Milo Ray Baughman, Jr. (October 7, 1923 –  July 23, 2003) born in Goodland, Kansas, was a modern furniture designer.

Baughman designed for a number of furniture companies starting in the mid-1940s until his death, including Mode Furniture, Glenn of California, The Inco Company, Pacific Iron, Murray Furniture of Winchendon, Arch Gordon, George Kovacs, Directional, and Drexel, among others.  He is most well known, however, for his longtime association with Thayer Coggin Inc., of High Point, NC, which began in 1953 and lasted until his death in 2003.

He also lectured broadly on the state of modern design, extolling the positive benefits of good design on the lives of human being.

Early life
Baughman moved with his family in his infancy to Long Beach, California.  At the age of 13, Milo was assigned the task of designing both the interior and exterior of his family's new house.  Following high school he served for four years in the Army Air Forces during World War II, during which time he was active in designing officer's clubs.  After the war he returned to Southern California to study product and architectural design at the Art Center School of Los Angeles and at Chouinard Art Institute, which later became the California Institute of the Arts.

Design career

Upon completing his studies, he was hired to work at the Frank Brothers furniture store as an interior and custom furniture designer. While there, he met Georgia Christensen, who founded and published Furniture Forum, a publication on modern design complete with photos, dimensions, pricing, as well as designer photos and biographies.  He left Frank Brothers in 1947 to establish "Milo Baughman Design Inc.," and quickly did commissions for Glenn of California and Pacific Iron.  The "California Modern" collection created for Glenn of California in 1950 used walnut, birch and aluminum. Next, the large furniture manufacturer Drexel invited him to their North Carolina headquarters to create three collections.  Following this, Murray Furniture of Winchendon Massachusetts introduced "The Milo Baughman Collection" in 1953.  During this time, Milo ran his own custom design shop with Olga Lee (his wife at the time) in Los Angeles from 1951–1953. Lee contributed hand printed fabrics, wallpaper, lamps and accessories to go alongside Baughman's furniture designs; both offered their services as interior consultants. The Baughman-Lee showroom was located at 744 1/2 North La Cienega Blvd., Los Angeles.

In 1953, his 50-year association with Thayer Coggin Inc. began. "In a way, Thayer and Milo got their start together," according to Dot Coggin, Thayer's wife. "Milo came here when the company was in its organisational stage. Thayer was looking for a designer and their relationship began with a handshake agreement." By the 1960s and 1970s, his new collection presented at the High Point Market every year.  Some of his most well-known designs come from this period, including the "951-103" chair, c. 1962, "820–400" chaise (1954), "989–103" Lounge Chair, and "955-304" Sofa.

In addition to the "High Styles" show at the Whitney Museum of Art in New York City, Baughman's furniture has been exhibited in museums and shows throughout the United States, including the Southeastern Center for Contemporary Art in Winston-Salem, NC; the North Carolina Museum of Art in Raleigh. Milo Baughman was inducted into the Furniture Designer's Hall of Fame in 1987.

New faith
In 1965, Baughman converted to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and was active and passionate about his newfound faith until his death.  In 1969, he was invited by Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah to establish the Department of Environmental Design, where he remained chairman and adjunct professor for six years while he continued his professional design business.  He then split his time between a farmhouse in Virginia and a home in Winston-Salem, North Carolina for twelve years, and then back to Utah in 1987, where he was a senior lecturer at BYU for another nine years.  Baughman also lectured at Rhode Island School of Design, the University of Tennessee, the University of Wisconsin–Madison and North Carolina State, among others.  He remained in Utah where he maintained a professional design studio until his death on July 23, 2003.

References

External links
 "Milo Baughman Gallery" on the Thayer Coggin website
 Architonic website on Milo Baughman
 Milo Baughman at R20th

American furniture designers
Brigham Young University faculty
Chouinard Art Institute alumni
Artists from Utah
Latter Day Saints from Virginia
Converts to Mormonism
1923 births
2003 deaths
People from Goodland, Kansas
Mid-century modern
Latter Day Saints from Utah
Latter Day Saints from California
American military personnel of World War II
Latter Day Saints from North Carolina

Milo Baughman


Eagle rays are cartilaginous fish in the ray family Myliobatidae. They are mostly large species living in the open ocean rather than on the sea bottom.

Eagle rays feed on molluscs and crustaceans, crushing their shells with their flattened teeth, while devil rays and manta rays filter plankton from the water.

They are excellent swimmers and are able to breach the water up to several metres above the surface. Compared with other rays, they have long tails, and well-defined diamond-shaped bodies. They are ovoviviparous, giving birth to up to six young at a time. They range from  to  in length.

The tail looks like a whip and may be as long as the body. It is armed with a sting. Eagle rays live close to the coast in depths of 1 to 30 metres and in exceptional cases they are found as deep as 300 m. The eagle ray is commonly seen cruising along sandy beaches in very shallow waters.

Classification
In Nelson's Fishes of the World, the eagle rays are a subfamily, and are joined by the manta rays and the eagle rays. As Nelson sees it, there are seven genera in the family, in three subfamilies. In our classification, the three groups are families in the suborder Myliobatoidei.

References

Rays

Eagle ray


A cargo bike (also known as a box bike, carrier cycle, freight bicycle, cycletruck, or freight tricycle) is a human powered vehicle designed and constructed specifically for transporting loads. Cargo bike designs include a cargo area consisting of an open or enclosed box, a flat platform, or a wire basket, usually mounted over one or both wheels, low behind the front wheel, or between parallel wheels at either the front or rear of the vehicle. The frame, drivetrain and wheels must be constructed to handle loads larger than those on an ordinary bicycle.

Development
The first cargo bikes were used by tradesmen to deliver mail, bread and milk amongst other things. Early cargo bikes were heavy-duty standard bicycles, with heavy carriers at front or rear, sometimes with a smaller front wheel to accommodate a large front carrier. During the early part of the 20th century these were commonly used by tradesmen for local deliveries. In the UK this style is still sometimes known as a butcher's bike or delibike, although the Post Office have by far the largest fleet.

With the domination of the internal combustion engine in the industrialized countries after World War II, cargo bikes became less popular. In the rest of the world, however, they continued to be manufactured and heavily used. In the 2000s, ecologically minded designers and small-scale manufacturers initiated a revival of the cargo bike manufacturing sector.

Some cargo bike makers and users use power assist motors to complement the power of the cyclist. Power assist can increase the payload and range of cargo bikes, but also increases the cost of the bicycle and requires an on-board battery.

Common uses
Cargo bikes are used in a variety of settings:
 Delivery services in dense urban environments
 Transporting children
 Food vending in high foot traffic areas (including specialist ice cream bikes)
 Transporting trade tools, including around large installations such as power stations and CERN
 Airport cargo handling
 Recycling collections
 Warehouse inventory transportation
 Mail delivery (The UK post office operates a fleet of 33,000 bicycles, mainly the Pashley MailStar)

Types

In Amsterdam and Copenhagen, cargo bikes are extremely popular. In Amsterdam many residents simply fit large front carriers to sturdy city bicycles. There is also a broad variety of specially made cargo bikes including low-loading two-wheelers with extended wheelbases, bicycles with small front wheels to fit huge front carriers, tadpole-type three-wheelers with a box between the two front wheels. Other varieties include a platform, basket etc. instead of the box, the loading area between two rear wheels (delta-fashion), small-wheel two-wheelers loading both back and front. An occasional four-wheeler can also be seen, especially within a plant, warehouse or the like, where demands on stability and loading capacity are higher than on range.

Many models are now available with an electric assist which can make them more useful for longer distances or for varied terrain, i.e. not flat cities, amongst other reasons, such as feeling more confident riding in car traffic due to faster acceleration from stopping.

Cycle truck
The Cycle truck refers to a type of cargo bike with a smaller front wheel than rear, typically  rear and  front.

Butcher's bike

Also referred to as a Baker's bike, although this style of cargo bike was popular with a wide variety of trades during the first half of the 20th century, particularly in the United Kingdom. Typically, they would have a basket or storage box mounted within a framework which was fixed to the frame (not the forks) of the bike. Often, they would also feature a sign advertising the business concerned, which would be attached within the main triangle of the bicycle frame.

The Schwinn Cycle Truck, produced in America between 1939 and 1967, also employed the same basket to frame arrangement.

Boda-boda

A boda-boda (or bodaboda) is a two-wheeled bicycle or motorcycle taxi, originally in East Africa. Boda Boda is also the name of Yuba Bicycles compact cargo bike introduced in 2012.

Stroller Bike
A cargo bicycle that converts into a stroller. Three wheels are used when the bike is in a stroller configuration, and two wheels are used when it is in a bike configuration with the cargo in front of the cyclist. This cargo bike can carry up to 100 lbs (45.4 kg). The stroller bike won the Gold Award at the Eurobike exhibition in 2018 as a special-purpose bike.

Long John bicycle

The Long John Bicycle is a cargo bike with the cargo area in front of the rider and some linkage connecting the steering to the front wheel, "linkage steering". Capacity is usually about . A traditional Long John will have a smaller front wheel and a  rear wheel, plus a  long platform, basket, or box located low, in front of the handlebars.

The term "bakfiets" (which means "box bike" in Dutch; plural is "bakfietsen") is also used to describe this style of bicycle.

Vintage Long Johns are becoming collectible. The last known manufacturer to still produce the original Long John is Monark. The history of Long John Bicycles is traced to Denmark . The Smith & Co. Company (SCO - founded by Ivar Smith and Robert Jacobsen in Odense, Denmark 17 October 1894) was the inventor and the first to build this type of cargo bicycle. The first Long-John was presented to the public at the Wembley World Fair & Exhibition in 1924.

This style of bicycle is useful for carrying cargo, including children, and can function as a car replacement for many families. It is possible to install a carseat in the box to for babies, and when children get older, they are often seated on a small bench and clipped in with a 3- or 5-point harness. Canopies can be affixed to the cargo box for protection from the elements, making a warm and inviting space for children to enjoy the ride.

Off-road Long John bicycle

The range of Long John style cargobikes extends to off-road applications. Such designs can cover difficult terrain such as sand, mud, and snow, by using fatbike tires, electric motors, and suitable ground clearance. This brings cargobikes into farms, national parks, 1st-response situations, and immunization programs.

Longtail bicycle

Longtails have a longer frame wheelbase at the rear compared to a standard bicycle. The extended rear facilitates use as a cargo bike or carrying multiple or adult passengers compared with shorter bicycles. They tend to handle more like regular bikes than cargo bikes with linkage steering.

Xtracycle developed the first longtail product, their Free Radical, which attaches to an existing 'donor' bicycle to make it a longtail bike in 1998. The growing popularity of Xtracycle inspired the Kona Ute, launched for the 2008 season. Surly were asked by Xtracycle to build a complete Xtracycle-compatible frameset; the result was the 'Big Dummy', first released for the 2008 season. The chromoly frameset is designed for  wheels. Buyers have the choice of frameset alone or complete bicycle. In 2008 Xtracycle documented the LongTail as an open-source standard. This has helped individuals to build longtail bikes themselves such as the Xtravois.

There is a sub-class of longtail bicycles referred to as midtails. As their name implies, they are not quite as long as a longtail, but can still often carry at least one if not two children. The distinction between both is not clear and there are longer tailed bikes sold as midtail, while shorter are categorized as longtail.

Wooden cargo bike

The chukudu (or chikudu, cbokoudou) is a two-wheeled vehicle similar to a scooter used in the east of the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is made of wood, and used for transporting cargo.

Porteur bicycle

A porteur bicycle has the rack on the front, and can carry as much as  that way.

Tricycle

Cycle rickshaws are used for the short range transport of both people and goods while tricycles with boxes or platforms are used to transport goods. A cargo tricycle with an open or flat platform might be used for low value goods or for trips where the rider is always with the goods. A fabric cover can be added to provide weather protection. Tricycles can also be fitted with a lockable weatherproof box, usually of aluminium construction, for valuable goods and where the rider has to leave the vehicle.

Cargo tricycles can typically carry  of cargo and have capacity of  or more, which is about half the capacity of a small panel van. The weight capacity of tricycles is limited by available human power and the permitted power of electric assist by law.

Gallery

See also

 Bicycle trailer
 Electric bicycle
 Human-powered transport
 Outline of cycling
 Quadracycle (human-powered vehicle)
  electrically powered four-wheel carts used in the Netherlands

References

External links

Appropriate technology
Cycle types
Bike

Cargo bike


Tiffany is a fictional character in Todd McFarlane's Spawn comic book series. She was first introduced to the series in issues #44 and #45. Tiffany, like fellow angel Angela, is a Hellspawn hunter.  Therefore, the most current Hellspawn, Al Simmons, is her primary target.  She has a long-standing rivalry with Angela, but since Angela has gone rogue, Tiffany's aim is to fill her place as the top Hellspawn slayer in Heaven's army. In her first attempt to slay Spawn, she was over-zealous and was defeated in a grisly manner.  Although she lost the fight, she escaped with her life, since the still inexperienced Spawn did not realize that merely destroying an angel's physical body is not enough to truly kill it. She has not appeared in the comic since.

Costume
Tiffany's costume includes gauntlets that can be used to contact others with similar technology via a hinged screen, completely concealing it while in battle. Her right boot is wide at the base and tapering to the knee. From a brown leather belt dangles hooks and pouches. Tiffany wears a tight violet bikini.

In other media

Tiffany (called Tiffany of the Amazoni) is a featured character in the online comic The Adventures of Spawn.  In this animation-style reimagination of the Spawn mythos, Tiffany takes a much greater role in the story, being cited as one of Heaven's most illustrious and honored warriors.

Tiffany is a playable character in the video game Spawn: In the Demon's Hand, voiced by Alyson Court.

References

Characters created by Todd McFarlane
Comics characters introduced in 1996
Female soldier and warrior characters in comics
Fictional angels
Image Comics female supervillains
Mythology in comics
Spawn characters

Tiffany (Image Comics)


Bőny is a village in Győr-Moson-Sopron county, Hungary.

Location, transportation, and climate
Bőny is a village in northwest Hungary, located 19 km from the city of Győr. The village is situated in the eastern corner of Győr-Moson-Sopron county near the Komárom-Esztergom county border. The M1 highway passes about 8 km west and 5 km north of Bőny. The village has no rail link. The nearest railway station is located in Győr. The village is 11 km away from Bábolna city.

The village's climate is very continental.

History and Present-day Life
The first habitation of the area can be traced to the Neolithic period. Bronze Age tools have been found in the area. The area was also populated during the Roman period.

The name "Bőny" dates back to a charter issued in 1235. The town's name probably derives from a personal name, of Turkish origin and meaning "plenty," which is believed to represent a family estate in the region. In 1300 the Cseszneky family owned village.

The St. Archangel Michael church, a circular structure, was built in 1391.

The Turkish occupation was one of the most difficult periods for the settlement. In the late 1700s, work began to unite a number of smaller settlements in the region.

An outstanding period in the history of the village was the 1848-49 revolution and war of independence.

In 1959, Bőny was a "socialist village".

In Bőny today, all walks of life are bound to nearby Győr. The majority of the working population commutes to Győr industrial plants.

The settlement is a member of the Bakonyér Local Government Association.

Attractions
    Bothmer mansion (located in the village hall)
    Lutheran Church
    Reformed Church
    The Roman Catholic Church
    War memorial
    World War II soldier graves
    Jewish cemetery

References

External links

 Street map

Populated places in Győr-Moson-Sopron County

Bőny


Muragan is an indigenous Australian ancestral deity from North-Eastern Australia. Its worshipers may have spoken Kunjen, or some Kunjen dialect. The Australian Muragan is also believed to be the progenitor of the Tamil-Indian Murugan. Muragan is believed to have been the name of an actual people from the state of Queensland.

Country
The Muragan were located on the middle Mitchell river then northwards to the Alice River. They were also present around the New Koolatah Station, and, according to Norman Tindale, had some  of tribal territory.

Notes

Citations

Sources

Aboriginal peoples of Queensland

Muragan


The National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) is a trade association and lobby group representing the interests of commercial and non-commercial over-the-air radio and television broadcasters in the United States. The NAB represents more than 8,300 radio and television tsations as well as broadcast networks.

As of 2015, the president and CEO of the NAB is Gordon Smith, a former United States Senator from Oregon.

The NAB was founded as the National Association of Radio Broadcasters (NARB) in April 1923 at the Drake Hotel in Chicago.

References

Television
Radio
1923 establishments in the United States
1920s establishments in Illinois
History of Chicago

National Association of Broadcasters


Women in Somalia form a key part of Somali society, with clearly defined and important roles in the family and  structure. This includes Somali women in Somaliland, a self-declared republic that is internationally recognized as an autonomous region of Somalia. From the time of Ismail Urwayni's proselytizing in 1890, until the Dervish State's defeat by British air bombardment in 1920, women in the strip of land from Jidali, Sanaag in the north, to Beledweyne in the south were referred to as Darawiishaad (plural) or Darwiishad (singular).

Population

Most people in Somalia are Muslims. Somalia's population is expanding at a growth rate of 1.67% per annum and a birth rate of 41.45 births/1,000 people. Somalia's total fertility rate in 2013 was 6.17 children born per woman, the fourth highest in the world.

Most local residents are young, with a median age of 17.7 years. 44.3% of the population are between the ages of 0–14 years, 53.5% are between the ages of 15–64 years, and only 2.3% are 65 years of age or older. The sex ratio is roughly balanced, with proportionally about as many men as women.

Due to the civil war, exact population statistics for Somalia have been difficult to determine since 1975.  According to the United Nations, roughly half the population of Somalia, as of 2014, is female.

When compared to other African countries there are lower levels of education and higher levels of infant mortality in Somalia.

History of women's rights in Somalia

By the late 9th century A.D., almost all people living in Somalia had converted to Islam. The rights of women under the Quran include the right to life, education, ownership and inheritance of property, as well as the right to give consent to be married and the right to a marriage contract with one's future husband. At the same time, Somali culture has traditionally operated as a patriarchy, where men made the majority of financial and family decisions, and dominated the public sphere.

After Somalia gained its independence from colonial powers in 1960, both men and women were given the right to vote. This led to increased participation of women in public life from the 1970s to the 1980s.  Female school enrollment, women in the workplace, and women's participation in politics and the military all increased during that time. The Family Law of 1975 gave equal rights to women and men regarding marriage, divorce, and inheritance of property and restricted polygamy. President Siad Barre supported the establishment of the Somali Women's Democratic Organization (SWDO) in 1977 in memory of Hawo Tako, a female member of the anti-colonialist Somali Youth League who was killed by the Italian forces in 1948.  The Barre regime established the SWDO and appointed its female leadership in order to maintain female compliance with the government.

Gender equality
Women in urban areas are more likely to be head of the household.

Clan and family structure

The clan groupings of the Somali people are important social units, and clan membership plays a central part in Somali culture and politics. Clans are patrilineal and are often divided into sub-clans, sometimes with many sub-divisions.

Somali society is traditionally ethnically endogamous. Women who marry are expected to join their husband's family. To extend ties of alliance, marriage is often to another Somali from a different clan. For example, a 1994 study observed that in 89 marriages contracted by men of the Dhulbahante clan, 55 (62%) were with women of Dhulbahante sub-clans other than those of their husbands; 30 (33.7%) were with women of surrounding clans of other clan families (Isaaq, 28; Hawiye, 3); and 3 (4.3%) were with women of other clans of the Darod clan family (Majeerteen 2, Ogaden 1).

In 1975, the most prominent government reforms regarding family law in a Muslim country were set in motion in the Somali Democratic Republic, which put women and men, including husbands and wives, on complete equal footing. The 1975 Somali Family Law gave men and women equal division of property between the husband and wife upon divorce and the exclusive right to control by each spouse over his or her personal property.

Attire

During regular, day-to-day activities, women in Somalia usually wear the guntiino, a long stretch of cloth tied over the shoulder and draped around the waist. The guntiino is traditionally made out of plain white fabric sometimes featuring with decorative borders, although nowadays alindi, a textile common in the Horn of Africa region and some parts of North Africa, is more frequently used. The garment can be worn in many different styles and with different fabrics.

Under the Socialist Barre regime (1969–1991), women were free to dress as they wished, and most urban women did not wear hijab; however, after the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991, most women in Mogadishu started to wear hijab for the first time, and those who did not were harassed.

During regular, day-to-day activities, Somali women usually wear the , a long stretch of cloth tied over the shoulder and draped around the waist. In more formal settings such as weddings or religious celebrations like Eid, women wear the , which is a long, light, diaphanous voile dress made of cotton or polyester that is worn over a full-length half-slip and a brassiere. Married women tend to sport head-scarves referred to as shash, and also often cover their upper body with a shawl known as . Unmarried or young women, however, wear hijab, and the  is also commonly worn.

For more formal settings such as weddings or religious celebrations like Eid, women wear the dirac, a long, light, diaphanous voile dress made of cotton, polyester or saree fabric. Known as the gorgorad, the underskirt is made out of silk and serves as a key part of the overall outfit.

The dirac is usually sparkly and very colorful, the most popular styles being those with gilded borders or threads. The fabric is typically acquired from Somali clothing stores in tandem with the gorgorad. In the past, dirac fabric was also frequently purchased from South Asian merchandisers.

Married women tend to sport head-scarves referred to as shash, and also often cover their upper body with a shawl known as garbasaar. Unmarried or young women do not always cover their heads. Traditional Arabian garb such as the jilbab is also commonly worn.

Additionally, Somali women have a long tradition of wearing gold and silver jewelry, particularly bangles. During weddings, the bride is frequently adorned in gold. Many Somali women by tradition also wear gold necklaces and anklets. Xirsi, a quranic necklace, also worn in countries such as Ethiopia and Yemen, is also frequently worn.

Henna is another important part of Somali culture. It is worn by Somali women on their hands, arms, feet and neck during weddings, Eid, Ramadan, and other festive occasions. Somali henna designs are similar to those in the Arabian peninsula, often featuring flower motifs and triangular shapes. The palm is also frequently decorated with a dot of henna and the fingertips are dipped in the dye. Henna parties are usually held before the wedding ceremony takes place.

Somali girls and women who practice Islam will wear hijab.  This has become the most familiar mode of dress for Somali girls and women.

According to a poll cited by Face2Face Africa, Somalia has the most beautiful women in Africa.

Literature

Somalia has a long tradition of poetry. Several well-developed Somali forms of verse include the female-driven buraanbur, as well as gabay, jiifto, geeraar, wiglo, beercade, afarey and guuraw. The gabay (epic poem) is mostly composed by men has the most complex length and meter, often exceeding 100 lines. It is considered the mark of poetic attainment when a young poet is able to compose such verse, and is regarded as the height of poetry.

Buraanbur, which is of a lighter measure, is primarily composed by women. Groups of memorizers and reciters (hafidayaal) traditionally propagated the well-developed art form. Poems revolve around several main themes, including baroorodiiq (elegy), amaan (praise), jacayl (romance), guhaadin (diatribe), digasho (gloating) and guubaabo (guidance). The baroorodiiq is composed to commemorate the death of a prominent poet or figure.

Notable women

Notable women in the country include Honourable Fawzia Yusuf H. Adam, a Member of Parliament and  Former Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, currently Chairperson of the National Democratic Party and Chair of HIIGSI  a Collition  of 10 political parties in Somalia. First female Presidential Candidate (Fadumo Dayib), Barnet Muslim Women's Network  a collion Hanan Ibrahim, former Federal Minister of Social Development Maryam Qaasim, former Foreign Minister of the Somaliland region Edna Adan Ismail, and parliamentary consultant Hodan Ahmed.

FGM

About 97.9% of Somalia's women and girls underwent female genital mutilation in a 2005 study. This was at the time the world's highest prevalence rate of the procedure. A UNICEF 2010 report reported that Somalia had the world's highest rate of Type III FGM, with 79% of all Somali women having undergone the procedure. Another 15% of women underwent Type II FGM.

The prevalence is on the decline in the northern part of Somalia. In 2013, UNICEF in conjunction with the Somali authorities reported that the FGM prevalence rate among 1- to 14-year-old girls in the autonomous northern Puntland and Somaliland regions had dropped to 25% following a social and religious awareness campaign. Article 15 of the Federal Constitution adopted in August 2012 prohibits female circumcision.

See also
Polygamy in Somalia
Women in Arab societies
Women in Islam

Notes

References

External links

Somali culture
Society of Somalia
Gender roles by society
Somalia
Women in Somaliland

Women in Somalia


Robert Wilson (2 January 1907 – 25 September 1964) was a Scottish tenor.  After beginning his career with the Rothesay Entertainers in Scotland, Wilson joined the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, with whom he performed from 1931 to 1937.  He then began a long solo career in concerts, radio, variety and recording, becoming known especially for his performances of Scottish songs.

Life and career
Wilson was born in Cambuslang.  His father, Alexander, was a tailor, and his mother was Marion née McLurg.  He trained at first as a draughtsman, then, in his twenties, as a professional singer in Glasgow.  He initially performed for several seasons as part of the Rothesay Entertainers in Scotland.  At the same time, he sang at Clan concerts and Scottish Festivals.

In 1931, Wilson joined the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, at first in the chorus, understudying and occasionally performing the role of the Defendant in Trial by Jury and Ralph Rackstraw in H.M.S. Pinafore.  In 1932, he began to play the Defendant on a regular basis, and soon was also playing the small roles of First Yeoman in The Yeomen of the Guard and Francesco in The Gondoliers, and still substituting occasionally as Ralph.  At the same time, he was in demand as a recording artist for Parlophone.  In 1934, he was given the additional principal roles of Hilarion in Princess Ida and Nanki-Poo in The Mikado and moved up to Leonard Meryll in Yeomen, and Marco in The Gondoliers.  In 1935–36 season, he continued to play the Defendant and shared the roles of Ralph, Nanki Poo, Leonard and Frederic in The Pirates of Penzance.  That season he also sometimes played the role of Colonel Fairfax in Yeomen and Marco in The Gondoliers.  He participated in the company's North American tours in 1934 and 1936.  When Derek Oldham returned to the company in 1936, Wilson's roles were reduced to Defendant, Leonard and Francesco.  He left the company in 1937.

After this, Wilson became  a solo artist, heading his own concert party singing Scottish ballads for several years on tour throughout Britain. He also continued in demand as a recording artist, signing with HMV in 1943.  His recordings of such Scottish songs as "A Gordon for Me" and "Down in the Glen" were big sellers.   He became a well-known variety performer and in the 1950s he was an early presenter of the White Heather Club and recorded with them.  He continued to tour into the 1960s.  Wilson's wife was named Margaret (née MacDonald), and they had two sons, Iain (died 1973) and Carey. Carey became a performer with Citizens Theatre in Glasgow.

Wilson died in 1964, never having fully recovered from a car accident the previous year.

References

External links

 Profile and discography
 The Best of Robert Wilson album and profile
 Video clip of Wilson singing "Banks and Braes" in highland costume, 1941

  "Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair"

1907 births
1964 deaths
Scottish operatic tenors
20th-century Scottish male opera singers
People from Cambuslang

Robert Wilson (tenor)


Zodi Ikhia (c. 1919 – February 16, 1996) was a Nigerien politician.

Life and career
Born around 1919 at Winditen, Ikhia came from a wealthy Tuareg family; his father was a prominent person from Taghagar. He received his primary education in Niamey and his higher education at Ecole William Ponty in Dakar. In 1941 he began teaching for nomadic schools. He  went on to become school director, first for the Ecole des enfants de troupe in Bingerville and later Ecole des Kel Gress d'Arzérori.

In 1946, he joined the Nigerien Progressive Party, the Nigerien affiliate of the African Democratic Rally. In 1948 he was elected to the general council of Tahoua. Starting in 1948, he became active in the Nigerien teachers trade union movement. In 1949, he joined the Union of Nigerien Independents and Sympathisers (UNIS), a group affiliated with the Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance (UDSR). He was elected to the French National Assembly in the 1951 elections, on the UNIS list headed by Georges Condat (which won both Nigerien seats). The next year he was elected to the Nigerien Territorial Assembly, representing Filingué, and to the Grand Council of French West Africa. He remained in the Grand Council until 1957.

In the French National Assembly, he sat in the UDSR group until 1953. He then joined the Independent Overseas (IOM) group. In the National Assembly, he had several short tenures in the National Education Commission. In January 1953, he was included in the Industrial Production Commission. After his defection to the IOM, Zodi became politically isolated. Zodi stood as a candidate on the UNIS list in the 1956 election. He lost his seat, being roundly defeated by Condat's new list, the Nigerien Action Bloc.

After the election Zodi and his followers regrouped, and on March 6, 1957 they formed a new party called the Nigerien Democratic Front (FDN). FDN was affiliated with the African Convention. He edited the party journal L'Unité (Unity).

When the first government of the Republic of Niger was formed on December 31, 1958, Ikhia was appointed Minister of Education, Youth and Sports. In his function as Minister of Education, he came into conflict with the Minister of Interior. In 1960 he was demoted to Secretary of State for National Defense. During this tenure, he visited Israel.

Zodi Ikhia later became Minister of African Affairs.

In 1963, he took part in a failed coup d'etat. He was arrested and sentenced to death. He was pardoned from execution and his sentence was changed to imprisonment. He was released from jail in 1971. After release from jail, he withdrew from political life. He died in Niamey in 1996.

References

 2nd page on the French National Assembly website

1910s births
1996 deaths
Tuareg people
Berber Nigeriens
Berber politicians
Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance politicians
Nigerien Progressive Party – African Democratic Rally politicians
Nigerien Democratic Front politicians
Foreign ministers of Niger
Ministers of council of Niger
Deputies of the 2nd National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic
Nigerien prisoners sentenced to death
Prisoners sentenced to death by Niger
Recipients of Nigerien presidential pardons
20th-century Nigerien politicians

Zodi Ikhia


Claire Huchet Bishop (30 December 1898 – 13 March 1993) was a Swiss children's writer and librarian. She wrote two Newbery Medal runners-up, Pancakes-Paris (1947) and All Alone (1953), and she won the Josette Frank Award for Twenty and Ten (1952). Her first English-language children's book became a classic: The Five Chinese Brothers, illustrated by Kurt Wiese and published in 1938, was named to the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award list in 1959.

Life

Claire Huchet was born in Geneva, Switzerland and grew up in France or Geneva. She attended the Sorbonne and started the first children's library in France. After marrying the American concert pianist Frank Bishop, she moved to the United States, worked for the New York City Public Library from 1932–36, and was an apologist for Roman Catholicism and an opponent of antisemitism.

She was a lecturer and storyteller throughout the US and was a children's book editor for Commonweal for some time.

Bishop was the President of International Council of Christians and Jews from 1975–77 and the Jewish-Christian Fellowship of France from 1976-81.

Two of her books were made into films.

After residing in New York for 50 years, Bishop returned to France and died in Paris in 1993. She was 94 years old and died of a hemorrhage of the aorta.

Awards

1947 New York Herald Tribune Spring Book Festival prize
1948 Newbery Medal runner-up for Pancakes-Paris
1952 Well-Met Children's Book Award, Child Study Association of America for Twenty and Ten
1952 Josette Frank Award for Twenty and Ten
1959 Lewis Carroll Shelf Award list for The Five Chinese Brothers
1988 Nicholas and Hedy International Brotherhood award
 All Alone was a runner-up for the Newbery Medal and was chosen as the best-liked book by the Boys' Club of America

Works

Children's books

1938 The Five Chinese Brothers, illustrated by Kurt Wiese
1940 The King's Day, illus. Doris Spiegel
1941 The Ferryman, illus. Wiese
1942 The Man Who Lost His Head, illus. Robert McCloskey
1945 Augustus, illus. Grace Paul
1947 Pancakes-Paris, illus. Georges Schreiber
1948 Blue Spring Farm, a novel,
1950 Christopher The Giant, illus. Berkeley Williams, Jr.
1952 Bernard and His Dogs, illus. Maurice Brevannes – about Saint Bernard de Menthon,
1952 Twenty and Ten, by Bishop "as told by Janet Joly", illus. William Pène du Bois,  (re-published with minor edits in 1969 and 1973 as The Secret Cave by Scholastic)
1953 All Alone, illus. Feodor Rojankovsky
1954 Martín de Porres, Hero, illus. Jean Charlot – about Saint Martín de Porres
1955 The Big Loop, illus. Carles Fontserè – about the Tour de France
1956 Happy Christmas: Tales for Boys and Girls, edited by Bishop, illus. Ellen Raskin
1957 Toto's Triumph, illus. Claude Ponsot
1960 French Roundabout, 360 pp. illus. – LCSH France—Description and travel, ; revised 1966
1960 Lafayette: French-American Hero, illus. Maurice Brevannes
1961 A Present from Petros, illus. Dimitris Davis
1964 Twenty-Two Bears, illus. Wiese
1966 Yeshu, Called Jesus, illus. Donald Bolognese
1968 Mozart: Music Magician, illus. Paul Frame
1971 The Truffle Pig, illus. Wiese
1972 Johann Sebastian Bach:  Music Giant, illus. Russell Hoover
1973 Georgette, illus. Ursula Landshoff

Adult books

 1938 French Children's Books for English-speaking Children (New York: Sheridan Square Press), bibliography,
1947 France Alive
1950 All Things Common
1950 Boimondau: A French Community of Work
1971 Jesus and Israel Jules Isaac
1974 How Catholics look at Jews: Inquiries into Italian, Spanish, and French Teaching Materials

Other Writings
(Editor) Jules Isaac, Has Anti-semitism Roots in Christianity?, National Conference of Christians and Jews, 1961.
(Editor) Isaac, The Teaching of Contempt, Holt, 1964.
Poetry to some French avant-garde literary magazines

Quotes
"Government is too big and too important to be left to the politicians."
"Those who marry to escape something usually find something else."

References

External links

1898 births
1993 deaths
20th-century American women writers
American children's writers
American librarians
American women librarians
American Roman Catholics
Newbery Honor winners
Writers from Geneva
Swiss emigrants to the United States
University of Paris alumni
American women children's writers
Swiss expatriates in France

Claire Huchet Bishop


PAST is a large-scale, distributed, persistent storage system based on the Pastry peer-to-peer overlay network.

See also
 Pastry (DHT) (PAST section)

External links
 A. Rowstron and P. Druschel. Storage management and caching in PAST, a large-scale, persistent peer-to-peer storage utility. 18th ACM SOSP'01, Lake Louise, Alberta, Canada, October 2001.
 PAST homepages: freepastry.org, Microsoft Research
 http://www.cse.lehigh.edu/~brian/course/advanced-networking/reviews/weber-past.html
 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/abs_free.jsp?arNumber=990064 IEEE

Distributed data storage

PAST storage utility


First Presbyterian Church of Avon is a historic Presbyterian church located at East Avon in Livingston County, New York.  It is a three- by six-bay Federal style brick building, approximately 46 feet by 60 feet. The center of the principal elevation features a three-story bell tower surmounted by a six sided, broached spire.  Construction of the building started in 1812 and it was dedicated in 1827.  In 1866 the existing church was renovated and the present tower added.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.

References

External links
First Presbyterian Church of East Avon - Presbytery of Genesee Valley website

Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Presbyterian churches in New York (state)
Federal architecture in New York (state)
1827 establishments in New York (state)
Churches completed in 1866
19th-century Presbyterian church buildings in the United States
Churches in Livingston County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Livingston County, New York

First Presbyterian Church of Avon


Lorenza Teresa Inocencia Casuso y Morín (better known as "Teté" Casuso; 10 August 1912 – 28 July 1994) was a prominent Cuban intellectual, who fought for democracy and freedom in Cuba. As a writer, she worked in various genres, including novel, theater, chronicle, poetry, as well as radio and cinematographic libretos. Her journalistic work appeared in several publications in Cuba, Mexico and the US. She also worked as a translator and drama teacher; and was an actress of stage and screen. Along with several other middle-class, educated women writer contemporaries - Emilia Bernal, Lydia Cabrera, Ana Maria Simo, Hilda Perera Soto, and Rita Geada - Casuso left Cuba after the 1959 Revolution.

Biography
Lorenza Teresa Inocencia Casuso y Morín was born in Madruga, 10 August 1912.

During her stay in Mexico in the 1940s, she appeared in a number of films as a supporting actress, including El tigre de Jalisco in 1947.

She participated actively in the student struggles against the dictatorship of Gerardo Machado and during Castro's exile in Mexico, helped in the preparation of the Granma expedition. She raised money for both arms and the Granma yacht that would take the revolutionaries  back to Cuba. After the triumph of the revolution in 1959, she became Ambassador of Cuba in Mexico. Upon her return to Cuba, she was appointed by the Commander-in-chief as his Press Secretary and at the end of that year, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Alternate Representative to the United Nations, a position she held until her resignation and defection in October 1960. She spent hours waiting for Castro so that she could express her concerns at his increasing dictatorial style but they never met. Despite her defection, Fidel Castro held her in high regard. In December 1967 he wrote that, "Although you are not included among the 12 comrades and brothers of our struggle, you will always, Teté, be remembered as if you had been".

Casuso was married to Cuban writer Pablo de la Torriente Brau, who was killed fighting for the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War.

Selected works
 1934: Versos míos de la libreta tuya
 1938: Panorama de México
 1944: Los Ausentes. México
 1951: Recuerdos de un viaje a Europa
 1961: Castro and Cuba
 1963: Cuba Y Castro

Unpublished
 1955: Utopía
 1955: Aprendiz de ángel
 1956: Bienvenida la vida

References

Bibliography

 She died in Miami, Florida, US, 28 July 1994.

External links

1912 births
1994 deaths
Writers from Havana
Cuban film actresses
Foreign ministers of Cuba
Cuban dissidents
Cuban women journalists
Cuban women novelists
20th-century Cuban novelists
Cuban journalists
20th-century Cuban poets
Cuban women poets
Cuban translators
Permanent Representatives of Cuba to the United Nations
Cuban women ambassadors
Cuban women diplomats
20th-century Cuban women writers
20th-century translators
20th-century journalists
Cuban expatriates in Mexico
Ambassadors of Cuba to Mexico

Teresa Casuso Morín


Lee Myung-bak () ; born 19 December 1941) was President of South Korea from 2008 to 2013. He was the CEO of Hyundai Engineering and Construction. In 2002 Lee declared his candidacy for Seoul Mayor, and won the election. After he became president, he said, "I will give Seoul a complete makeover."  He was elected the President of South Korea on 19 December 2007. This was the same day as his birthday. It was also the same day he married his wife, Kim Yoon-ok. So, on their 37th wedding anniversary and his 67th birthday, Lee became President of South Korea. He finished his service in February 2013. Lee has three daughters and one son.

Lee Myung-bak was born on December 19, 1941 in Japan. After the end of World War II in 1945, his family came back to his father's hometown Pohang, Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea. Lee went to night school at Dongji Commercial High School.

On March 26, 2010 an explosion destroyed the South Korean warship Cheonan. This killed 40 men. Six men also disappeared. They are thought to be dead. An investigation into the sinking blamed North Korea. They said that a torpedo fired by a North Korean submarine had sunk the ship. North Korea said it had nothing to do with the Cheonan's sinking. They said they were not guilty. Lee said their denial was "laughable". He stopped all trade between the north and south. He also asked the United Nations to help them against North Korea. He also began sending radio messages to North Korean people.

Lee Myung-bak is a Christian and goes to the Somang Presbyterian church. When he was a mayor, he once declared that Seoul was a "holy place governed by God". He has been much criticized for his beliefs. Buddhist people protested that Lee was a threat to their religion.

Lee has also been criticized for not giving enough political freedom to the people. For example, the police limited demonstrations. But Lee said, "I fully understand the protestors' point of view on the matter". He added, "Protesting culture has a deep root in democracy of Korea and despite the ongoing political upheaval of this country, the enthusiasm that the protesters showed is one  embrace (approve) and this  a positive (good) drive of Korea's development."

References

Other websites

1941 births
Living people
Presidents of South Korea
Mayors of Seoul
People from Osaka

Lee Myung-bak


The Polymoog is a hybrid polyphonic analog synthesizer that was manufactured by Moog Music from 1975 to 1980. The Polymoog was based on divide-down oscillator technology similar to electronic organs and string synthesizers of the time.

History
The name Polymoog can refer either to the original Polymoog Synthesizer (model 203a) released in 1975, or the largely preset Polymoog Keyboard (model 280a) released in 1978.

The Polymoog has a 71-note weighted Pratt & Read touch-sensitive keyboard divided into three sections with a volume slider for each. It also has a three-band resonant graphic equalizer section, which can be changed to a low/bandpass/high-pass filter. The Moog-designed 24 dB/octave filter section allows modulation modulated from its own envelopes, low frequency oscillation and sample and hold circuit. Ranks and waveforms of all notes are also adjustable combining waveforms, octaves, tunings, and their own independent LFO rates and amounts. The user can adjust the instrument's sounds, and it offers presets named "strings", "piano", "organ", "harpsichord", "funk", "clav", "vibes", and "brass". Presets were factory created as physical circuit cards and may be modified for live performance using Var(iation) buttons, triggering a red dot next to the preset number in the display.

The design of the Polymoog is a hybrid of the electronic organ and the synthesizer using divide-down technology, much like other string synthesizers of the time. Unlike later 1970s polyphonic synthesizers, such as the Yamaha CS-80 and Sequential Circuits Prophet-5, the Polymoog cannot create each voice from individual oscillators and filters, or store sounds programmed by the user. Although criticized for its limited programmability, high purchase price of $5295 and reliability issues, the Polymoog Synthesizer was popular with musicians of the period, and its unlimited polyphony was considered revolutionary upon its initial release.

Polymoog Keyboard (1978–80)

The Polymoog Keyboard 280a is a stripped-down version of the original 1975 Polymoog. The two are similar in appearance, sharing the same case and keyboard. The right-hand control panel is absent, while the left-hand panel has only a few sliders, giving the user less control over the sounds. The Polymoog Keyboard features more presets than its predecessor: "vox humana", "string 1", "string 2", "electric piano", "piano", "honky tonky", "clav", "harpsi", "brass", "chorus brass", "pipe organ", "rock organ", "vibes", and "funk". Control over these presets is limited to octave balance, envelope attack, and LFO modulation depth and rate. The lower two octaves may also be split off to play a separate bass tone, with some control over this tone allowed via a dedicated bass filter. Filter control of the main preset sounds is not user adjustable other than via an external controller. The Polymoog Keyboard was less expensive than its predecessor, being priced at $3995 in 1979. The best known of the presets on the Polymoog Keyboard is "Vox Humana", which was not present on the original Polymoog. This preset forms the basis of the electronic string sound in the work of Gary Numan.

Foot operated controller

An optional foot-operated controller known as the Polypedal (model 285a), with control voltage jacks, interfaces with the back panel. It allows the user to switch between single and multiple triggering of envelopes, and controls for pitch, filter, and sustain.

Notable users
Cat Stevens used the Polymoog on his 1977 album Izitso, including the song "(Remember the Days of the) Old Schoolyard". Gary Numan was one of the Polymoog's most recognizable users. The electronic string sound featured prominently on the track "Cars" and most of the album The Pleasure Principle (1979) became his signature sound in the late 1970s and early 1980s. A Polymoog is shown in his music video for "Cars" as well as in live performances on Top of the Pops and The Old Grey Whistle Test. French duo Space Art used a Polymoog during the recording of their second album, Trip in the Centre Head. Yellow Magic Orchestra used the Polymoog on their early albums and first world tour.

Prince used a Polymoog at Sound 80 recording studio on demo tapes for his first album For You (1978), and the Polymoog became a notable sonic element of the Minneapolis sound.

The Polymoog proved popular with various  progressive rock musicians. Keith Emerson added an early prototype Polymoog (at the time, known as the Apollo) to his stage rig. Rick Wakeman used one during his second stint with Yes in the late 1970s and Tony Banks of Genesis used one between 1978 and 1983. Keith Godchaux used a Polymoog between 1976-1979 live with the Grateful Dead. Mike Oldfield used a Polymoog on "Sheba" (from his 1980 album QE2) in conjunction with a vocoder.

See also
 List of Moog synthesizer players
 Moog Music
 Moog synthesizer
 Robert Moog

References

External links
 Video demonstrating the Polymoog 203a

Moog synthesizers
Polyphonic synthesizers
Analog synthesizers

Polymoog


Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa; ( or , from Quechua  or ) is a species of goosefoot (Chenopodium). It is a grain-like crop grown primarily for its edible seeds.

Quinoa is not a real cereal, or grain, but more of a vegetable, as it is not a member of the grass family. As a chenopod, quinoa is closely related to species such as beets, spinach, and tumbleweeds. Its leaves are also eaten as a leaf vegetable, much like amaranth. Quinoa greens are not widely available for purchase.  Quinoa gives high quality protein and other nutrients. It has been called a 'superfood'.

References

Amaranthaceae
Edible nuts and seeds

https://www.nasimahealth.com/is-quinoa-keto/

Quinoa


John Murray, 5th Duke of Atholl (26 June 1778 – 14 September 1846) was a duke in the Peerage of Scotland, a British Army officer and a major landowner in Scotland. Declared insane at the age of twenty, he never sat in the House of Lords.

He held the office of Sheriff of Perthshire from 1830 until his death. His titles included Duke, Marquess and Earl of Atholl, Marquess and Earl of Tullibardine, Earl of Strathtay and Strathardle, Viscount of Balquhidder, Glenalmond and Glenlyon, Lord Murray of Tullibardine, Lord Gask and Balquhidder, all in the peerage of Scotland; Baron Strange in the peerage of England, and Earl Strange and Baron Murray in the peerage of Great Britain.

Lord John Murray was born on 26 June 1778 at Dunkeld, Perthshire, the second son of the 4th Duke by his marriage to the Hon. Jane Cathcart, daughter of Charles Cathcart, 9th Lord Cathcart, and baptized on 17 July 1778. However, his older brother died in childhood, leaving him as heir to the family titles and estates, and from then until his father's death in 1830 he was known by the courtesy title of Marquess of Tullibardine. He was educated at Eton and in 1797 was commissioned as an ensign into the 61st Regiment of Foot. However, in 1798 he was declared of "unsound mind".

The Duke never married and died childless and insane at Greville Place, St John's Wood, London, on 14 September 1846 at the age of sixty-eight after a life of seclusion. He was succeeded by his nephew George Murray, the son of the Duke's younger brother James Murray, 1st Baron Glenlyon (1782–1837) The baron had managed the family and ducal affairs on behalf of his older brother following their father's death.

References

1778 births
1846 deaths
105
People educated at Eton College
18th-century Scottish people
19th-century Scottish people
People of Byzantine descent
Dukes of Rannoch
Barons Strange

John Murray, 5th Duke of Atholl


The Creative Research On Weapons or Crow program was an experimental missile project developed by the United States Navy's Naval Air Missile Test Center during the late 1950s. Intended to evaluate the solid-fueled integral rocket/ramjet (SFIRR) method of propulsion as well as solid-fueled ramjet engines, flight tests were conducted during the early 1960s with mixed success.

Development and RARE
Studies of the rocket-ramjet and solid-fueled ramjet concepts began at the U.S. Navy's Naval Air Missile Test Center — later the Naval Missile Center — at Point Mugu, California in 1956, with the intent of increasing the range of small air-to-air missiles through using the combined ramjet and rocket propulsion system with solid fuels only. Following extensive ground testing, the concept was considered promising enough for a flight-test vehicle to be constructed to fully evaluate the new engine.

The first flight test vehicle, known as Ram Air Rocket Engine or RARE, was developed by the Naval Ordnance Test Station at China Lake, California. RARE was constructed using a conventional five-inch (127mm) rocket tube,  in length and weighing . Rocket-sled tests conducted during 1956 indicated that the rocket-ramjet configuration would be stable; three flight tests were conducted between 1959 and 1960, with the RARE rocket reaching speeds of Mach 2.3.

Crow I

Even as testing of RARE was undertaken, the Naval Air Missile Test Center was developing their own test vehicle. Known as CROW, or Creative Research on Weapons, the NAMTC vehicle was intended to demonstrate that a solid-fueled rocket-ramjet was capable of delivering a reasonable payload.  A simple unguided rocket, the first Crow vehicle, known as Crow I, was intended for aerial launch at low supersonic speed and an altitude of .  After launch, the booster acted as an ordinary solid-fueled rocket; however upon burnout of the booster stage, the rocket's casing acted as the duct for a ramjet engine, with remaining solid fuel being mixed with the incoming air to provide thrust.

The first flight test, from a Douglas F4D Skyray launch aircraft, occurred on January 19, 1961.  Due to a flaw in the launch mechanism, the rocket failed to ignite and the test was a failure. Modifications were made, and in November 1961 two successful flights of the Crow I vehicle were conducted.

Controlled Crow
With the ballistic Crow I having proved the propulsion concept sound, follow-up work on a modification of the vehicle to provide guidance was undertaken. The missile was fitted with a simple autopilot, utilizing infrared horizon-scanning to maintain the missile's attitude in flight.

Captive flight tests of Crow began in February 1963 aboard an F-4B Phantom II carrier aircraft; on May 29, the first test launch was attempted, with three further launches taking place through May 1965. None of first three attempted flights were successful, however; malfunctions in the rocket motor, autopilot, and controls plagued the program. The fourth flight test proved more successful, and Crow was considered to have met the project goals.

The Crow project successfully established the solid-fueled rocket-ramjet as a viable method of propulsion. Consideration was also given for use of Crow as an air-to-air missile or target drone, but this was not pursued.

See also
Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet
ASALM
AQM-127 SLAT
BrahMos

References

Notes

Bibliography

Cold War missiles of the United States
Experimental missiles
Ramjet-powered aircraft
Solid-fuel rockets
Military equipment introduced in the 1960s

Crow (missile)


William Billington (1875 – 1952) was an English executioner. He was on the Home Office list from 1902 to 1905 and had participated in hangings from 1899.

Career
Billington, second son of executioner James Billington, carried out his first hanging in July 1899. He assisted his father in several more commissions throughout the rest of the year, and underwent formal training in early 1900. He was also an assistant executioner in 1900.

After his father died in December 1901, William became the principal executioner for England. He was at first assisted by his older brother Thomas and then by his younger brother John, along with Henry Pierrepoint. He was a small celebrity during this period among the populace, many of whom wanted to catch a glimpse of this relatively young man who was the country's executioner. Billington carried out the vast majority of executions from 1902 to 1904. He carried out the last one to take place at Newgate Prison on 2 May 1902 and the first at Pentonville on 30 September 1902. He also performed a few executions in Ireland.

Billington was married with two children, but he also had problems with alcohol. In the summer of 1905, he served a one-month prison sentence for failing to pay money to his wife in compliance with a separation order. While he was in prison, his brother and execution partner, John, died. William's last execution was on 25 April 1905. All in all, he carried out 58 hangings as the chief executioner and assisted at 14 more. In his later years, he apparently tried to shun his past as an executioner. He died in 1952.

See also
List of executioners

References

Further reading

1875 births
1952 deaths
English executioners
William
People from Standish, Greater Manchester

William Billington


Geek Squad, Inc. is a subsidiary of American and Canadian multinational consumer electronics corporation Best Buy, headquartered in Richfield, Minnesota. The subsidiary was originally an independent company founded by "Chief Inspector" Robert Stephens on June 16, 1994, and offers various computer-related services and accessories for residential and commercial clients. In 2002, they merged with Best Buy, retaining Stephens as the primary corporate leadership for the subsidiary. The Geek Squad provides services in-store, on-site, and over the Internet via remote access, and also provides 24-hour telephone and emergency on-site support. Geek Squad no longer works solely on computer-related devices. It now diagnoses issues in and repairs all consumer electronics, as well as appliances.

Locations and partnerships

Geek Squad precincts exist in most Best Buy stores in the United States, Puerto Rico, Canada, and the Netherlands. They offer in-store, in-home, online, and remote/over the phone services.

Best Buy terminated its partnership with Office Depot in Orlando, Florida, where Geek Squad precincts were located in ten Office Depot locations. The brand is also located in select FedEx Office locations.

In October 2006, Best Buy was reported that Geek Squad would be launching in the United Kingdom in a joint 50-50 venture with Carphone Warehouse, where today it exists as both an onsite service and a remote repair service, although not under the same name. At its peak, Geek Squad services were available in Greater London, the Home Counties, the South Coast and North West areas of England, with phone and remote support was undertaken from Tulketh Mill in Preston (Lancashire) and repairs completed at a site in Wednesbury (West Midlands). In November 2015 Geek Squad repairs moved to Newark following the merger between Carphone Warehouse and Dixons Retail forming Dixons Carphone (now Currys PLC).

In 2008, Best Buy partnered with online tech support provider SupportSpace to offer remote Virtual Agent services to its clients. SupportSpace was founded in 2006 and provided immediate online tech support services.  On July 15, 2013, all Geek Squad business was transferred away from SupportSpace and moved in-house to Geek Squad agents.

In January 2012, following poor financial results, the Best Buy Europe venture was discontinued with Carphone Warehouse purchasing its 50% of the deal back. In the following years the Geek Squad operations in France, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, Spain and Portugal were slowly wound down with the brand finally ending in Europe with Carphone Warehouse adopting the Team Knowhow brand in 2017.

A 2013 agreement with Atomic Learning, Inc. provides all Geek Squad tech subscribers with access to over 60,000 on-demand tutorial training videos.

Total Services
In 2007, Geek Squad officially added Magnolia Home Theater installation teams as well as Best Buy Mobile Installers to the Geek Squad brand.  The change was titled, "Total Services" and was aimed towards the combination of major Best Buy services into one cohesive unit.  Best Buy mobile installers and Magnolia Home Theater installers have now switched from their previous grey and blue uniforms to grey and orange shirts with grey cargo pants.  This change removed all "Magnolia Home Theater Installation" branding and was replaced by "Geek Squad Installation Units" instead.  This has now allowed Geek Squad to incorporate home theater installation as one of the in home services offered via telephone. Geek Squad is also now an Apple Authorized Service Provider.

Staff

Geek Squad employees are known as Agents and are assigned titles similar to those used by intelligence agencies – Counter Intelligence Agent (CIA), Deputy of Counter Intelligence (DCI), Double Agent-Covert (DAC), Covert Agent (CA), Special Agent (SA), Deputy Covert Operations (DCO) and Deputy Field Marshal (DFM), to name a few. Unlike most computer repair facilities, Best Buy US does not require any industry certifications for its in-store technicians. However, Best Buy Canada requires at least A+ Certification to work as a CIA. They also require MECP certification for all technical mobile electronics installers. In-Store positions have long since changed, now only consisting of Consultation Agent (CA), Advanced Repair Agent (ARA), Geek Squad Sr (CIA Sr), Services Experience Supervisor, and Services Experience Manager.

Uniforms and vehicles

In-store PC agents, and in-home PC field agents, wear a white, short-sleeved, pocketless dress shirt. Agents are required to wear a black clip-on tie with the Geek Squad logo pin. Male agents wear black trousers, white socks and black lace-up shoes that used to have the Geek Squad logo on the sole. Female agents may wear either black trousers, white socks, and black shoes; or, a black skirt with hose and black shoes. White and black are the only colors allowed in Geek Squad uniforms.  Agents who have served in an eligible capacity within any branch of Geek Squad for eighteen months, or who have held certain positions prior to 2014 including on-site Double Agents, Special Agents, and Deputies of Counter Intelligence carry a metal police-style badge with their Agent Number engraved on it. In October 2019 the Dress Code Policy for Best Buy was updated, with this update an alternate uniform option was introduced for Geek Squad Agents allowing them to wear the black Geek Squad polo along with jeans and sneakers.

The Minnesota Historical Society added the official uniform to its permanent collection in 2000.

Geek Squad Autotechs and GSIs (Home Theater Installers) wear a grey button-up work shirt or black short sleeved and collared dress shirt with the Geek Squad logo on the front and optional certification patches on the arms. Matching pants or shorts are worn as well as a bright orange undershirt. These agents also have the option of wearing a grey Geek Squad hat and/or black Geeks Squad nylon jacket.

Prior to 2016, Double Agents and Special Agents drove black-and-white Volkswagen New Beetles (dubbed "Geekmobiles") with an orange-and-black company logo on the door. Geekmobiles in California are all-black with white roof and running boards due to a request by the California Highway Patrol that the vehicles no longer resemble the paint scheme of their police vehicles (a violation of California law). In 2016, Geek Squad began phasing out the New Beetles and replacing them with Toyota Prius Cs.

The Double Agent program in the UK ceased in late 2012. All technical support services continued in store or via Mission Control, Tulketh Mill. From here, the Covert or Covert Operations Agent title was established, Agents from Covert Operations are responsible for the technical support of desktop or laptop devices. They provide support for a narrow range of approved issues verbally over the phone, or Agents will connect to clients devices remotely and fix any issues if the computer is able to connect to the internet.

Geek Squad City
Located in Brooks, Kentucky, Geek Squad City is the largest Geek Squad computer repair site at 240,000 square feet.

Controversy
Geek Squad technicians have been caught on numerous occasions searching and copying pornographic content stored on their clients' computers without permission. When asked about the incident, Geek Squad founder Robert Stephens refused to discuss the topic and focused on whether bloggers should be considered true journalists.

At least one former Geek Squad employee had come forward with allegations that the practice of surreptitiously searching for pornography on their clients' computers is not restricted to isolated employees, but is often shared with management.

In 2002, during a spate of legal threats and challenges to competitors with "geek" in their names, Geek Squad attempted to block the trademark registration of New England area competitor Geek Housecalls claiming that it violated their trademarks.  When Geek Housecalls refused to budge, Geek Squad filed civil suit.  After two years of wrangling, Geek Squad and Geek Housecalls arrived at an out-of-court settlement, the details of which cannot be disclosed according to the terms of the settlement except to state that Geek Housecalls retained its name.

In 2006, Geek Squad was sued for allegedly using unauthorized copies of Winternals' Emergency Repair Disk Commander. The lawsuit filed by Austin-based Winternals claims that employees of Geek Squad have continued using the unlicensed versions of the software after the commercial licensing agreement broke off. Best Buy and Geek Squad were accused of copyright infringement, circumvention of copyright infringement systems, and misappropriation of trade secrets. A settlement was eventually reached, and Winternals created a three-year agreement in place with Best Buy, allowing Geek Squad employees to lawfully use their licensed programs, including the ERD Commander.

In 2007, Best Buy was hit with a civil lawsuit by Sarah Vasquez alleging that Geek Squad technician Hao Kuo Chi had secretly taped her showering with a cellular phone camera he hid behind her sink. Vasquez sought compensation from Best Buy based on claims of negligent misrepresentation and hiring, invasion of privacy and intentional infliction of emotional stress. On top of the civil suit, Hao was also facing criminal charges including two counts of invasion of privacy and one count of child molestation.

In 2010, Best Buy issued a trademark infringement cease and desist letter against a priest in Wisconsin for painting "God Squad" on his car.

In 2013, Geek Squad was sued for invasion of privacy and several other civil infractions for allegedly releasing nude images found on a customer's computer.   The suit is ongoing.  In June 2015, the court denied Best Buy's motions for summary judgment on all claims except the claim for "negligence/wantonness."

On March 7, 2018, NPR reported that "FBI Used Paid Informants On Best Buy's Geek Squad To Flag Child Pornography" according to a document that was released by the Electronic Frontier Foundation.

References

External links

American companies established in 1994
Best Buy
Business services companies established in 1994
Business services companies of the United States
Companies based in Minnesota
Currys plc
Technology companies established in 1994

Geek Squad


Robert Mac (born Robert Matthew Matz on January 26, 1968) is an American comedian.

Life and career
Robert Mac was born in Detroit, Michigan in 1968, but moved with his family to Tucson, Arizona in 1972. He graduated from Salpointe Catholic High School in 1986 and attended the University of Arizona from 1986 to 1991, where he graduated with a dual major of Bachelor of Arts, magna cum laude in Creative Writing and Bachelor of Fine Arts, magna cum laude & Honors in Media Arts.

Mac began stand-up comedy at Laff's Comedy Club in Tucson in 1993, although he was a Top Ten Finalist in Billy Crystal's Mr. Saturday Night comedy contest in 1992.

In 2001, Mac was a Finalist in the San Francisco International Comedy Competition. He won Comedy Central's national Laugh Riot competition in 2001, and subsequently appeared on Comedy Central's Premium Blend and secured a spot at the Montreal Just for Laughs Festival in 2002.

He has appeared on NBC's Late Friday, A Dating Story on The Learning Channel(TLC), and the Jerry Lewis MDA Telethon, where he was a Talent Search Winner in 2003. In 2007 he was a Finalist in the Boston Comedy Festival and appeared in the inaugural Great American Comedy Festival in 2008.

In 2007, Mac launched a presidential campaign as part of the alternative newsweekly Tucson Weekly's Project White House, wherein the paper assisted would-be candidates in registering to be on the state's Presidential Primary ballot. Mac registered for the Arizona primary as a Democratic Party candidate.

In 2008, Mac appeared on Season 6 of NBC's Last Comic Standing, where he was eliminated in the first round. He was, however, featured in a spotlight segment in the episode.

He has performed with Robin Williams, Adam Sandler, Larry the Cable Guy, Margaret Cho, Patton Oswalt, and Victoria Jackson.

In 2001, Entertainment Business Journal ranked Mac 67 out of the top 100 stand-up comedians in the U.S.

Mac started and operates a comedy walking tour business in San Francisco called FOOT! Tours, which combines history and comedy in a game show format. Mac has a staff of comedians and performers who host the tours.

He continues to tour the country, performing at comedy clubs and casinos throughout the western United States.

Notes and references

External links
 Robert Mac homepage
 Robert Mac awards, television and club appearances listing
 5 Questions with Robert Mac from the San Francisco Comedy Blog
 Robert Mac MySpace page
 FOOT! comedy walking tours home page

American stand-up comedians
1968 births
Candidates in the 2008 United States presidential election
21st-century American politicians
Politicians from Tucson, Arizona
Living people
Arizona Democrats
21st-century American comedians

Robert Mac


Desert Mothers is a term feminist theologians use for women who lived in the desert of Egypt, Syria and Palestine, in the 4th and 5th century. Usually they lived in monasteries. The term is used to refer to the Desert Fathers, monks who went to live an ascetic lifestyle in the desert, about a century earlier.

Notable examples were Syncletica of Alexandria, Theodora of Alexandria, Sarah of the Desert, Melania the Elder, Melania the Younger, Olympias the Deaconess, and Eustochium.

Ancient Christianity

Desert Mothers


"World Wide Suicide" is a song by the American rock band Pearl Jam. Written by vocalist Eddie Vedder, "World Wide Suicide" was released through digital music stores on March 14, 2006 as the first single from the band's eighth studio album, Pearl Jam (2006). The song topped the Billboard Alternative Songs chart, where it spent a total of three weeks at number one.

Composition and lyrics
"World Wide Suicide" was written by vocalist Eddie Vedder. The song features a raw sound closer to the band's earlier material. On the song's intensity, Vedder said, "The times...the times kind of demand a little bit of intensity."

The lyrics for "World Wide Suicide" depict anger against the war in Iraq, and criticize the US government in a subtle manner. Vedder has said that "World Wide Suicide" was written largely about Pat Tillman.

Vedder on the song:
It's about him and a bunch of the guys who didn't get as much coverage—the guys who barely got a paragraph instead of ten pages...The thing about Tillman was, he got ten pages but they were all lies. His family is being blocked by our government from finding out what happened...Where are the leaders that are going to represent a galvanized view on what to do next?...Democracy might have a chance at working if people educate themselves on these issues and make their opinions known.

Release and reception
In late February 2006, the band made a 15-second clip of "World Wide Suicide" available on the Internet, which was then played on numerous North American radio stations. The snippet revealed a hard-rocking sound with a noted return to the dominant vocal styles of Vedder's earlier work. It was first played on US radio on March 3, 2006 on KNDD (Seattle). On March 6, 2006, "World Wide Suicide" was made available via the band's official website to download for free. It was released to radio airplay on March 7, 2006. Between then and March 12, 2006, it was played over 1900 times on modern rock stations in the United States, meaning that it was one of the fastest-growing alternative rock songs of 2006 in the US. The single was made available commercially to digital music stores on March 14, 2006 accompanied by the B-side "Unemployable", also from the new album.

It entered the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart at number three, making it one of the highest debuts of the last several years and becoming the band's first number one on that chart since "Who You Are" in 1996. "World Wide Suicide" was also the band's first number one single of any sort in eight years (since "Given to Fly" reached number one on the Mainstream Rock chart in 1998). "World Wide Suicide" was the most successful song from Pearl Jam on the American rock charts. The song peaked at number 41 on the Billboard Hot 100, number two on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, and number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. The song spent a total of three weeks at number one on the Modern Rock chart. Without selling any hard copies of the single or distributing CDs to radio programmers, consultants and industry contacts, "World Wide Suicide" became the first digitally delivered number one song in Canadian radio history. On the song's radio success, Vedder stated, "I don't think two or three years ago you could even get a song called "World Wide Suicide" with the word soldier in it played on the radio. The fact that it's getting played a lot, maybe that means that the ocean that is freedom of speech is still healthy enough for a fish to survive in."

Jonathan Cohen of Billboard said in his review of the song that "atop a propulsive beat and a thick, three-guitar attack, Vedder personalizes his anger that the U.S. occupation of Iraq has reached the three-year mark." He added, "Rock radio should jump on this despite the delicate subject matter." In E! Online's review of the album the song was described as one that comes "close to recreating the hard rock thrills of the band's billion-selling debut, Ten." Michael Endelman of Entertainment Weekly said in his review of the song, "It takes some big stones to put out a single as unconventional as "World Wide Suicide"...Not the anthem we'd hoped for, but it's got a primal punk power that gets the pulse racing. A bit." In its review of Pearl Jam, The Guardian pointed out "World Wide Suicide" and stated, "Despite being over 40, [Vedder] musters absolute conviction in writing and singing lyrics of male teenage angst."

Jon Pareles of The New York Times called the song "a bitter, furious tirade about a soldier's death and the prospect of endless war." Brian D. Schiller of Slant Magazine called the song "another perfectly serviceable single to add to their canon" and proclaimed it as one of "the band's best pure rock cuts since 'Spin the Black Circle'." Jayson Greene of Stylus said, "There is real joy in hearing [Vedder] let it rip again, howling the title of "World Wide Suicide" with relish until it breaks into a screech." Kyle Anderson of Spin said, "Despite its dark title, the single "World Wide Suicide" is a speedy, punky song played with the reckless abandon of a garage band." The song was named number 11 in Rolling Stone's "The 100 Best Songs of the Year" for 2006 and was also named number 54 in the New York Post'''s "206 Best Songs to Download of 2006".

Music video
The music video for "World Wide Suicide" was directed by Danny Clinch. The video features footage filmed in 2005 of a 24-year-old Chilean street performer named Sebastián González contact juggling. The band met González while touring South America. The street performer portions of the video were filmed in November 2005 in the dresser rooms of the band's Chile concert location San Carlos de Apoquindo Stadium. It also features scenes filmed in 2006 of the band performing the song in its studio in Seattle, Washington. The video was released in April 2006.

Live performances
On April 15, 2006, "World Wide Suicide" was premiered live on Saturday Night Live. This marked Pearl Jam's first appearance on Saturday Night Live since 1994. The song was first performed live in concert at the band's April 20, 2006 concert in London, England at the London Astoria. Pearl Jam performed the song in 2006 for Sessions@AOL. Pearl Jam performed the song for its appearance on VH1 Storytellers in 2006. Live performances of "World Wide Suicide" can be found on various official bootlegs, the Live at the Gorge 05/06 box set, and the live album Live at Lollapalooza 2007. A performance of the song mixed from various dates in Italy is also included on the DVD Immagine in Cornice''.

Track listing
"World Wide Suicide" (Eddie Vedder) – 3:29
"Unemployable" (Matt Cameron, Mike McCready, Vedder) – 3:04

Personnel
 Eddie Vedder - lead vocals, rhythm guitar
 Stone Gossard - rhythm guitar
 Jeff Ament - bass
 Mike McCready - lead guitar
 Matt Cameron - drums, background vocals

Chart positions

Accolades

See also
List of anti-war songs

References

External links

Lyrics at pearljam.com

2006 singles
Anti-war songs
Pearl Jam songs
Protest songs
Songs inspired by deaths
Songs of the Iraq War
Songs written by Eddie Vedder
Song recordings produced by Matt Cameron
Song recordings produced by Eddie Vedder
Song recordings produced by Stone Gossard
Song recordings produced by Mike McCready
Song recordings produced by Jeff Ament
Song recordings produced by Adam Kasper
J Records singles
2006 songs

World Wide Suicide


Continental philosophers are a group of philosophers mainly from continental Europe (especially France and Germany). Continental philosophy includes philosophical movements from the 19th century and after. The term became popular among researchers in England after World War II. It is often used to separate from analytic philosophy. Being a philosopher from continental Europe is not quite the same as being a continental philosopher. Some continental philosophers are from other parts of the world.

There are many movements within continental philosophy, such as: critical theory, deconstruction, existentialism, German idealism, Hegelianism, Marxism, Nietzscheanism, phenomenology, postmodernism, and others.

References

Continental philosophers


Benjamin Courtice (14 February 1881 – 7 January 1972) was an Australian politician who served as a Senator for Queensland from 1937 to 1962. He served as Minister for Trade and Customs under Ben Chifley from 1946 to 1949.

Early life
Courtice was born in Bundaberg and was educated at Bundaberg South State School.  He left school at twelve to work in the laboratory of the Millaquin sugar refinery at Bundaberg.  In 1905 he was involved in the formation of the Bundaberg and District Workers' Union, which later became part of the Australian Workers' Union.  He married Bertha Demaine in 1910 and they had a son and three daughters before her death in 1925.  Courtice won £90 for winning a foot-race at about the time of his marriage and used it to buy a sugar farm and he subsequently became a member of various sugar growers organisations.  In 1936, he married Elsie Dora Maud Joyner.

Political career
Courtice's older brother Frederick Courtice was a member of the Queensland Legislative Council for the Labor Party, participating in the vote to abolish the council in 1922. Ben Courtice was appointed to a casual vacancy in the Australian Senate in 1937. He served as Chairman of Committees from 1943 to 1946, resigning to become Minister for Trade and Customs in the second Chifley Ministry. He served in cabinet from November 1946 until Labor's defeat at the 1949 election. Courtice retired from the Senate at the end of his term in June 1962. He died in Bundaberg, survived by the children of his first marriage. His nephew, Brian Courtice, was later elected to the House of Representatives.

Notes

Members of the Cabinet of Australia
Australian Labor Party members of the Parliament of Australia
Members of the Australian Senate for Queensland
Members of the Australian Senate
1880s births
1972 deaths
20th-century Australian politicians
People from Bundaberg

Ben Courtice


The Battle of Piltown took place near Piltown, County Kilkenny in 1462 as part of the Wars of the Roses. It was fought between the supporters of the two leading Irish magnates Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Desmond, head of the government in Dublin and a committed Yorkist, and John Butler, 6th Earl of Ormond who backed the Lancastrian cause. It ended in decisive victory for Desmond and his Yorkists, with Ormond's army suffering more than a thousand casualties. This effectively ended Lancastrian hopes in Ireland and bolstered FitzGerald control for a further half-century. The Ormonds departed into exile, although they were later pardoned by Edward IV.

It was the only major battle to be fought in the Lordship of Ireland during the Wars of the Roses. It is also part of the long-running feud between the FitzGerald dynasty and the Butler dynasty.

References

Bibliography
 Jeffrey James. Edward IV: Glorious Son of York. Amberley Publishing, 2015.
 Anthony M. McCormack. The Earldom of Desmond 1463-1583: The Decline and Crisis of a Feudal Lordship. Four Courts Press, 2005.

1462 in Ireland
Piltown
Piltown

Battle of Piltown


The PRI disease resistant apple breeding program is a joint project of the Purdue University, Rutgers University, and the University of Illinois, to breed apple cultivars to be resistant to apple scab. The initialism stands for the three involved universities: Purdue, Rutgers and Illinois.

Formation
During the early 20th century, C. S. Crandall carried out intensive studies of crosses between the cultivated apples and crab apples, with the goal of scab resistance. However, Crandall didn't see any fruits of his investigations. L. Fredric Hough, then a graduate student at the University of Illinois, studied Crandall's work. Hough published a paper in 1944, leading to a 1945 collaboration with Purdue University pathologist J. Ralph Shay. Hough then relocated to Rutgers and the collaborative effort was extended there.

The program
The modified backcross breeding strategy used cultivated apple with recurrent parents from selected susceptible members of the wild ancestral genus malus. Several Malus species were screened and utilized to incorporate their resistance factors into the more advanced pomological backgrounds.

Success

By 2000, the PRI have already released a total of eighteen apple cultivars, containing the scab-resistant Vf gene derived from Malus floribunda 821. Fifty-some PRI germplasm cultivars have also been released worldwide.

See also
Applecrab
Pristine apple
 Enterprise (apple)
Prima apple

References

External links
HortScience
Vf scab resistance of Malus
Apple Breeding Worldwide

Apples
Plant breeding
PRI cultivars


Arab socialism () is a political ideology based on the combination of pan-Arabism and socialism. Arab socialism is distinct from the much broader tradition of socialist thought in the Arab world, which predates Arab socialism by as much as fifty years. The term "Arab socialism" was coined by Michel Aflaq, the principal founder of Ba'athism and the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in Syria, in order to distinguish his version of socialist ideology from the international socialist movement.

Original meaning
Socialism was a major component of Ba'athist thought, and it featured in the party's tripartite slogan of "unity, liberty, socialism". However, in using the term "Arab socialism," Aflaq was not referring to the internationalist strain of socialism; his conception resolved socialism with Arab nationalism. In a written statement from 1946, Aflaq wrote "The Arab nationalists are socialists", hence "there is neither incompatibility nor contradiction nor war between nationalists and socialists." Socialism in his mind was subservient to the Arab unity project and liberty, however, he did believe that fighting for Arab liberation and unity was the same as fighting for socialism, believing they were two sides of the same coin. The goal of the Arab liberation struggle was to fight imperialism, opposing the ruling classes and to fight for social justice. He further noted that "the social economic question is the issue of prime importance in our life, but it is directly related to the wider issue of nationalism" and "we want socialism to serve our nationalism."

The socialism envisaged in the party's constitution of 1947 and in later writings up to the establishment of the United Arab Republic, is moderate and shows little, if any signs of Marxism. In the party's 1947 constitution it reads "socialism is a necessity which emanates from the depths of Arab nationalism .... Socialism constitutes the ideal social order [for] the Arab people." The Ba'ath Party was founded in 1947 as the Arab Ba'ath Party, it became the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in 1952 when it merged with the Arab Socialist Party. Later, in 1950, Aflaq defined socialism as "not an aim in itself, but rather a necessary means to guarantee society the highest standard of production with the farthest limit of cooperation and solidarity among the citizens ... Arab society ... needs a social order with deeper foundations, wider horizons, and more forceful realization than moderate British socialism." A Soviet analyst on the subject of the Ba'athist movement noted "The concept of socialist structure [as it] appeared in the articles and speeches ... [in] the period of the birth of the new movement [the Ba'ath] ... was just a hazy outline on a barely developed ideological negative."

The party constitution of 1947 called for a "just redistribution of wealth", state ownership of public utilities, natural resources, large industry, and transport, state control over foreign and domestic trade, limiting the agricultural holdings of owners to the amount the owner could cultivate, an economy under some sort of state supervision, workers' participation in management and profit sharing, respected inheritance and the rights of private property. Prominent in Ba'athist writings from the 1940s and the 1950s, was the concern of exploitation of one group of citizens by another. The party forbade exploitation in its constitution. It further called for the abolition of class and class differences in the future envisaged society. In 1955 Aflaq defined socialism as "the sharing of the resources of the country by its citizens."

While Aflaq always found it easier to define socialism as what it was not, one thing he and Salah al-Din al-Bitar were certain of, was that Arab socialism was not communist or related in any way to communism. Part of the reason for this was the French Communist Party's support for lengthening the French Mandate of Syria. In a published shortly after that decision was made, Aflaq wrote "If I am asked to define socialism, I shall not look for it in the works of [Karl] Marx and [Vladimir] Lenin." The main cardinal difference between Arab socialism and communism, according to Aflaq and Ba'athists in general, was the cardinal role given to nationalism. Since everything in Ba'athist thought was somehow linked to Arab nationalism, Aflaq could not bridge the gap between nationalism and communist internationalism. However, he did note Josip Broz Tito's policy of self-determination while governing Yugoslavia. Another difference was that Aflaq did not support the communist idea that class struggle was the central piece throughout human history, given that role instead to nationalism.

Radicalization of the term
However, in the 1950s, changing attitudes of socialism within the Ba'ath Party began to be apparent. Jamal al-Atassi, in a writing dating to 1956, wrote that while Arab socialism was not communism, the party could learn from the experience of the socialist countries of how to construct a socialist society. It was around this time communist-inspired terms such as "masses of the people" and "people's organization" began to be heavily used in Ba'athist literature, while at the same time emphasizing class conflict more than before. He wrote that "Socialism cannot realize its goals unless it starts from the [fact of] division, difference, and conflict among society's structures and classes." Atassi ended the article by calling for the "oppressed classes" of the workers, peasants and "other strugglers" to join in the effort to overthrow the oppressors to establish a united Arab society. In short, he called for revolutionary struggle. While Aflaq did believe class conflict existed, he believed it to be subordinate to nationalism.

Munif al-Razzaz, a Jordanian Ba'athist, wrote the Ba'athist classic "Why Socialism Now?" in 1957. In it he takes a "very different" approach on interpreting the meaning of socialism from Aflaq. As he wrote, "Socialism is a way of life, not just an economic order. It extends to all aspects of life—economics, politics, training, education, social life, health, morals, literature, science, history, and others, both great and small." In contrast to official party writings which stressed Arab unity above else, Razzaz tried to demonstrate the interdependent nature of unity, liberty and socialism. He criticized the view that socialism had to come after Arab unity, stating "Socialism, freedom and unity are not different names for different things, ... but different facets of one basic law from which they spring." He further noted that "If I believe in man and in man's worth, then I should believe in unity, nationalism, freedom, and socialism because each of them represents a facet of man's fundamental value." Razzaz ended the article, stating that socialism had been achieved to the same degree as "freedom and unity have been achieved."

External reception
The website of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party has an entry dated 1 January 2011, stating: "In 28/10/2003, by the attendance of comrade Al-Ahmar and Mr. Ching, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and the Chinese Communist Party agreed to sign an agreement at the end of the discussions for three years, 2004/2005/2006. The two parties wish to promote and enhance the relations of friendship and cooperation between their two parties and co-ordinate their efforts for embodying their common objectives for the wellbeing of their two friendly peoples".

On the other hand, the Arabist Bernard Lewis has stated: "Nobody seems to have a good word to say for Arab socialism. Commercial, professional, and middle class elements bring against it the usual complaints which are brought against socialism in Western countries. Left-wingers dismiss Arab socialism with contempt as a half-hearted and inefficient compromise which has the merits neither of socialism nor of capitalism."

Egyptian Arab Socialism

Arab socialism in Egypt has its roots in pan-Arabism, nationalism, anti-colonialism and Islamic thought. It greatly differentiates itself from communism and other forms of Western socialism, both of which greatly focus on the material conditions, whereas Arab socialism also incorporates religious ideals. These ideas are to be found in the Qu'ran, which aimed at the distribution of wealth and the caring for all members of society. Socialism had also been introduced at the beginning of the nineteenth century through French thinkers which recognised the particularities of the Egyptian thought towards revolutionary movements.

Arab socialism was greatly developed through the influence of Gamal Abd el-Nasser, who came to create the definition of Arab socialism. Nasser's socialism was based on a pragmatic and empirical approach which broadly disregarded the theoretical framework of socialism if it had no basis in the real conditions that Egypt was facing. After the successful coup d'état of 1952, where King Farouk was deposed bloodlessly, Nasser was only guided by six main tenets: the end of imperialism, the end of the government of capital, social justice (end of domination), creation of a strong national army, creation of a fully operational democratic system and the end of the feudal system. Guided by these, he also stressed the importance of a double revolution, a revolution which had to be political and social. Political as it needed to end feudalism and the corrupt government; social because it needed to end with oppression between classes. The end of oppression did not mean class abolishment, but class harmony within the state. He wanted to create the conditions for everyone to have equal opportunities to perform whichever role within society, for which he invested in education and public health measures.

Nasser's socialism had the goals previously mentioned, and he tried to accomplish them through a neutralism in the foreign sphere and socialist measures at the national level. He did not want to participate in the global divide of the time between the USSR and USA at the global sphere as he wanted to prioritise Egypts national interests through a policy of positive alignment. Throughout his mandate, he passed several reforms, which included the redistribution of land through the abolishment of socialism, worker laws which ensured their participation into committees which had direct contact with management. He aspired to eventually convert into a form of direct democracy, which he saw necessary for a true socialist state and the well being of every individual.

Nasser, in his adoption of Arab socialism, focuses on embracing and encompassing religion within socialism, as he perceives it to be part of Egypt's social fabric, being one of its main constituents. He therefore rejects Marxist historical materialism and historical determinism, which allows for a hands-on approach to his conception of history.

See also
African socialism
Socialism with Chinese characteristics
Arab nationalism
Ba'athism
Islamic socialism
Nasserism
Pan-Arabism
Third International Theory
Marhaenism
Titoism

References

Bibliography

External links
Nasser and Arab Socialism

Socialism
Types of socialism

Arab socialism


is a district of Nerima, Tokyo, Japan. It consists of 1-chōme to 6-chōme. As of January 1, 2008, the district has a population of 25,969.

Geography
Minamiōizumi is located in the western portion of Nerima. It borders Higashiōizumi (across the Shirako River) on the east; Shakujiidai and Sekimachikita on the south; Fujimachi, Nakamachi, Higashichō and Shimohōya of Nishitōkyō on the west; and Nishiōizumi on the north.

Neighborhoods of Tokyo
Nerima

Minamiōizumi