The Bren gun was a series of light machine guns (LMG) made by Britain in the 1930s and used in various roles until 1992. While best known for its role as the British and Commonwealth forces' primary infantry LMG in World War II, it was also used in the Korean War and saw service throughout the latter half of the 20th century, including the 1982 Falklands War. Although fitted with a bipod, it could also be mounted on a tripod or be vehicle-mounted.

The Bren gun was a licensed version of the Czechoslovak ZGB 33 light machine gun which, in turn, was a modified version of the ZB vz. 26, which British Army officials had tested during a firearms service competition in the 1930s. The later Bren gun featured a distinctive top-mounted curved box magazine, conical flash hider, and quick change barrel.

The designer was Václav Holek, a gun inventor and design engineer.

In the 1950s, many Bren guns were re-barrelled to accept the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge and modified to feed from the magazine for the L1 (Commonwealth version of the FN FAL) rifle as the L4 light machine gun. It was replaced in the British Army as the section LMG by the L7 general-purpose machine gun (GPMG), a belt-fed weapon. This was supplemented in the 1980s by the L86 Light Support Weapon firing the 5.56×45mm NATO round, leaving the Bren gun in use only as a pintle mount on some vehicles. The Bren gun was manufactured by Indian Ordnance Factories as the "Gun Machine 7.62mm 1B" before it was discontinued in 2012.

Name
The name Bren was derived from Brno, the city in Czechoslovakia, where the Zb vz. 26 was designed (in the Zbrojovka Brno Factory) and Enfield, site of the British Royal Small Arms Factory.

Development

At the close of World War I in 1918, the British Army was equipped with two main automatic weapons; the Vickers medium machine gun (MMG) and the Lewis light machine gun. The Vickers was heavy and required a supply of water to keep it in operation, which tended to relegate it to static defence and indirect fire support. The Lewis, although lighter, was still heavy and was prone to frequent stoppages: its barrel could not be changed in the field, which meant that sustained firing resulted in overheating until it stopped altogether.

In 1922, to find a replacement for the Lewis, the Small Arms Committee of the British Army ran competitive trials between the Madsen machine gun, the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR), the Hotchkiss M1909 machine gun, the Beardmore–Farquhar rifle, and the Lewis itself. Although the BAR was recommended, the sheer number of Lewis guns available and the difficult financial conditions meant that nothing was done. Various new models of light machine gun were tested as they became available, and in 1930, a further set of extensive trials commenced, overseen by Frederick Hubert Vinden. This time the weapons tested included the SIG Neuhausen KE7, the Vickers–Berthier and the Czechoslovak ZB vz. 27. The last did not meet high requirements for durability and reliability, mainly because gunpowder residue from British cordite was obstructing the gas tube (ZB vz. 27 was also sent in 7.92 Mauser instead of .303 British, but ZB already held a patent for a staggered magazine for rimmed rounds). The Vickers–Berthier was later adopted by the Indian Army because it could be manufactured at once, rather than wait for the British Lewis production run to finish; it too saw extensive service in World War II.

A modified variant with a shortened gas tube was tested again in June 1932, and then newly developed ZB-30 in .303 yet again tested in November. Receiving more feedback and incorporating it into the design by January 1933, yet two other modifications were tested by British representatives in Brno in July. One of the variants was selected, designated ZGB 33 (for Zbrojovka, Great Britain, 33), and 10 samples were sent to England in autumn 1933. After additional trials in early 1934, more samples were ordered during the summer of 1934, and on May 24, 1935, the licence for British manufacture was finally acquired, and the design was adopted under the Bren name.

The major changes were in the magazine and barrel and the lower pistol grip assembly which went from a swivelling grip frame pivoted on the front of the trigger guard to a sliding grip frame which included the forward tripod mount and sliding ejection port cover. The magazine was curved in order to feed the rimmed .303 inch SAA ("Small Arms Ammunition") cartridge, a change from the various rimless Mauser-design cartridges such as the 7.9-mm Mauser round previously used by Czech designs. These modifications were categorised in various numbered designations, ZB vz. 27, ZB vz. 30, ZB vz. 32, and finally the ZGB 33, which was licensed for manufacture under the Bren name.

The Bren was a gas-operated weapon using the same .303 ammunition as the standard British bolt-action rifle, the Lee–Enfield, firing at a rate between 480 and 540 rounds per minute (rpm), depending on the model. Propellant gases vented from a port towards the muzzle end of the barrel through a regulator (visible just in front of the bipod) with four quick-adjustment apertures of different sizes, intended to tailor the gas volume to different ambient temperatures (smallest flow at high temperature, e.g. summer desert, largest at low temperature, e.g. winter Arctic). The vented gas drove a piston which in turn actuated the breech block. Each gun came with a spare barrel that could be quickly changed when the barrel became hot during sustained fire, though later guns featured a chrome-lined barrel, which reduced the need for a spare. To change barrels, the release catch in front of the magazine was rotated to unlock the barrel. The carrying handle above the barrel was used to grip and remove the hot barrel without burning the hands.

The Bren was magazine-fed, which slowed its rate of fire and required more frequent reloading than British belt-fed machine guns such as the larger .303 Vickers machine gun. The slower rate of fire prevented more rapid overheating of the Bren's air-cooled barrel, and the Bren was much lighter than belt-fed machine guns, which typically had cooling jackets, often liquid filled. The magazines also prevented the ammunition from getting dirty, which was more of a problem with the Vickers with its 250-round canvas belts. The sights were offset to the left, to avoid the magazine on the top of the weapon. The position of the sights meant that the Bren could be fired only from the right shoulder.

Service

World War II
In the British and Commonwealth armies, the Bren was generally issued on a scale of one per rifle section. An infantry battalion also had a "carrier" platoon, equipped with Universal Carriers, each of which carried a Bren gun. Parachute battalions from 1944 had an extra Bren in the Anti-tank platoon. The 66-man "Assault Troop" of British Commandos had a nominal establishment of four Bren guns. Realising the need for additional section-level firepower, the British Army endeavoured to issue the Bren in great numbers, with a stated goal of one Bren to every four private soldiers. The Bren was operated by a two-man crew, sometimes commanded by a Lance Corporal as an infantry section's "gun group", the remainder of the section forming the "rifle group". The gunner or "Number 1" carried and fired the Bren, and a loader or "Number 2" carried extra magazines, a spare barrel and a tool kit. Number 2 helped reload the gun and replace the barrel when it overheated, and spotted targets for Number 1.

Generally, the Bren was fired from the prone position using the attached bipod. On occasion, a Bren gunner would use his weapon on the move supported by a sling, much like an automatic rifle, and from standing or kneeling positions. Using the sling, Australian soldiers regularly fired the Bren from the hip, for instance in the marching fire tactic, a form of suppressive fire moving forward in assault. A Victoria Cross was awarded to Private Bruce Kingsbury for such use at Isurava, New Guinea, in 1942, during the Australians' fighting retreat from Kokoda.

Each British soldier's equipment normally included two magazines for his section's Bren gun. The large ammunition pouches on the 1937 Pattern Web Equipment were designed around the Bren magazine. The Bren was regarded as the principal weapon of an infantry section, providing the majority of its firepower. As such, all ranks were expected to be "experts in its use".

The Bren had an effective range of around  when fired from a prone position with a bipod. It could deliver a beaten ground of  by  at  on the bipod. A 'rapid' fire rate of 120 rounds per minute (four magazines a minute) was sustainable with a barrel change after ten magazines (or reduction in fire rate) to limit wear but doctrine was to fire in 4-5 round bursts. Soldiers were instructed to fired single-shot in imitation of rifle fire to conceal the presence of an automatic weapon.

For a light machine gun of the interwar and early World War II era, the Bren was about average in weight. On long marches in non-operational areas it was often partially disassembled and its parts were carried by two soldiers. The top-mounted magazine vibrated and moved during fire, making the weapon more visible in combat, and many Bren gunners used paint or improvised canvas covers to disguise the prominent magazine.

The 30-round magazine was in practice usually filled with 27 or 28 rounds to prevent jams and for magazines kept full for a long time 20 rounds to avoid wearing out the magazine spring. Care needed to be taken when loading the magazine to ensure that each round went ahead of the previous round, so that the .303 cartridge rims did not overlap the wrong way, which would cause a jam. The spent cartridge cases were ejected downwards, which was an improvement on the Lewis gun, which ejected sideways, since the glint of them flying through the air could compromise a concealed firing position.

In general, the Bren was considered a reliable and effective light machine gun, though in North Africa it was reported to jam regularly unless kept very clean and free of sand or dirt. It was popular with British troops, who respected its reliability and combat effectiveness. The quality of the materials used would generally ensure minimal jamming. When the gun did jam through fouling caused by prolonged firing, the operator could adjust the four-position gas regulator to feed more gas to the piston increasing the power to operate the mechanism. The barrel needed to be unlocked and slid forward slightly to allow the regulator to be turned. It was even said that all problems with the Bren could simply be cleared by hitting the gun, turning the regulator or doing both. It was "by general consent the finest light machine gun in the world of its period, and the most useful weapon provided to the (French) "maquis" ... accurate up to 1,000 meters, and (it) could withstand immense maltreatment and unskilled use. "Resistants" were constantly pleading for maximum drops of Brens".

Although they were generally well-liked, the high cost of £40 each gun was an issue for the British Army leadership. This became a greater issue when it was discovered that only 2,300 of the 30,000 Bren guns issued to the British Expeditionary Force came back to Britain after the defeat of France. As the result, cost savings and increased rate of production became two main goals for subsequent variant designs. The Bren Mk II design simplified production by replacing the drum rear sight with a ladder design, making the bipod legs non-adjustable, simplifying the gun butt, reducing the use of stainless steel, among other steps that reduced the cost by 20% to 25%; Mk II was approved in September 1940 and entered production in 1941. While the Bren Mk III design also aimed at reducing cost, it also had the concurrent goal of being lightened for jungle warfare; the final product weighed , 3 pounds lighter than the original Bren Mk I design; it was standardised in July 1944 and saw a production of 57,600. Also standardised in July 1944 was the Bren Mk IV, which was further lightened to ; however, it did not enter production until July 1945, and only 250 were built before the end of the war. While Enfield was able to produce only 400 Bren Mk I guns each month, with the various simplification efforts production numbers rose to 1,000 guns per week by 1943. Among the variant designs were two speciality prototypes that never entered production: The belt-fed Taden gun for stationary defence use, and the ultra-simplified Besal gun to be produced in case a German invasion of Britain actually took place (which would hinder British production efforts). Later designs of production Bren guns featured chrome-lined barrels that offered less resistance, preventing overheating and reducing the need for quick changes of barrels.

Bren guns were produced outside of Britain as well. In Canada, the John Inglis plant in Toronto began tooling its facilities for production in 1938; the first of 186,000 examples was completed in March 1940. Some of the Inglis-built Bren guns were chambered for the 7.92-mm Mauser ammunition; these were destined for export to Nationalist Chinese forces rather than for British and Commonwealth forces. In Australia, the Lithgow Small Arms Factory in New South Wales began building Bren guns in 1940; a total of 17,249 were built. In India, the factory at Ishapore began building Bren guns in 1942 (it had produced Vickers-Berthier machine guns prior to this time), and would continue producing them for decades long after the end of World War II. Many of the Bren guns produced at Ishapore went to Indian troops, who had lost a great number of automatic weapons during the disastrous campaigns against the Japanese in Malaya and Burma; 17th Indian Infantry Division, for example, found itself with only 56 Bren guns after fleeing out of Burma in 1942.

A tripod mount with 42 degrees of traverse was available to allow the Bren to be used on "fixed lines" of fire for defensive shooting at pre-determined areas in the dark or if obscured by fog or smoke. The Bren was also used on many vehicles, the Universal Carrier also known as the "Bren Gun Carrier", and on tanks and armoured cars. The Carrier was intended to use its "armour, speed and cross country performance" to bring the gun team into position from where it would fire dismounted; firing from the vehicle only in an emergency.
The Bren could not be used as a co-axial weapon on tanks, as the magazine restricted its depression and was awkward to handle in confined spaces, and it was therefore used on a pintle mount only. (The belt fed Vickers or Besa, the latter being another Czechoslovak machine gun design adopted by the British, were instead used as co-axial weapons.) An unfortunate problem occurred when the Bren was fired from the Dingo Scout Car; the hot cartridge cases tended to be ejected down the neck of the driver, whose position was next to the pintle. A canvas bag was designed to catch the cartridges and overcome the problem, but it seems to have been rarely issued.

The Bren was also employed in the anti-aircraft role with the tripod reconfigured for high angle fire. There were also several designs of less-portable mountings, including the Gallows and Mottley mounts. A 100-round pan magazine was available for the Bren for use in the anti-aircraft role.

The Bren's direct ancestor, the Czechoslovak ZB vz. 26, was also used in World War II by German and Romanian forces, including units of the Waffen SS. Many 7.92 mm ZB light machine guns were shipped to China, where they were employed first against the Japanese in World War II, and later against UN forces in Korea, including British and Commonwealth units. Some ex-Chinese Czech ZB weapons were also in use in the early stages of the Vietnam War. Production of a 7.92 mm round model for the Far East was carried out by Inglis of Canada. The Bren was also delivered to the Soviet Union as part of the lend-lease program.

Post-war
The British Army, and the armies of various countries of the Commonwealth, used the Bren in the Korean War, the Malayan Emergency, the Mau Mau Uprising and the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, where it was preferred to its replacement, the belt-fed L7 GPMG, on account of its lighter weight. In the conflict in Northern Ireland (1969–1998), a British Army squad typically carried the L4A4 version of the Bren as the squad automatic weapon in the 1970s. During the Falklands War in 1982, 40 Commando Royal Marines carried one LMG and one GPMG per section. Its final operational deployment with the British Army, on a limited scale, was in the First Gulf War in 1991.

When the British Army adopted the 7.62 mm NATO cartridge, the Bren was re-designed to 7.62 mm calibre, fitted with a new bolt, barrel and magazine. It was re-designated as the "L4 light machine gun" (in various sub-versions) and remained in British Army service into the 1990s. A slotted flash hider similar to that of the contemporary L1 rifle and L7 general purpose machine gun replaced the conical flash hider. The change from a rimmed to rimless cartridge and nearly straight magazine improved feeding considerably, and allowed use of 20-round magazines from the 7.62 mm L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle. Bren gunners using the L4A1 were normally issued with the 30-round magazine from the SAW L2A1.

Completion of the move to a 5.56 mm NATO cartridge led to the Army removing the Bren/L4 from the list of approved weapons and then withdrawing it from service.

The Mark III Bren remained in limited use with the Army Reserve of the Irish Defence Forces until 2006, when the 7.62 mm GPMG replaced it. The Bren was popular with the soldiers who fired it (known as Brenners) as it was light and durable, and had a reputation for accuracy. The most notable use of the Bren by Irish forces was in the Congo Crisis during the 1960s, when the Bren was the regular army's standard section automatic weapon.

Bren guns were in service with the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Rhodesian Bush War, including a substantial number re-chambered for 7.62 mm cartridges similar to those examples in the British Army. The Rhodesian Bren guns continued to see frequent action until the 1970s, when they were largely replaced by the FN MAG. A few were captured and re-issued by the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Some examples were still in service with reservists of the British South Africa Police in 1980, and were inherited by the Zimbabwe Republic Police upon the country's internationally recognised independence. Zimbabwean policemen continued to deploy Bren guns during operations against ZIPRA dissidents throughout the early 1980s.

The South African Defence Force deployed Bren guns during the South African Border War alongside the more contemporary FN MAG as late as 1978.

Variants

Mark 1
Introduced September 1937; the original Czechoslovak designed ZGB 33. Overall length ,  barrel length. Weight .

Features:
 Drum-pattern rear aperture sight
 Buttstrap for use over-the-shoulder when firing
 Rear grip under butt
 Telescoping bipod
 Folding cocking handle

An Enfield-made .303 Bren Mk 1 was converted to 7.92mm in 1938 due to the suggestion of a possibility of a British Army change over to a rimless cartridge for machine guns being mooted.

Mark 2
Introduced 1941. A simplified version of the Mk1 more suited to wartime production with original design features subsequently found to be unnecessary deleted.  Produced by Inglis of Canada and the Monotype Group through a number of component manufacturing factories. Sometimes known as the "Garage hands" model. Overall length ,  barrel length. Weight .

Features:
 Folding-leaf rear sight
 Buttstrap deleted
 Rear grip deleted
 Fixed height bipod
 Fixed cocking handle

The Bren Mk2 was much simplified in the body, which although still being milled from a solid billet of steel, required significantly fewer milling operations than the Mk1, resulting in a much cleaner appearance. The bipod was simplified in design as well as not having extending legs. Most Mk2 bipods resembled a simple A-frame and were more 'soldier proof'. The Mk2 also featured a slightly higher rate of fire than the Mk1.

The woodwork on the Mk2 was simplified by being less ornate and ergonomic, which sped up the manufacturing process. The barrel was also simplified by means of a non-stepped removable flash hider and, in some cases, a barrel fore-end that was matte instead of highly polished. The buffered buttplate of the Mk1 was omitted and replaced with a sheet metal buttplate.

A small number of Inglis-made .303 Bren Mk 2 were converted post-war to fire the .280 in (7 mm) Mk 1Z round used by the EM-2 rifle.

The Inglis version of the Bren Mk 2 chambered for the .30-06 (7.62 mm) cartridge and known as the M41 was also manufactured in Taiwan after the end of the Chinese Civil War.

Mark 3
A shorter and lighter Bren made by Enfield from 1944 for the war in the East and for Airborne Forces. This was similar to the Mk2 but with the light weight features of the early Mk1. With the main distinguishing feature being a shorter barrel and serrated area in front of the barrel nut.  Overall length ,  barrel length. Weight .

Mark 4
As with the Mk3 but this was a conversion of a Mk2. Overall length ,  barrel length. Weight .

L4

The Bren was converted to 7.62×51mm NATO in the 1950s, and designated the L4. L4 Brens can easily be identified by their straighter magazine and cylindrical flash hider. The British-issue L4 magazine retains the 30-round capacity and has a slight curve. The L4 magazine was interchangeable with the L1A1 SLR magazine, so the L4 Bren can be seen fitted with straight 20-round magazines from the SLR or with the straight 30-round magazine from the Australian L2A1 or Canadian C2A1 heavy-barrel SLR. The flash suppressor was changed from the cone type of .303 variants to a slotted, cylindrical type similar in appearance to that used on the SLR and L7 GPMG. The L4 remained in British service until the 1990s.

Taden gun

The Taden gun was a development of the Bren to use with the .280 British (7 mm) intermediate round proposed to replace the .303 in British service. The Taden was belt-fed with spade grips and would have replaced both the Bren and the Vickers machine gun. Although reliable it was not accepted due to the US-driven standardization within NATO on the larger 7.62×51mm NATO round.

Semiautomatic Bren guns
Many nations' militaries have disposed of their Bren guns as surplus to their needs. Surplus Brens have been imported to the United States for sale to collectors, but due to US gun laws restricting the importation of automatic weapons such guns must be legally destroyed by cutting up the receivers. A number of US gunsmiths have manufactured new semiautomatic Brens by welding the pieces of destroyed receivers back together, with modifications to prevent the use of full automatic parts, and fitting new fire-control components capable of only semiautomatic fire. The balance of the parts are surplus Bren parts. Such "semiautomatic machine guns" are legally considered rifles under US Federal law and the laws of most states.

Production

United Kingdom
Bren guns were produced at the Royal Small Arms Factory, in Enfield, London. The first Bren guns were built in September 1937, and by December, a total of 42 had been produced. Weekly production was 300 Brens a week in July 1938, and 400 a week in September 1939.
The Monotype Group produced Mark 2 Brens. Enfield produced a total of 220,000 Mark I Bren guns, 57,600 in Mark III, and 250 in Mark IV.

Canada
John Inglis and Company received a contract from the British and Canadian governments in March 1938 to supply 5,000 Bren machine guns to the UK and 7,000 Bren machine guns to Canada. Both countries shared the capital costs of bringing in this new production facility. Production started in 1940; by August 1942, the Inglis plant was averaging 10,000 Brens per month, and produced 186,000 Bren guns of all variants by the end of the war, including 43,000 chambered in 7.92×57mm Mauser for export to the Chinese National Revolutionary Army.

India

In 1942, the Ishapore Arsenal began to produce Bren guns, and continued to do so long after the end of World War II, also manufacturing variants in 7.62×51mm NATO.
A shadow factory for Ishapore was set up at Kanpur and produced .303 Brens before it was later rechambered to fire 7.62 NATO ammo in 1964 as the 1A LMG.

Australia
In 1940, the Lithgow Small Arms Factory in New South Wales began to manufacture Bren guns, producing a total of 17,249 by 1945.

Users

 : National Liberation Army received 500 Brens from Egypt
 : during World War II and Korean War. Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation (as L4A4). Continued in limited service until about the time of the general introduction of the F88 Steyr (ca 1990).

 : post-war

 : received Czech-made Brens in 8×56mmR, designated kartěnice 39

  Chadian FROLINAT
 : used by Gendarmerie and Republican Guard
 : Mark 2 version known to be used in the Croatian War of Independence.
 : Many guns captured from Kuomintang. Used during Korean War. Some converted to fire 7.62x39 caliber ammunition from ammo supplied by their Soviet allies. They used regular AK-47 magazines.
 : used by National Revolutionary Army 43,000 guns produced in 7.92×57mm Mauser by Inglis in Canada. Later in 1952, Taiwan produced a .30-06 Springfield version of Bren Mk II, the Type 41.

 : post-war

 : Used by the Free French Forces and French Resistance.
 : Captured Brens were issued to the Milice.
 French Far East Expeditionary Corps

 : People's Revolutionary Armed Forces

 : Used by the Royal Hong Kong Regiment.
 : manufactured by the Ordnance Factories Board Phased out of Indian military service in 2012.
  Used by Republican Forces During Indonesian National Revolution :
  Iraq
 : Irish Defence Forces, replaced by the FN MAG in 1960s. Remained in use with Irish military reserve forces until the early 2000s.
 : During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and for some time thereafter by the Haganah and the Israeli Defense Forces. Replaced after Operation Kadesh (1956).
 : airdropped to partisans and also issued to the Italian Co-Belligerent Army in the latter part of WWII. It continued to see post-war use with the Italian Army. Also used by the Italian Police in .30-06 caliber.

 : captured weapons.
 : Arab Legion

 : used captured examples under the designation 7.7 mm Leichtes MG 138(e)
 : Bren L4

 : Used in post-war
 : WWII and L4 post war

 : post-war

 : Used by the Polish Underground State and Polish Armed Forces in the West during World War II.
 : m/43
  Provisional IRA

 : Used by Ceylon Defence Force in World War II

  (now Eswatini)
 : 294 guns were purchased by the Tibetan Army in 1950.

 : British and Commonwealth forces, and cadet forces until the introduction of the L98 Cadet Rifle
 State of Vietnam
: used by Viet-Minh acquired from China and the Soviet Union or by capture
 : Supplied by the United Kingdom during the Lend-Lease program.
 : Yugoslav Partisans and Chetniks during World War II;
 :

Gallery

See also
CZ 805 BREN
 Charlton Automatic Rifle
 Degtyaryov machine gun
 FM 24/29 light machine gun
 Mendoza RM2
 Type 73 light machine gun
 Type 96 light machine gun
 Type 99 light machine gun
 Vickers K machine gun

Notes

References

External links

 Modern Firearms (additional information)

History of the London Borough of Enfield
Light machine guns
Machine guns of Czechoslovakia
Machine guns of the United Kingdom
World War II infantry weapons of the United Kingdom
World War II machine guns
.303 British machine guns
Czechoslovakia–United Kingdom relations
Military equipment introduced in the 1930s

Bren light machine gun


Sir Joseph Bailey, 1st Baronet (21 January 1783 – 20 November 1858), was an English ironmaster and Conservative Party Member of Parliament (MP).

Bailey was born in 1783 in Great Wenham, Suffolk, the son of John Bailey, of Wakefield and his wife Susannah. His parents had moved from Normanton, near Wakefield, in around 1780 by which time they had already had at least three children (Ann, Elizabeth and William). Joseph was the second child of a further five children to be born in Great Wenham (the others being an older sister, Susan, and three younger siblings, John, Thomas and Crawshay).

He was involved in the iron industry in South Wales and served as High Sheriff of Monmouthshire for 1826. He also represented Worcester in the House of Commons from 1835 to 1847 and Breconshire from 1847 to 1858. In 1852 he was created a Baronet, of Glanusk Park estate in the County of Brecon.

Bailey married, firstly, Maria, daughter of Joseph Latham, in 1810. In about 1826 he bought Glanusk Park and had a mansion house built there. After his first wife's death in 1827 he married, secondly, Mary Anne, daughter of John Thomas Henry Hopper, in 1830. He died in November 1858, aged 75, and was succeeded in his title by his grandson Joseph Russell Bailey, who in 1899 was elevated to the peerage as Baron Glanusk. Lady Bailey died in 1874.

His daughter Jane Bailey married James Stuart Menteath, 2nd Baronet of Closeburn and Mansfield.

References

Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990.
Watkin William Price, M.A., (1873–1967), Aberdare, BAILEY , Sir JOSEPH ( 1783 - 1858 ), baronet, iron-master, landowner, and M.P. Dictionary of Welsh Biography, National Library of Wales, 2009 Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, Welsh Biography Online

External links

1783 births
1858 deaths
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Joseph
British ironmasters
19th-century English businesspeople
Members of the Cambrian Archaeological Association
People of the Industrial Revolution
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for Welsh constituencies
UK MPs 1835–1837
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Sir Joseph Bailey, 1st Baronet


The Kofel is a  mountain in the Bavarian Alps of Germany. With its distinctive white head it is the signature mountain of the town of Oberammergau, from which the summit is only about one km away. Due to its prominent location and unique shape it can be identified from a considerable distance both from the direction of Ettal and that of Unterammergau.

Routes

The direct route starts at the Döttenbühl parking lot (altitude ), near the Oberammergau cemetery. After crossing a meadow called the Kälberplatte, with a view looking up to the imposing end of the climb, the greater part of the ascent is a wooded switchback footpath (with one clamber across a scree field) up to a rain shelter. From there, one starts climbing to the rocky summit.

Another possibility for the ascent is a traverse over the Kolbensattelalm (, double chair lift) and the Königssteig (King's trail). By combining different routes the Kofel may be circumambulated.

Secured route to the summit

The last hundred meters of elevation are covered in a summit climb which is suitable even for families with children, provided they are sure-footed and have a head for heights. Steep and exposed sections are secured by fixed steel cables. After rain there is an increased risk of slipping in the rockier sections. In the Hüsler Alpine Climbing Atlas the ascent is rated a KS1 secured climb.

From the cross at the peak there is, weather permitting, an outstanding panoramic view including Ettal and both Ober- and Unterammergau.

External links

Mountains of Bavaria
Ammergau Alps
Mountains of the Alps

Kofel


Tanja Stupar-Trifunović (born 1977) is an author from Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Background

Stupar-Trifunović was born in 1977 in Zadar, Croatia. She left Zadar with her family at the beginning of the Yugoslav wars. She attended Serbian language and literature at the University of Banja Luka and currently lives in Banja Luka.

Works
Stupar-Trifunović's writing often explores loss and the lives of women, specifically in the context of the Yugoslav wars.

Primarily a poet, Stupar-Trifunović has also published a novel, as well as short stories, columns and literary reviews. Her first novel, Satovi u majčinoj sobi (Clocks in my mother's room), was published in 2014.

Poetry and short story collections published by Stupar-Trifunović include:
 Kuća od slova (1999, Zadužbina, "Petar Kočić" Banja Luka)
 Uspostavljanje ravnoteže (2002, KOV)
 Adornova svraka (2007, Zalihica)
 O čemu misle varvari dok doručkuju (2008, Zoro), poetry, title translates to What Barbarians Are Thinking about While Having Breakfast
 Glavni junak je čovjek koji se zaljubljuje u nesreću (2010, Zaklada Fra Grgo Martić), poetry, title translates to The Hero is the Man Who Falls in Love with Calamity
Poetry by Stupar-Trifunović has been translated into several languages including English, German, Polish, French, Macedonian, Romanian, Slovene and Danish.

Stupar-Trifunović currently works as Editor for the literary magazine Putevi and is developing her second novel.

Awards
In 2016, Stupar-Trifunović won the European Union Prize for Literature for her novel Satovi u majčinoj sobi (Clocks in my mother's room). The novel was also short listed for the 2014 NIN Award (considered the leading Serbian literary prize). In 2013 it won the Zlatna sova third-place award for the best novel manuscript in Serbian language.

In 2008, Stupar-Trifunović was shortlisted in the poetry category of the CEE Literature Award.

Her poetry collection, O čemu misle varvari dok doručkuju, was shortlisted for the ProCredit Bank Literature Award for East and Southeast Europe.

In 2009 Glavni junak je čovjek koji se zaljubljuje u nesreću won the Fra Grgo Martić Literary Award.

Residencies
In January 2017, Stupar-Trifunović began an artists-in-residence programme at the Q21 in Vienna.

References

Living people
1977 births
Writers from Zadar
University of Banja Luka alumni
20th-century Bosnia and Herzegovina writers
20th-century Bosnia and Herzegovina women writers
21st-century Bosnia and Herzegovina writers
21st-century Bosnia and Herzegovina women writers

Tanja Stupar-Trifunović


Masonite International Corporation () is a designer, manufacturer and distributor of interior and exterior doors for the new construction and repair, renovation and remodeling sectors of the residential and non-residential building construction markets. Founded in 1925 in Laurel, Mississippi, It currently serves approximately 8,500 customers in 60 countries and is headquartered in Tampa, Florida.

History

1924—1940: Invention of Masonite
In 1924, William H. Mason, engineer, inventor and apprentice of Thomas A. Edison, developed an innovative method for turning vast amounts of waste wood into useful products. By applying heat, steam and pressure to wood fiber, Mason created a type of hardboard known as Masonite that has since become an enduring material in the building products industry.

Mason received funding from lumber companies in Wisconsin and Laurel, Mississippi to establish the Mason Fibre Company in 1925, which would later adopt the Masonite Corporation name. In late 1925, construction was started on the company's first plant in Laurel to produce insulation board and Mason's newly-created hardboard. Mason;s board was created by accident.

Masonite soon licensed facilities in Australia, Canada, Italy and Sweden to ramp up hardboard production. As the company grew, Mason increased the products' performance and strength, and he was awarded numerous patents connected with Masonite. Mason continued to innovate until his death in 1940, and his legacy of innovation remains an important part of the company's framework today.

1940—1970: Wartime contributions and wide-scale use
During World War II, Masonite's hardboard became an important substitute for metals. The Army and Navy depended on the product to develop Quonset huts for soldier housing throughout the European and Pacific war theatres. For these efforts, Masonite Corporation earned three Army-Navy Production Awards.

After the war, Masonite looked to broaden the use of its hardboard. The product was used to create shipping containers, toys, artwork, furniture and more. Designers Charles and Ray Eames used Masonite hardboard in their popular line of postwar modernist furniture, including pieces designed for Herman Miller, Inc.

The Masonite Innovation Center (formerly known as the John M. Coates Technical Center) was built in 1960. Its sole purpose was, and continues to be, the development of new products and process innovations.

1970—2001: Foray into doors
Masonite entered the door business in 1972, when it began producing wood-composite molded door facings and other components. After a number of acquisitions, the company became part of International Paper in 1988.

As Masonite's door division steadily grew, the company formed an alliance with Premdor, a Toronto-based door supplier. By the 1990s, Masonite had become Premdor's largest supplier. With a desire for vertical integration and an eye on global expansion, Premdor reached an agreement to purchase Masonite from International Paper in September 2000. One year later, regulatory approval was granted, and the deal was completed.

2002—2013: Origins of modern masonite
Premdor officially changed its name to Masonite on January 1, 2002 and adopted the tagline of "The Beautiful Door." The acquisition and strategic rebranding efforts were anticipated to help reduce raw materials and marketing costs while increasing customer demand for the company's products worldwide.

In 2005, Masonite was acquired by KKR in a leveraged buy-out. Four years later, in response to an unprecedented downturn in the global housing market, Masonite filed for bankruptcy protection afforded by Chapter 11 statutes in the U.S. and the CCAA in Canada as part of a pre-arranged plan to restructure the company. Masonite emerged from a pre-arranged bankruptcy filing 85 days later, in June 2009.

In 2013, Masonite filed a registration statement with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission and listed on the NYSE under the ticker symbol DOOR, to once again become a public company.

2014 — Present: global expansion and innovation
Nearly a decade later, Masonite has grown into a global company with operations in eight countries serving customers across 64 countries. Headquartered in Tampa, Florida, Masonite employs more than 10,000 people worldwide, and is the only door manufacturer to serve both the residential and architectural markets.

Today, many of Masonite's interior and exterior doors are conceptualized at the Masonite Innovation Center (MIC) located in West Chicago, Illinois. The MIC, which is home to a number of innovative testing and research labs, is the largest known private research and development center in the world focused on door technology. The facility's goal is to give Masonite an industry edge by developing environmentally friendly door solutions that help reduce energy consumption by providing insulating properties, ensure the safety and security of buildings through fire and storms and contribute to third-party sustainable building certifications.

References

External links
 Masonite Corporate Website
 Masonite UK (Premdor)

Building materials companies of the United States
Manufacturing companies based in Florida
Companies based in Tampa, Florida
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2009

Masonite International


Umbrella by Taro Yashima is a children's picture book that was named the 1959 Caldecott Honor Book. It was originally published in 1958 then later reprinted in August 1977 by Puffin Books.

Plot
Umbrella is a short story where a little girl is the principal character. Her name is Momo, which means "peach" in Japanese, and she was born in New York.

Momo carries the blue umbrella and wears the rubber boots that she was given on her third birthday. She asks her mother every day to use her umbrella. Momo tried to tell her mother she needed to carry the umbrella to the school because the sunshine and the wind bothered her eyes. But her mother didn't let her use the umbrella and advises her to wait until the rain comes. The rain took a long time to fall down because it was Indian summer, however, when the rain came, her umbrella was the perfect excuse to use that day. Momo was happy, the rain sound over her umbrella was a music for her. It is a fresh children's story with classic and very colorful Japanese illustrations that reflect its culture.

Reception
Kirkus Reviews gave Umbrella a star review and wrote "The pictures are full of the city's moods and the child's joy in a rainy day."

References

American picture books
1958 children's books
Caldecott Honor-winning works
Viking Press books
Puffin Books books

Umbrella (children's book)


Jewel-Osco is a supermarket chain headquartered in Itasca, Illinois, a Chicago suburb.

Jewel-Osco has 185 stores across northern, central, and western Illinois; eastern Iowa; and portions of northwest Indiana.

Jewel-Osco and Jewel are currently wholly owned subsidiary of Boise, Idaho-based Albertsons. The company original started as a door-to-door coffee delivery service before it expanded into delivering non-perishable groceries and later into grocery stores, and supermarkets.

Before to its 1984 acquisition by American Stores, Jewel evolved into a large multi-state holding company that operated several supermarket chains and other non-food retail chain stores located from coast to coast and had operated under several different brand names.

References

Other websites

1890s establishments in Illinois
1899 establishments in the United States
Companies based in Chicago
Supermarkets of the United States

Jewel-Osco


Karl Søren Clausen   (15 August 1904 – 5 December 1972) was a Danish pianist, conductor, composer and musicologist. In addition to his work as a high school teacher in German and Music, he composed several instrumental and choral works, as well as songs. He became increasingly involved in work with amateur choirs and school singing, and he became a very popular choir conductor, who led several choirs to many musical successes, often with his own choir arrangements, based on folk melodies.

The strong folk singing tradition that he experienced in his childhood Sønderjylland under German rule became decisively influential during his later career. In the late 1940s he began collecting sound recordings of folk singing in marginal, rural areas of Jylland, and in the 1960s he continued this work in the isolated Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic. Alongside teaching and collection work, Clausen also began studying the history of Danish and North German folk singing, and put folk singing into a new context, incorporating historical, religious and sociological aspects, as reflected in various articles, as well as a textbook.

Life
Clausen grew up in a teacher's family in Aabenraa in North Schleswig, an area which Denmark had ceded to Prussia, following the defeat in the Second Schleswig War in 1864. Although forming a majority of the population, the Danes here faced critical times, being under strong influence of German administration, culture and language. Danish culture and language were, however, kept alive, not least through the growth of a quite strong folk singing culture. Clausen went to German secondary school, but in 1923 when he graduated from high school, the 1920 referendum following the German defeat in World War I had given North Schleswig back to Denmark. The mixed Danish-German culture of his childhood would be an inspiration for Clausen's work for much of his life, starting with a small autobiographical pamphlet with descriptions of his school days.

As a young, talented pianist, he studied piano with Roger Henrichsen. In 1928, he took an MA degree from the University of Copenhagen, with German as major and Music and later Danish as minors. He worked as a high school teacher, first at Rungsted Statsskole 1928-35 and then at Østre Borgerdyd Gymnasium 1935–63, but also for some years at Metropolitanskolen, from 1946 as senior master. Along with teaching, he studied music theory with Hakon Andersen, and was music teacher and choir conductor at Danmarks Lærerhøjskole 1941–63.

In 1936 he was appointed technical inspector at the musical night school of the City of Copenhagen, and during the following years under his leadership choir singing experienced a significant lift in both quality and diversity. He conducted the male choir Bel Canto and Københavns Lærerkor and was head conductor of Danske Læreres Sangkor. His teaching was an inspiration for many and contributed a lot to the music subject, which until around 1940 was only available as a minor degree in Denmark. His choir performances began to be radio broadcast, and he also began a long series of radio programmes about songs and folk singing, which gradually led him to take up musicological research in folk singing on a larger scale. In 1948 he wrote an article about Danish folk singing for the musicological magnum opus Om Musik II, and in 1958 came his comprehensive textbook on the subject, which was reprinted 1975. The book contained a wealth of new information and new perspectives on the interplay between historical events, social conditions and folk singing. Clausen's great idea, of the folk song performed by the everyday person, who likes and needs the song as a means of expression, became with him a study subject of deeper culture-historical perspectives than seen before.

In 1963, he gave up high school teaching and accepted a position as lecturer with the Musicological Department at Aarhus University, where he led the archive Sanghistorisk Arkiv. During his first years in Aarhus, he carried out song collections in South and West Jylland, but his last years were more and more focused on Faroese folk singing. He went on several collection trips to the islands, where he primarily focused on the hitherto rather obscure religious kingo-singing and spiritual singing, of which he collected several hundred recordings.

Composer
As a composer, Clausen was inspired by the New Objectivity of the 1920s, as reflected in his school opera Klokken (The Bell) from 1934, based on the Hans Christian Andersen fairy tale, as well as Tema med Variationer for orchestra from 1936. In 1938, he received a scholarship, Det anckerske Legat, and spent the following year in Paris, where he studied composition with Darius Milhaud, which resulted in a wind quintet 1939 and a flute concert 1940.

Compositions
Klokken (1934) (school opera)
Tema med Variationer (1936) (for orchestra)
Vor sol er bleven kold (1937?) (song with lyrics by Johannes V. Jensen)
Blæserkvintet (1939) (wind quintet)
Fløjtekoncert (1940) (flute concert)
De mørke fugle fløj (1943) (song with lyrics by Otto Gelsted)

Musicologist
Karl Clausen's main achievement was his musicological work with song history. He established a large collection of song books, Karl Clausens sanghistoriske Samling, consisting of close to 10,000 volumes and today located at the University of Southern Denmark in Odense.  In the 1950s and 60s, he made extensive collections on tape recorder of folk singing in south and west Jutland. Many of these recordings are available online. Based on the recordings, he made a series of radio broadcasts, and published several articles about folk singing, as well as his principal work Dansk folkesang gennem 150 år, from 1958.

During his years at Rungsted Statsskole, Karl Clausen had Faroese students, who introduced him to their folk singing, which was still thriving, because the modernist outlook and technology of post World War II Europe was only slowly being introduced in these remote islands. During the 1950s he took several choirs on tours to the Faroe Islands, where he quickly became a very popular choir conductor and got to know several of the islands' important folk singers. He was fascinated by the vigorous folk singing tradition of the Faroese, and 1967-72 went on several collection trips to the islands, where he collected several hundred examples of religious spiritual singing and Kingo-singing. With his openminded and unselfish character he got many Faroese friends during these trips, and also came to appreciate the somewhat impulsive and improvised outlook of the Faroese in those days, a behavior also brought about by the violent and awesome nature of the islands.

After his death, his daughter Marianne Clausen (1947-2014) continued his work:  in 1975 she published the volume Åndelig visesang på Færøerne, and in 2006, as part of her five-volume magnum opus on Faroese folk singing, the volume Andlig Vísuløg í Føroyum / Spiritual Songs in the Faroes, with music transcriptions of more than 200 of her father's recordings.

Publications

Choral and instrumental arrangements
Arthur Arnholtz, Karl Clausen and Finn Viderø (eds.) (1947): Festsange. Engstrøm & Sødring Musikforlag, 240 pages (choral arrangements of 96 songs, including 43 by Clausen)
Karl Clausen (1961): Tre små kantater over nordiske kærlighedsviser, ed. Harald Bjerg Emborg, Wilhelm Hansen, 10 pages
Karl Clausen (1961): Folkelig Brorson-sang – 20 folkemelodier until Troens rare Klenodie og Svanesang, Wilhelm Hansen, 43 pages
Karl Clausen (1961): Two small ouvertures for 3 Violins, Wilhelm Hansen, 7 pages
Karl Clausen (published posthumous 1974): Engelske og franske folkesange udsat for solo og kor med klaver, Wilhelm Hansen, 39 pages

Articles and books
Karl Clausen (1942): Omkring Henrik Rungs færøske folkevisemelodier (1846), pp. 155–172 in: Gunnar Heerup (ed.): levende musik, 1:8, October 1942, Aschehoug dansk Forlag
Karl Clausen (1948): Folkelig sang i Danmark, pp. 130–181 in: Om musik II
Karl Clausen (1958): Dansk folkesang gennem 150 år, Statsradiofoniens Grundbøger, Fremad, 338 pages
Karl Clausen and Povl Fledelius (1960): Dichtung und Musik – Volkslieder und Poesie des Hainbundes, Gyldendal, 71 pages
Kai Otto Andersen, Karl Clausen and Jørgen Haahr (eds.) (1962): Fællessang på fremmede sprog, 264 songs with melodies, Wilhelm Hansen
Karl Clausen (1964): Sind og liv bag sangbogen, pp. 132–141 in: Af landsbyskolens saga, Universitetsforlaget i Århus, Danmarks Lærerforening, 247 pages
Karl Clausen (1967): Den blå sangbog – i hundredåret for dens fremkomst, Udgivet af Sprogforeningen, Aabenraa, 59 pages
Karl Clausen (1967): Den unge Niels W. Gade, festive lecture at Århus University, 22. Feb. 1967, printed as Danmarks Sanglærerforenings publikation nr. 17, 12 pages
Karl Clausen (1968): Folkevise og nymodens sang i Napoleonstiden, Vol. 1: Introduktion. Sangens kår i et slesvigsk sogn, Akademisk Forlag, 131 pages
Karl Clausen (1970: Es können passieren ... Es sind vorzuenthalten ... Zensur deutscher und dänischer Lieder in Tondern 1830–1847, pp. 14–56 in: Rolf Wilh. Brednich (ed.): Jahrbuch für Volksliedforschung, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin
Karl Clausen (1970): Der Kaiser ist ein lieber Mann ... Dansken har sejer vundet, hurra, hurra..., Aabenraa Statsskoles Samfund Aarsskrift 1970, 8 pages
Karl Clausen (1970): Sangen mellem krigene og dens forudsætninger i 1840'erne – et bidrag until folke- og skolesangens historie i Slesvig, pp. 23–66 i: Årbog for dansk Skolehistorie 1970
Karl Clausen (1972): Wirkungen von J.A.P. Schulz im Häuslichen und Volkstümlichen Musikleben Dänemarks, Nerthus III, Nordisch-deutsche Beiträge, Eugen Diederichs Verlag, pp. 263–294
Karl Clausen (1972): Dansk-tysk naboskab i sangen i det slesvigske, pp. 135–144 in: Årbog for Dansk Etnologi og Folkemindevidenskab 1973, transcript by Peter Ottoson of lecture given in 1972 at 19. Nordiske Etnolog- og Folkemindeforskermøde in Sønderborg
Karl Clausen (1972): Mädchen, hör' was ich tu fragen, 7 pages
Karl Clausen og Marianne Clausen (1975): Åndelig Visesang på Færøerne, in: Fra Færøerne : Úr Føroyum, vol. VII-VIII, Dansk-Færøsk Samfund, 203 pages

References

This article was initially translated from the Danish Wikipedia.

External links
Sønderjyder synger – Clausen's Jutland folk song recordings

Danish conductors (music)
Male conductors (music)
Danish choral conductors
Danish musicologists
Male composers
Danish classical pianists
1904 births
1972 deaths
20th-century classical pianists
20th-century Danish composers
Folk musicians
20th-century musicologists
Male classical pianists
20th-century conductors (music)
20th-century Danish male musicians

Karl Clausen


Half-Life: Blue Shift is an expansion pack for the game Half-Life. It was made by Gearbox Software with Valve and published by Sierra Entertainment. Blue Shift was the second expansion for Half-Life, originally intended as part of a port of Half-Life. Although the port was cancelled, the Windows version was published as a standalone product in 2001 for Windows. It was published on Steam on August 24, 2005.

As with Gearbox's previous expansion pack, Opposing Force, Blue Shift returns to the events of Half-Life, but portrays the story through the perspective of someone else. You play as security guard Barney Calhoun, hired by the Black Mesa Research Facility, who must fight his way to safety during an incident. Blue Shift also includes a pack that upgrades the Half-Life models and textures.

Blue Shift received both good and bad reviews. Many reviewers were critical of the short length and lack of new content, although the new graphics were praised.

Video games

Half-Life: Blue Shift


Eleventh grade (also known as 11th Grade, Grade 11 or Junior year) is the eleventh year of formal or compulsory education. It is typically the third year of high school (and is the final year in some countries). Students in eleventh grade are usually 16-17 years of age.

Australia
In Australia, Year 11 is the twelfth year of education and fifth year of high school education. Although there are slight variations between the states, most students in Year 11 are aged around fifteen, sixteen or seventeen. In Queensland, Year 11 students are the youngest in the country, as they usually enter at age fifteen.

In New South Wales, Year 11 is the shortest year as it only lasts three whole terms. Year 12 begins its first term where Year 11 would have its fourth.

Year 11 is followed by Year 12, the final year of high school.

Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, students get admitted in the 11th grade after passing the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examinations. Educational institutions offering the 11th–12th grade education are known as colleges. To study in the 11th grade, students must choose one of the three streams, i.e., science, humanities, and business studies.

Belgium
In Belgium, the 11th grade is called "5e secondaire" in the French speaking part of the country, "5de middelbaar" in the Dutch speaking part and "5te sekundäre" in the German speaking part of Belgium.

Brazil
In Brazil, the eleventh grade is the "segundo ano do ensino médio", meaning "second grade of high school". Students tend to be 16 years old.

Bulgaria
In Bulgaria, the 11th grade is the penultimate year of the high-school (gymnasium) stage. Students tend to be 17–18 years old.

Canada
In all provinces and territories, except Quebec, a student continues to Grade 12 to complete their high school, or secondary, education. In Quebec, Grade 11 (sec. 5) is the final year of secondary education, followed by CEGEP (college), a pre-university level unique to Quebec.

Colombia
In this year, all students are required to do an internship in any subject field. To differentiate from universities' internships, the practice is called 'alphabetisation'; most of the time is related to community services, such as teaching in schools, or assisting in hospitals or libraries. Students also do the ICFES National Test and they present to the draft for the Colombian Army. By law, the army cannot recruit under-age students; most of eleventh-graders are aged 16–17, and the draft is almost changed for the payment of a monetary fee.

Egypt
Among Egyptian students its called تانية ثانوي "tanya thanawy" which means the 2nd year of secondary school. In this year students have the choice to enter either scientific or literature section. In the scientific section, applied mathematics, biology, chemistry and physics are studied while in the literature section, history, geography, philosophy and psychology are studied. Both sections study Arabic, foreign languages and mathematics as common subjects between them.  After finishing the 3 years of secondary school, students can apply to a college depending on the chosen section.

Finland
In Finland there are three years of high school. 11th grade is the second.

France
The equivalent is the Première, which is the penultimate year of Secondary education in France (followed by the Terminale).

Greece
In Greece, the eleventh (11th) grade is called second year of lyceum school or high school or upper secondary school (Deutera Lykeiou – Δευτέρα Λυκείου), it is not compulsory to attend, and is the penultimate year of secondary education.

Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, 11th grade is called Form 5.

India
In India, the Eleventh Grade is the first year of higher secondary education and this grade is mainly the third year of High School (i.e Higher/Senior Secondary School or Senior High School) according to all National and State Boards of India and according to some State Boards of India it the first year of Junior College (i.e Intermediate or Pre-University College). Generally the equivalent grade for this grade is known as "Class 11" or "Plus 1". Generally Eleventh Grade is known as "+1" which originates from the term "10+1". It is also Called as "Intermediate 1st Year"(Intermediate Course), "HSC"(Higher Secondary Certificate), "FJYC"(First Year Junior College), "1st PUC"(1st Year Pre-University Course) in different regions and states. Also, in this year the students opt for one stream out of three streams namely Science, Commerce and Arts/Humanities which they want to study further in future at various Universities across the globe.

The three streams consists of various combinations of subjects:
 Science, which comprises Compulsory subject such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology/Mathematics/ Applied Mathematics (Optional or both Subject as Compulsory subject),English Or  Modern (Indian/Foreign ) Language and  Choose other Subjects such as Computer Science, Information Technology, Informatics Practices, Electronics, Physical Education, Psychology, Home Science, Food Nutrition and Dietetics, Web Applications, Biotechnology etc.
 Commerce, which comprises Compulsory Subject Such as Accountancy/Financial Studies, Business Studies/ Business Administration And Economics.The optional Subject are Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, Information Technology,Informatics Practices,Computer Science,Retailing and Marketing,Entrepreneurship And other Optional Subjects and Modern (Indian/ Foreign ) Language.

 Humanities/Arts which comprises  Language Such as English And Other Modern (Indian/Foreign) Language,  Social Studies( Social Science) subject such as History, Political Science(Civics ),Geography ,Economics ,Journalism, Legal Studies and Mass Media , Basic Science related Subject as Applied Mathematics, Mathematics,Nutrition and Dietetics, Psychology,Fashion Studies, Sport subject such as Physical Education and Computer related  subject such as Computer Science,information Technology and Arts Related subject such as Painting, Indian/Foreign Dance form and Indian/ Foreign Music Forms .
 The Students can Choose 5 to 9 subject selection from 114 subjects from CBSE board as 3 being compulsory Subject ( given above compulsory Subject for each stream) , 1 being  compulsory Language And 1 being optional or Vocational subject and the subjects can vary from  Institutions to Institutions
NOTE - Some institutions offer languages also as their main subject or as a vocational subject. The combination of streams can vary from Institutions to Institutions.

But abroad, the streams are determined by the model exam, which is under the school. The stream which the students opt for are the basis of which degree they can study. The Grade 11 is generally the continuation of Grade 9 and Grade 12 is the continuation of Grade 10. In this year a student can also change his stream in the middle of the academic year from Science to other streams, but the reverse is not possible. In Grade 11, students prepare for the various national and state entrance exams of various colleges and universities across the country which would be given after 12 th Standard.

Indonesia
In Indonesia, after appearing for Class X Boards, the students opt for the programs they want to study.

There are three programs:
 Science, which comprises Physics, Chemistry and Biology
 Social, which comprises Economy, Geography and Sociology
 Language, which comprises Foreign Languages, Indonesian Literature and Anthropology

Ireland
It is Fifth Year or Cúigú Bhliain of Secondary School (for 15- to 17-year-olds as there is an optional year beforehand). In this year, students prepare for the Leaving Certificate.

Nepal
In Nepal, students complete their SEE boards. Afterwards, they start their 11th as starting of "college level education".

11 is not considered as school but college
Students can take in 3 different streams in plus 2 ( 11, 12)

Science
Arts
Management

Mathematics, Social Studies, Nepali and English are compulsory subjects in all streams.

There is provision of A level education and IB too

Israel
In Israel, eleventh grade is known as "Yud-Aleph" (11 in Hebrew numerals, י"א). Ages of the students average at around 16-17.
Eleventh grade is when Israeli students do their final tests for most  of the subjects for their high school diploma ("te'udat bagrut", roughly translates to 'diploma of maturity')

Many students consider it to be the hardest and most stressful year, because in most schools, they do the final test for every subject besides English, Maths, and their Megamot (1-2 classes the student chooses, it's mandatory to choose at least 1).

Malaysia
In Malaysia, 11th grade also known as Form 5 in secondary school. The students at this stage are 17 years old, and it is the fifth and last year in the secondary school.(Compare to Form 6 or known as 12th grade). This year is crucial as the students in this stage sit for one of the biggest and most important national exams, that is Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) Exam. This is a crucial exam that determines the future of the student, which is Form 6, A-Levels, foundation, or Diploma.  Some of them even start work immediately after their SPM.

Mexico
In some parts the eleventh grade is the second year of high school. Most students enter this grade as 16 year olds, but some might enter early as 15 and late as 17.

Norway
In Norway, the eleventh year of education is the first year of Videregående skole, equivalent to high school. It is not referred to as the eleventh grade, but rather the first grade of Videregående or VG1. Although Videregående skole is not compulsory for Norwegians, approximately 93% of people aged 16–18 enroll. There is no upper age limit for starting or finishing Videregående skole, but students cannot enroll earlier than the year they turn 16.

New Zealand
In New Zealand, Year 12 is the equivalent of eleventh grade, with students aged 16 or 17 during the years. It is the fourth year of secondary school and the twelfth year of compulsory education. During Year 12, most students complete Level 2 of the National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA), the country's main national qualification for secondary school students. Students in Year 12 typically study English (or Te Reo Māori) and a minimum of five elective subjects with mathematics highly recommended.

Pakistan
Grade eleven is the first of the two years in college (grade twelve being the last and final year before university education) and is equivalently referred to as "first year." Students in this year level are fifteen to sixteen years old. Students get to select from the following subjects:

Pre-medical (Biology, Physics, Chemistry)

Pre-engineering (Math, Physics, Chemistry)

Commerce

Humanities

Science

Home economics

Arts

And the compulsory subjects are Urdu, Islamic studies (1st year only) and Pakistan studies (2nd year only). The students can select the preferred subject on the basis of SSC result (9th and 10th grade)

Philippines
In the Philippines, Grade 11 () is the first year of Senior High School and the fifth year of High School curriculum. Topics discussed depend on the four tracks and their strands.

 Academic Track
ABM (Accountancy, Business & Management)
STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering & Mathematics)
HUMSS (Humanities & Social Sciences)
GAS (General Academic Strand)
Pre-Baccalaureate Maritime
 Technical-Vocational Track
Agri-Fishery Arts
Home Economics
Industrial Arts
Information Communications Technology (ICT)
TVL Maritime
 Sports Track
 Arts and Design Track

Since June 13, 2016 with the start of school year 2016–2017 as part of the K–12's 9-year implementation process. Students are usually 16–17 years old. Students can also starts at the young age of 15-16 years old.

Russia
The eleventh grade is final year of secondary education, the end of the high school, and it is an examinational year, when training to USE is being more powerful, than in tenth grade. Priority of education in this year is given to repeat the material learned in high school (Fifth to Tenth years) in Mathematics, Russian language and in exam subjects by pupils' choice.

Singapore
In Singapore, 11th grade is equivalent of Secondary 5 level.

Only people taking N Levels (normal academic levels) will go to secondary 5, those in express streams will take their O levels (ordinary levels) in secondary 4, and then continue to a Junior College for 2 years or Polytechnic for 3 years.

Spain
The closest equivalent to the eleventh grade is the first year of Bachillerato. It is for pupils aged 16 to 17. It is a year of many changes when pupils can start to choose what they would like to study in the future at university.
There are three types of "Bachilleratos":

Main subjects:
Spanish, English, Physical education and philosophy.

Science: math, physics and chemistry and biology and geology (health-orientated degrees) or technical drawing.

Humanities/Sociology: Latin and Greek or math oriented for sociology and economy, history and literature.

Arts: music, drama class, design, history of art.

Sweden
This is the first year of Upper Secondary School.

United Kingdom

England and Wales

Year 12, or Lower Sixth form, is comparable to the 11th grade in the US. It is the sixth and penultimate year of secondary education.  During Year 12, students usually take the first half of three or four A-Level or equivalent subjects. Some students take Advanced Subsidiary Level (AS-Level) exams at the end of Year 12.

Students then enter Year 13 (equivalent to 12th grade) and may be able to drop a subject. Successful completion generally results in the award of A-Level qualifications, though BTECs can be received.

Scotland
In Scotland, fifth year (of secondary education) or S5 is optional, where pupils will generally sit Higher qualifications which form the core entry requirements for university. It is followed by an optional final sixth year (also known as S6). The students ages normally range from 16 to 17 in this year.

Northern Ireland
The system is similar to the English one at this age. Lower Sixth Form (Year 13), pupils start on a two-year course, at the end of which they will hopefully have gained three 'A' Levels in their chosen subjects.

United States

In the US, a student in the eleventh grade is typically referred to as a junior. The vast majority of students who are classified as juniors take the SAT Reasoning Test and/or ACT in the second semester of their third year of high school.

Math students usually take Algebra II, but classes like trigonometry or precalculus are sometimes offered for students who wish to take Advanced Placement math classes in their fourth, or senior year of high school. Depending on the location there may be a combination of any of the listed subjects. They may also take easier courses such as algebra I and geometry if they do not have the required prerequisites for the more advanced courses that are listed above. Students who are advanced in mathematics often take calculus or statistics.

In science classes, third year students are taught, usually biology, physics or chemistry, especially lab chemistry.

In English class, a college-preparatory curriculum would also include American literature. Often, English literature is taught in the third year of high school. Books and authors learned include The Glass Menagerie, The Scarlet Letter, The Crucible, The Great Gatsby, Of Mice and Men, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, The Grapes of Wrath, Jonathan Edwards, Amy Tan, and Lorraine Hansberry.

In a social studies curriculum, third year students in the United States are usually taught US history or the world from the 1870s to the 21st Century. These courses could be also taught in ninth or tenth grade as well. They may also acquire more advanced world culture and geography knowledge, along with some more-advanced social studies such as psychology, economics, sociology and government.

Many high school third year students in the United States opt to take a foreign language, even though it is not required in many secondary schools curricula.

While normally followed by twelfth grade, some colleges will accept excelling students out of this grade as part of an early college entrance program. Alternatively, some students may choose to graduate early through standardized testing or advanced credits.

Lebanon
Eleventh grade is also known as grade 11 or premiere. Students are divided into either scientific which then proceeds to become life science (LS or SV) or general science (GS or SG) in grade 12 and economics (ES or SE) which proceeds to become Economics (ES or SE) or Humanities (H) in grade 12. The choice of division is done according to grades and sometimes according to what the student wants to do in college. A student can go from scientific to economics later in grade 12, but not the opposite.

See also
 Educational stage
 Ninth grade
 Tenth grade
 Twelfth grade
 Senior secondary education

References

11
Secondary education

Eleventh grade


The pupil magnification of an optical system is the ratio of the diameter of the exit pupil to the diameter of the entrance pupil. The pupil magnification is used in calculations of the effective f-number, which affects a number of important elements related to optics, such as exposure, diffraction, and depth of field. For all symmetric lenses, and for many conventional photographic lenses, the pupils appear the same size and so the pupil magnification is approximately 1.

See also
Magnification

External links
 Photo.net lens tutorial

Geometrical optics

Pupil magnification


Alexander B. Witt (born 1952) is a Chilean-American filmmaker and cinematographer mostly known for his work as a camera operator and second unit director, including regular collaborations with director Ridley Scott.

Life and career
From a 2004 interview on IGN, he says this about his history: "I was born in Chile, the third generation of Germans there. And, we moved to Mexico, from Mexico in '73 I moved to Europe, where I started working in film. I started with Arriflex, the company that makes the cameras. I was there for a year and I did kind of a trainee type of year where I was in the sound department, in the lab, in the studio working with the actual productions and also assembling cameras. And then I moved to Europe, where I lived three years, and then, back in '76, I did my first movie as a camera assistant, which was 21 Hours at Munich. And then, I kept on going, I moved up to focus puller or first AC, and then operating and then DP-ing. And then I was DP-ing commercials and then I started directing commercials in the late 80's and beginning of [the] 90's. I was working with Jan de Bont and doing his second unit as a DP while he was a DP. He is the one that really gave me the break on Speed to start directing second unit."

Witt works mostly as a second unit director and cinematographer and has worked on a plethora of films ranging from Gladiator to Cinderella. He is a frequent collaborator of director Ridley Scott, and served as the director of photography on his 2007 film Body of Lies. He made his directorial debut in 2004 with the video game adaptation Resident Evil: Apocalypse. Witt also served as the second unit director on the James Bond films Casino Royale (2006), Skyfall (2012), Spectre (2015) and No Time to Die (2020).

Filmography

As second unit director

Other roles

References

External links

American film directors
American people of German descent
Chilean emigrants to the United States
1952 births
Chilean people of German descent
Living people
Chilean film directors
People from Santiago

Alexander Witt


Shen () is a Chinese word with senses of spirit, god, or deity. The Japanese equivalent is shin, as in Shinto. This single Chinese term expresses a range of similar, yet differing, meanings.

The first meaning may refer to spirits, such as dead ancestors, or gods that are intimately involved in the affairs of the world. Spirits generate entities like rivers, mountains, thunder, and stars.

A second meaning of shen refers to the human spirit or psyche that is seen in the body as luster or vigor and in the mind as vitality and enthusiasm; it is the basic power or agency within humans that accounts for life, and in order to further life to its fullest potential, the spirit (Shen) is transformed to actualise potential (Jing 精 ).

A third understanding of shen describes an entity as spiritual in the sense of inspiring awe or wonder because it combines categories usually kept separate, or it cannot be comprehended through normal concepts.

In the traditional Chinese theory of sanbao, shen is associated with the yin side of yin and yang (Heaven and Earth; Earth tied to jing in particular in traditional Chinese medicine). Heaven is the origin of the spiritual aspect of humanity and provides ongoing spiritual influences, and therefore, it is associated with the heart, while Earth is the origin of the physical aspect of humankind/nature and is traditionally related to our kidneys or lower dantian. The ongoing harmonious interaction of Heaven and Earth creates qi in this case human and therefore is associated with the spleen, stomach and liver in the middle Jiao, which is essential to create balance and harmony therefore maintaining a good standard of health and creating life.

It is said in the classics that the human is the best creation of Heaven and Earth. In traditional Chinese medicine, Taoist, Buddhist, and Chinese folk religious tradition, the balance of yin and yang is important to provide external harmony and internal health within life, thereby preventing injury, illness, or harm to body, mind, spirit, or the environment.

Pronunciation

Shén (in rising 2nd tone) is the Modern Standard Chinese pronunciation of  "god, deity; spirit, spiritual, supernatural; awareness, consciousness etc". Reconstructions of shén in Middle Chinese (ca. 6th-10th centuries CE) include dź'jěn (Bernhard Karlgren, substituting j for his "yod medial"), źiɪn (Zhou Fagao), ʑin (Edwin G. Pulleyblank, "Late Middle"), and zyin (William H. Baxter). Reconstructions of shén in Old Chinese (ca. 6th-3rd centuries BCE) include *djěn (Karlgren), *zdjien (Zhou), *djin (Li Fanggui), *Ljin (Baxter), and *m-lin (Axel Schuessler).

Although the etymological origin of shen is uncertain, Schuessler notes a possible Sino-Tibetan etymology; compare Chepang gliŋh "spirit of humans".

The Chinese shen  "spirit; etc." is also present in other East Asian languages. The Japanese Kanji  is pronounced shin () or jin () in On'yomi (Chinese reading), and kami (), kō (), or tamashii () in Kun'yomi (Japanese reading). The Korean Hanja  is pronounced sin ().

The Zihui dictionary notes that  had a special pronunciation shēn (level 1st tone, instead of usual 2nd shén) in the name Shen Shu , one of two "gods of the Eastern Sea", along with Yu Lu .

In the Vietnamese language, it is pronounced as thần.

Semantics
Shen'''s polysemous meanings developed diachronically over three millennia. The Hanyu dazidian, an authoritative historical dictionary, distinguishes one meaning for shēn ("Name of a deity ()) and eleven meanings for shén  translated below:
 Celestial god(s)/spirit(s) of stories/legends, namely, the creator of the myriad things in heaven and earth and the supreme being. ()
 Spirit; mind, mental faculties; consciousness. Like: concentrated attention; tire the mind; concentrate one's energy and attention. ()
 Expression, demeanor; consciousness, state of mind. ()
 Portrait, portraiture. ()
 Magical, supernatural, miraculous; mysterious, abstruse. Like: ability to divine the unknown, amazing foresight; highly skilled doctor; genius, masterpiece. ()
 Esteem, respect; valuable, precious. ()
 Rule, govern, administer. ()
 Cautious, careful, circumspect. ()
 Display, arrange, exhibit. ()
 Dialect. 1. Dignity, distinction. () 2. Entrancement, ecstasy. () 3. Clever, intelligent. ()
 Surname, family name. ()

This dictionary entry for shen lists early usage examples, and many of these 11 meanings were well attested prior to the Han Dynasty. Chinese classic texts use shen in meanings 1 "spirit; god", 2 "spirit, mind; attention", 3 "expression; state of mind", 5 "supernatural", and meaning 6 "esteem". The earliest examples of meaning 4 "portrait" are in Song Dynasty texts. Meanings 7-9 first occur in early Chinese dictionaries; the Erya defines shen in meanings 7 "govern" and 8 "cautious" (and 6, which is attested elsewhere), and the Guangya defines meaning 9 "display". Meaning 10 gives three usages in Chinese dialects (technically "topolects", see Fangyan). Meaning 11 "a surname" is exemplified in Shennong ("Divine Farmer"), the culture hero and inventor of agriculture in Chinese mythology.

The Chinese language has many compounds of shen. For instance, it is compounded with tian  "sky; heaven; nature; god" in tianshen  "celestial spirits; heavenly gods; deities; (Buddhism) deva", with shan  "mountain" in shanshen  "mountain spirit", and hua  "speech; talk; saying; story" in shenhua  "mythology; myth; fairy tale". Several shen "spirit; god" compounds use names for other supernatural beings, for example, ling  "spirit; soul" in shenling  "gods; spirits, various deities", qi  "earth spirit" in shenqi  "celestial and terrestrial spirits", xian  "Xian (Taoism), transcendent" in shenxian  "spirits and immortals; divine immortal", guai  "spirit; devil; monster" in shenguai  "spirits and demons; gods and spirits", and gui  "ghost, goblin; demon, devil" in guishen  "ghosts and spirits; supernatural beings". The earliest discovered character form for shen suggests two components. The right side of the character gives the basic meaning and pronunciation, as well as providing a graphic representation of flashing lightning from the clouds. This visual displays ancient people's belief that lightning was the manifestation of god.1 The left side displays a modified character shi which pertains to ritual ceremonies, worship, or prayer. This concept originally referred to stone table used for offering ceremonial sacrifices to the gods.

Wing-Tsit Chan distinguishes four philosophical meanings of this guishen: "spiritual beings", "ancestors", "gods and demons", and "positive and negative spiritual forces".

The primary meaning of shen is translatable in English as spirit, spiritual, spiritlike, spirits, Spirit, spiritual beings; celestial spirits; ancestral spirits or god, gods, God; deity, deities, supernatural beings, etc. Shen is sometimes loosely translated as "soul", but Chinese hun and po distinguishes hun  "spiritual soul" and po  "physical soul". Shen can be used as a loanword. The Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.) defines shen in these terms, "In Chinese philosophy: a god, person of supernatural power, or the spirit of a dead person." Shen can also refer to a living, "'spiritual' or 'spiritlike'" person or people when they accomplish things perceived to be superhuman, such as saving "people through the power of Virtue."

In acupuncture, shen is a pure spiritual energy devoid of memory and personality traits, whereas hun is the spiritual energy associated with the personality and po the energy tied to the sustenance of the physical body. In this system, shen resides in the heart and departs first at death, hun resides in the liver and departs second, and po resides in the lungs and departs last.Shen plays a central role in Christian translational disputes over Chinese terms for God. Among the early Chinese "god; God" names, shangdi  or di was the Shang term, tian  was the Zhou term, and shen was a later usage (see Feng Yu-Lan. Modern terms for "God" include shangdi,  zhu , tianzhu  (esp. Catholics), and shen  (esp. Protestants).

Graphics
The character  for shen exemplifies the most common class in Chinese character classification: xíngshēngzì  "pictophonetic compounds, semantic-phonetic compounds", which combine a radical (or classifier) that roughly indicates meaning and a phonetic that roughly indicates pronunciation. In this case,  combines the "altar/worship radical" or  and a phonetic of shēn  "9th Earthly Branch; extend, stretch; prolong, repeat". Compare this phonetic element differentiated with the "person radical" in shen  "stretch", the "silk radical" in shen  "official's sash", the "mouth radical" in shen  "chant, drone", the "stone radical" in shen  "arsenic", the "earth radical" in kun  "soil", and the "big radical" in yan  "cover". (See the List of Kangxi radicals.)

Chinese shen  "extend" was anciently a phonetic loan character for shen  "spirit". The Mawangdui Silk Texts include two copies of the Dao De Jing and the "A Text" writes shen interchangeably as  and : "If one oversees all under heaven in accord with the Way, demons have no spirit. It is not that the demons have no spirit, but that their spirits do not harm people." (chap. 60). The Shuowen Jiezi defines shen  as shen  and says that in the 7th lunar month when yin forces increase, bodies shenshu  "bind up".

The earliest written forms of shen  "spirit; god" occur in Zhou dynasty bronzeware script and Qin dynasty seal script characters (compare the variants shown on the "Chinese etymology" link below). Although  has not been identified in Shang dynasty oracle bone script records, the phonetic shen  has. Paleographers interpret the Oracle script of  as a pictograph of a "lightning bolt". This was graphically differentiated between dian  "lightning; electricity" with the "cloud radical" and shen  with the "worship radical", semantically suggesting both "lightning" and "spirits" coming down from the heavens.

See also
 Chinese folk religion
 Chinese gods and immortals
 Chinese theology
 Chinese spiritual world concepts
 Tian & Di
 Shangdi
 Wufang Shangdi
 Jade Emperor
 Chinese ancestral worship
 Religion in China
 Kami in Shinto religion

References

Further reading
 Dharmananda, Subhuti. 2005. "Towards a spirit at peace: understanding the treatment of shen disorders with Chinese medicine", Institute for Traditional Medicine and Preventive Health Care, Portland, Oregon.
 Li Leyi. 1993. "Tracing The Roots of Chinese Characters: 500 Cases", Beijing Language and Culture University Press.
 Mateer, C.W. 1901–2. "The meaning of the word shen," Chinese Recorder'' 3.2:61–72, 107–16, 3.3:71–79, 123–32.

External links

 Seal and Bronze Characters, Chinese Etymology
What Is Shen (Spirit)?, Subhuti Dharmananda

Names of God

Taoist philosophy
Qigong

Shen (Chinese religion)


Ince Power Station refers to two demolished power stations near Ellesmere Port in Cheshire, North West England.

Ince A
When the uranium enrichment plant at Capenhurst opened in 1949, it was realised that its power demand would require the construction of a new power station nearby. Rendel, Palmer & Tritton were appointed as the construction's civil engineering consultants, while the Central Electricity Authority engineered the station's electrical and mechanical plant.

The station was built on an  plot of land acquired as a result of tidal borings. The main buildings were constructed where the load-bearing sandstone was at its highest level. After the removal of  of topsoil it was possible to construct the buildings directly upon hard bearing sand, removing the necessity of piled foundations. However, the cooling towers and north chimney did require piled foundations as the sandstone foundation sloped away from the power station site.

The station's main buildings were of steel-framed construction. The boiler house was clad using cellactite sheet cladding, and was of a semi-outdoor construction due to the speed of construction required. The turbine hall was a brick building with prefabricated stone used on window and door surrounds. The building's roof was made from asbestos cement. The floors in the station were made of quarry tile and terrazzo. The station's coal bunkers were steel plate and girder constructions. The entire building measured  long by  wide, containing approximately 3,800 tonnes of steel. The station also had two  chimneys, made from brick with internal diameters of . They were supported upon  concrete plinths. The administration and amenity block was built next to the station, and connected to the turbine hall by an overhead access bridge. The block contained the station's control room, along with laboratories, administration offices, a canteen, lockers and showers. It was heated by excess steam bled from the turbines.

Ince A Power Station was opened on 9 October 1957 by Lord Citrine, the chairman of the Central Electricity Authority. The station used four GEC 60-megawatt (MW) turbo alternators, giving the station a total generation capacity of 240 MW. The first set was commissioned in November 1954 followed by the other sets in March 1955, December 1955, and finally September 1956. Each turbine was supplied with steam from an International Combustion Limited coal-fired boiler at a rate of  per hour, and at a temperature of 480 °C. Each boiler and turbine set operated as an independent generating unit, with no interconnection of boilers. It was also realised midway through the station's construction that the station should be capable of duel firing heavy fuel oil. Electricity was generated at 12.8 kilovolts (kV). It was then passed through a transformer which increased the voltage to 132 kV, before passing into the national grid.

The generating capacity, electricity output and thermal efficiency were as shown in the table.

Coal was delivered to the station's coal storage area by rail from the East Midlands coalfields.

Water for the station's systems was taken from the River Dee at Chester, and taken to the station by a pipeline built by the West Cheshire Water Board to serve the power station and the uranium enrichment plant. The water was cooled using four hyperboloid natural draft cooling towers. Each tower was  tall and had a  base diameter, with a cooling capacity of 2.75 million gallons per hour.

Ince B
Ince B Power Station built as part of the Dash for Oil in the UK during the 1960s, schemed as being a base load operating power station. The choice of the Ince site for a large new oil-fired station was politically influenced as the government wanted a station in the North West of England, which led to a rumour that the power station was built with the only purpose of creating jobs.

The station's construction suffered lengthy delays. Its transmission system was inadequate to handle the large flow of electricity from the nuclear power stations to the north. There were also faults with the station's rotors, which required them returning to the manufacturer's works. The station eventually used two notional spares. Low productivity among construction staff was also a problem, almost leading to the abandonment of the project. The station had eventually begun operating by March 1984, when it achieved the second-highest thermal efficiency in the country for a plant of its size, after Pembroke Power Station in Wales.

The station occupied a  site. Its boiler house measured  by  and was  tall. The turbine hall was  by  and  tall. There were two boilers rated at 447 kg/s, steam conditions were 158.58 bar at 538 °C with reheat to 538 °C. There were two 500-MW Parsons generators, along with two 25-MW Avon gas turbines. In 1993, one of the station's two units, Unit 5, was converted to burn orimulsion, its boilers being provided by Clarke Chapman Ltd. The station B had a single  chimney, with a diameter of  which tapered to . The station used a single hyperboloid induced draft cooling tower, which stood  tall.

Fuel oil was supplied directly to the station by a pipeline, directly from Shell's Stanlow Oil Refinery. Oil was also brought to the station by ship, via a berth on the Manchester Ship Canal.

The station was controlled by two GEC 2050 computers.

The generating capacity, electricity output and thermal efficiency were as shown in the table.

The intensive use in the year ending 31 March 1985 was associated with the 1984/5 miners strike when the availability of coal for coal-fired power stations was severely limited.

Closure and demolition

The A Station was closed and demolished in the mid-1980s, though its single remaining cooling tower was left standing until 1999. The B Station ceased generating electricity in March 1997 and demolition of the structures commenced a couple of years later. The station's chimney was demolished on 28 April 1999. The station's cooling tower was demolished on 5 December 1999 along with the A Station's remaining cooling tower.

References

External links

 An Unofficial Ince 'B' Power Station Web Site – Website with cross sectional diagrams and photos of Ince B Power Station

Power stations in North West England
Buildings and structures in Cheshire
Former power stations in England
1957 establishments in England
1997 disestablishments in England

Ince Power Station


The Poolesville Historic District is a national historic district located at Poolesville, Montgomery County, Maryland.  It consists of 33 buildings of local architectural and historical significance including structures representing a diversity of styles, materials, and uses, and includes residential, ecclesiastical, and commercial architecture, as well as an assorted number of small domestic dependencies, such as dairies and smokehouses.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.

References

External links
, including photo in 2003, at Maryland Historical Trust website
Boundary Map of the Poolesville Historic District, Montgomery County, at Maryland Historical Trust

Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Maryland
Historic districts in Montgomery County, Maryland
Federal architecture in Maryland
Historic American Buildings Survey in Maryland
National Register of Historic Places in Montgomery County, Maryland

Poolesville Historic District


Major Matthew Fontaine Maury Meiklejohn VC (; 27 November 1870 – 4 July 1913) was a British recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.

Details

Meiklejohn was the son of Professor John Meiklejohn, of the University of St. Andrews, and was educated at Madras College and Fettes College. He was 28 years old, and a captain in the 2nd Battalion, The Gordon Highlanders, British Army during the Second Boer War when the following deed took place at the Battle of Elandslaagte for which he was awarded the VC.

His VC action cost him his arm which was amputated. Despite this, he remained in the army as a staff officer. He was promoted to the substantive rank of captain of the Gordon Highlanders 22 January 1902, and was seconded as a staff officer posted at Saint Helena. He later achieved the rank of major.

His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Gordon Highlanders Museum along with his campaign medals.

Further information

His death occurred when he was riding his horse in Hyde Park and it bolted. With only one arm to control the horse, he took the choice to steer it into some cast iron railings, in order to avoid a nursemaid who was pushing a baby in her pram. This was considered to be an act of high bravery and cost him his life. He died on 4 July 1913 and was given a hero's funeral in Brookwood Cemetery. He is commemorated by a plaque on the wall of the Hyde Park Barracks, London.

Notes

References
Monuments to Courage (David Harvey, 1999)
The Register of the Victoria Cross (This England, 1997)
Victoria Crosses of the Anglo-Boer War (Ian Uys, 2000)

External links
angloboerwar.com
Location of grave and VC medal (Brookwood Cemetery)
The Brookwood Cemetery Society (Known Holders of the Victoria Cross Commemorated in Brookwood Cemetery)

Second Boer War recipients of the Victoria Cross
British recipients of the Victoria Cross
Gordon Highlanders officers
Deaths by horse-riding accident in England
1870 births
1913 deaths
People educated at Fettes College
British military personnel of the Chitral Expedition
British military personnel of the Tirah campaign
British Army personnel of the Second Boer War
British amputees
Accidental deaths in London
Burials at Brookwood Cemetery
People from Clapham
Accidental deaths from falls
British Army recipients of the Victoria Cross
People educated at Madras College

Matthew Fontaine Maury Meiklejohn


发射台是一种设计为发射火箭能驱动飞行器的地面设施(包括运载火箭、航天飞机、弹道导弹等在内),可用于固定和支撐火箭並为火箭和载荷提供维护支持。發射台大致可分為固定式發射台和移動式發射台,其中移動式發射台可以在公路或铁路上进行移動。

大多数发射台都包括固定的服务结构,以提供一个或多个进入平台来组装、检查和维护运载工具,并允许进入航天器,包括装载机组人员。 该垫可以包含火焰偏转结构,以防止火箭排气的强热损坏飞行器或垫结构,并且可以采用喷洒大量水的声音抑制系统。 该垫也可以受到避雷器的保护。 航天发射场通常包括多个发射场和其他支持基础设施。

Most launch pads include fixed service structures to provide one or more access platforms to assemble, inspect, and maintain the vehicle and to allow access to the spacecraft, including the loading of crew. The pad may contain a flame deflection structure to prevent the intense heat of the rocket exhaust from damaging the vehicle or pad structures, and a sound suppression system spraying large quantities of water may be employed. The pad may also be protected by lightning arresters. A spaceport typically includes multiple launch complexes and other supporting infrastructure.

The launch complex for liquid fueled rockets often has extensive ground support equipment including propellant tanks and plumbing to fill the rocket before launch. Cryogenic propellants (liquid oxygen oxidizer, and liquid hydrogen or liquid methane fuel) need to be continuously topped off (i.e., boil-off replaced) during the launch sequence (countdown), as the vehicle awaits liftoff. This becomes particularly important as complex sequences may be interrupted by planned or unplanned holds to fix problems.

Most rockets need to be supported and held down for a few seconds after ignition while the engines build up to full thrust. The vehicle is commonly held on the pad by hold-down arms or explosive bolts, which are triggered when the vehicle is stable and ready to fly, at which point all umbilical connections with the pad are released.

Transport of rockets to the pad

.

Each launch site is unique, but a few broad types can be described by the means by which the space vehicle gets to the pad.

 Horizontally integrated rockets travel horizontally with the tail forward to the launch site on a transporter erector launcher and are then raised to the vertical position over the flame duct. Examples include all large Soviet rockets, including Soyuz, Proton, N1, and Energia. This method is also used by the SpaceX and Electron launch vehicles.
 Silo launched rockets are assembled inside of a missile silo. This method is only used by converted ICBMs due to the difficulty and expense of constructing a silo that can contain the forces of a rocket launch.
 Vertically integrated rockets can be assembled in a separate hangar on a mobile launcher platform (MLP). The MLP contains the umbilical structure and is carried to the launch site on a large vehicle called Crawler-transporter. Launch Complex 39 at the Kennedy Space Center is an example of a facility using this method. A similar system is used to launch Ariane 5 rockets at ELA-3 at Guiana Space Centre.
 Vertically assembled vehicles can also be transported on a mobile launcher platform resting on two parallel standard gauge railroad tracks that run from the integration building to launch area. This system is still in use for the Atlas V and future Vulcan.
 At SLC-6 and SLC-37, rockets are assembled on the launch mount. A windowless rail-mounted building encloses the launch pad and gantry to protect the vehicle from the elements, and for purposes of military secrecy. Prior to launch, the building is rolled away. This method is also used at Kagoshima for the M-V.
 The former Sea Launch service used the converted self-propelled oil drilling platform Ocean Odyssey to transport Zenit 3SL rockets horizontally to the Equator, and then to erect and launch them from a floating launch platform into geostationary transfer orbits.

发射台的类型
其中综合发射系统通常包括一个用于支撑火箭的发射架或发射平台(即狭义上的"发射台")、一个带有脐带缆的服务结构(通称"脐带塔"),以及一套用于提供推进剂、电力、通信、遥测、散热、火箭组装、有效载荷处理和存储设施所需的勤务设施(通称"勤务塔"),而以上所述的各个结构在实际设计时其功能可能会被合并至同一个建筑中去(如921发射工位的发射塔架便集成了勤务塔和脐带塔的功能)。

参见

 List of rocket launch sites
 Missile launch facility
 Non-rocket spacelaunch

 Rocket launch

 Spaceport

参考文献

航天

发射台


The Society of Saint Pius X is a Catholic fraternity of priests with  traditionalist views. Marcel Lefebvre, a French priest founded it in the 1970s, because he thought that the Second Vatican Council had given up many of the these traditions. It is against many of the changes the Second Vatican Council introduced, namely the dialogue with leaders of other religions and the communal relation of different Christian groups. Since 1975, the Society of Saint Pius X  no longer has canonical mandate. In 1988, the society consecrated new bishops, which by canonical law, led to the excommunication of those consecrating, and those consecrated. Pope Benedict XVI annulled the excommunications in the 2000s, after all involved affirmed that the Pope was the head of the Catholic Church. As of 2020, the society has 680 priests and 217 seminarians.

References

Catholicism

Society of Saint Pius X