Andrzej Romocki, codename "Morro" (16 April 1923 - 15 September 1944, was a Polish Scoutmaster (harcmistrz) who attained the rank of captain in the Armia Krajowa (Polish Home Army, AK) during World War II.

Romocki was active in the Szare Szeregi (Gray Ranks) organisation from 1940 onwards and during the Warsaw Uprising he was the commander of the Rudy Company of the AK Zośka Battalion. He took command of the whole battalion on 31 August 1944 until his death in the Czerniaków district on 15 September. It's possible that he was killed as a result of "friendly fire" by soldiers of the Ludowe Wojsko Polskie (LWP, People's Army of Poland).

Wola and Starówka
The Zośka Battalion fought in the most difficult areas of Warsaw throughout the uprising. At the beginning of August 1944, Zośka was stationed in the Wola district, where, after early successes by the insurgents, which included the liberation of 350 Jews from the Gęsiówka concentration camp, the Germans launched their first major counter-offensive of the uprising (and also committed some of their worst atrocities - the Wola massacre). After 11 August, when Wola fell, Romocki and the entire Zośka Battalion relocated to Warsaw Old Town ("Starówka" or "Stare Miasto" in Polish), where they fought valiantly for the next three weeks.

By the end of August the Germans were bombing the encircled Old Town from the air every 15–20 minutes while their artillery also shelled the area throughout the day. Wave after wave of attacks by German tanks, Goliath tracked mines and infantry had been repelled by the insurgents despite heavy casualties, but they were nevertheless gradually losing ground to the vastly superior forces deployed against them, while also running out of ammunition, medical supplies, food and water.

After a failed attempt to break out of their encirclement and re-connect the Old Town with the city centre to the south and Żoliborz to the north on 30–31 August, the AK took the reluctant decision to evacuate from the Old Town via the sewers.

Only insurgents from the Zośka Battalion, commanded by Romocki, managed to escape from the Old Town to the city centre on 31 August. At one point they took off their red and white armbands and marched through enemy-held territory as if they were Germans (like many of the insurgents they wore stolen German uniforms adorned with Polish insignia). Zośka lost so many soldiers during the first month of the uprising that Romocki, despite himself being wounded in the face during the escape, became commander of the whole battalion after it relocated to the city centre.

Czerniaków
In early September Zośka was redeployed to the Czerniaków district, on the left bank of the river Vistula. On 15 September 1944, units of the LWP made their first attempt to cross the river and link up with the insurgents in Czerniaków, in spite of Joseph Stalin's ban. The exact circumstances of Romocki's death are uncertain, but it is possible that he was accidentally killed by a soldier of the LWP who mistook Romocki for a German due to the fact that he was wearing a German uniform.

Awards
 Virtuti Militari, V class
 Cross of Valour (Krzyż Walecznych), twice
 Home Army Cross (Krzyż Armii Krajowej) (16 July 1985)

See also

 Jan "Bonawentura" Romocki

Warsaw Uprising insurgents
1923 births
1944 deaths
Military personnel from Warsaw
Burials at Powązki Military Cemetery
Polish resistance members of World War II
Polish Scouts and Guides
Polish Army officers
Recipients of the Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari
Recipients of the Cross of Valour (Poland)
Recipients of the Armia Krajowa Cross
Resistance members killed by Nazi Germany

Andrzej Romocki


The following is a list of current National Football League franchise owners:

Ownership restrictions
The NFL forbids corporations, religious groups, governments, and non-profit organizations owning a team. The NFL requires a controlling owner to hold at minimum a 30% stake in the team and forbids ownership groups of over 24 people, or any publicly traded corporations from purchasing NFL teams; one team, the Green Bay Packers, is exempt from this under a grandfather clause and is owned by shareholders. The Houston Texans are also grandfathered in for their home county–the Harris County, Texas government–which owns 5% of the team, as the rule forbidding governments from owning a team became effective in 2007. The NFL's constitution also forbids its owners from owning any other professional football teams, although an exception was made for teams from the now-defunct Arena Football League located in the NFL team's home market.  In addition, the controlling owners of NFL teams were previously only permitted to own major league baseball, basketball and hockey teams if they were in the NFL team's home market, or were not located in other NFL cities.

Stan Kroenke, who owned hockey and basketball teams in Denver, was nonetheless unanimously allowed to buy the then-St. Louis Rams in 2010 and hold on to his Denver assets until 2015.  Even then, the Denver assets were transferred to his wife, Ann. Soccer has been exempt from these restrictions since 1982, when the league lost a lawsuit filed by the original NASL stemming from the investments of Kansas City Chiefs owner Lamar Hunt and Elizabeth Robbie, the wife of Miami Dolphins founder Joe Robbie in NASL teams; as a result, NFL owners have owned teams in MLS in other NFL markets. In October 2018, the NFL owners voted to relax the cross-ownership rule, allowing controlling NFL owners to own other professional teams within NFL markets outside their home market. The league also informally requires prospective owners to have high liquidity in their assets and positive cash flow; having a majority of one's wealth invested in real estate is often grounds for rejection.

See also
 List of professional sports team owners
 List of NHL franchise owners
 List of NBA team owners
 List of Major League Baseball principal owners
 List of MLS team owners

Notelist

References

Owners

List of NFL franchise owners


Ellis Batten "Bo" Page Ed.D. (April 29, 1924 – May 17, 2005) is widely acknowledged as the father of automated essay scoring, a multi-disciplinary field exploring computer evaluation and scoring of student writing, particularly essays. Page's development of and pioneering work with Project Essay Grade (PEG) software in the mid-1960s set the stage for the practical application of computer essay scoring technology following the microcomputer revolution of the 1990s.

Background
Page was born in San Diego, CA. He was a United States Marine Corps veteran, he graduated from Pomona College (Claremont, CA), and he taught high school English while pursuing his master's degree in English at San Diego State University (1955). He received his Ed.D. degree in educational psychology from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1958.

Page served as a professor of education and psychology for several academic institutions before joining the University of Connecticut (Storrs) in 1962 as Professor of Educational Psychology and Director, Bureau of Educational Research. It was during his tenure there (in late 1964) that Page began the development of PEG software, inspired by the convergence of computational linguistics, artificial intelligence technology, and his own experience as a high school English teacher.

Research

Page's research earned him a number of academic appointments including Visiting Scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1967–68) and Visiting Professor of Experimental Design at Harvard University (1968–69). Fluent in Spanish, Page also lectured extensively on issues and trends in educational psychology in Spain and South America.

Page published more than 250 research articles, technical reports and papers. He was president of the American Psychological Association's Division of Educational Psychology (1976–77) and a founding editor of the division's journal, Educational Psychologist. Page also served as president of the American Educational Research Association (1979–80) and contributed to the editorial review boards of several other publications, including the Journal of Educational Measurement of the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME).

Products

In 1979, Page joined the faculty of Duke University as Professor of Educational Psychology and Research and remained there until 2002. During his tenure, Page renewed his development and research in automated scoring and, in 1993, formed Tru-Judge, Inc., anticipating the potential for commercial applications of the software. In 2002, and in declining health, Page retired from Duke University and sold the intellectual property assets of Tru-Judge to Measurement Incorporated, an educational assessment company specializing in the development and scoring of large-scale assessments.

References

Further reading
 Page, Ellis Batten (1967). The imminence of grading essays by computer. Phi Delta Kappan, 47, 238–243.
 Page, Ellis Batten, and Dieter H. Paulus (1968). The analysis of essays by computer (Final report, Project No. 6-1318). Washington, D. C.: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; Office of Education; Bureau of Research

External links

American educational theorists
1924 births
2005 deaths
People from San Diego
United States Marines
Pomona College alumni
San Diego State University alumni
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty
Harvard University faculty
Duke University faculty
University of Connecticut faculty
Educational psychologists
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
Educational Psychologist (journal) editors

Ellis Batten Page


Carduus argentatus, sometimes known as the silver thistle, is an annual herb in the family Asteraceae.  As a member of the genus Carduus it is known as a plumeless thistle.  It is found throughout the Mediterranean and Middle East. Frequently growing in disturbed habitats, it is often found in sandy and stony desert wadis.  It is found in the eastern deserts of Egypt, through the East Mediterranean region and into Iraq, Pakistan and Afghanistan. It can be found growing in open woodlands and shrublands, on steppes and semi-steppes as well as in extreme desert conditions.  It grows among mountain vegetation on Mount Hermon in the Golan Heights.  In Crete it is found at altitudes of up to .

Taxonomy and etymology
The plant was originally described by Carl Linnaeus on page 280 of the Mantissa Plantarum Altera, October 1771. The genus name Carduus is from the Latin for "a kind of thistle" or "thistlelike plant". It is related to the medieval Latin word Cardonnacum ("a place of chardons or thistles"), which is the origin of Chardonnay, the name of the grape variety.  Argentatus is Latin for silver.

Description

The plant grows to a height of about  and has erect stems with spiny wings. They may be simple or have many branches. The leaves are spiny with toothed or serrated margins, those at the base forming a rosette and the stem leaves being alternate. The flower stem is tomentose and the pink to lavender flowers are single and bloom in April and May. They have spiny bracts and ovate sepals which are mucronate but not spiny. They are followed by fruits known as cypselae which are ovoid and slightly flattened. The calyx persists as pappus or may fall off in rings.

John Wilkes's Encyclopaedia  Londinensis (volume III, 1810) makes note of the "remarkable" features of the plant including the leaves' spots of white (pictured), which it reports are found in three other species of "Egyptian thistle".

References

External links

argentatus
Butterfly food plants
Plants described in 1771
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Carduus argentatus


"The Incredible Jewel Robbery" was an episode of General Electric Theater, broadcast by CBS on March 8, 1959. It was the first appearance of the three Marx Brothers together in the same scene since A Night in Casablanca in 1946. They had previously appeared in individual scenes in The Story of Mankind in 1957, and in pairs in Love Happy in 1949 (Chico and Harpo appear together; Groucho is in one brief shot with Harpo in the chase scene, and Chico is in a cutaway shot in the wrap-up in Groucho's office).  "Jewel Robbery" would be their last joint TV appearance.

CBS explained the show as follows: "If you watch the show you'll see a familiar face equipped with mustache and leer. Because of his contract terms, his name can't be mentioned, but he is not Jerry Colonna." This refers to the fact that Groucho was still hosting You Bet Your Life on NBC.

Plot

Harpo and Chico play Harry and Nick, two inept would-be robbers who try to pull a jewelry heist.  Chico is disguised in a police uniform, and Harpo wears a Groucho Marx disguise. When they are caught and placed in a police lineup, the real Groucho shows up and is immediately fingered as the thief. Groucho then delivers the only line in the otherwise silent program: "We won't talk until we see our lawyer!" Everybody gives each other their leg, and the You Bet Your Life duck drops down with "The End" in its beak.

External links

 The Incredible Jewel Robbery YouTube

1950s American television specials
Marx Brothers (film series)
1959 American television episodes
1959 television specials
Robbery in television
Television episodes about theft

The Incredible Jewel Robbery


The Ice Bucket Challenge, sometimes called the ALS Ice Bucket Challenge, is an activity involving the pouring of a bucket of ice water over a person's head, either by another person or self-administered, to promote awareness of the disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, also known as motor neuron disease or Lou Gehrig's disease) and encourage donations to research. The challenge was co-founded by Pat Quinn and Pete Frates; it went viral on social media during July–August 2014. In the United States, many people participated for the ALS Association, and in the United Kingdom, many people participated for the Motor Neurone Disease Association, although some individuals opted to donate their money from the Ice Bucket Challenge to other organizations.

The challenge encourages nominated participants to be filmed having a bucket of ice water poured on their heads and then nominating others to do the same. A common stipulation is that nominated participants have 24 hours to comply or forfeit by way of a charitable financial donation.

On August 1, 2015, a group of ALS organizations in the United States, including the ALS Association, Les Turner ALS Foundation, and ALS Therapy Development Institute, re-introduced the Ice Bucket Challenge for 2015 to raise further funds with the intention of establishing it as an annual occurrence. It failed to raise the same viral attention as the 2014 event, which raised over $115M worldwide for the disease. However some people—including celebrities and various government officials around the world—have followed through with the intention of a yearly event by continuing to perform the challenge again each subsequent summer.

History

Predecessors
From 1991 to early 2014, a challenge of unknown origin often called the "Cold Water Challenge" became popular on social media in areas of the Northern United States and Northern Norway. The task usually involved the option of either donating money to cancer research or having to jump into cold water. In Norway the penalty for refusal could also be having to purchase alcoholic drinks for others. According to the Wall Street Journal, the Ice Bucket Challenge was begun by professional golfers as means to support various pet charities.

One version of the challenge, which took place in Salem, Indiana, as early as May 15, 2014, involved dousing participants with cold water and then donating to a charity, for example a local child diagnosed with an inoperable brain tumor. In another version, the Auckland Division of the Cancer Society of New Zealand was the beneficiary. As with similar challenges, it was usually filmed so footage can be shared online.

The National Fallen Firefighters Foundation popularized the "Cold Water Challenge" in early 2014 to raise funds as an unsanctioned spin-off of the polar plunge most widely used by Special Olympics as a fundraiser.

On May 20, 2014, the Washington Township, New Jersey, fire department posted a video on YouTube participating in the "Cold Water Challenge" with fire hoses. Participating members of the department were subsequently punished for using fire department equipment without permission.

Soon after, the challenge was brought to mainstream audiences when television anchor Matt Lauer did what was called "the Ice Bucket Challenge" on July 15, 2014, on NBC's The Today Show at Greg Norman's challenge. Lauer was raising money for the Hospice of Palm Beach County.

Shifting focus to ALS

In the Summer 2015 edition of the ALS Association's internet magazine "Visions" (page 5) says that "It all started in Florida with a golfer named Chris Kennedy. When Kennedy took the challenge in mid-July last year, the then little-known stunt was not tied to a specific charity. Kennedy thought taking the challenge might bring some cheer to a family member with ALS, Anthony Senerchia." Next, Kennedy nominated Senerchia's wife. Soon, news of the stunt traveled to Pat Quinn, of Yonkers, NY, according to "Visions". Within two weeks, word then reached Quinn's friend Pete Frates and he took the challenge, making him the fourth person to complete the challenge for ALS. During a Boston TV interview on September 2, 2019, Frates' father implied that his family knew so much about the disease, that "he felt like he was the Nostradamus of ALS".
The challenge first received increased media attention in the United States on June 30, 2014, when personalities of the Golf Channel program Morning Drive televised the social-media phenomenon, and performed a live, on-air Ice Bucket Challenge.

On the same day, golfer Chris Kennedy did the challenge, then challenged his cousin Jeanette Senerchia of Pelham, New York, whose husband, Anthony, had ALS for 11 years. Kennedy's challenge was the first documented instance of the challenge being connected with ALS. At this time, the challenge was not connected directly with ALS. Participants would donate to a charity of their choice.

Pat Quinn, who was friends on Facebook with the Senerchias, encouraged his friends to take the challenge, and soon after, Pete Frates began posting about the challenge on Twitter. Frates was awarded the Stephen Heywood Patients Today Award in 2012 for his fundraising and advocacy work. Frates' Boston College and sporting connections became an initial focus of the challenge and strengthened its focus on ALS. Both Quinn and Frates did the challenge in support of the ALS Therapy Development Institute. After its initial start with Pete Frates, a minor league baseball player diagnosed with the disease in 2012, the movement went viral in the Boston area which showed a much higher number of posts than any other area of the United States.

In his video, Stephen Hawking declined to perform the challenge due to pneumonia the year before; however, his three children took the challenge for him.

The President of the United States, Barack Obama, was challenged by Ethel Kennedy as well as by businessman and future successor to the Presidency Donald Trump but declined, opting to contribute to the campaign with a donation of $100. Justin Bieber LeBron James, and "Weird Al" Yankovic also challenged President Obama after completing the Ice Bucket Challenge. Hirohiko Araki, creator of the manga series JoJo's Bizarre Adventure, created a YouTube channel and uploaded only one video, which was an Ice Bucket Challenge video. Former President George W. Bush completed the challenge and nominated fellow former President Bill Clinton. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Cameron, was challenged by both Alex Salmond and Russell Brand, but also declined in favor of a donation.

Peter Frates died on December 9, 2019, at his home in Beverly, Massachusetts, at the age of 34.

The Challenge's success
The Ice Bucket Challenge raised over $220M worldwide. Its combination of competitiveness, social media pressure, online narcissism, and low barriers to entry led to more than 2.4 million tagged videos circulating Facebook. Even though 40–50% of the new donors were likely to make one-time gifts only, the Challenge instigated large numbers of people, videos, and donations. The challenge also benefited from a unique balance of mass interest and individual identification. In using social media as its platform, it accessed many people worldwide; in having its participants individually identify potential candidates – calling them out by "tagging" them – it felt personal. Furthermore, the videos were often entertaining. The average participants kept their videos under a minute, requiring limited commitment from any viewers. Another concept the Challenge benefited from was its ripple effect, inspiring features for articles, such as The Guardians "10 More of the Best Celebrity Takes on the Ice Bucket Challenge." Despite its marketing success, critics suggested that the ease of repeating the challenge's spiel do not increase awareness of what the disease actually does and who it is so harmful to.

The success of the challenge prompted the Muscular Dystrophy Association, which also raises funds to combat ALS, to discontinue its long-running annual telethon, the MDA Show of Strength, after the 2014 edition, stating that the Ice Bucket Challenge prompted the MDA to reevaluate how it can connect with the public.

In 2017, Frates published a book about the Ice Bucket Challenge detailing his own experience with ALS as well as his involvement in the social movement. Half of the proceeds will go to the Frates family.

Revivals

2015
On August 1, 2015, a group of ALS organizations in the United States, including the ALS Association, relaunched the Ice Bucket Challenge for 2015. The group said they intended to rerun the campaign "this August, and every August, until there's a cure (for ALS)."  "We have to finish what started last summer: every August until there's a cure," said Barb Newhouse, President and CEO of the ALS Association.

The 2015 campaign received the support of Major League Baseball, with each club due to organise its own branch of the Challenge and then nominate another franchise, along with two other local organizations or personalities, to participate in the Challenge.  "We are so thrilled and grateful to have every Major League Baseball team supporting us this year," commented Frates.

Celebrity participants in the 2015 challenge included Massachusetts governor Charlie Baker who took the challenge while wearing a "Free Brady" T-shirt (calling for the lifting of the suspension given to Tom Brady of the New England Patriots over Deflategate), Bieber once again, actor Hugh Jackman (belatedly in early September 2015) and actress Renee Zellweger who, in response to criticisms of the challenge for wasting water in drought conditions, used water from a drinking trough in a horse stables while standing in the trough to ensure every last drop was recycled back into its original source. President Barack Obama also received another nomination, this time by former New Orleans Saints player Steve Gleason (himself diagnosed with ALS).  Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump, despite having done the challenge in 2014, turned down his 2015 nomination from Boston mayor Marty Walsh, labelling Walsh "a clown" and suggesting that Boston "get a new mayor."

In the UK, the MND Association declined to revive the challenge. "We felt we raised a significant amount of money and awareness last summer. While people might be keen to do it again, we wouldn't say please do it again," said Chris James, the Association's director of external affairs.  Instead, the Association ran a "Last Summer" campaign commemorating the efforts of the public with the challenge, including the testimonies of those with ALS. Despite the reluctance of the MND Association, the cast of soap opera Hollyoaks nonetheless performed the challenge, nominating the cast of another soap, Casualty. Eddie Redmayne, having been nominated by Zellweger, also accepted the challenge for a second year, filming his video in London and nominating Charlie Cox, who did his 2015 challenge in New York. An attempt at the world record for the largest number of people simultaneously performing the challenge took place September 6, 2015, in Tewkesbury as part of a fundraiser for child bereavement charity Winton's Wish. In the event, the world record of 428 remained untouched but a new UK record of 248 people was set. TV presenter Eamonn Holmes performed the challenge in early October on This Morning after announcing he would do so while hosting the Pride of Britain Awards a few days earlier.

By early October, it was reported that the 2015 challenge had raised $500,000 as compared with the $115 million raised by the 2014 challenge.  The final figure was reported by the ALS Association in mid-October as being $1,000,000, with a survey by health analysts Treato showing that only 14% of donors from 2014 donated again in 2015.

2016–2019
Australian Deputy Prime Minister Barnaby Joyce performed the challenge in 2016, nominating his colleague Michael McCormack, the Minister for Small Business. Fellow Australian MP Adam Marshall also performed the challenge.  A new variant on the challenge this year, the "What's In Your Bucket?" challenge, featured the replacement of the ice cubes with other substances, including tomato ketchup, spaghetti, pickles, beer, baby powder, coffee, and sand.  A further attempt on the world record for the largest mass Ice Bucket Challenge in Buffalo, New York drew 650 participants, 71 short of the existing record of 721.

Charlie Baker, governor of Massachusetts, formalized the annual challenge by signing a bill declaring the first week of August each year to be Ice Bucket Challenge Week.  MND South Australia held an Ice Bucket Challenge campaign in February (during the Southern hemispheric summer)  Pete Frates' family joined with the Beverly Police Department to hold an Ice Bucket Challenge event on August 27 in which family members and officers took part. In 2016, the Motor Neurone Disease New Zealand Association Inc (later to become the Motor Neurone Disease New Zealand Charitable Trust) promoted the ice-bucket challenge which raised NZ$35,000.

In June 2018 in Seoul, South Korea the Challenge raised funds to build Korea's first dedicated hospital for ALS patients.  The Empire City Casino in Yonkers announced it would hold a Challenge event for the fifth year running. Political participants this year included Massachusetts State Senator Joan Lovely.

A fifth anniversary commemorative mass Ice Bucket Challenge was held at Copley Square in Boston, Massachusetts, with Frates and state governor Charlie Baker in attendance. ALS Canada's staff's annual commemorative performance of the Ice Bucket Challenge also reached its fifth year  to end the Ice Bucket Challenge.

2020 onwards
The 2021 and 2022 annual Yonkers Ice Bucket Challenge events were dedicated to the memory of Pat Quinn. with the latter held on July 31 (in spite of the "Every August ..." slogan).  By this point the Empire City Casino had held an Ice Bucket Challenge event every year since 2015 except 2020 on account of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Rules

Within 24 hours of being challenged, participants have to record a video of themselves in continuous footage. First, they are to announce their acceptance of the challenge, followed by pouring ice into a bucket of water. Then, the bucket is to be lifted and poured over the participant's head.
Then the participant can nominate a minimum of three other people to participate in the challenge.

Whether people choose to donate, perform the challenge, or do both varies.

In one version of the challenge, the participant was expected to donate $10 if they poured the ice water over their head or donate $100 if they did not. In another version, dumping the ice water over the participant's head was done in lieu of any donation, which  led to some criticisms of the challenge being a form of "slacktivism". Many participants donated $100 in addition to doing the challenge.

Impact

Awareness
In mid-2014, the Ice Bucket Challenge went viral on social media, particularly in the United States, with people, celebrities, politicians and athletes posting videos of themselves online and on TV participating in the event. According to The New York Times, people shared more than 1.2 million videos on Facebook between June 1 and August 13 and mentioned the phenomenon more than 2.2 million times on Twitter between July 29 and August 17. At its peak, the challenge generated more than 70,000 tweets per day with hashtags such as #IceBucketChallenge, #ALSIceBucketChallenge, and #StrikeOutALS. Mashable called the phenomenon "the Harlem Shake of the summer".

Prior to the challenge, public awareness of the disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) was relatively limited; the ALS Association stated that prior to the challenge going viral only half of Americans had heard of the disease, often referred to as "Lou Gehrig's disease", after baseball player Lou Gehrig, who publicly revealed his diagnosis in 1939. After the Ice Bucket Challenge went viral on social media, public awareness and charitable donations to ALS charities soared. Hits to the English Wikipedia's article on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis grew from an average of 163,300 views per month to 2.89 million views in August 2014, and similar increases occurred in the Spanish and German Wikipedias.

Donations
Within weeks of the challenge going viral, The New York Times reported that the ALS Association had received $41.8 million in donations from more than 739,000 new donors from July 29 until August 21, more than double the $19.4 million the association received during the year that ended January 31, 2013. On August 29, the ALS Association announced that their total donations since July 29 had exceeded $100 million. The ALS Association is just one of several ALS-related charities that have benefited from the challenge:

While the Ice Bucket Challenge raised much in donations, studies show that the majority of participants did not actually donate. In the UK, one in every six people participated, but only ten percent of the participants donated, according to the Charities Aid Foundation. The percentage was higher in the U.S., but the majority still did not donate.

In July 2015, the Huffington Post reported on the ALS Association's summary of how the funds raised through the Ice Bucket Challenge were distributed.  By percentage, 67% of all funds (about $77 million) went to research, 20% to patient and community services, 9% to public and professional education, 2% to additional fundraising, and 2% to external processing fees.

Research
On July 25, 2016, the ALS Association announced that, thanks in part to donations from the Ice Bucket Challenge, the University of Massachusetts Medical School has identified a third gene that is a cause for the disease. Project MinE, a global gene sequencing effort to identify genetic drivers of ALS, received $1 million from the challenge, allowing them to broaden the scope of their research to include new sources in new parts of the world. Having identified the link between the gene, NEK1, and ALS will allow for a new targeted gene for therapy development, as well as focused drug development.

Influences
Several other challenges have been created and publicised as a result of the publicity of the Ice Bucket Challenge. The My Tree Challenge is an activity launched in Kerala which consists of planting a tree sapling and challenging others to do so. The My Tree Challenge was preceded by a Book List Challenge, started by Facebook users, where users post a list of books that they have read and liked the most. The Rice Bucket Challenge, that started in India in late August 2014 and later spread to other South Asian nations, was also partly a response to the Ice Bucket Challenge's wastefulness of water. The "Pie In The Eye Challenge" challenges the nominated person to receive a pie in the face.  One particular occurrence of this, the late 2016 Waitress Pie Challenge, was initiated by the cast of the musical Waitress to raise awareness of breast cancer. The Milk Bucket Challenge in which milk is poured over the nominated person, was organised in August 2015 by English dairy farmers to raise awareness of their financial plight. The Rubble Bucket Challenge, started by Jordanian comedian Mohammed Darwaza, involves dumping a bucket of sand and rocks over one's head. This challenge was further popularized by Palestinian journalist Aymal al Aloul, and aims to increase awareness of Gazans who have lost their homes in the ongoing conflict with Israel. The Love Bucket Challenge, started by Kerala newspaper Malayala Manorama encourages people to fill a bucket with items to donate to orphanages. The Kaapi Challenge uses coffee, and is a challenge done primarily by the Chennai Super Kings to commemorate the 375th anniversary of the city of Chennai.

Criticism
A number of criticisms arose relating to the campaign, accusing it of being self-congratulatory, focusing primarily on fun rather than donating money to charity, and substituting a trivial activity for more genuine involvement in charitable activities. Writing in The Daily Telegraph, Willard Foxton described the challenge as "a middle-class wet T-shirt contest for armchair clicktivists", and the Evening Standard Magazine said that "it has become less about raising funds and all about showing off your star-pulling power".

On August 28, 2014, it was reported that the ALS Association had filed an application to trademark the term "ice bucket challenge", but the application was retracted amid criticism a day later.

Importance of the cause
William MacAskill, vice-president of Giving What We Can, an organization that advocates for people to engage in more effective altruism, was critical of the Ice Bucket Challenge, citing two chief objections. First, he claimed that the Ice Bucket Challenge resulted in "funding cannibalism": "for every $1 we raise, 50¢ would have been donated anyway". Relatedly, MacAskill claimed that the challenge encouraged moral licensing, whereby people who engage in one act they consider good may feel more licensed to engage in bad behavior. MacAskill's piece was met with considerable critical push-back, and he published a follow-up a few days later suggesting an Ice Bucket Challenge for causes he considered more important and cost-effective to support. Citing research from GiveWell, MacAskill gave the example of donating to the Against Malaria Foundation to end malaria. MacAskill's pieces were cited in Forbes, Nonprofit Quarterly, and Boston Review.

Julia Belluz at Vox.com wrote a piece with similar criticisms, linking to MacAskill's piece. Belluz noted that funding for diseases was often not proportional to the number of deaths caused by the diseases. She also noted that donating to developing world health causes could provide much greater healthcare value than donating for the treatment of rare diseases, an observation that is common in the effective altruism movement.

In the BBC's More or Less podcast, economist Tim Harford discussed the Ice Bucket Challenge and how to select the best charities, referencing work by GiveWell. He himself participated in the Ice Bucket Challenge, donating to the Schistosomiasis Control Initiative. Ben Carter and Keith Moore wrote an article for the BBC News drawing on the arguments made in the podcast.

Use of donated funds
Retired professional wrestler Lance Storm declined the challenge despite being nominated twice, and posted a note on his official website stating that most of the money that is donated goes towards promotional and advertising of the ALS Association while the remaining amount (at most 25% of what is donated) "is going into the pockets of Big Pharma", which is already doing ALS research and is therefore inflating their already-high profits. Storm went on to comment that it would be better to actually help someone with ALS and donate money directly to ALS patients. The ALS Association responded to similar criticisms by saying that 79% of their annual budget went toward programs in the past year.

Members of the pro-life movement, such as Lila Rose of Live Action, criticised donations to the ALS Association, because it uses embryonic stem cells in its ALS research. Related organisations such as the Family Research Council suggested that people participating in the Ice Bucket Challenge instead donate money to Midwest Stem Cell Therapy Center, Mayo Clinic, and the John Paul II Medical Research Institute, all three of which run clinical trials with adult stem cells, rather than embryonic ones. The Archdiocese of Cincinnati, with its 113 schools also recommended individuals participating in the Ice Bucket Challenge to donate to such groups, but not to the ALS Association "saying the group's funding of embryonic stem cell research is 'in direct conflict with Catholic teaching'."

PETA criticized the ALS Association's Ice Bucket Challenge, saying that money raised through the fundraiser would be used to fund "archaic and painful tests on animals." Russell Simmons,  Pamela Anderson, and Grimes, among other celebrities, also criticized the ALS Association's fundraiser for its support of animal testing. Anderson wrote on her Facebook page, "Trying to cure human diseases by relying on outdated and ineffective animal experiments isn't only cruel – it's a grave disservice to people who desperately need cures."

Focus on the stunt rather than donations
American stunt performer and TV personality Steve-O questioned the campaign, suggesting that celebrities' videos generally did not share donation information for ALS charities, and that the initial $15 million in funds was insignificant, given the star power of the celebrities participating. He noted that, of the videos he viewed, only Charlie Sheen and Bill Gates mentioned that the point is to donate money. A similar criticism was made by Jacob Davidson in Time Magazine and by Arielle Pardes in Vice.

Health risks
On August 22, 2014, Dr. Brian O'Neill, a physician at the Detroit Medical Center, warned that the challenge may have adverse health effects on participants, including potentially inducing a vagal response which might, for example, lead to unconsciousness in people taking blood pressure medications. A number of participants have sustained injuries, and at least one death has been indirectly linked to the challenge, as a result of injuries sustained unrelated to the dumping of ice water, with another death thought to be caused by a variation on the challenge, jumping feet first into ice water.

"Michael's Story" poster
"Michael's Story" was a campaign poster from the UK MND Association's summer 2015 "Last Summer" first anniversary campaign which featured Michael Smith. He had not taken part in the Ice Bucket Challenge and was subsequently diagnosed with motor neurone disease.  This caused controversy, with some critics saying that the poster was implying that Smith had deserved his illness for his previous non-participation. The claims were strongly refuted by the Association and by Smith himself.

Waste of water

Meteorologist Jason Samenow estimated that during the peak of the movement's popularity in 2014, the equivalent of 5,000,000 gallons of water would have been used for the challenge. This calculation assumes that the average of one 4-gallon bucket of water was used per video for the 1.2 million challenge videos which were posted during that time.

In January 2014, Governor Jerry Brown declared California to be in a drought state of emergency. This state of emergency was still in place as the Ice Bucket Challenge became most popular, and many local news stations in California took to criticizing the Challenge's unnecessary waste of water. Also at the time in China, various regions (including the important crop-producing Henan province) experienced months of extreme drought during the summer of 2014.  On August 22, 2014, citizens of Henan stood together to protest the challenge, with signs that said "Henan, please say 'NO' to Ice Bucket Challenge."

To prevent wasting drinkable water, many performed the ALS Ice Bucket Challenge by using natural water sources. Carole King performed the challenge using creek water that was immediately returned to the creek, and the Killer Clown, a YouTube personality, performed the challenge using rainwater. In response to the criticisms in California, some Californians performed the challenge by using dirt instead of water.

Some ALS organizations, such as the ALS Therapy Development Institute, has published guidelines for the Ice Bucket Challenge to minimize water usage through alternatives, like "filling the bucket with socks."

See also
 Book bucket challenge
 Mannequin Challenge
 Winter swimming

References

External links

 Video: Interview Pat Quinn on subject "Hype", for MOTI Museum
 ALS Association page
 Ice Bucket Challenge: Celebrity Participants and Nominees graph
 Ice Bucket Challenge World Record Attempt in India

2010s fads and trends
Projects established in 2014
Challenges
Health-related fundraisers
Internet memes introduced in 2014
Viral videos
Articles containing video clips
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
Ice
Internet memes
Webby Award winners

Ice Bucket Challenge


Patrick Joseph Creedy (18 November 1927 – 7 April 2011) was a New Zealand rugby football player who represented New Zealand in rugby league.

Playing career
Creedy originally played rugby union and represented both the Southland Rugby Union and the Canterbury Rugby Union.

Creedy later switched codes to rugby league and joined the Marist club in the Canterbury Rugby League competition. He represented Canterbury and in 1955 was selected at halfback for the South Island. That year he was first selected for the New Zealand national rugby league team, playing against the French and touring Great Britain and France.

In 1956 he was selected at fullback for the South Island and in 1957 he was selected for the Kiwis squad for the 1957 World Cup. Creedy finished his career with 33 games for the Kiwis, including nine test matches. He scored four tries and 12 goals for New Zealand.

Creedy died on 7 April 2011 in Wyndham, aged 83.

References

New Zealand rugby league players
New Zealand national rugby league team players
Canterbury rugby league team players
South Island rugby league team players
Marist-Western Suburbs players
Rugby league fullbacks
Rugby league halfbacks
New Zealand rugby union players
Canterbury rugby union players
Rugby union scrum-halves
1927 births
2011 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Place of birth missing

Pat Creedy


Pedro Machuca (c. 1490 in Toledo, Spain – 1550 in Granada) is mainly remembered as the Spanish architect responsible for the design of the Palace of Charles V (begun 1528) adjacent to the Alcazar in Granada. The significance of this work is that it represents likely the first major classic Renaissance style building in Spain. Culturally, it represents the urge by the conquering Christians to challenge the hegemony of Moorish architecture in the recently (1492) acquired province of Granada.

The details of his life are poorly known. Born in Toledo, he is said to have been a pupil or friends with Michelangelo and Pontormo. Returning to Spain in 1520, he worked as a painter in the Royal Chapel of Granada, as well as in Jaén, Toledo, and Uclés.

References
Rosenthal, Earl E. (1985). The Palace of Charles V in Granada. Princeton University Press, .

External links

Pedro Machuca at greatbuildings.com
Index of works at artcyclopedia.com
Palace of Charles V

16th-century Spanish architects
Spanish Renaissance painters
People from Toledo, Spain
1490s births
1550 deaths
Renaissance architects
16th-century Spanish painters
Spanish male painters

Pedro Machuca


The Iron Man: The Musical by Pete Townshend, released in 1989, is an adaptation of Ted Hughes' story The Iron Man, produced and largely composed and performed by Pete Townshend of The Who. It also stars Roger Daltrey, Deborah Conway, John Lee Hooker, and Nina Simone. It is Townshend's fifth studio album.

The three then-surviving original members of The Who (Daltrey, John Entwistle, and Townshend) performed as a group in two songs, "Dig" and "Fire", although the latter was a cover of The Crazy World of Arthur Brown's hit. (The Who would later perform "Dig" live during their 1989 reunion tour.)

"A Friend Is a Friend" and "I Won't Run Anymore" were commercially released as singles; "Fire" was issued as a promo-only single in the United States.  Cash Box said that "A Friend is a Friend" "finds Pete in an uplifting vein, with falsetto vocals and strummed guitar."

A stage version was mounted at the Young Vic theatre in London in 1993. On the strength of this, Warner Bros. optioned the story for a movie which, with a very different adaptation of the story, became The Iron Giant; Townshend received an Executive Producer credit.

Characters
Hogarth: Pete Townshend
The Vixen: Deborah Conway
The Iron Man: John Lee Hooker
The Space Dragon: Nina Simone
Hogarth's Father: Roger Daltrey
The Crow: Chyna
The Jay: Nicola Emmanuelle
The Frog: Billy Nicholls
The Owl: Simon Townshend
The Badger: Cleveland Watkiss

Track listing
All songs written by Pete Townshend except where noted.
 "I Won't Run Any More" – 4:51 Vocals by Pete Townshend with Deborah Conway
 "Over the Top" – 3:31 Vocals by John Lee Hooker
 "Man Machines" – 0:42 Vocals by Simon Townshend
 "Dig" – 4:07 Performed by The Who
 "A Friend Is a Friend" – 4:44 Vocals by Pete Townshend
 "I Eat Heavy Metal" – 4:01 Vocals by John Lee Hooker
 "All Shall Be Well" – 4:02 Vocals by Pete Townshend with Deborah Conway and Chyna
 "Was There Life" – 4:19 Vocals by Pete Townshend
 "Fast Food" – 4:26 Vocals by Nina Simone
 "A Fool Says..." – 2:51 Vocals by Pete Townshend
 "Fire" (Arthur Brown, Vincent Crane, Mike Finesilver, Peter Ker) – 3:47 Performed by The Who
 "New Life/Reprise" – 6:00 Vocals by Chyna with Pete Townshend and Nicola Emmanuel.  Contains small extract of a live performance of "Magic Bus"

Bonus tracks from the 2006 US Hip-O Records release
 "Dig" (Simon Townshend vocal version) – 4:09
 "Man Machines" (long version) – 4:34
 "I Eat Heavy Metal" (demo) – 4:04

Bonus tracks from the 2006 Japanese Imperial release
 "A Friend Is a Friend" (live at the Fillmore West, 1996)
 "All Shall Be Well" (live at the Fillmore West, 1996)

Non-album tracks
 "Real World" (instrumental released on 12" and CD singles of "A Friend Is a Friend", a different mix of it was on Scoop 3 in 2001)
 "Penny Drop" (appeared on the Timothy White Radio Show; promo copies of the interview were pressed on vinyl by DIR Broadcasting)
 "Dig" (demo released on the 1989 UK CD single of "I Won't Run Anymore")
 "Iron Man Recitative", "Can You Really Dance?", and "Man and Machines (demo)" appeared on Scoop 3 in 2001
 "Dig" (concert version appeared on The Who's 1989 reunion tour concert album Join Together)

References

External links
 Liner notes on songs – Dig, Fire

1989 albums
Concept albums
Pete Townshend albums
1993 musicals
Rock operas
Rock musicals
Atlantic Records albums
Albums produced by Pete Townshend
British musicals
Adaptations of works by Ted Hughes


The Vranjina Monastery (), also known as the Vranina Monastery or St. Nicholas' Monastery, is a Serbian Orthodox monastery on the south-east part of Vranjina island on Skadar Lake in Montenegro. Vranjina Monastery with its church dedicated to Saint Nicholas is one of the oldest monasteries in Montenegro.

History
Based on the 1233 chrysobull of Rastko Nemanjić (Saint Sava), the oldest document mentioning this monastery, it can be concluded that it was founded between 1221 and 1223 by Sava, the first archbishop of the autocephalous Serbian Church, or by Ilarion Šišojević, the first metropolitan bishop of the Metropolitanate of Zeta.
According to some accounts, Ilarion was buried in the courtyard of the monastery.

The monastic metochion was initially formed by land and income granted to the monastery by members of the Nemanjić dynasty, who gave the richest donations to the monastery. Saint Sava granted some land of the Holy Savior metochion on Plavnica to Vranjina, while King Stefan Vladislav granted the Crmnica villages of Godinje, Medveđa Glava and Kruševica to the monastery, and queen Helen of Anjou granted it land around Krnjica and Uljanik in Kruševica in 1280. Around 1296 King Stefan Milutin granted the village of Orahovo and 100 perpers of income from the Sveti Srdj market near Skadar to the monastery. Vranjina soon became famous for its richness. In 1348, Emperor Stefan Dušan awarded the monastery together with half of its income to the church in Jerusalem dedicated to Archangel Michael (believed to be founded by King Milutin). That way Vranjina became a metochion of the Church of Archangel Michael in Jerusalem. Charters of Vranjina in the 14th century mentioned  Albanian (Arbanas), Vlah, Latin (Catholic citizen) and Serb in ethnic sense as those who could do damage to property of monastery.

Vranjina was later granted with rich estates by members of the Balšić and Crnojević noble families who ruled Zeta. In 1404 Đurađ Stracimirović gave the village of Rake to the monastery while Balša III gave it a salt pond (1417) and the village of Karuč in Crmnica (1420). In the period after Nemanjić rule, during which all estates belonged to the supreme monarch, minor local nobility began to lay ownership claims to the land, some even taking parts of monastic metochions. The famous assembly took place in the monastery on the 6th of September 1455, when amidst the growing Turkish threat, the higland tribes swore allegiance to the Venetian republic in the presence of the Venetian proveditor. Stefan Crnojević, duke of Zeta who had already aligned himself with the Venetians, organised the assembly and was also present. In the matters of the church, the assembly is pivotal for the preservance of the authority of the Metropolitanate of Zeta which at the time rivaled the uncanonical and, in accordance with the Republics politics following the Council of Florence, Venetian installed  Greek Uniate metropolitan seated at the Ostros monastery. The assembly officially reguested for their metropolitan to be a Slav and for the Vranjina, where the Metropolitanate was located at the time, to be recognised as the official seat. In 1469 Ivan Crnojević returned all of Vranjina's former estates which included villages in Zeta valley, Limljani, Limsko Polje, Brčeli, Optočići, Tomići and Šišovići. In 1478, during the Siege of Shkodra, sultan Mehmed the Conqueror confirmed all existing rights and privileges to the monastery in order to gain support from the surrounding tribes.

The monastery was a temporary seat of the Metropolitanate of Zeta after the destruction of the Holy Archangel Michael monastery in 1441 and remained so until 1481 when, because of the vicinity of the frontlines, the seat was briefly moved to the Kom Monastery. Finally, Ivan Crnojević moved it to Cetinje in 1485. In the beginning of the 16th century the pressure on its properties was renewed, this time by the neighboring villages, so the monastery had to plead to Skenderbeg Crnojević for the protection of its rights in 1527. The monastery was so poor in the 17th century that in 1665 its hegumen, together with hegumen of Moračnik Monastery, requested help from the Catholic bishop of Scutari Pjetër Bogdani. It was arsoned by the Ottoman forces in 1714 during the Numan Pasha's invasion of Montenegro. The 9 defenders of the monastery, including its hegumen Nikolaj from Podgori and Voivoda Ratko Orlandić who were badly outnumbered, fortified themselves in the monastery were they were burned alive.

References

Further reading

Serbian Orthodox monasteries in Montenegro
13th-century Serbian Orthodox church buildings
Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)
Buildings and structures in Podgorica
Tourist attractions in Podgorica
Nemanjić dynasty endowments
Medieval Serbian Orthodox monasteries
Christian monasteries established in the 13th century
Medieval Montenegro

Vranjina Monastery


BBC Radio London is the BBC's local radio station serving Greater London.

It broadcasts on FM, DAB, digital TV and via BBC Sounds from studios at Broadcasting House in Langham Place, London.

According to RAJAR, the station has a weekly audience of 607,000 listeners and a 1.6% share as of June 2023.

History

1970–1988: Radio London
Local radio arrived in London as part of the second wave of BBC local stations, following a successful pilot project headed by Frank Gillard, who on visiting the United States, discovered local radio stations of varying formats and brought the concept to Britain.

Test transmissions for the new local radio station were carried out from Wrotham, Kent, on 95.3 MHz in FM mono, relaying BBC Radio 1 (at the time broadcast only on medium wave), with several announcements informing listeners of the new service. On 6 October 1970, Radio London was launched, three years before commercial radio for Greater London in the guise of LBC. An additional medium wave frequency was allocated on 1457 kHz (206 metres) from Brookmans Park. 95.3 soon changed to 94.9.

BBC Radio London was the local station for the capital, although, in its early days, it relied heavily on news reports from other stations in the BBC network and often shared programming with BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 2. For several months after launch, the station was not able to play commercial records as no agreement had been reached over so-called needle time, which led to London listeners becoming acquainted with broadcast library music from outside the UK (notably the Canadian Talent Library) and music from film soundtracks. A phone-in programme, Sounding Brass, was first presented by Owen Spencer-Thomas in 1977. Listeners were invited to choose a Christmas carol or hymn while a Salvation Army brass band stood by in the studio to play their request live. It later moved to BBC Radio 2 and was presented by Gloria Hunniford.

As soon as Independent Local Radio stations LBC and Capital London went on air, public attention to Radio London declined.

Radio London started regular broadcasts from Harewood House, Hanover Square, near Oxford Circus, later moving to 35 Marylebone High Street - the former Radio Times warehouse.

Tests for FM stereo began in 1981 with Music on the Move, a programme featuring non-stop music, before its full launch on 11th February. The FM transmitter was shortly moved to Crystal Palace. This coincided with the planned relaunch in 1981, which saw the station take on a style that was softer than BBC Radio 2 - a station predominantly playing "easy listening" music. The music ranged from softer contemporary pop, such as The Carpenters, to light classical music. The relaunch led to improved audience figures and a string of awards and accolades.

One of its programmes on the schedule was Black Londoners, devised by Ray Criushank, a community relations officer for the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham, and presented by Alex Pascall. The programme helped to develop on-air talent from London's Afro-Caribbean community, namely Juliet Alexander, Syd Burke and Mike Phillips and was the pioneering programme on television or radio to regularly speak to Black Londoners. The programme's title was changed to Black London shortly before Radio London closed. It was revived for a short time in 2003, with Pascall returning as a presenter. The forerunner to the BBC Asian Network was an Asian programme, London Sounds Eastern, presented by Vernon Corea who was appointed the BBC's Ethnic Minorities Adviser in the 1970s. Pandit Ravi Shankar, and Indian pop star Usha Uthup, were among those interviewed for London Sounds Eastern, launched on BBC Radio London in 1976 and produced by Keith Yeomans.

A programming relaunch in 1984 saw Radio London adopt the tagline "The Heart and Soul of London", with more soul music being played during the day. Tony Blackburn from BBC Radio 1 moved up the schedule to host a morning show. Regular Soul Night Outs were held initially in Kilburn but later in other venues, such as Ilford. This was where Dave Pearce (who later went to BBC Radio 1) made his first regular appearances as a BBC DJ (Monday night programme "A fresh start to the week"). Two of the station's producers, Guy Hornsby (Tony Blackburn) and Mike Gray (Robbie Vincent Telephone Programme), went on to create the commercial dance stations Kiss 102 and Kiss 105.

Radio London closed on 7 October 1988. The final programme, just before its 18th birthday, was presented by Mike Sparrow and Susie Barnes. Immediately after closedown at 7 pm, test transmissions began in preparation for the launch of its replacement, Greater London Radio (GLR).

1988–2000: Greater London Radio (GLR)
Test transmissions for the new Greater London Radio GLR began as soon as Radio London closed. Its pre-launch announcements stated in no uncertain terms that GLR was to be radically different in style. GLR was to be the first new radio station in London for 15 years.

An announcement, voiced by Chris Morris, aired four days before launch:

Heading the new station were Managing Editor Matthew Bannister and Programme Organiser Trevor Dann. Bannister came from Capital London, while Dann came from Radio 1, via BBC TV's Whistle Test, and developed an album-oriented music policy. GLR was aimed at people who hate pop but love music, hate prattle (excessive on-air talk) but want to know what's what where in the world. The station was aimed at 25 to 45-year-olds. Early promotions used the phrase "rock 'n' rolling news". Much of the daytime speech output covered London events and nightlife, with comedians and other artists being interviewed. The music mix was best described as Adult album alternative, though indie bands were also played.

Chris Evans took on a variety of roles on GLR, often presenting a weekend show, ending in 1993. Danny Baker presented Weekend Breakfast from 1989 to 1990 and then returned to present a Sunday morning show from 1996 to 1998. Janice Long presented the Breakfast show on the station from 1989 to 1991, and Kevin Greening started as a producer in 1989, before becoming a presenter of the Breakfast show with Jeremy Nicholas in 1991. Bob Harris also presented shows for the station from 1994 to 1998 after leaving BBC Radio 1. Early afternoon programming previewed London's entertainment scene, interviewing comedians and other performers. Richard Cook had a Saturday night jazz show.

Specialist speech programmes in the evening were aimed at London's communities: Asian, Afro-Caribbean, Jewish, Gay, and Irish. Black London was replaced with Margaret Jones (aka The Ranking Miss P), who was dropped by BBC Radio 1. Lavender Lounge, the programme for the gay community, was presented by comedian Amy Lamé. Weekends featured extensive sports coverage, centring on football and London's numerous clubs such as Arsenal, Tottenham, and West Ham United.

In 1989, GLR set up a youth-based radio training facility at Vauxhall College, SW8, which was followed by a second course based at White City, W12. This was allocated funds from the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham and the British parliament.

GLR had the ability to directly access Scotland Yard's network of traffic cameras across London's busiest streets. This enabled its reporters, most commonly "Bob at the Yard", to give accurate traffic and travel news to its listeners. The reports were known as 20/20 Travel, named because its travel reports were read out every 20 minutes during peak times. No other radio station had this access for a while, even managing to outdo Capital Radio's traffic plane, known as the Flying Eye.

Criticism and closure
Three years into the new relaunch, the station was given an additional three years to prove itself to its audience by senior BBC management or close for good; this threat was also applied to its other metropolitan BBC local radio stations BBC WM in Birmingham and BBC GMR in Manchester. The threat was lifted after the BBC deemed it sufficiently patronised to remain on-air; however, criticism of the station grew from its Radio London days, causing David Mellor, then Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport to remark: "The BBC must think hard whether it is occupying radio frequencies without making much use of them." This claim was rejected by senior management.

In 1991, Matthew Bannister left to spearhead the BBC's charter-renewal strategy called Extending Choice. He was replaced as Managing Editor by Trevor Dann. Kate Marsh was appointed News Editor. In 1993, GLR was forced to relinquish its 1458 kHz medium wave frequency, for a new commercial radio station, which was eventually won by Sunrise Radio. Previously it had been simulcasting with 94.9 MHz FM, with a few programmes which occasionally opted from FM. In 1993, Nigel Chapman, Head of BBC South & East, drove through a policy of "speech shoulders", forcing GLR to drop its music / speech mix at breakfast and drive times. Dann resigned in protest and left the BBC.

Steve Panton, formerly Managing Editor of BBC Radio Solent, took over and GLR in 1993. One of its noted DJs on-air at the time was Gary Crowley, who had a weekend show which regularly showcased new and unsigned bands. Kaleem Sheikh presented the A to Z of Indian Film and Classical music to a mainstream and specialist audience.

In 1999, following a consultation exercise on local broadcasting in the South East, the BBC decided to rebrand GLR and substantially change the programming. A campaign to "Save GLR" was organised and a petition was delivered to the BBC. The argument became acrimonious. In particular, those opposed to the changes argued that the BBC never organised a public meeting in London as part of the consultation exercise and, when one was organised by supporters of the station, no one involved in the consultation exercise attended. Although the campaign was unsuccessful in saving GLR and the rebranding went ahead the next year, it demonstrated the existence of a loyal audience for its format. GLR's music format and several of its presenters returned to the BBC with the launch of the national digital station BBC Radio 6 Music in 2002.

2000–2001: BBC London Live 94.9
Facing even more public criticism over GLR's position in the London radio market and its very low listening reach, the station was relaunched on 25 March 2000 as BBC London Live 94.9. Promising even more speech and less music, London Live — originally the title for GLR's lunch-time news show (presented by Charles Carroll, now on BBC Radio 4) — was launched with new on-air personalities and new shows, including a speech-heavy breakfast show and a mid-morning phone-in and debate. Only Drivetime and the specialist shows would remain, albeit refreshed. The re-launch at the time was promoted by huge billboards and television spots on BBC Newsroom South East depicting London's famous landmarks as radio paraphernalia (a woman seen raising Big Ben as a radio aerial, for example). It cost the BBC in excess of £20 million, an amount is seen by vocal critics led by private media as an "obscene amount of money" and added to repeated calls for the licence fee to be scrapped.

Leading the relaunch was Station Director David Robey, who hired such personalities as Lisa I'Anson, Vanessa Feltz, Tom Watt, and various black presenters including Eddie Nestor and Dotun Adebayo.

2001–2015: BBC London 94.9

In October 2001, the name was changed to BBC London 94.9. Newly updated jingles were added with its new slogan "On TV, On Radio, Online", voiced by BBC London News host Emily Maitlis. The overall branding for this was BBC LDN.

New recruits to BBC London 94.9 included Jon Gaunt from BBC Three Counties Radio, former GLR presenter Danny Baker, and Sean Rowley (hosting the Guilty Pleasures show). Danny Baker hosted a breakfast show, which was co-hosted with American comedian Amy Lamé. Jon Gaunt then hosted the mid-morning phone-in show. Robert Elms was kept at lunchtime. Vanessa Feltz took over Lisa I'Anson's afternoon slot with a phone-in. Then there was Drivetime with Eddie Nestor and Kath Melandri, with news updates, sport, travel and debates with the public. Specialist programmes for the Black community emerged at the weekends along with sports coverage and alternative music shows in the evening. BBC London also saw the return of Tony Blackburn on Saturdays, more than 20 years since he first appeared on the station. His show was as before, playing classic soul music and chat.

Although having joined at the end of the stations time as GLR, Norman Jay's Giant 45 show attracted a large and loyal following until Jay's eventual departure in February 2008 having been moved to a "digital only slot". This was by no means the first change to specialist music programming by Robey to have attracted a negative reaction. In 2003, a campaign called Londumb Live was briefly launched as a response to the axing of a number of specialist shows including Coldcut and Ross Allen. Most notably another presenter, Henry Bonsu, was controversially sacked for reportedly being "too intellectual".

BBC London 94.9 was the first BBC local radio station to air a 24-hour live-stream online, which coincided with the 2001 re-launch. It also aired on DAB Digital Radio (from July 2000) and on Sky channel 0152 (from 2005) in the London area, but it can be accessed within the UK and Ireland by manual tuning.

Additional coverage for football was made possible through a combination of its DAB platform, on Sky channel 0152, and via a BBC Essex transmitter on 765 kHz medium wave (for West Ham commentaries).

2015–present: BBC Radio London
On 6 October 2015, BBC London 94.9 was re-branded as BBC Radio London.

On 23 March 2020, to prioritise resources during the Coronavirus pandemic, BBC Radio 5 Live suspended overnight programmes between 01:00 and 05:00 and carried the output of BBC Radio London. This continued until early July, when 5 Live resumed its overnight programming. In 2022, presenter Salma El-Wardany took over the Breakfast Show, after Vanessa Feltz left the station after almost twenty years.

Programming
Local programming is produced and broadcast from the BBC's London studios.

During the station's downtime, BBC Radio London simulcasts overnight programming from BBC Radio 5 Live.

The station's output is generally similar to that of other BBC local radio stations and targets a broad, mainstream audience. While previous incarnations of the station offered a more diverse range of programmes for London's various ethnic, religious, social and cultural communities, specialist programming now remains in a smaller form and is mostly broadcast at weekends.

Unlike all other BBC local stations, BBC Radio London does not simulcast regional programmes from sister stations.

References

Further reading
 Aircheck UK
 The Radio Companion by Paul Donovan ()

External links

 The History of BBC London

BBC Radio London
1970 establishments in England
Radio stations established in 1970
Radio stations in London

BBC Radio London


The North Luzon Expressway, more commonly known by its abbreviation NLEx or NLEX, is a controlled-access highway in the Philippines. It connects the National Capital Region (or Metro Manila) to the provinces of the central part of Luzon, the main island in the country. Measuring 84 kilometers long, it starts at a cloverleaf-shaped interchange in Quezon City, where the controlled-access highway, the Epifanio de los Santos Avenue, and the Bonifacio Avenue meet. It then passes through the settlements of Caloocan and Valenzuela in the capital area and the provinces of Bulacan and Pampanga in Central Luzon. It ends at an exit in the settlement of Mabalacat and joins with the MacArthur Highway with the help of a road, continuing northward into the remaining part of Central Luzon and the Northern Luzon. The whole controlled-access highway has 4 to 8 lanes (with 2 to 4 lanes in each direction).

Roads in the Philippines

North Luzon Expressway


Ethel Hurlbatt (1 July 1866 Bickley, Kent – 22 March 1934 Tours, France) was Principal of Bedford College, University of London, and later Warden of Royal Victoria College, the women's college of McGill University, in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, which had opened in 1899.

Education
She was educated privately and then read modern history at Somerville College, Oxford, from 1888 to 1892 gaining a second. Her BA and MA were conferred by Trinity College, Dublin in 1905 as Oxford allowed women to sit the examinations but did not confer degrees on women at that time. She did however receive an honorary MA from Oxford in 1925.

Career
After an extra year at Oxford doing work in the Bodleian Library, in 1892 she became principal of Aberdare Hall, a women student's only hall at Cardiff University College, now Cardiff University. In 1898 she became principal of Bedford College but resigned in 1906 due to ill health. From 1907 till retirement in 1929 she was Warden of Royal Victoria College. Her service to the college was recognized in 1930 when she received an honorary LLD from McGill.

During retirement she travelled widely pursuing her interest in sketching. In the year before she died she had several heart attacks, complicated by influenza. She was recognised for her pioneering work in women's education combined with loyalty to the institutions she worked for. She was unmarried.

References

Publications
 Women and McGill Ethel Hurlbatt (1920)

External links
 Profile, McGill.ca; accessed 25 April 2016.

1866 births
1934 deaths
Alumni of Somerville College, Oxford
Academic staff of McGill University
People associated with Bedford College, London

Ethel Hurlbatt


Paleontology in Florida refers to paleontological research occurring within or conducted by people from the U.S. state of Florida. Florida has a very rich fossil record spanning from the Eocene to recent times. Florida fossils are often very well preserved.

The oldest known fossils in Florida date back to the Eocene. At this time Florida was covered in a sea home to a variety of marine invertebrates and the primitive whales, such as Basilosaurus. During the later Miocene Florida was exposed as dry land again due to geologic uplift and mountain building. In the Florida Keys, however, coral reefs were forming. The marine environments of Pliocene Florida were home to creatures like dugongs, porpoises, sharks, and whales. On land, camels, dogs, horses, relatives of modern elephants, saber toothed cats, and tapirs inhabited the state. The period of time best documented in the fossil record of Florida is the Pleistocene epoch. In fact, Florida is the best source of Pleistocene mammals in the world. Among them were short-faced bears, saber-toothed cats, glyptodonts, mammoths, mastodons, giant ground sloths, and wolves.

Prehistory

Florida has a very rich fossil record. Its geologic history is also complex. The rock underlying Florida was originally part of Gondwana and did not become part of North America until the Permian, when Pangaea formed. During the Mesozoic Pangaea began to divide again and Florida was left attached to North America. However, no dinosaur fossils are known from the state though they likely lived there. In fact no fossils are known from surface deposits older than the Eocene. Nevertheless, the geologic record contributes to science's ability to reconstruct the history of Florida's changing Mesozoic environment. During the Cretaceous the Florida peninsula was much wider due to regions now submerged as continental shelf being exposed to the air. Later into the Cretaceous northern Florida was covered by rising seas connecting the Gulf of Mexico to the Atlantic. This passage of water was called the Suwannee Straits.

A shallow sea grew to cover most of the state during the Paleogene. Clams, echinoderms, and gastropods lived here. Cenozoic limestone formed in such environments is common in Florida and rich in fossils. The oldest fossil-bearing geologic deposits in Florida are of Eocene age. During the Eocene, primitive whales like Basilosaurus swam over Florida. Other inhabitants included large numbers of shelled invertebrates, sharks, and sirenians. Oligocene fossils in Florida provide evidence for a diverse terrestrial fauna. During the early Miocene uplift and mountain building filled in the Suwannee Strait. At this point coral reefs were forming in the Florida Keys. The Thomas Farm Quarry is the richest source of Miocene mammal fossils in the eastern US. During the ensuing Pliocene, Florida was home to amphibians, bears, a variety of birds, camelids, crocodilians, deer, dogs, dugongs, at least six genera of horses, peccaries, porpoises, relatives of modern elephants, rays, saber toothed cats, seals, sharks, tapirs, turtles, and whales. The remains of all these creatures have been found in a region of Polk County called Bone Valley. Late Tertiary vertebrate fossils are known from southern Florida. during these animals' lifetimes the southern 300 kilometers of Florida was still under water. Late Tertiary sediments of Gilchrist County preserve badgers, Kodiak bears, camels, dogs, horses, rhinos and more. Mammoths, mastodons, sloths, giant beavers, and ungulates were preserved near Gainesville.

The Pleistocene limestones of the Florida Keys are rich in fossils. The Pleistocene is the epoch of time best represented in Florida's fossil record. In fact, Florida's Pleistocene sediments are regarded as the best source of Pleistocene fossils in the world, especially for the mammals of that age. Also, Pleistocene Florida had a greater diversity of terrestrial vertebrates than any other place and time in North American history. At the time, the local sea level began to rise and fall along with the amount of water tied up in the glaciers covering the northern part of the continent. When the sea would withdraw savannas formed. Herds of American mastodon and Columbian mammoth browsed and grazed on the local foliage. The gigantic ground sloth Eremotherium was another contemporary large herbivore. Others included the antelope, bison, deer, armored glyptodonts, and the modern horse. These were preyed upon by predators like short-faced bears, jaguars, saber-toothed cats, lions, dire wolves, and wolves.

History
In 1931, a farmer uncovered some bones while plowing his field. He thought he had stumbled on a Native American graveyard. However, the bones turned out to be fossils and were bought by the University of Florida. The prehistoric creatures whose remains were preserved here include a large dog-like bear, two different kinds of camels, several different species of horse, and a pig-like animal. In 1963 several new Miocene fossil sites were discovered. One was found in the far northern region of the state, near its border with Georgia. Another was found near Ocala and a third discovery occurred in Hernando County. The Hernando County site preserved the remains of animals like alligators, members of the dog family, oreodonts, rhinoceroses, and tapirs.

Protected areas
 Windley Key Fossil Reef Geological State Park

Notable paleontologist

Deaths
 Walter Auffenberg died in Gainesville on January 17, 2004 at age 75.
 Pierce Brodkorb died in Gainesville on July 18, 1992.
 Cesare Emiliani died in Palm Beach Gardens on 20 July 1995

Natural history museums
Florida Museum of Natural History, Gainesville
Bishop Museum, Bradenton
Mulberry Phosphate Museum, Mulberry
Orlando Science Center, Orlando
Palm Beach Museum of Natural History, Wellington
Paleo Preserve Fossil Museum, Ruskin

Notable clubs and associations

 Bone Valley Fossil Society
 Florida Fossil Hunters
 Florida Paleontological Society
 Fossil Club of Miami
 Southwest Florida Fossil Club
 Tampa Bay Fossil Club

Events
 Fossil Fair

Footnotes

References

 Picconi, J. E. 2003. The Teacher-Friendly Guide to the Geology of the Southeastern U.S. Paleontological Research Institution, Ithaca, NY.
 Portell, Roger,  Richard Hulbert, Dale Springer, Judy Scotchmoor. June 29, 2005. "Florida, US." The Paleontology Portal. Accessed September 21, 2012.

External links
 Geologic units in Florida
 Florida Department of Environmental Protection
 Florida Fossil Hunters

Florida
Natural history of Florida
Science and technology in Florida

Paleontology in Florida


Ross  (Ros in Scottish Gaelic) is a region of Scotland and a former earldom and county. The area once belonged to the Norwegian (West Norse) earldom of Orkney.

Ross-shire () is a historic county in the Scottish Highlands. The county borders Sutherland, Cromartyshire, Inverness-shire and an exclave of Nairnshire. It includes most of Ross as well as Lewis in the Outer Hebrides.

Dingwall is the traditional county town.

Counties of Scotland

Ross


Wasatch Roller Derby (WRD) is a women's flat track roller derby league based in Salt Lake City, Utah. Founded in 2008, Wasatch is a member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association (WFTDA).

History and organization
Originally emerging from the Salt City Derby Girls, the league's formation was led by Lacey "Honey" Peterson and Brandi "Medusa" Olsen. The first public Wasatch bout was held April 25, 2009 at Hollywood Connection in West Valley City.

Wasatch joined the WFTDA Apprentice Program in October 2009, and were accepted as full WFTDA members in June 2010.  By January 2012, they were described as the biggest league in Salt Lake City. In 2013 the WFTDA transitioned from a region based ranking system to an overall ranking system. WRD entered the new ranking at 20th in March 2013.

The league founded the Wasatch Junior Rollers, a junior roller derby team, and have close links with the co-ed MRDA league, Wasatch Men's Roller Derby. As of 2019, Wasatch Roller Derby features two home teams and one travel team.

Wasatch Roller Derby regularly raises funds for charitable organizations including the March of Dimes and the American Diabetes Association.

WFTDA competition
Wasatch first qualified for WFTDA Playoffs in 2012, as the ninth seed at the WFTDA Western Regional Tournament, where they finished in ninth place by defeating Arizona Roller Derby 245-134.

In 2013, the WFTDA restructured its playoff system, and Wasatch qualified for Division 1 Playoffs in Fort Wayne, Indiana as the seventh seed, and finished in seventh place by beating Cincinnati Rollergirls 275-95.

In 2014, Wasatch hosted a Division 1 Playoff at the Salt Palace. WRD competed at the tournament as the eighth seed and finished in eighth place after losing to No Coast Derby Girls 169-166. No Coast had been the intended host league but their venue plans fell through.

In 2015, Wasatch dropped down to Division 2 Playoffs as the fifth seed at Detroit, and finished in fifth place by defeating Bear City 203-152.

In 2016, Wasatch was the third seed for the Lansing Division 2 Playoff, and just missed the bronze medal with a 197-194 loss to Charm City Rollergirls.

Wasatch returned to Division 1 Playoffs in 2017 as the twelfth seed in Dallas, but lost both of their games, 415-68 to Atlanta Rollergirls and 270-77 to Queen City Roller Girls.

Rankings

 CR = consolation round

References

Roller derby leagues established in 2008
Roller derby leagues in Utah
Sports in Salt Lake City
Women's Flat Track Derby Association Division 1
2008 establishments in Utah

Wasatch Roller Derby


Sir Ralph George Hawtrey (22 November 1879, Slough – 21 March 1975, London) was a British economist, and a close friend of John Maynard Keynes. He was a member of the Cambridge Apostles, the University of Cambridge intellectual secret society.

He took a monetary approach towards the economic ups and downs of industry and commerce, advocating changes in the money supply through adjustment in the bank rate of interest, foreshadowing the later work of Keynes. In the 1920s, he advocated what was later called the Treasury View. He also advanced in 1931 the concept that became known as the multiplier, a coefficient showing the effect of a change in total national investment on the amount of total national income.

It was his view that the botched attempt to restore the international gold standard led to the Great Depression. He had played a key role in the Genoa Conference of 1922, which attempted to devise arrangements for a stable return to the gold standard.

Life and career
Hawtrey was born in Slough, near London, only son and last child of George Procter Hawtrey (born 1847/50; died 1910) and his first wife Eda (died 1892), daughter of William Strahan. His father, a schoolmaster, left the profession for acting, where he met no great success; the family's impecuniousness led Ralph Hawtrey to seek the stable employment of the Civil Service. A cousin was the economist Alfred Marshall.

He was educated at Eton, and went up to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1898. He graduated in 1901 with first-class mathematics honours. He entered the Admiralty in 1903, then he was moved to the Treasury (1904), where he became director of financial enquiries in 1919. Until his retirement in 1945 he worked in the UK Treasury.

Alfred Marshall took no immediate part in Hawtrey's economic education. His economic education was, for the most part, acquired in the Treasury. However, he had close contacts with the Cambridge economists. Away from economics he was involved with both the Apostles and with Bloomsbury, whilst within the subject he was a visitor to Keynes's Political Economy Club at Cambridge and Currency and Credit (1919) became a standard work in Cambridge in the 1920s.

He taught at Harvard University as a visiting lecturer from 1928 to 1929 on a special leave from the UK Treasury. After his official retirement in 1945 he was elected Price Professor of International Economics in the Royal Institute for International Affairs a post which he held from 1947 to 1952.

Hawtrey was knighted in 1956.

Contributions
Hawtrey contributed to a number of significant developments of economic analysis, including an original form of the cash balance approach to the quantity theory of money, to which he grafted an income approach, foreshadowing a treatment by John Maynard Keynes. He also advanced, as early as 1931, the concept of multiplier, which was given a central role by Keynes, and, indeed, Hawtrey played a significant role in the development of Keynes's thought in the years between his Treatise and General Theory.

His major contributions related to the quantity theory and the trade cycle. He was one of the first English economists to stress the primacy of credit-money rather than metallic legal tender. Furthermore, his income-based approach led to a closer integration of the theories of money and output. For Hawtrey, money income determines expenditure, expenditure determines demand and demand determines prices. Hawtrey summarised his aims in monetary theory in the preface to Currency and Credit.

 Scientific treatment of the subject of currency is impossible without some form of the quantity theory … but the quantity theory by itself is inadequate, and it leads up to the method of treatment based on what I have called the consumers' income and the consumers' outlay – that is to say, simply the aggregates of individual incomes and individual expenditures. (1919, p. v)

Consumers' outlays includes investment (the result of saving), since investment is spent on fixed capital. The difference between outlays are then consumers' balances and income, thus only consist of accumulated cash balances (including money in bank accounts). In addition, a similar demand exists, for money balances by traders related to their turnover. Both consumers' and traders' balances may be held by individual agents – Hawtrey notes that the true traders' income is the profits of the business and that this consumers' income included this.

The 'unspent margin', or total money balances, is made of the consumers' and traders' balances taken together. From this, he derives a form of the quantity theory. Hawtrey argues that traders' balances are relatively stable, and thusthe supply of money (in a wide sense taken to include credit) and consumers' income and outlay are concerned with the operational relationships. Compared to the Cambridge income-based approach, his places greater emphasis on the demand for nominal balances rather than real balances. Keynes used a similar balances approach to the quantity theory, after 1925, leading up to the Treatise on Money (1930), in which he distinguishes first between investment and cash deposits and later between income, business and savings deposits.

Hawtrey analysed the demand for money in terms of motives. He identifies a transaction demand, a precautionary demand, and a residual demand which reflects a gradual accumulation of savings balances. He thinks agents as saving gradually but investing only larger sums periodically. In the meantime these short-hoards act as a buffer stock. The interest forgone is the main costs of holding money balances, and thus he points to a balancing process between costs and advantages in determining desired balances. The introduction of a banking system into the model allows agents to substitute borrowing power for money balances (Hawtrey, 1919, pp. 36–7).

A concept of effective demand is also introduced by Hawtrey.

The total effective demand for commodities in the market is limited to the number of units of money of account that dealers are prepared to offer, and the number they are prepared to offer over any period of time is limited according to the number they hope to receive. (1919, p. 3)

Hawtrey points to a defect in the theory of an elastic supply of labour based on marginal utilities of product and effort, in Trade and Credit (1928). while a difference between the marginal utility of the product and the disutility of effort may prompt an additional supply of labour "in the simple case of a man working on his own account" (1928, p. 148), Hawtrey argues, this is not the general case since: "the decision as to the output to be undertaken is in the hands of a limited number of  employers, and the workmen in the industry are passively employed by them for the customary hours at  the prevailing rates of wages" (1928, p. 149). In this case output decisions are based not on the gross proceeds, but on the net profit margin.

The gold standard and the Great Depression
During World War I, most countries, including the United States, effectively abandoned the gold standard to finance their wartime expenditures. This led to a massive drop in demand for gold and thus a large drop in its value. After the war ended, the countries sought to reconstitute the system. Hawtrey in 1919 and Gustav Cassel (independently in 1920–21) warned that restoring the gold standard without a simultaneous policy of restricting the international monetary demand for gold would push up gold prices and result in a deflationary crisis.

Hawtrey was instrumental in organising the Genoa Conference in 1922, and his and Cassel's cautions were reflected in the resolutions. Cassel proposed that circulation of gold coins should be ended; while this proposal was rejected at the conference, when the UK returned to the gold standard in 1925, circulation of gold coinage was indeed eliminated by Churchill's Gold Standard Act.

In contrast to Hawtrey and Cassel's support for a managed gold standard, Keynes opposed a return to the gold standard. While agreeing with Hawtrey and Cassel that a return to the gold standard would be deflationary in the short run, Keynes believed that it would be inflationary in the long run, and thus unstable. Irving Fisher also thought that the gold standard was unstable and would have undesirable deflationary or inflationary pressures.

For most of the 1920s, the various countries did restrain their demand for gold. In Hawtrey and Cassel's view, at the end of the 1920s, due to the actions of the French central bank and the US Federal Reserve, there was a rapid increase in the price of gold, which meant, under the gold standard, a general deflation. This led to the Great Depression in the late 1920s and 1930s.

Hawtrey and Cassel both recognised the dominant role of the United States in the world economy after World War I. They recommended that the Federal Reserve pursue aggressive monetary policies to counteract the deflationary pressures after 1929. When it became clear that the US was unwilling to pursue such policies, they both recommended that their respective countries (UK and Sweden respectively) leave the gold standard. UK left the gold standard in September 1931 and Sweden suspended it shortly afterwards, with Cassel playing an important role in the latter.

Main publications
 Good and Bad Trade, 1913.
 Currency and Credit, 1919.
 Monetary Reconstruction, 1922.
 "The Trade Cycle", 1926.
 Trade and Credit, 1928.
 "The monetary theory of the trade cycle", EJ, 1929.
 Trade Depression and the Way Out, 1931
 The Art of Central Banking, 1932.
 The Gold Standard in Theory and Practice, 1933.
 Capital and Employment, 1937.
 A Century of the Bank Rate, 1938.
 "The Trade Cycle and Capital Intensity", EJ, 1940.
 Economic Destiny, 1944.
 Economic Rebirth, 1946.
 "Keynes and Supply Functions", 1956.
 The Pound at Home and Abroad, 1961.

References

 Bigg, R.J. "Hawtrey, Ralph George (1879–1975)." The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Second Edition. Eds. Steven N. Durlauf and Lawrence E. Blume. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

Further reading
E.G. Davis (1981) – "R.G. Hawtrey" in D.P. O'Brien, J.R. Presley (eds.), Pioneers of Modern Economics in Britain

External links

Britannica entry on Sir Ralph Hawtrey

Who Was Who
The Papers of Sir Ralph Hawtrey held at Churchill Archives Centre

1879 births
1975 deaths
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Harvard University staff
People from Slough

Ralph George Hawtrey


Mind control (also known as brainwashing, coercive persuasion or thought control) refers to the way some people have tried to control the beliefs and behaviours of others.

It is a process where a group or individual uses methods to persuade other to change their basic beliefs and values. A group or individual may use unethical  methods to persuade others to believe and do what the manipulator(s) want. It often harms the person being manipulated.

The term has been applied to any tactic, psychological or otherwise, which undermines (damages) an individual's control over their own thinking, behaviour, emotions or decision making.

Theories of brainwashing and of mind control were originally developed to explain how totalitarian regimes appeared to succeed systematically in indoctrinating prisoners of war through propaganda and torture techniques.

History
Some authors have pointed out that the ideas of mind control can be found in all stages of human history.

Korean War
The Oxford English Dictionary records the earliest known use of brainwashing in an article Edward Hunter in Miami News published on 7 October 1950. During the Korean War, Hunter, who worked at the time both as a journalist before becoming a U.S. intelligence agent, wrote a series of books and articles on the theme of Chinese brainwashing.

The Chinese term  (xǐ năo, literally "wash brain") was originally used to describe methodologies of coercive persuasion used under the Maoist regime in China. The methods aimed to change  people's mindset so they became "right-thinking" members of the new Chinese social system.

Hunter and those who picked up the Chinese term used it to explain why, unlike in earlier wars, a relatively high percentage of American GIs defected to the enemy side after becoming prisoners-of-war. British radio operator Robert W. Ford and British Army Colonel James Carne also claimed that the Chinese subjected them to brainwashing techniques during their war-era imprisonment. The most prominent case in the U.S. was that of Frank Schwable, a prisoner in the war. While in custody, he confessed to having taken part in germ warfare.

Cults and the shift of focus
After the Korean War, mind control theories shifted in focus from politics to religion. From the 1960s an increasing number of youths started to come into contact with new religious movements (NRM). Some who converted suddenly adopted beliefs and behaviors that differed greatly from those of their families and friends; in some cases they neglected or broke contact with their loved ones. Those against cults explained these sudden and seemingly dramatic religious conversions as due to mind control. The media was quick to follow suit, and social scientists sympathetic to the anti-cult movement, who were usually psychologists, developed more sophisticated models of brainwashing. While some psychologists were receptive to these theories, sociologists were for the most part skeptical of their ability to explain conversion to NRMs.

References

Cults
Social issues
Psychology
Pseudoscience

Mind control


Manmohan Krishna (26 February 1922 – 3 November 1990) was a popular Indian film actor and director, who worked in Hindi films for four decades, mostly as a character actor. He started his career as a professor in Physics and held master's degree in physics. He anchored the radio show Cadbury's Phulwari, a singing contest. Many people don't know that Manmohan Krishna sang his first song, 'Jhat khol de' in Afsar (1950), a Dev Anand film with music by S.D. Burman.

He was a favourite with the Chopra brothers and played small or large roles in movies directed and/or produced by them. Deewar, Trishul, Daag, Hamraaz, Joshila, Kanoon, Sadhna, Kaala Patthar, Dhool Ka Phool, Waqt and Naya Daur are some examples.

He worked in nearly 250 films, notably Naya Daur (1957), Khandan (1965), Sadhana (1958), Waqt (1965) and Hamraaz (1967). He won acclaim for his work in Bees Saal Baad (1962) and won the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as Abdul Rasheed in Dhool Ka Phool (1960), where the song epitomizing Nehruvian secularism, Tu Hindu banega na Musalman banega, insaan ki aulaad hai, insaan banega was picturised on him. Beside these, he also acted in 12 Punjabi films, played a pivotal role in K. A. Abbas's Shehar Aur Sapna (1963), which won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film, and acted in the first Indo-Soviet co-production Pardesi (1957), which was nominated for the Golden Palm at 1958 Cannes Film Festival.

Later in his career he directed the hit film for Yash Raj Films, Noorie (1979), for which he was also nominated for Filmfare Award for Best Director.

He died at Lokmanya Tilak Hospital, Mumbai at the age of 68 in 1990. His son Dr Ram Chaddha is a famous spine surgeon at Lilavati Hospital in Mumbai

Selected filmography

References

External links

Indian male film actors
1922 births
1990 deaths
People from Lahore
Male actors in Hindi cinema
Hindi-language film directors
Filmfare Awards winners
20th-century Indian male actors

Manmohan Krishna