry saunas, infrared saunas, smoke saunas, and steam saunas. There are two main types of stoves: continuous heating and heat storage type. Continuously heating stoves have a small heat capacity and can be heated up on a fast on-demand basis, whereas a heat storage stove has a large heat (stone) capacity and can take much longer to heat.

Heat storage-type

Smoke sauna
Smoke sauna (Finnish savusauna, Estonian suitsusaun, Võro savvusann) is one of the earliest forms of the sauna. It is simply a room containing a pile of rocks, but without a chimney. A fire is lit directly under the rocks and after a while the fire is extinguished. The heat retained in the rocks, and the earlier fire, becomes the main source for heating the sauna. Following this process, the ashes and embers are removed from the hearth, the benches and floor are cleaned, and the room is allowed to air out and freshen for a period of time. The smoke deposits a layer of soot on every surface, so if the benches and back-rests can be removed while the fire is alight the amount of cleaning necessary is reduced. Depending on size of the stove and the airing time, the temperature may be low, about , while the humidity is relatively high. The tradition almost died out in Finland, but was revived by enthusiasts in the 1980s. These are still used in present-day Finland by some enthusiasts, but usually only on special occasions such as Christmas, New Year's, Easter, and juhannus (Midsummer). Smoke saunas are popular in the southern Estonia and smoke sauna tradition in Võrumaa was added into UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists in 2014.

Heat storage-sauna
The smoke-sauna stove is also used with a sealed stone compartment and chimney (a heat storage-stove) which eliminates the smoke odour and eye irritation of the smoke sauna. A heat storage stove does not give up much heat in the sauna before bathing since the stone compartment has an insulated lid. When the sauna bath is started and the löyly shutter opened a soft warmth flow into the otherwise relatively cold () sauna. This heat is soft and clean because, thanks to combustion, the stove stones glow red, even white-hot, and are freed of dust at the same time. When bathing the heat-storage sauna will become as hot as a continuous fire-type sauna () but more humid. The stones are usually durable heatproof and heat-retaining peridotite. The upper part of the stove is often insulated with rock wool and firebricks. Heat-storing stoves are also found with electric heating, with similar service but no need to maintain a fire.

Continuous heat-type

Continuous fire sauna
A continuous fire stove, instead of stored heat, is a relatively recent invention. There is a firebox and a smokestack, and stones are placed in a compartment directly above the firebox. It takes a shorter time to heat than the heat-storage sauna, about one hour. A fire-heated sauna requires manual labor in the form of maintaining the fire during bathing; the fire can also be seen as a hazard.

Fire-heated saunas are common in cottages, where the extra work of maintaining the fire is not a problem.

Electric stove sauna
The most common modern sauna types are those with electric stoves. The stones are heated up and kept on temperature using electric heating elements. There is a thermostat and a timer (typically with eight hours' maximum delay time, followed by one hour's continuous heating time) on the stove. This type of heating is generally used only in urban saunas.

Far-infrared saunas
Far-infrared saunas are a modern variation of the traditional sauna, which utilizes infrared light to generate heat. Unlike traditional saunas that heat the body indirectly through the air or by conduction from heated surfaces, far-infrared saunas use infrared panels or other methods like a sauna blanket that emit far-infrared light, which is absorbed by the surface of the skin. The heat produced by far-infrared saunas is generally lower, making it more tolerable for people who cannot withstand the high temperatures of traditional saunas.

Other sweat bathing facilities

Many cultures have sweat baths, though some have more spiritual uses while others are purely secular. In Ancient Rome there was the thermae or balneae (from Greek βαλανεῖον balaneîon), traits of which survive in the Turkish or Arab hammam. In the Americas there is the Nahuatl (Aztec) temāzcalli , Maya zumpul-ché, and the Mixtec Ñihi; in Canada and the United States, a number of First Nations and Native American cultures have various kinds of spiritual sweat lodges (Lakota: inipi, Anishinaabemowin madoodiswan). In Europe we find the Estonian saun (almost identical to the Finnish sauna), Russian banya, Latvian pirts, the European Jews' shvitz, and the Swedish bastu. In Asia the Japanese Mushi-Buro and the Korean jjimjilbang. The Karo people of Indonesia have the oukup. In some parts of Africa there is the sifutu.

Around the world

Although cultures in all corners of the world have imported and adapted the sauna, many of the traditional customs have not survived the journey. Today, public perception of saunas, sauna "etiquette" and sauna customs vary hugely from country to country. In many countries sauna going is a recent fashion and attitudes towards saunas are changing, while in others traditions have survived over generations.

Africa
In Africa, the majority of sauna facilities are found in a more upmarket hotel, spa and health club environments and predominantly share both sauna heater technology and design concepts as applied in Europe. Even though outdoor temperatures remain warmer and more humid, this does not affect the general application or intended sauna experience offered within these commercial environments offering a traditional sauna and or steam shower experience.

Asia
In Iran, most gyms, hotels and almost all public swimming pools have indoor saunas. It is very common for swimming pools to have two saunas which are known in Persian as سونای خشک "dry sauna" and سونای بخار "steam sauna", with the dry type customarily boasting a higher temperature. A cold-water pool (and/or more recently a cold Jacuzzi) is almost always accompanied and towels are usually provided. Adding therapeutic or relaxing essential oils to the rocks is common. In Iran, unlike Finland, sitting in a sauna is mostly seen as part of the spa/club culture, rather than a bathing ritual. It is most usually perceived as a means for relaxation or detoxification (through perspiration). Having a sauna room on private property is considered a luxury rather than a necessity. Public saunas are segregated and nudity is prohibited.

In Japan, many saunas exist at sports centers and public bathhouses (sentō). The saunas are almost always gender separated, often required by law, and nudity is a required part of proper sauna etiquette. While right after World War II, public bathhouses were commonplace in Japan, the number of customers have dwindled as more people were able to afford houses and apartments equipped with their own private baths as the nation became wealthier. As a result, many sentōs have added more features such as saunas in order to survive.

In Korea, saunas are essentially public bathhouses. Various names are used to describe them, such as the smaller mogyoktang, outdoor oncheon, and the elaborate jjimjilbang. The word "sauna" is used a lot for its 'English appeal'; however, it does not strictly refer to the original Fennoscandian steam rooms that have become popular throughout the world. The konglish word sauna (사우나) usually refers to bathhouses with Jacuzzis, hot tubs, showers, steam rooms, and related facilities.

In Laos, herbal steam sauna or hom yaa in Lao, is very popular especially with women and is available in every village. Many women apply yogurt or a paste blend based on tamarind on their skin as a beauty treatment. The sauna is always heated by wood fire and herbs are added either directly to the boiling water or steam jet in the room. The sitting lounge is mix gender but the steam rooms are gender separated. Bael fruit tea known in lao as muktam tea is usually served.

Australia and Canada
In Australia and Canada, saunas are found mainly in hotels, swimming pools, and health clubs and if used by both men and women, nudity is often forbidden, even if implicitly. In gyms or health clubs with separate male and female change rooms, nudity is permitted; however, members are usually asked to shower before using the sauna and to sit on a towel.

In Canada, saunas have increasingly become a fixture of cottage culture, which shares many similarities with its Finnish counterpart (mökki).

Europe

Nordic and Baltic

Finland and Estonia

A sauna session can be a social affair in which the participants disrobe and sit or recline in temperatures typically between . This induces relaxation and promotes sweating. People use a bundle of birch twigs with fresh leaves (Finnish: vihta or vasta; Estonian: viht), to slap the skin and create further stimulation of the pores and cells.

The sauna is an important part of daily life, and families bathe together in the home sauna. There are at least 2 million saunas in Finland according to official registers. The Finnish Sauna Society believes the number can actually be as high as 3.2 million saunas (population 5.5 million). Many Finns take at least one a week, and much more when they visit their summer cottage in the countryside. Here the pattern of life tends to revolve around the sauna, and a nearby lake used for cooling off.

Sauna traditions in Estonia are almost identical to Finland as saunas have traditionally held a central role in the life of an individual. Ancient Estonians believed saunas were inhabited by spirits. In folk tradition sauna was not only the place where one washed but also used as the place where brides were ceremoniously washed, where women gave birth and the place the dying made their final bed. The folk tradition related to the Estonian sauna is mostly identical to that surrounding the Finnish sauna. On New Year's Eve, a sauna would be held before midnight to cleanse the body and spirit for the upcoming year.

Latvia and Lithuania
In Lithuanian, bathhouse or sauna is ; in Latvian, it is . Both countries have long bathhouse traditions, dating back to the pagan times.

The 13th century bathhouses in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were mentioned in the Hypatian Codex and Chronicon terrae Prussiae, as they were practised by the Lithuanian dukes. Livonian Chronicle of Henry describes a bathhouse built around 1196 near the pier on the bank of Daugava river. The chronicle also mentions the year 1215 baths of the Latgalian ruler Tālivaldis which were built in Trikāta. These baths are also mentioned in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle. Sauna had a considerable role in the pagan traditions of the Baltic people. In the 17th century, Matthäus Prätorius described various rituals the Baltic people practiced in sauna. For example, sauna was a primary place for women to give birth and rites would be performed for the Baltic goddess Laima. At that time, sauna traditions were similar in Aukštaitija, Samogitia, Latgale, Semigallia as well as some West Slavic lands. In 1536, Vilnius gained a royal privilege to build public bathhouses and by the end of the 16th century, the city already had 60 of them with a countless number of private ones. In Latvian lands, bathhouses became particularly popular in the 19th century.

The contemporary Baltic sauna is similar to others in the north-eastern part of Europe: it varies according to personal preference, but is typically around , humidity 60–90%, with steam being generated by pouring water on the hot stones. Traditionally, birch twigs (; ) are the most common, but oak or linden are used too. Sauna enthusiasts also make twigs from other trees and plants, including nettle and juniper. Dry air sauna of  and very low humidity became popular relatively recently; despite being a misconception, it is sometimes locally described as Finnish-type.

Norway and Sweden

In Norway and Sweden saunas are found in many places, and are known as 'badstu' or 'bastu' (from 'badstuga' "bath cabin, bath house"). In Norway and Sweden, saunas are common in almost every public swimming pool and gym. The public saunas are generally single-sex and may or may not permit use of swimwear. Rules for swimwear and towels for sitting on or covering yourself differ between saunas. Removing body hair in the sauna, staring at other's nudity or spreading odors is considered impolite.

Dutch-speaking regions

Public saunas can be found throughout the Netherlands and Flanders, both in major cities and in smaller municipalities, mixed-gender nudity is the generally accepted rule. Some saunas might offer women-only (or "bathing suit only") times for people who are less comfortable with mixed-gender nudity; Algemeen Dagblad reported in 2008 that women-only, bathing suit-required times are drawing Muslim women in the Netherlands to the sauna.

The United Kingdom, Atlantic and Mediterranean Europe

In the United Kingdom and much of Southern Europe, single-gender saunas are the most common type. Nudity is expected in the segregated saunas but usually forbidden in the mixed saunas. This is a source of confusion when residents of these nations visit the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and Austria or vice versa. Sauna sessions tend to be shorter, and cold showers are shunned by most. In the United Kingdom, where public saunas are becoming increasingly fashionable, the practice of alternating between the sauna and the jacuzzi in short seatings (considered a faux pas in Northern Europe) has emerged. Foreign visitors should also be aware that some small establishments advertised as "saunas" are in fact brothels, and it is rare to have a legitimate sauna with no other health spa or gym facilities in the UK.

There is a fast growing new British sauna culture consisting mainly of 'wild' outdoor spas, popping up all over the UK. The British Sauna Society provides a reliable source for the emerging British sauna culture which is inspired by other European and world bathing traditions. Visitors to the UK may find the BSS site useful so as not to make any mistakes when planning visits to saunas.

In Portugal, the steam baths were commonly used by the Castrejos people, prior to the arrival of the Romans in the western part of the Iberian Peninsula. The historian Strabo spoke of Lusitans traditions that consisted of having steam bath sessions followed by cold water baths. Pedra Formosa is the original name given to the central piece of the steam bath in pre-Roman times.

German-speaking countries

In Germany, Austria, Luxembourg South Tyrol and Lombardy, most public swimming pool complexes have sauna areas; in these locales, nudity is the generally accepted rule, and benches are expected to be covered by people's towels. These rules are strictly enforced in some public saunas. Separate single-sex saunas for both genders are rare, most places offer women-only and mixed-gender saunas, or organise women-only days for the sauna once a week. Loud conversation is not usual as the sauna is seen as a place of healing rather than socialising. Contrary to Russia and Nordic countries, pouring water on hot stones to increase humidity (Aufguss, lit: "Onpouring") is not normally done by the sauna visitors themselves; larger sauna areas have a person in charge (the Saunameister) for that, either an employee of the sauna complex or a volunteer. Aufguss sessions can take up to 10 minutes, and take place according to a schedule. During an Aufguss session, the Saunameister uses a large towel to circulate the hot air through the sauna, intensifying sweating and the perception of heat. Once the Aufguss session has started it is not considered good manners to enter the sauna, as opening the door would cause loss of heat (Sauna guests are expected to enter the sauna just in time before the Aufguss. Leaving the session is allowed, but grudgingly tolerated). Aufguss sessions are usually announced by a schedule on the sauna door. An Aufguss session in progress might be indicated by a light or sign hung above the sauna entrance. Cold showers or baths shortly after a sauna, as well as exposure to fresh air in a special balcony, garden or open-air room (Frischluftraum) are considered a must.

In German-speaking Switzerland, customs are generally the same as in Germany and Austria, although you tend to see more families (parents with their children) and young people. Also in respect to socialising in the sauna the Swiss tend more to be like the Finns, Scandinavians or Russians. Also in German-speaking countries, there are many facilities for washing after using the sauna, with 'dunking pools' (pools of very cold water in which a person dips themselves after using the sauna) or showers. In some saunas and steam rooms, scented salts are given out which can be rubbed into the skin for extra aroma and cleaning effects.

Hungary
Hungarians see the sauna as part of wider spa culture. Mixed genders use the sauna together and wear swimsuits. Single-sex saunas are rare, as well as those which tolerate nudity. Some Hungarian saunas have so-called "snow rooms" that look like little cages with snow and icicles, where visitors can cool down for a couple of minutes after each sauna session.

Czech Republic and Slovakia

In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, saunas have a long tradition and are often found as part of recreational facilities, as well as public swimming pools. Many people are regular goers, while many never go. Saunas became more popular after about the year 2000, when large aquaparks and wellness centers began to include them. Nudity is increasingly tolerated, and many places prohibit the use of swimsuits; however, most people cover themselves with a towel. Showers are typically semi-private. Having men and women only days was the norm in the past, but today, men-only facilities are rare, while women-only hours are sometimes provided.

Russia and East Slavic

In many regions of Russia sauna-going plays a central social role. These countries also have the tradition of massaging fellow sauna-goers with leafy, wet birch bunches, called venik (веник) in Russian. In Russian-speaking communities the word banya (Russian: Баня) is widely used also when referring to a public bath. In Russia, public banya baths are strictly single-sex. During wintertime, sauna-goers often run outdoors for either ice swimming or, in the absence of lake, just to roll around in the snow naked and then go back inside. Russian traditional banya is quite similar to Finnish sauna, despite the popular misconception that the Finnish sauna is very dry.

In modern Russia, there are three different types of saunas. The first one, previously very popular especially during the 20th century, is the public sauna or the banya, (also known as the Russian banya), as it is referred to among the locals, is similar in context to public bathhouses in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. The banya is a large setting with many different rooms. There is at least one sauna (Finnish style), one cold pool of water, a relaxation area, another sauna where fellow-sauna goers beat other fellow-sauna goers with the leafy birch, a shower area, a small cafeteria with a TV and drinks, and a large common area that leads to the other areas. In this large area, there are marble bed-like structures where people lie down and receive a massage either by another sauna-member or by a designated masseur. In the resting area, there are also other bed-like structures made of marble or stone attached to the ground where people lie down to rest between different rounds of sauna or at the very end of their banya session. There is also a large public locker area where one keeps one's clothes as well as two other more private locker areas with individual doors that can lock these two separate locker rooms.

The second type of sauna is the Finnish sauna type one can find in any gym throughout the world or a hotel. It could be in the locker room or mixed (i. e. male and female together). Attitudes towards nudity are very liberal and people are less self-conscious about their nude bodies.

The third type of sauna is one that is rented by a group of friends. It is similar to the public banya bath house type, except that it is usually more modern and luxurious, and is often rented by groups of friends by the hour for the use of partying and socialising. Here it can be single-sex or mixed-sex.

North America and Central America

In the United States, the earliest saunas that arrived with the colonists were Swedish bastus in the colony New Sweden around the Delaware River. The Swedish governor at the time had a bathhouse on Tinicum Island. Today sauna culture enjoys its greatest popularity in the Lake Superior Region, specifically the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, especially the Keweenaw Peninsula, and parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa, which are home to large populations of Swedish and particularly Finnish Americans. Duluth, Minnesota, at its peak, had as many as 14 public saunas. Indeed, among Finnish farms in Great Lakes "sauna country", the cultural geographer Matti Kaups, found that 90% had sauna structures - more even than the farms in Finland. Elsewhere, sauna facilities are normally provided at health clubs and at hotels, but there is no tradition or ritual to their use. To avoid liability, many saunas operate at only moderate temperatures and do not allow pouring water on the rocks. A wider range of sauna etiquette is usually acceptable in the United States compared to other countries, with the exception that most mixed-sex saunas usually require some clothing such as a bathing suit to be worn. These are uncommon, however, as most saunas are either small private rooms or in the changing rooms of health clubs or gyms. There are few restrictions and their use is casual; bathers may enter and exit the sauna as they please, be it nude, with a towel, dripping wet in swimsuits or even in workout clothes (the latter being very unusual). Like many aspects of US culture, there are few prescribed conventions and the bather should remain astute to "read" the specific family or community's expectations. Besides the Finnish Americans, the older generation of Korean-Americans still uses the saunas as it is available to them. Sauna societies are beginning to emerge in colleges across America, with the first one being formed at Gustavus Adolphus College.

A cultural legacy of Eastern European Jews in America is the culture of 'shvitz', which used to be widespread in the East Coast and occasionally in the Pacific West Coast.

The sweat lodge, used by a number of Native American and First Nations traditional ceremonial cultures, is a location for a spiritual ceremony. The focus is on the ceremony, and the sweating is only secondary. Unlike sauna traditions, and most forcefully in the case of the Inipi, the sweat lodge ceremonies have been robustly defended as an exclusively Native expression of spirituality rather than a recreational activity.

Traditions and old beliefs

A Finnish word löyly  is strictly connected to the sauna. It can be translated as "sauna steam" and refers to the steam vapour created by splashing water on the heated rocks. In many languages related to Finnish, there is a word corresponding to löyly. The same approximate meaning is used across the Finnic languages such as in Estonian leil. Originally this word meant "spirit" or "life", as in e. g. Hungarian lélek and Khanty lil, which both mean "soul", referring to the sauna's old, spiritual essence. The same dual meaning of both "spirit" and "(sauna) steam" is also preserved in the Latvian word gars. There is an old Finnish saying, "saunassa ollaan kuin kirkossa",—one should behave in the sauna as in church.

Saunatonttu, literally translated as "sauna elf", is a little gnome or tutelary spirit that was believed to live in the sauna. He was always treated with respect, otherwise, he might cause much trouble for people. It was customary to warm up the sauna just for the tonttu every now and then, or to leave some food outside for him. It is said that he warned the people if a fire was threatening the sauna or punished people who behaved improperly in it—for example, slept, or played games, argued, were generally noisy or behaved otherwise immorally there. Such creatures are believed to exist in different cultures. The Russian banya has an entirely corresponding character called a bannik.

In Thailand, women spend hours in a makeshift sauna tent during a month following childbirth. The steam is typically infused with several herbs. It is believed that the sauna helps the new mother's body return to its normal condition more quickly.

See also

Notes

References

Culture of Finland
Culture of Estonia
Finnish inventions
Finnish words and phrases
Rooms
Traditional medicine
Bathing

Sauna


KNCH (90.1 FM) is the National Public Radio station for the Concho Valley of west-central Texas.  Licensed to San Angelo, it is owned by Texas Tech University and operated out of Texas Tech's campus in Lubbock.  However, it is branded as a separate station.

The station first signed on in 1996 as KUTX, owned by the University of Texas as a sister station to KUT in Austin.  Its arrival brought public radio to one of the few areas in the nation that didn't have a clear signal from a public radio station.  The station was a straight simulcast of KUT, with no local programming.

In 2007, however, UT began discussions about selling KUTX to Texas Tech.  At the time, Angelo State University was in the process of joining the Texas Tech University System, and UT officials thought KUTX would be a perfect complement.  The sale closed in December 2009.  Texas Tech officially took control in April 2010 and changed the calls to the current KNCH.  Texas Tech immediately set about rebranding KNCH as a more locally oriented station, though for the time being it is operated out of the studios of Texas Tech's KTTZ-FM.

External links

KUTX sold to Tech, call letters changed to KNCH

NPR member stations
NCH
Texas Tech University
Radio stations established in 1996

KNCH


Donald Eugene O'Brien (September 30, 1923 – August 18, 2015) was a United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Iowa and the United States District Court for the Southern District of Iowa. He was an officer in the United States Army Air Corps in World War II, a Democratic nominee for the United States House of Representatives, a United States Attorney, and a political organizer.

Education and career

O'Brien was born in Marcus, Iowa to Michael J. and Myrtle O'Brien on September 30, 1923. He interrupted his college coursework at Trinity College in Sioux City, Iowa to serve as a lieutenant in the United States Army Air Corps from 1942 to 1945. He flew 30 bombing missions over Europe and receiving the Distinguished Flying Cross. After completing his undergraduate studies at Trinity College, he entered Creighton University School of Law, graduating in 1948 with a Bachelor of Laws. He was in private practice in Sioux City from 1948 to 1949, before becoming an assistant city attorney of Sioux City in 1949. He married Ruth Mahon in 1950. In 1952 he chaired the Adlai Stevenson's presidential campaign in his Iowa congressional district. After serving as the County Attorney of Woodbury County, Iowa from 1955 to 1958, he served as a Sioux City municipal judge from 1959 to 1960.

In 1958 and again in 1960 O'Brien was the Democratic nominee to represent Iowa's 8th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives, but lost both races to longtime Republican incumbent Charles B. Hoeven. In 1961 President John F. Kennedy appointed him the United States Attorney for the Northern District of Iowa, a position he held until 1967. Soon after leaving office, he became an advance man in the 1968 presidential campaigns of Robert F. Kennedy, then George McGovern, and later Hubert H. Humphrey. He was in private practice in Sioux City from 1967 to 1978. He organized McGovern's general election campaign in Southern California in 1972 and Jimmy Carter's general election campaign in Michigan in 1976. In 1977 he served as special counsel to a subcommittee of the United States House Committee on Small Business for its investigation of anti-competitive practices in the meat industry.

Federal judicial service

From 1962 to 1979 Iowa had three federal district judges — one in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Iowa, one in the United States District Court for the Southern District of Iowa, and a third serving both Districts. On September 27, 1978 Carter nominated O'Brien to succeed Judge William C. Hanson in the third of those positions. O'Brien was confirmed by the United States Senate on October 4, 1978, and received his commission on October 5, 1978. O'Brien presided in the western and central divisions of both Districts until December 1, 1990, when he began to serve exclusively in the Northern District as a new judgeship was added in the Southern District. He served as Chief Judge of the Northern District from 1985 to 1992. O'Brien assumed senior status on December 30, 1992, and continued to preside over cases from chambers in Sioux City, until his death on August 18, 2015, in Sioux City.

References

Sources
 Neil Miller, Sex-Crime Panic: A Journey to the Paranoid Heart of the 1950s (NY: Alyson Books, 2002)

1923 births
2015 deaths
People from Cherokee County, Iowa
People from Iowa City, Iowa
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Iowa lawyers
Iowa state court judges
Iowa Democrats
Judges of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Iowa
Judges of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Iowa
United States district court judges appointed by Jimmy Carter
20th-century American judges
United States Army Air Forces officers
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
United States Attorneys for the Northern District of Iowa
Creighton University School of Law alumni

Donald E. O'Brien


Charles Davenant (1656 – 1714) was an English economist, Tory politician and pamphleteer who sat in the Parliament of England representing the parliamentary constituencies of St Ives and Great Bedwyn.

Life
He was born in London as the eldest son of Sir William Davenant, the poet. He was educated at Cheam grammar school and Balliol College, Oxford, but left the university without taking a degree. He became manager of his father's theatre. Having taken the degree of LL.D., he became a member of Doctors' Commons.

In 1678 Davenant was appointed Commissioner of the Excise, earning £500 per year (); taxes were collected using the "farming system". In 1683 when Britain ended the tax farming system, Davenant received £1000 per year as Commissioner. In 1685 he was elected to Parliament as M.P. for St Ives. However, the revolution of 1688 saw James II exiled to France and William of Orange installed as king by Parliament. In 1689 Davenant lost his position as Commissioner of the Excise, and his loan to James II was nullified.

In 1692 he applied for Controller of the Excise, with Godolphin's support, but did not get the position. He applied again in 1694 and again failed to get the position, probably due to objections by Charles Montagu, the Chancellor of the Exchequer. In 1696 his friends in government, Shrewsbury and Godolphin, were under political attack. Godolphin resigned shortly afterward, and Davenant lost his main supporter for appointment to a public office.

In 1698 Davenant returned to Parliament as a representative of Great Bedwyn; he became associated with the Tory party, which replaced the Whig Junto as the majority in Parliament. Davenant was linked to French agents in March 1701, and it was suspected, but not proved, that the French government tried to bribe him to promote their interests and to provide intelligence if England declared war on France. There is evidence that a French agent recommended bribing Davenant, but there is no evidence that "a bribe was ever actually offered or accepted." The link with the French tarnished Davenant's public and political reputation.

In 1702 Queen Anne assumed the throne. The Junto Pembroke Ministry was removed from power, and Davenant's friends—Godolphin, Nottingham, and Harley—were placed in positions of power in the Coalition Ministry. In September 1702 Davenant was appointed to the Secretaryship of a commission to negotiate for the union of Scotland and England. In June 1703 he was appointed Inspector General of the Imports and Exports.

Davenant visited Holland in Autumn 1705, to research wartime traffic with France.

In 1710 Godolphin lost his office, which removed one of Davenant's supporters from power and threatened his position as Inspector General of the Imports and Exports. Davenant wrote Sir Thomas Double at Court and New Dialogues upon the Present Posture of Affairs to make amends with the Tory party, which was likely to be returning to power. Sir Thomas Double at Court reversed Davenant's argument for moderation in his 1703 Essays upon Peace at Home and War Abroad; and New Dialogues upon the Present Posture of Affairs repeated the attacks on the methods of financing public spending that he had been stating since 1689. He also reversed his stance from Memorial Concerning the Free Trade now Tolerated between France and Holland and argued that the Dutch were benefitting from trade with France while "Britain bore the burden of the war."

Davenant died in 1714 in London.

Works
At the age of nineteen he composed a tragedy, Circe. As an economist, Davenant was a strong supporter of the mercantile theory, and in his economic pamphlets (as distinct from his political writings) he takes up an eclectic position, recommending governmental restrictions on colonial commerce, but freedom of exchange at home.

Of his writings, a complete edition of which was published in London in 1771, the following are the more important:
An Essay on the East India Trade (1697)
Two Discourses on the Public Revenues and Trade of England (1698)
An Essay on the probable means of making the people gainers in the balance of Trade (1699)
A Discourse on Grants and Resumptions and Essays on the Balance of Power (1701)

In late 1694 he published An Essay on the Ways and Means of supplying the War, "a reasoned criticism of the methods used to finance the war with France which England had been waging since 1689. It attacked long-term borrowing as detrimental to trade, and land taxation as inequitable, because of its uneven incidence across the country."

In November 1695 he wrote and read Memorial Concerning the Coyn of England to the Privy Council. This work, commissioned by the Lords Justices, was an argument against the majority party's proposal that England's coins should be devalued to pay for the war with France.

In 1696 he published A Memorial Concerning a Council of Trade, which promoted his idea that trade should be protected, and A Memorial Concerning Credit and the Means and Methods whereby it may be Restored, generally viewed as an attempt to curry favour with the party in power to gain a post in the Excise department. In October 1696 he published Essay on Publick Virtue, a diatribe against the ruling Whig Junto. In 1696, also, he published Essay on the East India Trade in which he "opposed the protection of English Textiles against Indian competition on the grounds that commerce with East India improved Britain's balance of trade, and he refuted the arguments of the protectionists with further applications of the balance of trade concept."

In 1697 he published Discourses on the Publick Revenues and on the Trade of England, part 1, which contained strong objections to long-term borrowing as a way to fund government expenditures and advocated paying back the debt incurred during the war as soon as possible.  The basis for Davenant's argument was that "high taxation for debt service was a burden on trade, industry, and land." Davenant still believed that land tax was unfair because it placed the heaviest burden of generating public income on the landed gentry, and that the long-term result would be that the gentry would be forced to sell their land to "monied men and usurers" to pay the taxes.

In 1698 he published Discourses on the Publick Revenues and on the Trade of England part 2, which described "in a more sustained and complete form the idea of the 'general' balance of trade." There is a likely possibility that this pamphlet was also intended to keep his name before the officials of the East India Company as someone who was sympathetic to their business because he was trying to get them to hire him as an agent.

In early 1699 he published An Essay on the probable Methods of making a People Gainers in the Balance of Trade. It quoted Gregory King's calculation of the value and size of the "natural resources of England." The last section contained an attack on the actions and policies of the Junto party and was more of a political rant than an exposition of economic ideas. At the end of 1699 he published A Discourse of Grants and Resumptions, which discussed the practice of the king and queen of England granting "forfeited Irish Estates" to friends and political allies of the Junto party. Davenant's writings begin to shift away from purely economic discussions to political commentary designed to curry favour with the ruling party to secure employment. In 1701 he published Essays upon I The Balance of Power II The Right of Making War, Peace, and Alliances III Universal Monarchy, "a highly partisan attack on William III's foreign policy."

In August 1701 Davenant published The True Picture of a Modern Whig, an attempt to counter the Whig party's push to dissolve the Tory party Parliament by "defending Tory views and exposing Whig motives." His Tom Double Returned out of the Country, also published 1701, explained all of Davenant's ideas on trade and public finance and the underlying reasoning behind them. His main concern was that the Whig party would restart the war with France and put the country further into debt, which would in turn require greater taxation of land owners. The land owners would be bankrupted, and the people who had made money off the war would be able to buy the land and usurp the political power of the gentry.

His Essays upon Peace at Home and War Abroad, published November 1703, "promoted 'moderation' and the anti-party attitude favoured by the Queen and Harley." This pamphlet angered his friends in the Tory party because it was in opposition to the policies the party was pushing at the time. Before 1702, he was the leading promoter of party ideas. With this essay, he was falling out of favour and gaining a reputation for promoting whatever idea benefits him the most personally.

In 1704 Davenant proposed compiling trade numbers for the previous 25 years. The cost of clerks to do the actual tabulation was the primary reason for denial of his request. He wrote, but did not publish, Memorial Concerning the Free Trade now Tolerated between France and Holland. The goal was to find support for the current policy of permitting trade between France and Holland. Davenant displayed a favourable opinion of the Dutch in this pamphlet, which contrasts with the position taken in nearly all his other pamphlets.

In 1709 Davenant published Reflections upon the Constitution and Management of Trade to Africa, in which he "reverted to his normal attitude of suspicion and outright hostility towards the Dutch." This pamphlet advocated renewing the Royal African Company's monopoly on English trade with Africa on the basis that the Dutch competition "necessitated the maintenance of forts, which only a joint-stock company could afford." Waddell states that there had been close collaboration between the company and Davenant and that he may have been compensated for writing it. He did go to great lengths to publish the pamphlet anonymously, and was apparently in a difficult financial position; Waddell therefore suggests that this was a work-for-hire and not necessarily something which Davenant actually supported.

In 1712 Davenant published two Reports to the … Commissioners for … Public Accounts. Although these reports contained a large amount of statistical data, they continued the theme from "New Dialogues upon the Present Posture of Affairs" that Holland benefitted from trade with France while Britain took on heavy debt during the war with France and that trade with France "was or could be advantageous to England." This coincided with Jonathan Swift's Conduct of the Allies and provided the economic basis for peace and a commercial treaty with France.

There is some question whether the Law of Demand was developed by Gregory King and then used in some of Charles Davenant's writings or whether King and Davenant jointly developed the idea based on King's statistical work and published their theory in Davenant's pamphlets. King does not describe a formal definition of the law in his journal, which is the primary source of his writings, and Davenant does not seem to be an innovative thinker and often wrote pamphlets to promote ideas or policies that would be beneficial to his personal economic or political status; therefore, it seems likely Davenant extended King's work to prove his claims that borrowing to fund the war was bad for England's economy and that excise taxes were the appropriate way to fund the government.

Davenant is also credited with being the first to discuss the concept of Balance of Trade as being an important part of the financial health of a country. The foundation of the idea is that importing more goods than were exported would create an outflow of currency. He proposed in An Essay on Ways and Means of Supplying the War in 1695 that "export surplus was the best way to finance the war" as opposed to taking on long-term debt and increasing taxes on landowners.

In 1696, Davenant wrote Essay on the East-India Trade, which continued the argument that imports should not be restricted because England was a net exporter of the goods imported from India. The restriction of imports would prevent re-exporting the goods to the rest of Europe, and that would decrease the total income of the government. He also expressed a great dislike and distrust of the Dutch government for most of his life, and feared that if Britain did not supply Indian imports the Dutch would supply Europe instead. He did seem to be the first to understand the basic concepts of consumer demand and perfect competition, even though bias against the Dutch stems more from fear of a political challenger to England than fear of losing the competitive advantage of England's monopoly in India.

See also
 Gross domestic product
Royal African Company - assistant 1708

References

External links

1656 births
1714 deaths
17th-century English economists
Mercantilists
Members of Doctors' Commons
People educated at Cheam School
18th-century British economists

Charles Davenant


Związek Jedności Narodowej (English: Union/Association of National Unity) was a secret organization formed by followers of Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski.  A liberal-aristocratic fraction of the Polish Great Emigration, come into being on January 21, 1833.

The association directed in emigration science, literature, pedagogic and charity organisations in partitioned Poland. In 1837 the association was transformed into the "Insurrectionary-Monarchist Society".

Main activists:

 Adam Jerzy Czartoryski (leader)
 Stanisław Barzykowski
 Henryk Dembiński
 Karol Kniaziewicz
 Narcyz Olizar

See also
 Hotel Lambert

Organizations established in 1833
1830s in Poland
Great Emigration

Conservatism in Poland

Union of National Unity


Bart Willoughby (born on 12 September 1960) is an Aboriginal Australian musician. He became notable during the 1980s for introducing a unique style of music, mixing aboriginal music with reggae and rock music. Willoughby is often seen as a pioneer for modern indigenous musicians in Australia. He was the first Aborigine to sign a record contract and the first to compose the music for a movie. His band No Fixed Address was the first indigenous band to tour overseas.

Since then, Willoughby has performed with many famous musicians and bands, including Midnight Oil, Cold Chisel, Peter Tosh, Shane Howard and Yothu Yindi. Willoughby is now known as one of Australia's leading Aboriginal rock composers and performers. His song "We Have Survived", composed when he was 18, is often seen as a kind of anthem by indigenous Australians. Others of his more well known songs include "Black Man's Rights", "Aboriginal Woman" and "My Father is an Aboriginal Man".

Childhood
Willoughby was born in 1960 in South Australia. His father was Kokatha, with relations to the Pitjantjatjara and Warlpiri nations; and his mother was a member of the Mirning people, from the Nullabor Plain. Willoughby grew up at Koonibba, which was a Lutheran mission at the time. When he was 15 years old, he began learning at the Centre for Aboriginal Studies in Music at the University of Adelaide. Here he was introduced to drumming, guitars and Western music. Over the next few years there, he developed an unusual style of music by mixing traditional indigenous music with modern Western music styles, particularly reggae.

Career

No Fixed Address
In 1978, Willoughby formed his first band, No Fixed Address. This was Australia's first indigenous rock band. The band played its first big concert in 1979, and held several gigs over the next few years. They mostly played at concerts that promoted political and social causes. The band signed a recording contract in 1982, with Rough Diamond Records. It was the first record deal with an Aboriginal musical act in Australia. The deal produced the band's first extended play, From My Eyes, which began with the song "We Have Survived". Its sale was launched in Sydney by the Prime Minister Bob Hawke.

Later in the year, Willoughby and his band toured Australia as the opening act for Peter Tosh. Willoughby also played drums with Shane Howard and Goanna during their own tours of the country. The success from Tosh's tour led the Aboriginal Arts Board to give No Fixed Address a grant, to be used for a tour of their own overseas. The band toured England, in 1984. It was the first Aboriginal band to travel and play overseas. They played in nine cities, including London, Bristol, Leeds, Plymouth and Manchester. They also played at the Elephant Fayre festival in Saint Germans, Cornwall, and at a benefit concert for the miners' strikes.

After coming back to Australia, Willoughby joined his cousin's new band Coloured Stone. He played with this group from 1984, including during its tour of Scotland in 1986. They played at that year's Edinburgh Festival. They returned to Australia for the Australian Music Awards at the end of the year, and won the Best Indigenous Album award for Human Love.

Willoughby reformed No Fixed Address in 1987, and the band toured Europe during 1987–1988.

Mixed Relations
Late in 1988, Willoughby was asked to join the newly formed Yothu Yindi as drummer on their tour for the album Diesel & Dust. The tour visited 73 cities in the United States. Willoughby left Yothu Yindi in 1989 after the tour, and formed a new band Mixed Relations. This is the band he currently plays with. They have toured many Aboriginal communities and Australian cities, as well as several countries in the Pacific Islands.

In 1989, the band performed as the closing act for the very first Invasion Day (an alternative to Australia Day) concert at La Perouse in Sydney. They returned every year after that until the concerts stopped in 1994. They also represented Australia at the South Pacific Music Festival in 1990 and 1992, and at the Asian Music Festival in 1990 and 1992.

Film and television
In 1980, Willoughby starred with another indigenous band (Us Mob) in a movie called Wrong Side of the Road. It was a biographical drama movie about racism against Aboriginal musicians in rural towns. The movie won an award from the Australian Film Institute (AFI) in 1981. In 1990, Willoughby was cast in a small role in Until the End of the World. The movie starred William Hurt and Sam Neill, as well as indigenous actors Ernie Dingo, David Gulpilil and Jimmy Little.

Willoughby also composed and recorded the soundtracks for several movies (mostly documentaries). These were done with No Fixed Address, and included Always Was, Always Will Be in 1988 and Special Treatment: Locking up Aboriginal Children in 1991. In 1992, he became the first Aboriginal to compose, play and direct the music track of a feature film. The movie was Jindalee Lady, directed by Brian Syron. The movie was shown as part of the International First Nations Art and Film Festival in Edmonton, Canada, and the Hawaii International Film Festival.

Later years
Willoughby was given the very first Indigenous Australian Music Lifetime Achievement Award in 1993 for his contribution to the growth of indigenous music in Australia. Sol Bellear, Commissioner of the Aboriginal Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) said that Willoughby had been an "innovator" for indigenous musicians in Australia:

In the same year, Willoughby began teaching music to children at a Pitjantjatjara school in Yalata.

In 1997, Willoughby signed a contract as a solo artist with CAAMA Music. His first album was Pathways. It was nominated for an award by the Australian Performing Rights Association (APRA). In 2011, both No Fixed Address and Coloured Stone were put in the National Indigenous Music Awards Hall of Fame.

Discography

Soundtracks
Always Was, Always Will Be (1989; documentary)
Special Treatment: Locking up Aboriginal Children (1991; documentary)
Jindalee Lady (1992)
Wrong Side of the Road (1980)

Records
With No Fixed Address
Rock Against Racism, Vol. 1 (1979; live recording from concert)
National Aboriginal Music Festival (1980; live recording from concert)
From My Eyes (1982)
Take It or Leave It
Aboriginal Woman
Love

With the Big Heart Band
Stompem' Ground (1991)

Solo work
Pathways (1997)
Frequencies (2000)

References

Other websites

Bart Willoughby  at The Black Arm Band
Bart Willoughby at NITV

1960 births
Living people
Indigenous Australian musicians
Australian guitarists
Australian movie actors
Musicians from South Australia
Pitjantjatjara
Australian singer-songwriters
Australian drummers
Australian rock musicians
Reggae musicians
Actors from South Australia

Bart Willoughby


In photography, a negative is an image, usually on a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film, in which the lightest areas of the photographed subject appear darkest and the darkest areas appear lightest. This reversed order occurs because the extremely light-sensitive chemicals a camera film must use to capture an image quickly enough for ordinary picture-taking are darkened, rather than bleached, by exposure to light and subsequent photographic processing.

In the case of color negatives, the colors are also reversed into their respective complementary colors. Typical color negatives have an overall dull orange tint due to an automatic color-masking feature that ultimately results in improved color reproduction.

Negatives are normally used to make positive prints on photographic paper by projecting the negative onto the paper with a photographic enlarger or making a contact print. The paper is also darkened in proportion to its exposure to light, so a second reversal results which restores light and dark to their normal order.

Negatives were once commonly made on a thin sheet of glass rather than a plastic film, and some of the earliest negatives were made on paper.

Transparent positive prints can be made by printing a negative onto special positive film, as is done to make traditional motion picture film prints for use in theaters. Some films used in cameras are designed to be developed by reversal processing, which produces the final positive, instead of a negative, on the original film. Positives on film or glass are known as transparencies or diapositives, and if mounted in small frames designed for use in a slide projector or magnifying viewer they are commonly called slides.

Negative image

A positive image is a normal image. A negative image is a total inversion, in which light areas appear dark and vice versa. A negative color image is additionally color-reversed, with red areas appearing cyan, greens appearing magenta, and blues appearing yellow, and vice versa.

Under a phenomenon known as the 'negative picture illusion', a negative image can be briefly experienced by the human visual system where an afterimage persists subsequent to a prolonged gaze.

Film negatives usually have less contrast, but a wider dynamic range, than the final printed positive images. The contrast typically increases when they are printed onto photographic paper. When negative film images are brought into the digital realm, their contrast may be adjusted at the time of scanning or, more usually, during subsequent post-processing.

Negative film

Film for cameras that use the 35 mm still format is sold as a long strip of emulsion-coated and perforated plastic spooled in a light-tight cassette. Before each exposure, a mechanism inside the camera is used to pull an unexposed area of the strip out of the cassette and into position behind the camera lens. When all exposures have been made the strip is rewound into the cassette. After the film is chemically developed, the strip shows a series of small negative images. It is usually then cut into sections for easier handling. Medium format cameras use 120 film, which yields a strip of negatives 60 mm wide, and large format cameras capture each image on a single sheet of film which may be as large as 20 x 25 cm (8 x 10 inches) or even larger. Each of these photographed images may be referred to as a negative and an entire strip or set of images may be collectively referred to as "the negatives". They are the master images, from which all positive prints will derive, so they are handled and stored with special care.

Many photographic processes create negative images: the chemicals involved react when exposed to light, so that during development they produce deposits of microscopic dark silver particles or colored dyes in proportion to the amount of exposure. However, when a negative image is created from a negative image (just like multiplying two negative numbers in mathematics) a positive image results. This makes most chemical-based photography a two-step process, which uses negative film and ordinary processing. Special films and development processes have been devised so that positive images can be created directly on the film; these are called positive, or slide, or (perhaps confusingly) reversal films and reversal processing.

Despite the market's evolution away from film, there is still a desire and market for products which allow fine art photographers to produce negatives from digital images for their use in alternative processes such as cyanotypes, gum bichromate, platinum prints, and many others. Such negative images, however, can have less permanence and less accuracy in reproduction than their digital counterparts.

Negative images and digital processing

A negative image can allow a different perception of an everyday scene perhaps highlighting spatial relationships and details that are less obvious in the positive image.  For example, the photographer Andrew Prokos has produced an award-winning series of photographs under the "inverted" banner.  The advent of digital image processing has expanded the possibilities.  In a physical photograph the colour and luminance can only be inverted in tandem, but digital processing allows each to be inverted separately.  If the hue of an image is rotated by 180 degrees, then the colour of the image is inverted but not its luminance.  The negative of such an image has the luminance inverted but not the colour. Whereas a physical image can be either 'inverted' or 'not inverted', a digital image can exhibit a partial degree of colour inversion in so far as the hue can be altered by plus or minus some number of degrees which is greater than zero degrees but less than 180 degrees.

References

External links

Photography equipment
Photographic film types

Negative (photography)


Year 157 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Caesar and Orestes (or, less frequently, year 597 Ab urbe condita) and the Seventh Year of Houyuan. The denomination 157 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Events
 By place

 Roman Republic
 The Carthaginians, prevented by their treaty with Rome from engaging in armed resistance, but equally guaranteed against any loss of territory, appeal to Rome against the depredations of King Masinissa of Numidia. The Roman censor Marcus Porcius Cato heads a commission which arbitrates a truce between Carthage and her former ally, Masinissa.
 During his time in Carthage, Cato is so struck by the evidence of Carthaginian prosperity that he is convinced that the security of Rome now depends on the annihilation of Carthage. From this time on, Cato keeps repeating the cry "Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam" ("Moreover, I advise that Carthage must be destroyed") at the end of all his speeches, no matter what subject they concern.
 After Ariarathes V has been deposed from the Cappadocian throne by the Seleucid king Demetrius I Soter and has fled to Rome, the new king of Cappadocia, Orophernes, sends two ambassadors to Rome to join the Seleucid emissaries of Demetrius in opposing Ariarathes V's return to power. Despite their efforts, Ariarathes V is restored to his throne by the Romans. However, Rome allows Orophernes to reign jointly with him. The joint government, however, does not last long, as Ariarathes V becomes sole king of Cappadocia shortly afterwards.

 Seleucid Empire
 Jonathan Maccabeus is recognised by the Seleucids as a minor king within their dominions.

Births
 30 July – Wu of Han, who will be emperor of the Chinese Han dynasty from 141 BC (d. 87 BC)
 Gaius Marius, Roman general and politician who will be elected consul seven times; he will also introduce major reforms to the Roman army, authorising recruitment of landless citizens and reorganising the structure of the legions (d. 86 BC)
 Sanatruces (also known as Sinatruces or Sanatruk), King of Parthia who will rule the Parthian Empire from around 77 BC (approximate date) (d. c. 70 BC)

Deaths
 July 6 – Wen of Han, Emperor of the Chinese Han dynasty since 180 BC (b. 200 BC)

References

157 BC