The Main Street Historic District in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin is a  historic district that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on January 11, 2002.  The listing was amended in some way in a revised listing on March 5, 2002.  In 2002, there were 20 buildings in the district that were deemed to contribute to its historic character.

The district consists of most of the buildings in the 700 block of Main Street, and is drawn to exclude non-historic buildings.  Contributing buildings include, in order built:
 The Hanna Block at 711 Main St is a 2-story commercial building built in 1871, in Italianate style, with three second-floor windows framed by brick pilasters and round arches. The Hannas operated a cabinet shop which grew into a furniture store and undertaking business.
 The Walker Block at 701-709 Main St is a 3-story brick commercial building built in 1872. It initially housed Austin Walker's general store, Ferguson's dry goods, and Buhre's jewelry store. Upstairs on the third floor was a meeting room called Walker's Hall.
 The Metropolitan Block at 770 Main St is a 3-story commercial block designed by William Le Baron Jenney of Chicago and built in 1874. Its style is a sophisticated Italianate, with Racine pressed brick of different colors, almost hinting of Neoclassical. The building initially housed H.H. Curtis' drug store, a harness shop, a barber shop, a doctor's office, the Geneva Herald newspaper, and a 150-seat lecture hall. It was the premier commercial block in Lake Geneva in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
 The Wachter and Ford Block, also called the Emporium Block, at 736-738 Main St. is a 2-story brick block constructed in 1881-82 in Victorian Italianate style. The iron columns and general design of the street-level storefront are largely intact. Wachter and Ford ran a large dry goods business. By 1900 the building was housing the Farmer's National Bank and Host Brothers Meat Market.
 The Bank of Geneva at 704 Main St is also called the Seymour Block. Its front Italianate section was constructed in 1883, a double-storefront built of cream brick and topped with an elaborate cornice. It was built by E.D. Richardson. His Bank of Geneva initially occupied the east storefront and an express office occupied the west. When E.D. died in 1892, the bank was found to be insolvent, and Henry Rogers' jewelry store rented the bank's space. John Seymour bought the building around 1900 and added a rear section in Classical Revival style around 1907.
 The Hammersley Block at 741 Main St is a 2-story commercial vernacular-style store built in 1885, with a red brick front and a pressed metal cornice. The original street-level storefront was replaced in 1929 with a "modern" one of copper and glass from Brasco Manufacturing of Chicago. W.H. Hammersley ran his drug store in the building until 1905, and successive generations of Hammersleys ran the drug store until the 1980s.
 The Frank Moore Block at 731 Main St was built in 1903, a 2-story commercial vernacular building with Classical Revival details. The front is faced in Bedford limestone. The second-story windows are topped with round-arched transoms. Moore constructed the building for his hardware store.
 The Stannard-Chelini Block at 725-729 Main St is a double-store built for two different owners in 1908 and 1909. The walls are rusticated concrete blocks, topped with a simple classical cornice. Initially, George Stannard ran a barber shop in the west store, and Barney Chelini ran a confectionary and ice cream parlor in the east. During the 20s and 30s, the National Tea Company opened a grocery store in the building. By the 1960s it was a Ben Franklin store. The original street-level storefront was probably replaced with the stainless steel one by one of these later owners.
 The Wisconsin Power and Light Company Building is a Colonial Revival-styled office building, with the street-level clad in red brick and the upper two stories in stucco. The entry is under a large round arches holding a wrought iron fanlight. The building contained offices, a showroom for appliances, a model laundry, and a room for demonstrations, cooking lessons, and meetings. The building was designed by H.V. VonHolst and built 1929-30 by T.S. Willis.

References

Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Wisconsin
Neoclassical architecture in Wisconsin
Italianate architecture in Wisconsin
Geography of Walworth County, Wisconsin
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Wisconsin
National Register of Historic Places in Walworth County, Wisconsin
Lake Geneva, Wisconsin
2002 establishments in Wisconsin

Main Street Historic District (Lake Geneva, Wisconsin)


Sobótka (pronounced  , ) is a town in Wrocław County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. It is the seat of the administrative district (gmina) called Gmina Sobótka. Sobótka is located about  southwest of Wrocław on the northern slope of Mount Ślęża, part of the Central Sudetes mountain range. , the town has a population of 6,981.

History

The area had been settled since prehistoric times, as evidenced by numerous archaeological artefacts, and in the 2nd century BC Mount Ślęża was a religious site of the Celtic Boii tribe, marking a northern outpost of their settlement area.

In 1128, the Polish voivode Piotr Włostowic established an Augustinian monastery on Mount Ślęża which was later moved to Wrocław, while the area remained a property of the Augustinian order. The settlement was first mentioned in an 1148 bull issued by Pope Eugene III as Sabath, the name most likely referring to a weekly Saturday (, ) market. The market rights were confirmed by the Silesian duke Bolesław I the Tall in 1193. His son Duke Henry I the Bearded granted Sobótka town privileges based on the Magdeburg Law in 1221. The location of the city is on the ancient Amber Road and its first role was trade. After the Polish King Casimir III the Great renounced his rights to Silesia in 1348, Sobótka, as part of the Duchy of Świdnica, eventually passed to the Bohemian crown in 1392. King Wenceslaus confirmed Sobótka's town privileges in 1399. The town was again purchased by the Augustinians in 1494.

As part of the Habsburg monarchy the town was devastated by the Thirty Years' War. With most of Silesia it was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1742. King Frederick William III finally secularized the Augustinian territory in 1810. From 1871 to 1945 it was part of Germany.

After the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II the town became part of Poland again, in accordance with the provisions of the Potsdam Agreement.

On December 31, 1959, the village of Strzeblów was included within the town limits.

Sights

The main attraction of the area is the Mount Ślęża, one of the 28 peaks of the Crown of Polish Mountains. The name of the region Silesia comes from the name of that mountain. Now it is under reservation as "Góra Ślęża landscape and geological reservation park". With its 718 m.s.l. is the highest peak of the Sudetes Foreland. Its specific microclimate allows develop of the large species of Fauna and Flora. In ancient time (bronze) it was the Pagan Solar Cult center. The Christianization of the territory begins in the 10th century. The old Tourist House of PTTK and the 19th-century Church of the Visitation of Mary are located at the sight.

There are many touristic paths as well for the pedestrians and for the cyclists. In the oldest house in center of Sobótka there is an archeological museum of Mr. Stanisław Dunajewski showing the large exposition of what was found nearby Ślęża Mountain. Historic sights include the Sobótka-Górka castle, the churches of Saint Anne (XIII/XIV) and Saint Jacob (1738) and the town hall.

Historical names of the city
 1148 – "Sabath"
 1193 – "Sobath"
 1200 – "Sobat"
 1256 – "Czobotha"
 1329 – "Zobota"
 1336 – "Zobotka"
 1343 - "Czoboten"
 1399 - "Czobothen"
 1404 - "Czobotaw"
 1561 - "Zobten"
 1938 - "Zobten am Berge"
 1945 - "Sobótka"

Notable people
 Dieter Grahn (born 1944), German rower
 Tadeusz Dolny (born 1958), retired Polish football player

Twin towns – sister cities
See twin towns of Gmina Sobótka.

References

Cities and towns in Lower Silesian Voivodeship
Wrocław County

Sobótka


Rittmeister Carl Bolle (also as Karl Bolle), PlM, MMC, HOH, IC (20 June 1893 – 9 October 1955), was a fighter ace with 36 aerial victories during World War I. He became a Jagdstaffel commander during that war, and an advisor to the Luftwaffe during World War II.

Life before flying

Karl Bolle was born in Berlin on 20 June 1893, to a family owning a well-known dairy. He studied economics at The University of Oxford in 1912, and was also well known for his athletic prowess, playing ice hockey while there.

He returned home to Germany to enlist as a leutnant (lieutenant) in the 7th (Magdeburg) Cuirassiers "von Seydlitz"  Regiment in 1913 as a one-year volunteer. At the start of World War I his regiment served on the Western Front, fighting in Belgium and the First Battle of the Marne. It was then transferred to the Eastern Front; Bolle seeing action in Poland and in Courland in Latvia. By the end of 1915, Bolle had won an award for bravery, the Iron Cross, Second Class and transferred to the Luftstreitkräfte.

Aerial service in World War I

He undertook his initial training at Johannistal, then was forwarded to Fliegerersatz-Abteilung 5 in Hannover, Germany. Later he trained to become a fighter pilot at Valenciennes, France, at Jastaschule I. The standard German practice was to be trained initially and serve initially in a two-seater unit, in this case Kampfgeschwader der Oberste Heeresleitung IV, and then later transfer for training as a fighter pilot at a Jastaschule where they would be closely tutored by experts with frontline experience. They also had access to captured British and French fighters to familiarize themselves with their opponent's aircraft.

At any rate, upon completion, he was assigned to the bombing group Kampfgeschwader der Oberste Heeresleitung IV in July 1916.

Bolle was wounded in October, 1916 in combat with five French fighters. He crash landed within friendly lines and despite his own injury dragged his injured observer safely out of the shell-fire directed at their downed aircraft.

Upon his recovery, he had been assigned to Kampfstaffel 23 of Kampfgeschwader der Oberste Heeresleitung IV; Lothar von Richthofen was assigned as his observer/gunner. It was about this time that Bolle was awarded the Kingdom of Württemberg's 2nd Class Knight's Cross of the Friedrich Order. He was the only fighter ace to win this award.

Bolle went to Jastaschule (fighter pilot's training) in early 1917. He joined Jagdstaffel 28 in April 1917, while still recuperating from a leg wound. While assigned as a non-flying adjutant, he began tutelage on the fighter pilot's craft with two aces, Karl Emil Schaefer and Otto Hartmann, as well as Bolle's friend, Max Ritter von Müller.

In July he commenced operational flying with Jagdstaffel 28. His first victory was over an Airco DH.4 of No. 57 Squadron RFC on 8 August 1917. He scored once more in August and victories in December 1917 and January 1918 made him an ace by 30 January.

Bolle in command

He was then promoted to Oberleutnant and transferred to command Jagdstaffel 2 on 20 February 1918 at Marcke, France. This was the squadron that Oswald Boelcke had commanded as he invented the first fighter tactics, strategy, and organization. It was being re-equipped with Fokker Dr.I triplanes as it was being incorporated into Jagdgeschwader 3. It was a dispirited squadron, having lost three consecutive Pour le Mérite holding commanding officers killed in action. Bolle was destined to be the final commander of Jagdstaffel 2.

Despite seemingly modest credentials, Bolle set his mark upon the squadron. The Fokker Dr.I triplane supplied was a plane of limited speed but great maneuverability and climb rate. Its slower speed made it more difficult to close to short distance for gunnery against faster fighters. Bolle's solution was the use of an Oigee telescopic sight for his guns. He also painted distinctive white stripes on his upper wings, to denote his leadership role, along with a yellow fuselage band edged by black and white to honor his old cavalry regiment.

Bolle's command of English turned out to be handy upon occasion, when he questioned downed British Empire fliers.

He opened his tally with Jagdstaffel 2 on 25 April 1918, as part of a huge air offensive launched to support ground assault on Kemmel Ridge. He then began a steady collection of single and double victories, with five in May, seven in June, nine in July and three in August. In August, 1918, when he had scored 28 victories, he received the Military Merit Cross, and the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern; the Pour le Mérite (commonly known as the Blue Max) was bestowed on the 28th.

Bolle did not score again until 1 November. On 4 November, he downed four Allied fighters: two RAF SE.5as of 56 Squadron RAF and two Sopwith Snipes of 4 Squadron, Australian Flying Corps. The Snipes (claimed with Leut.Ernst Bormann) were flown by aces Captain Thomas Baker (12 victories) and Lt. A. J. Palliser (7). These were Bolle's final victories.

A week later, he and his pilots defiantly marked their Fokker D.VIIs with their names and victory scores before surrendering them into British hands at Nivelles, Belgium.

Bolle's final score of 36 victories included a preponderance of wins over enemy fighters; he downed 25. The other 11 victories were two-seater reconnaissance, ground attack, and bomber aircraft. More importantly, he led Jagdstaffel 2 through the intense battles of 1918 to the second highest victory total in the German Air Force, with a total of 336 victories to the Jasta.

Post World War I
After war's end, he became a flying instructor. He also became the Director of the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule (German Air Transport School) in the 1920s. Subsequently, he helped in the covert training of pilots for the Luftwaffe.

During World War II, he served as an advisor with the Luftwaffe, reporting to Hermann Göring.

Karl Bolle died in his native city of Berlin on 9 October 1955.

Honors and awards
 Kingdom of Prussia's Pour le Mérite: 28 August 1918
 Knight's Cross with Swords of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern: August 1918
 Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin's Military Merit Cross with Swords: August 1918
 Prussian Iron Cross First Class
 Prussian Iron Cross Second Class: 1915
 Kingdom of Württemberg's Friedrich Order, Knight Second Class with Swords

Sources of information

References
 Franks, Norman; Bailey, Frank W.; Guest, Russell. Above the Lines: The Aces and Fighter Units of the German Air Service, Naval Air Service and Flanders Marine Corps, 1914–1918. Grub Street, 1993. , .
 Franks, Norman, et al. Fokker Dr.I Aces of World War I. 2001, Osprey Publishing. , .
 Franks, Norman; VanWyngarden, Greg. Fokker D VII Aces of World War 1. Osprey Publishing, 2003. , .
 VanWyngarden, Greg, et al. Jagdstaffel 2 Boelcke. 2007, Osprey Publishing. , .

External links
 Directart.co.uk Accessed 14 September 2008

1893 births
1955 deaths
Alumni of the University of Oxford
German World War I flying aces
Luftstreitkräfte personnel
Military personnel from Berlin
Prussian Army personnel
Recipients of the Military Merit Cross (Mecklenburg-Schwerin)
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)
Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 1st class

Karl Bolle (flying ace)


Clarence Bouma (November 30, 1891 in Harlingen, Friesland – August 12, 1962 in Grand Rapids, Michigan) was a theologian and professor at Calvin Theological Seminary.

Early life and education
Bouma was born Klaas Bouma in the Netherlands in 1891 as the son of Doeke Bouma and Trijntje de Jong. The family immigrated to the United States in May 1905.  He earned his A.B. (1917) at Calvin College, and his B.D. (1918) at Princeton Seminary, where he was awarded the Gelston-Winthrop Fellowship in Apologetics. He went on to earn his A.M. (1919) from Princeton University, and his Th.D. (1921) from Harvard Divinity School.

Academic career
After briefly serving as a pastor in the Summer Street Christian Reformed Church in Passaic, New Jersey, Bouma joined the faculty at Calvin Theological Seminary in 1924. His first role was as Chair of Dogmatics, but shortly thereafter moved to a new role as Chair of Apologetics and Ethics. He was succeeded in Dogmatics by Louis Berkhof, author of Systematic Theology. In 1935, he became the editor of The Calvin Forum, and continued to serve in that role the rest of his career. Bouma also served for one semester in 1940 as visiting professor at Gordon College and Divinity School. He was a member of the Reformed Ecumenical Synods of 1946 and 1949.

Throughout his tenure, Bouma opposed liberal and modernist movements in Christianity, and became a key member in the mid-twentieth century development of American evangelicalism. Bouma was influential in the 1942 formation of the National Association of Evangelicals,  and in 1949 was elected the first president of the Evangelical Theological Society.

Health decline and death
The conflict between traditional and progressive theologies escalated in 1951 to the point that Bouma suffered a "nervous breakdown that left him in a psychiatric hospital for the ten remaining years of his life." He died on August 12, 1962, survived at the time by his wife.

Publications
Theism and Personalism (1921) Harvard Divinity School (doctoral thesis)
A Theological Bibliography (1925) Grand Rapids Printing Company
The Word of God and the Reformed Faith Addresses delivered at the 2nd American Calvinistic Conference, editor (1943) Baker Book House
Calvinism in Times of Crisis with G. Charles Aalders, Gerrit C. Berkouwer, Stephanus du Toit, and H.G. Stoker, editors (1947) Baker Book House

God-Centered Living: or, Calvinism in Action, a Symposium by Calvinistic Action Committee, introduction by Clarence Bouma (1951) Baker Book House

References

1891 births
1962 deaths
20th-century American theologians
20th-century evangelicals
Calvin University alumni
Dutch emigrants to the United States
Evangelical theologians
Harvard Divinity School alumni
People from Harlingen, Netherlands
Princeton Theological Seminary alumni
Princeton University alumni

Clarence Bouma


Radio Futura was a  Spanish pop rock group. They rose to become one of the most popular bands in Spain during the 1980s and early 1990s. In 1989 they were voted the best Spanish act of the 1980s.

The beginnings
In 1979, painter, amateur singer and synthesizer experimenter Herminio Molero approached some of his acquaintances in order to form a pop-rock band. The final selection included the Auserón brothers, Luis and Santiago (who wrote reviews at the time in a music magazine under the name 'Corazones Automáticos'), Enrique Sierra (guitar player from Kaka de Luxe) and percussionist Javier Pérez Grueso. They got their name Radio Futura ("Future Radio") from an Italian independent radio station.

Herminio Molero contributed with his fusion of electronic and traditional music to the style of the group while Enrique Sierra added a punk touch. The band soon became one of the iconic images of what came to be known as la Movida madrileña. After months of rehearsing and some live performances they published -helped by Molero's contacts in the music industry- their first album Música Moderna in 1980, which yielded them an unexpected success with their single Enamorado de la moda juvenil (later on, the band's remaining core trio would say that they did not recognize themselves in this first record)

Molero and Pérez soon abandoned the group due to disagreements on the concept of their music, which left the band as a trio formed by Santiago Auserón (frontman, lyrics, guitar, vocals), Luis Auserón (bass guitar) and Enrique Sierra (guitar).

These three completed the line up in 1981 by recruiting drummer Carlos Velázquez, known as Solrac, who had already participated in the first album. After what had been a rather impromptu and basically amateur record, the new line up decided to take on a professional approach in their music career and get rid of their initial aura of "media pampered one hit wonder boys".

The Quartet: a growing band
In 1981 they recorded the single "La estatua del jardín botánico", whose music video was one of the first ever produced in Spain, soon followed by "Dance usted", the former gave them a cult hit, with the latter they introduced what they described as a "funky-punky" sound virtually unknown in Spain by that time.

"La Ley del Desierto, la Ley del Mar"
The band had to strive to get rid from their contract with their original record company, Hispavox (nowadays a part of EMI, itself, due to EMI's regional offices being part of the Parlophone group, now part of Warner Music Group) since it desired to keep for their second album the same whimsical or mainstream touch of their first record, while the band's new line up had decided to break free from the fad and amateuresque touch of their first record, and devote themselves to developing a long term career.

They finally reached an agreement with their former record company and got signed for Ariola (part of BMG, itself now a part of Sony Music). During these months they had built a repertoire of several songs, which they played live, waiting for the record deal to release their second album. This was finally possible in 1984, when La ley del desierto, la ley del mar, a double album, came out. A few years had passed from their first release and this interim helped the band to leave behind the echoes of their impromptu and whimsical, yet successful, debut album. At the same time, the hiatus allowed the band to work intensively on their new songs, which they self produced.

This their second album, whose sound was completely different from their debut, became another unexpected commercial success, with the hit single "Escuela de calor".  Tracks included in this record such as "Semilla Negra" introduced the first hints of what would soon become their signature contribution: Latin rock based on a highly intellectualized basis (front man Santiago Auserón holds a degree in Philosophy and is known for lengthy answers in flourishing vocabulary) but, notwithstanding, aimed at the streets and addressed to the general populace; this popular turn became the standard in Spain after them, but was a virtually unknown territory back in the day when Radio Futura started defining its boundaries.

De un País en Llamas
Since the tour of La Ley del Desierto, La Ley del Mar had actually taken place before its actual release, it only took them one year to finish, in 1985, their next record De un país en llamas, a risky, stark and somewhat baroque new studio album recorded in London (an unusual choice for a Spanish band back in the day, due to a series of reasons -budget too). The album reads close to a concept album (starting with La ley del Desierto, la Ley del Mar, the band seemed to enjoy producing cohesive albums with some sort of internal leit motiv).

De un País en Llamas represented a big leap from its predecessor: it revolved around a punk attitude but, at the same time, it saw the band finally leaving behind their amateur times. Their record company provided a decent budget for the recording sessions, which allowed a state-of-the-art production and, with it, technical innovations and music effects new to the Spanish musical scene back then handled by producers Duncan Bridgeman and he who was to become their longtime musical companion and, in Santiago Auserón's words, some sort of a fourth band member in the dark: Jo Dworniak, both members of the band I-Level.

They also remixed their previous "Semilla Negra", increasing its Latin cadence and creating another cult pop song. The band was willing to explore a more Latin style in the fashion of songs like their own "El Tonto Simón" and drummer Solrac, who opposed this direction, abandoned the group in 1986.

Quintet: La Canción de Juan Perro
By 1986, the band was looking for new textures for their music, more clear arrangements and a rhythm section leaning towards Latin sounds while keeping a rock attitude. Once the drummer position was filled with Carlos Torero, an additional fifth member was also recruited: Pedro Navarrete, at the keyboards, innovating this position in the band.

This new three core members plus two session musicians line-up gathered at Sigma Sound recording studio (owned back then by the Talking Heads) in New York City at the end of 1986 (that was, possibly, the first time that a Spanish band recorded in New York). Again, Jo Dworniak was in charge of production. The band delivered La Canción de Juan Perro, released in May 1987.

The record is characterized by a much more organic approach than its predecessor, from which it marked a new departure; their musical evolution brought to the band international hit singles such as "37 grados and "A Cara o Cruz". It aimed to get closer to the traditional sources of Spanish popular music, the hiring of a horns section (The Uptown Horns) for the recording sessions being probably the most clear statement of the new musical direction taken. The New York sessions are recalled by the band as their finest. The record had a good response and became their biggest seller to date. In retrospect, La Canción de Juan Perro is now considered, by the band and critics alike, as Radio Futura's finest effort. It is also credited for establishing in Spain the virtually unknown formulations of a Latin Rock based on standard Anglo Saxon pop-rock but, at the same time, deeply rooted in Spanish popular music, while striving for renovation at the same time. Santiago Auserón said regarding this record "we want the best with this record. We want to lay the foundations of Hispanic Rock"; the critic wrote regarding La Canción de Juan Perro: "it is not only a masterpiece of our domestic rock but it contains the entire musical landscape sung in Spanish during the last decades". The particular sound crafted in "La Canción de Juan Perro" was to become, later on, the touchstone of the Spanish musical scene. Also, beginning with this record, Santiago Auserón gave renewed importance to the lyrics, he has since become one of the finest lyricists in Spanish, earnestly using and renovating popular terms which had gone partially out of fashion.

Soon after the supporting tour for "La Canción de Juan Perro" started, Enrique Sierra was diagnosed with polycystic kidney disease and had to be temporary replaced by another newly hired session musician: Javier Monforte.

Sextet and live album
By 1988, Enrique Sierra had overcome his health problems but the band decided to keep Javier Monforte as an additional guitar player, thus turning the band into a sextet (in the meantime, drummer Carlos Torero had been replaced by Óscar Quesada).

There was not any new LP scheduled for 1988 but the band toured instead and, in the meantime, released a new maxi-single, "Paseo con la Negra Flor", which is basically a new studio take of their song "La Negra Flor" (included in La Canción de Juan Perro), including features of what had been its growth as a song when performed live. The new single included a spoken word section which represented, once again, a big novelty in the Spanish musical scene.

La Canción de Juan Perro marked a success in the band's career, yet, following the suggestion of the label to compensate the relatively high budget (for a Spanish 1980s band) spent in NYC, the last two concerts of the tour were recorded, mixed and released by beginning 1989 as Radio Futura's only live album: Escuela de Calor which became a big seller.

Once the live album was released, the sextet disbanded and the remaining core trio planned what was going to be their last studio LP.

Veneno en la Piel, mass success and last releases
In 1989, the band hit the road again for a tour. Again Enrique Sierra fell ill and was temporarily replaced by Ollie Halsall. The band was finally back in a studio by the end of the year with a new line up (Antonio Vázquez takes in the drums and Halsall was kept along with Enrique Sierra, whom the Auserón brothers waited on until he was recovered for the sessions). Also in 1989, the band is elected by popular vote as the best Spanish band of the 1980s.

By January 1990 they had completed what came to be their last studio LP, entitled Veneno en la piel. The self-produced album remained faithful to the Latin Rock its predecessor had defined, with no major style changes other than an even more basic or "clean" sound.

The album went straight to #1 in the charts and stayed there for weeks; prodded by their record company, the band took on their biggest live tour to date. On Sept. 30th, 1990, the band closed it in Madrid with what was going to be their last live performance as a band.

By the time the tour was finished, the band members had grown weary of the musical business and the enormous amounts of money generated around the band, with no precedent in the Spanish indie pop-rock scene. Having achieved notoriority and an almost uncontested lead in the Spanish pop-rock scene (only challenged by the synth-pop oriented trio Mecano), and also influenced by Enrique Sierra's health problems and Halsall's death due to an overdose in 1992, they decided it was time to disband at the height of their careers before the music industry devoured their creativity as artists.

Remixing, compilations and tribute records
Still the band was forced by contractual ties to make a further record. To fulfil this obligation, in 1992 they went into the studio again with Dworniak to produce Tierra para bailar a record which includes new takes of old songs and a brand new one (El puente azul) which became their last original recording. With this one, their record deal with Ariola was finished and so too the band, as they had decided not to tour to support this record.

After they disbanded, there have been a number of rarities, compilations and tribute records, such as Rarezas (a rarities record part of a box released in 1992 including their whole discography).
Then Memoria del porvenir was released six years after, in 1998, as a new compilation with different takes and re-recordings by the own band of some of their classics. In 2003, there was a final compilation in box format Caja de canciones which intends to be an ultimate luxury compilation aimed at the fan base including all of the band productions.

A Greatest Hits special edition was released in 2004 under the name Lo mejor de Radio Futura: Paisajes eléctricos (1982-1992). Also in 2004 appeared the tribute record Arde la calle. Un tributo a Radio Futura including covers of the band's hits by a selection of contemporary bands and artists from the Spanish speaking world. In 2008, "Escuela De Calor" was featured in Guitar Hero: World Tour.

Former members
Santiago Auserón - guitar, vocals, lyrics (1979-1992)
Luis Auserón - bass guitar, backing vocals (1979-1992)
Enrique Sierra - guitar (1979-1987, 1988-1989, 1989-1992; died 2012)
Herminio Molero - vocals (1979-1980)
Javier Pérez Grueso - drums (1979-1980)
Carlos "Solrac" Velázquez - drums (1981-1986)
Carlos Torero - drums (1986-1988)
Pedro Navarrete - keyboards (1986-1992)
Javier Monforte - guitars (1987-1992)
Óscar Quesada - drums (1988-1989)
Ollie Halsall - guitar (1989-1992; died 1992)
Antonio Vázquez - drums (1989-1992)

Discography

Albums
Música moderna (Emi-Hispavox, 1980)
La ley del desierto, la ley del mar (RCA, 1984)
De un país en llamas (RCA, 1985)
La Canción de Juan Perro (RCA, 1987)
Escuela de calor. El directo de Radio Futura (RCA, 1989; live album)
Veneno en la piel (RCA, 1990)
Tierra para bailar (RCA, 1991; the band remixing some of their own songs)
Memoria del porvenir (the band re-recording some of their own hits 1998)

Compilation albums
Caja de canciones (includes all their records with RCA and a Rarities album) (RCA, 2003)
Lo Mejor de Radio Futura: Paisajes Eléctricos (1982-1992) (2004)

Tribute albums
Arde la Calle. Un Tributo a Radio Futura (2004)

References

External links
  Unofficial fan site
 La Huella Sonora is the recording studio of Santiago and Luis Auserón, the site includes info, pics and downloads from both their Radio Futura and solo careers
 Interview. Universidad Internacional Menéndez Pelayo (UIMP)2009, Santander, Spain
La Transición y su doble. El rock y Radio Futura by Cristina Tango. The first analysis on the importance of Radio Futura in the Spanish rock. With an interview with Santiago Auserón, the band's frontman.
  Radio Futura all records

Rock en Español music groups
Spanish musical groups
Musical groups from Madrid
Spanish pop music groups
Musical groups established in 1980
Ariola Records artists

Radio Futura


Eva Elin Rombo, née Karlsson (born 29 January 1976), is a Swedish operatic soprano. In November 2013 she was named Hovsångerska.

Biography
Rombo grew up in a musical family in Katrineholm and studied at the esthetics program at  in Norrköping. She then continued her education in Canada at Brandon University, and at Operahögskolan i Stockholm (University College of Opera) where she graduated in 2003. During her studies, she made her stage debut at the Royal Swedish Opera (Kungliga Operan) in Stockholm as Christa in Janáčeks The Makropulos Affair.

After graduation, she had the female lead role as Ingrid in 's 2004 opera after Selma Lagerlöf's novel The Tale of a Manor (En herrgårdssägen) at , and as Euridice in Offenbach's Orpheus in the Underworld at the Folkoperan. At the Royal Swedish Opera, she performed as Barbarina and Susanna in Mozart's Le nozze di Figaro, the First Lady in his Die Zauberflöte, Frasquita in Bizet's Carmen, Sister Blanche in Poulenc's Dialogues of the Carmelites, Musette in Puccini's La bohème, and Donna Elivra in Mozart's Don Giovanni.

Rombo performed several roles at the Frankfurt Opera, amongst others as Servilia in Mozart's La clemenza di Tito, Clorinda in Rossini's La Cenerentola, Pamina in Die Zauberflöte and Corinna in Rossini's Il viaggio a Reims. In the summer of 2009, she made her debut at the Salzburg Festival in the lead role of Luigi Nono's Al gran sole carico d'amore. She then worked at the Berlin State Opera in Bernstein's Candide.

In 2010, she was a soloist in Brahms' A German Requiem with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. She had the lead role as Agnès in George Benjamin's Written on Skin at the Dutch National Opera in Amsterdam. Rombo performed in SVT's broadcast of the christenings of Princess Estelle and Prince Oscar and at the jubilee concert for the celebration of King Carl Gustaf's 40 years on the Swedish throne. She also performed at the 2014 Polar Music Prize. Rombo played Sister Blanche in Poulenc's Dialogues of the Carmelites in a 2011 production at the Royal Swedish Opera.

In 2010, Rombo became the first person to receive the Schymberg Scholarship award, a scholarship established in memory of Hjördis Schymberg. The scholarship included a prize of 25,000 Swedish krona.

Discography
 Title role in Johann Strauss' operetta , Stockholm Strauss Orchestra conducted by Valéria Csányi. Naxos 8.660227-28. (2 CDs).
 2nd high soprano in Wolfgang Rihm's Dionysos, Deutsches Symphonie-Orchester Berlin conducted by Ingo Metzmacher. DVD. Euro Arts 2072608.

References

External links

Living people
1976 births
Swedish operatic sopranos
People from Katrineholm Municipality
Brandon University alumni
University College of Opera alumni
21st-century Swedish  women opera singers

Elin Rombo


Claude Thornhill (August 10, 1908 – July 1, 1965) was an American pianist, arranger, composer, and bandleader. He composed the jazz and pop standards "Snowfall" and "I Wish I Had You".

Early years
Thornhill was the son of J. Chester Thornhill and his wife, Maude. When he was 11 years old, he played piano professionally. While still a youth, he played with two local combos. As a student at Garfield High School in Terre Haute, he played with several theater bands. Thornhill entered the Cincinnati Conservatory of Music at the age of 16. He also studied at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia.

Career
As a youth, he was recognized as an extraordinary talent and formed a traveling duo with Danny Polo, a musical prodigy on the clarinet and trumpet from nearby Clinton, Indiana.

He and clarinetist Artie Shaw started their careers at the Golden Pheasant in Cleveland, Ohio, with the Austin Wylie Orchestra. Thornhill and Shaw went to New York together in 1931. Thornhill went to the West Coast in the late 1930s with the Bob Hope Radio Show and arranged for Judy Garland in Babes in Arms. In 1935, he played on sessions with Glenn Miller, including "Solo Hop", which was released on Columbia Records. He also played with Paul Whiteman, Benny Goodman, Ray Noble, and Billie Holiday. He arranged "Loch Lomond" and "Annie Laurie" for Maxine Sullivan.

During the mid-1930s, Thornhill arranged and played piano for Andre Kostelanetz.

In 1939, he founded the Claude Thornhill Orchestra. Polo was his lead clarinet player. Although the Thornhill band was a sophisticated dance band, it became known for its superior jazz musicians and for Thornhill's and Gil Evans's arrangements. The band played without vibrato, so that the timbres of the instruments could be better appreciated. Thornhill encouraged the musicians to develop cool-sounding tones. The band was popular with both musicians and the public. Miles Davis's Birth of the Cool nonet was modeled in part on Thornhill's sound and unconventional instrumentation. The band's most successful records were "Snowfall", "A Sunday Kind of Love", and "Love for Love".

Thornhill was playing at the Paramount Theater in New York for $10,000 a week when he enlisted in the U.S. Navy as an apprentice seaman on October 26, 1942. As chief musician, he performed shows across the Pacific Theater with Jackie Cooper as his drummer and Dennis Day as his vocalist.

In 1946, he was discharged from the Navy and reunited his ensemble. Polo, Gerry Mulligan, and Barry Galbraith returned with new members, Red Rodney, Lee Konitz, Joe Shulman, and Bill Barber. Thornhill and his orchestra played for the Judy, Jill and Johnny variety program on radio on the Mutual Broadcasting System in 1946–1947.

In 1957, Thornhill became Tony Bennett's musical director. He offered his big band library to Gerry Mulligan when Mulligan formed the Concert Jazz Band, but Mulligan declined the gift, since his instrumentation was different. A large portion of his extensive library of music is currently held by Drury University in Springfield, Missouri.

Thornhill died of a heart attack in Caldwell, New Jersey, at the age of 56. In 1984, he was posthumously inducted into the Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame.

Compositions

Thornhill's compositions included the standard "Snowfall", "I Wish I Had You", recorded by Billie Holiday and Fats Waller, "Let's Go", "Shore Road", "Portrait of a Guinea Farm", "Lodge Podge", "Rustle of Spring", "It's Time for Us to Part", "It Was a Lover and His Lass", "The Little Red Man", "Memory of an Island", and a big band arrangement of the folk song "Where Has My Little Dog Gone?"

Cover versions of "Snowfall"
Thornhill's 1941 piano composition "Snowfall", later had lyrics written by his wife, Ruth Thornhill. It has been recorded in vocal and non-vocal versions by the following artists:

 Doris Day
 Singers Unlimited
 Tony Bennett
 BBC Big Band
 Chris Connor
 Henry Mancini
 Wes Montgomery
 Kenny Poole and Gene Bertoncini
 Helen Merrill
 Avalanches
 Richie Cole with Hank Crawford
 Eddie South
 Glenn Miller and His Orchestra
 Glen Gray and the Casa Loma Orchestra
 Enoch Light and the Light Brigade
 Esquivel
 Billy Vaughn
 George Shearing
 Pete Rugolo
 John Williams and the Boston Pops
 Skitch Henderson and Bucky Pizzarelli
 Ramsey Lewis Trio
 Michael Fortunato
 Dick Hyman
 Jackie Gleason
 Four Freshmen
 Eddie Davis
 Ted Heath
 Mike Horsfall
 Paul Plimley
 Emily Remler
 Steve Hall
  Manhattan Transfer
 Cafe Accordion Orchestra
 Howard Alden and Bucky Pizzarelli
 Ahmad Jamal
 Liz Story
 NRBQ
 John Zorn
 The Monkees

References

External links
Claude Thornhill biography by Christopher Popa

1908 births
1965 deaths
Cool jazz pianists
Sweet band musicians
Big band bandleaders
American jazz pianists
American male pianists
American jazz bandleaders
American music arrangers
People from Caldwell, New Jersey
RCA Victor artists
People from Terre Haute, Indiana
Musicians from Indiana
Musicians from New Jersey
Musicians from New Rochelle, New York
United States Navy personnel of World War II
20th-century American pianists
Jazz musicians from New York (state)
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
United States Navy sailors

Claude Thornhill


William A. Harris Garden is a .11-acre city-owned community garden in the Sugar Hill section of the Harlem neighborhood in New York City. It is located on the northwest corner of West 153rd Street and St. Nicholas Avenue.

For nearly a century after surrounding lots were developed, this property remained untouched because it sat atop the route of the Croton Aqueduct that has provided water to the city since 1838. The aqueduct brought water to Manhattan via the High Bridge, from there flowing through underground channels beneath St. Nicholas Avenue and Amsterdam Avenue on its way to the reservoirs of Central Park and Bryant Park.

In 1979, Sugar Hill resident William A. Harris (19212011) started a community garden in an empty lot at the corner of St. Nicholas Avenue and West 153rd Street.

A native of Bracey, Virginia, Harris relocated to New York after completing his army service during World War II. A 30-year veteran of the New York City Department of Sanitation, where he was a foreman. Harris encouraged local youths to volunteer in cleaning up the undeveloped lot.
The William A. Harris Garden is a focal point for a community. As the years passed, Harris planted more and more, and the small corner soon turned into a green patch, eventually blossoming into a thriving community garden overflowing with vegetables and flowers. Currently managed by his daughters, the garden has become a community treasure. Neighbors and community members of all ages chip in to help plant, water, and care for the plants. Although the garden sits atop the city's water supply, the water used for maintaining the garden comes through natural means by a tank that stores nearly 1,000 gallons collected from the rooftop of the adjacent Kinghaven apartment building. The tank was installed in 2011 by members and volunteers of Green Apple Corps, under the supervision of GROWNYC.

See also

 Community Gardens in New York City
 Community gardening in the United States

References

Harlem
Parks in Manhattan
Community gardening in New York City

William A. Harris Garden


Andrei Eduardovich Chesnokov (; born 2 February 1966) is a former professional tennis player from Russia.

Career
Chesnokov's highest singles ranking was World No. 9 in 1991.  The biggest tournament victories of his career came at the Monte Carlo Open in 1990, and at the Canadian Open in 1991 (both Tennis Masters Series events).

Chesnokov's best performance at a Grand Slam event came at the French Open in 1989, where he reached the semi-finals by eliminating Pablo Arraya, Jonas Svensson, Carl-Uwe Steeb, Jim Courier and the defending champion Mats Wilander in straight sets in the quarterfinals.  He was eliminated by the eventual champion Michael Chang in four sets.

The most famous match in Chesnokov's career took place on 24 September 1995 in the semi-final of the 1995 Davis Cup against Germany. In the fifth set of the final deciding match of the semi-final, playing against Michael Stich, Chesnokov saved nine match points before emerging the winner, the final score being: 6–4, 1–6, 1–6, 6–3, 14–12. The next day President of Russia Boris Yeltsin awarded Chesnokov with Order of Courage.

During his career, Chesnokov won seven top-level singles titles and earned prize-money totalling US$3,084,188. He retired from the professional tour in 1999, even if the last full year on tour was 1995 and from 1996 on he played only a few tournaments.

On 20 November 2005, during a visit to Dnipropetrovsk (Ukraine), he was shot twice with rubber bullets after a quarrel in a restaurant with two unidentified men.

As a sixteen-year-old Chesnokov was one of those present at the UEFA Cup match between FC Spartak Moscow and HFC Haarlem during which the Luzhniki disaster happened. He was an honorary member of the committee that organized a benefit match for the victims between Spartak Moscow and Haarlem, that took place on October 20, 2007.

Chesnokov is currently coaching Elena Vesnina.

In 2013, Chesnokov, whose mother was Jewish, who carried the last name Litvinova, celebrated his bar mitzvah in France.

Legacy
Chesnokov has always been outspoken about the Soviet system as a crucial reason for his less triumphant career. In February 2021, considering the fact of a higher level of availability of tennis to the general audience of citizens in the USSR, if compared to modern Russia, he stated: "Formally it was more available. But we had nothing. No balls, no racquets, no tennis shoes. You could count indoor courts on one hand. As a teenager, I could train on the court only 3 hours a week, and in winter I played mostly hockey. I think, if I was not born in the USSR I would have achieved more in tennis." In September 2021, he continued by declaring there was absolutely nothing good in the Soviet rule.

Career finals

Singles (7 titles, 8 runners-up)

Performance timelines

Singles

1986 Goodwill Games singles matches

References

External links

1966 births
Hopman Cup competitors
Living people
Jewish tennis players
Olympic tennis players for the Soviet Union
Olympic tennis players for the Unified Team
Russian male tennis players
Russian Jews
Soviet male tennis players
Tennis players from Moscow
Tennis players at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Goodwill Games medalists in tennis
Competitors at the 1986 Goodwill Games
Russian tennis coaches
Friendship Games medalists in tennis
Recipients of the Order of Courage (Russia)

Andrei Chesnokov


Zdeněk Dvořák (born April 26, 1981) is a Czech mathematician specializing in graph theory.

Dvořák was born in Nové Město na Moravě.
He competed on the Czech national team in the 1999 International Mathematical Olympiad, and in the same year in the International Olympiad in Informatics, where he won a gold medal. He earned his Ph.D. in 2007 from Charles University in Prague, under the supervision of Jaroslav Nešetřil. He remained as a research fellow at Charles University until 2010, and then did postdoctoral studies at the Georgia Institute of Technology and Simon Fraser University. He then returned to the Computer Science Institute (IUUK) of Charles University, obtained his habilitation in 2012, and has been a full professor there since 2022.

He was one of three winners of the 2015 European Prize in Combinatorics, "for his fundamental contributions to graph theory, in particular for his work on structural aspects of graph theory, including solutions to Havel's 1969 problem and the Heckman–Thomas 14/5 problem on fractional colourings of cubic triangle-free graphs. This refers to two different results of Dvořák:
Havel's conjecture is a strengthening of Grötzsch's theorem. It states that there exists a constant d such that, if a planar graph has no two triangles within distance d of each other, then it can be colored with three colors. A proof of this conjecture of Havel was announced by Dvořák and his co-authors in 2009.
C. C. Heckman and Robin Thomas conjectured in 2001 that triangle-free graphs of maximum degree three have fractional chromatic number at most 14/5. A proof was announced by Dvořák and his co-authors in 2013 and published by them in 2014.

References

External links
Home page

1981 births
Living people
Czech mathematicians
Graph theorists
Charles University alumni
Academic staff of Charles University

Zdeněk Dvořák


Waldo Emmerson Sexton  (23 March 1885 – 28 December 1967) was an entrepreneur whose enterprises have attracted visitors to Vero Beach, Florida, since the 1930s and remain of value to the community, industry, tourists, artists, historians and horticulturalists. He was named to the list of Great Floridians by the Florida Department of State for his agricultural contributions.

Biography

Early life
Waldo E. Sexton was born in Shelbyville, Indiana, to Isaac Sexton and Sarah Ann Buckingham. He was the youngest male out of the couple's five children. He was the first man from Morrow Township to attend high school, which he did in the county seat at Shelbyville High School.

After initially attending Indiana University for medicine, Sexton decided becoming a physician was not for him after his first attempt at autopsying a cadaver. He transferred to Purdue University College of Agriculture, where he met John Wheeler. He was initiated into the Indiana Alpha chapter of Phi Delta Theta on September 28, 1906. During college, Sexton sold aluminum cooking utensils and later collected commission off of the sales of the men he recruited, including his first cousin Walter Buckingham in 1909.  Additionally he worked for the university's extension department during the summers and put himself through school.  He also made money by purchasing fraternity pins from local pawn shops and selling them to fraternity members on campus.

After he graduated in 1911, Sexton moved to Barberton, Ohio, and was briefly involved in the rubber industry. Sexton later moved to Cleveland, Ohio, and began working as a traveling salesman for an agricultural tillage equipment supplier, where he met Pittsburgh native and attorney Charles "Charlie" H McKee who was financing the company. In 1913 the family suffered a loss when his brother William Avery Sexton, a police officer in Columbus Ohio, drowned while assisting the town during the
March 13th flood.

Agriculture
His work as a deep tillage machine salesman brought him to the area that would eventually be known as Vero Beach, Florida, in 1914 to perform a demonstration on a local farm. Due to a late arriving expense check from his company, he stayed a few extra days at the Sleepy Eye Lodge which gave him time to get to know the area. He decided to buy a forty-acre tract of land and proceeded to buy the two neighboring 40-acre tracts during the following days. With $500 left in his pocket and at the advice of Dr. Leroy Hutchinson, Sexton limited his initial investment to 120 acres.

That year he took a sales agent position with the Indian River Farms Company. The company was working on excavating the drainage system that drained the wetlands of the area and created prime agricultural land. Sexton was charged with the company's Cleveland, Ohio based office and organized numerous prospect trips via rail car from Cincinnati, Ohio to the area. During this time, Charles H McKee stopped by the area on his way to his Palm Beach honeymoon. He and his wife, Clara, stayed at the Sleepy Eye Lodge where he met Sexton. Before leaving, Charles purchased 1000 acres of land. When he died the following year, his cousin and Cleveland engineer Arthur McKee bought out his holdings.

Considered an independent citrus grower by 1917 for having planted 10,000 trees, he went on to marry Elsebeth Martens the following year in 1918. His citrus related activities included operating a grove maintenance company, a cooperative packinghouse, and founding the Indian River Citrus League. He also started a cattle ranch, dairy farm, and insurance agency and developed three varieties of avocados. That same year, he and business partner Arthur G. McKee purchased 80 acres of hammock land along the Indian River Lagoon that would eventually become the McKee Jungle Garden. The land was initially purchased in an attempt to save the area from development into residential or citrus groves as well as to explore their own collection of rare flora and fauna and test the commercial validity of various plants including ramie and rubber trees.

He started the Oslo Packing Company with his first cousin  Walter Buckingham. The company incorporated in 1920 with Sexton as president and Buckingham as secretary and treasurer.

Tourism and architecture
Sexton's first venture in tourist attractions was the McKee Jungle Gardens, developed on  purchased for planting citrus groves with his business partner, Arthur G. McKee. They decided the landscape was too beautiful to plow under. Operating from 1931 to 1976, the Gardens attracted crowds of 100,000 a year in its prime. In 1932 a reviewer who had toured tropical botanical gardens around the world, including, Peradeniya in Ceylon said he approached his visit "with that secret doubt we conceal before our friends' local enthusiasm. This doubt, however, was quickly resolved." The collection of rare tropical plants framed by native Florida oaks and palms "set an example for conservation and intelligent use of indigenous growth." Landscape architect William Lyman Phillips designed "the exquisite series of waterways and landscapes, including the Cathedral of Palms, 300 royal palms set on a grid. David Fairchild, a friend of Sexton, supplied many exotic plants for this project as well as his own private garden in Miami, The Kampong, now part of the National Tropical Botanical Garden.

In addition to thousands of orchids and lilies, the Mckee Jungle Gardens featured monkeys, alligators, bathing beauties and " the wacky buildings and collections of Waldo E. Sexton, the folk architect and Florida nurseryman. Without an architect or plans, Sexton built and decorated the Hall of Giants and the Spanish Kitchen with cypress milled in Florida, salvaged materials and his bell collection. For the Hall of Giants he located a massive mahogany board  long he had seen at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904 and turned it into a table. The large iron gates came from the demolished Whitehall Hotel in Palm Beach. The Gardens closed in 1976 but reopened on 18 of the original acres as the McKee Botanical Garden in 2001 and is on United States National Register of Historic Places.

Sexton continued creating unusual structures that became local landmarks and attractions. His penchant for wood, wrought iron, tile and collectibles, can still be viewed at his later enterprises in Vero Beach, including the Driftwood Inn and Restaurant, the Ocean Grill, and the Patio restaurant. Although he bought from many sources and sometimes sight unseen by the truckload through contacts, recognizable pieces from Addison Mizner designed Spanish style mansions in Palm Beach continue to attract new visitors. A 2007 article in the Palm Beach News said "...Mizner would no doubt immediately acknowledge the life's work of his kindred spirit and friend, Waldo Sexton, the man who saved what might have been lost forever and who shared his respect for the past and prescience of history's enduring commercial value." The Driftwood Inn is on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.

One journalist described the businessman and artist who created such unusual attractions: "Sexton was a man who was not afraid to render an opinion and who never hesitated to embroider a story. He loved martinis and women, bells and thing from the sea, and he possessed a compelling urge to create. Some people called him an irresponsible screwball, an untruth he shrewdly did not deny, knowing that the world loves an eccentric."

Legacy and honors
 Sexton Plaza in Vero Beach, Florida, is named for him.
 Honored for outstanding citizenship in Indian River County with "Waldo Sexton Day" in Vero Beach on 1958.
 Received the Indian River Chapter of American Institute of Architects "1992–1993 Ambiance Award" honoring Waldo's Breezeway, Ocean Grill Restaurant, Patio Restaurant, and Turf Club.
 Driftwood Inn added to the National Registry of Historical Places on August 6, 1994.
 McKee Jungle Gardens added to the National Registry of Historical Places on January 7, 1998.
 Honored in play written and performed by staff at Indian River Charter High School about his contact with African American Poet and Author Zora Neale Hurston in November 2017, January 2018, and January 2019.

See also
List of Great Floridians
McKee Jungle Gardens
Louisiana Purchase Exposition
Vero Beach, Florida
David Fairchild
The Kampong
Botanical Garden of Peradeniya
Addison Mizner

References

External links
2011 Virtual Tour of the Driftwood Resort
2015 Virtual Tour of the Ocean Grill Restaurant

Architects from Florida
Citrus farmers from Florida
1967 deaths
1885 births
People from Shelbyville, Indiana
Purdue University College of Agriculture alumni
People from Vero Beach, Florida

Waldo E. Sexton


Paisley Abbey is a parish church of the Church of Scotland on the east bank of the White Cart Water in the centre of the town of Paisley, Renfrewshire, about  west of Glasgow, in Scotland. Its origins date from the 12th century, based on a former Cluniac monastery. Following the Reformation in the 16th century, it became a Church of Scotland parish kirk.

History
It is believed that Saint Mirin (or Saint Mirren) founded a community on this site in 7th century. Some time after his death a shrine to the Saint was established, becoming a popular site of pilgrimage and veneration. The name Paisley may derive from the Brythonic (Cumbric) Passeleg, 'basilica' (derived from the Greek), i.e. 'major church', recalling an early, though undocumented, ecclesiastical importance.

In 1163, Walter fitz Alan, the first High Steward of Scotland issued a charter for a priory to be set up on land owned by him in Paisley. It was dedicated to SS. Mary, James, Mirin and Milburga. Around 13 monks came from the Cluniac priory at Much Wenlock in Shropshire to found the community. Paisley grew so rapidly that it was raised to the status of abbey in 1245. Monks from Paisley founded Crossraguel Abbey in Carrick, Ayrshire, in 1244.

In 1307, Edward I of England had the abbey burned down. It was rebuilt later in the 14th century. William Wallace, born in nearby Elderslie, is believed to have been educated in the abbey for some time when he was a boy.

In 1316, Marjorie Bruce, daughter of Robert I of Scotland and wife of Walter Stewart, the sixth High Steward of Scotland, was out riding near the abbey. During the ride, she fell from her horse and as she was heavily pregnant at the time, she was taken to Paisley Abbey for medical care. There, King Robert II was born by caesarean section, in a time when anaesthesia would not have been available. She was later buried at the abbey. A cairn, at the junction of Dundonald Road and Renfrew Road, approximately  to the north of the Abbey, marks the spot where she reputedly fell from her horse.

In 1491, absolution was granted by Abbot George Shaw, representing the Pope and in the presence of the relics, to James IV of Scotland and others implicated in the death of James III at the Battle of Sauchieburn. By 1499 Shaw had had built a new, larger pilgrims' chapel and added the sculptured stone frieze which can still be seen today, showing scenes from the life of St Miren. It was originally brightly painted and may have been part of a rear panel of an altar before being put up as a frieze on the wall.

A succession of fires and the collapse of the tower in the 15th and 16th centuries left the building in a partially ruined state. Although the western section was still used for worship, the eastern section was widely plundered for its stone. From 1858 to 1928 the north porch and the eastern choir were reconstructed on the remains of the ruined walls by the architect Macgregor Chalmers. After his death, work on the choir was completed by Sir Robert Lorimer.

Points of interest
Paisley Abbey is the burial place of all six High Stewards of Scotland, Marjorie Bruce who was the mother of Robert II, and the wives of Robert II. The Celtic Barochan Cross, once sited near the village of Houston, Renfrewshire, is now inside the abbey itself. The cross is thought to date from the 10th century. In the abbey's nave, the Wallace Memorial Window, which depicts the image of Samson, was donated in 1873.

Paisley Abbey Drain
In the early 1990s an ancient vaulted drain of extremely fine construction, probably 13th century in date, was rediscovered running from the abbey to the White Cart. The drain is thought to date from AD 1350-1400 and is at least 90 metres long, up to 2m wide and up to 2.2m high. The drain contains stonemasons marks on the walls, and marks where gates used to be.  Before accessing the drain, water has to be pumped out.
Paisley Abbey Drain is designated by Historic Environment Scotland as a Scheduled Ancient Monument and has similarities to other monastery drains, such as Fountains Abbey, Dundrennan Abbey and Melrose Abbey. A virtual tour of the drain is available on YouTube.

Archaeological investigations and excavations took place in 1996, 3–16 September 2009, 2–12 September 2011 and 4 September 2013 and many items discovered. Some of these are now on display in the abbey.

These include:
 a slate with music marked on it - which is believed to be the oldest example of polyphonic music found in Scotland
 imported cloth seals
 chamber pots from c.1500
 tweezers
 carved bone handles
 pottery fragments
 slate fragments

Events to involve the public in the archaeological investigation of the drain have been held, with the Renfrewshire Local History Forum.

Tombs

A tomb in the choir incorporating a much-restored female effigy is widely believed to be that of Marjorie Bruce. Although there is no evidence that she is buried at exactly that location, her remains are thought to be within the abbey. The tomb is reconstructed from fragments of different origin - the base, is likely to have originally formed part of the pulpitum of the Abbey (a stone screen separating nave and choir), such as survives at Glasgow Cathedral.

Opposite Marjorie Bruce lie the tombs of Robert III of Scotland and Simon fitz Alan. A Latin inscription commemorates the three children of Margaret Seton and Claud Hamilton, 1st Lord Paisley who died as infants; Margaret (1577), Henry (1585), and Alexander (1587).

Stained glass

Stained glass (removed in the Reformation) began to be replaced in the 1870s. Major works include a window by Edward Burne-Jones and the huge east window by Douglas Strachan.

The dramatic memorial window to James D. D. Shaw dates from 1989 and is by John Clark.

Abbey organ

The Abbey organ is reputedly one of the finest in Scotland, and was originally built by the most distinguished of all 19th-century organ builders, Cavaillé-Coll of Paris in 1872. This is one of only six in the UK. Since 1872 it has been rebuilt and extended four times. The organ as rebuilt by Walker in 1968 has 4 manuals, 65 stops and 5448 pipes.(National Pipe Organ Register; "The Organ at Paisley Abbey", booklet pub. Paisley Abbey) In 2009 the instrument underwent a major restoration by Harrison and Harrison of Durham. The work included major cleaning and servicing, the provision of a new wind system and the addition of a 32 ft contre bombarde. The latter was part of the 1968 scheme by Ralph Downes but not included in the work actually undertaken.

Internal architectural details
The twelve angel corbels and stone communion table are by Pilkington Jackson, sculptor of the iconic Robert the Bruce statue at Bannockburn. The ceiling bosses are designed by Sir Robert Lorimer and carved by James A Young. The choir stalls, with their wealth of carved animals are by William and Alexander Clow.

External architectural details

Paisley Abbey has been rebuilt and its original design modified as a result of the building being destroyed in 1307, its tower's collapse in the 16th century, and general disrepair that occurred as the result of time and weather. Notably, during a restoration project that took place in the 1990s, a stonemason from Edinburgh hired to replace twelve crumbling stone gargoyles erected one bearing a strong resemblance to the space creature from the 1979 science fiction film Alien, starring Sigourney Weaver. A picture of the gargoyle went viral in 2013, though a photograph of the statue first surfaced on the internet in 1997. In 2002, it was confirmed the abbey would be subject to a 10-year-long restoration project.

Current congregation

Paisley Abbey is used for worship services every Sunday. Since the Reformation the Abbey has served as a parish church in the Church of Scotland. In 2002 the congregation had 823 members. The minister (since December 2022) is the Reverend Jim Gibson.

Burials
Walter fitz Alan, 1st High Steward of Scotland (1177)
Alan fitz Walter, 2nd High Steward of Scotland (1204)
Walter Stewart, 3rd High Steward of Scotland (1246)
Beatrix nic Gille Crist-Stewart, Countess of Angus (1252)
Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland (1282)
Isabella of Mar, first wife of Robert the Bruce (1296)
James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland (1309)
Marjorie Bruce, daughter of Robert the Bruce (1316 or 1317)
Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland (1327)
Elizabeth Mure, first wife of Robert II (1355)
Euphemia de Ross, second wife of Robert II (1386)
Robert III, King of Scots (1406)
James Stewart of Cardonald (1584)
James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Abercorn (1618)
Claud Hamilton, 1st Lord Paisley (1621)
James Hamilton, 8th Earl of Abercorn (1789)
William Cathcart, 1st Earl Cathcart (1843)

See also
 Abbey Bridge
 Abbot of Paisley, for list of priors, abbots and commendators
 Crossraguel Abbey, founded by monks from Paisley
 List of Category A listed buildings in Renfrewshire
 List of listed buildings in Paisley, Renfrewshire

References

Sources
 Malden, John. (Edr), (2000). The Monastery & Abbey of Paisley: Lectures from the Renfrewshire Local History Forum's Conference 11 / 12 September 1999, with additional papers. Renfrewshire: Renfrewshire Local History Forum. .

External links

Listed monasteries in Scotland
Cluniac monasteries in Scotland
Church of Scotland churches in Scotland
Churches in Paisley, Renfrewshire
Protestant churches converted from Roman Catholicism
Listed churches in Scotland
Category A listed buildings in Renfrewshire
Burial sites of the House of Stuart
Burial sites of the FitzAlan family
Burial sites of the House of Bruce
Former Christian monasteries in Scotland

Paisley Abbey


Sayajigunj is an area in the western side of Vadodara City in the state of Gujarat in India.

Vadodara Railway Station and Central State Transport Bus depot is located in Sayajigung, which is why it is referred as a gate way to Vadodaracity. Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara Stock Exchange and Sayaji Baug are also located in this area. This area has attraction of youngster, due to the fact area being close to University, Some Major Hotels are located in this area, to name some Sayaji, Surya Palace, Kalyan (one of the oldest fast food restaurant in area), Dairy Den (Ice cream parlour), recently Amul has opened one retail counter in this area. Subway has also established its presence in Sayajigunj. Mostly, area is covered with stock brokers offices, hotels for stay, restaurants, banks, commercial Complex and University.

Urban and suburban areas of Vadodara

Sayajigunj


Carl Emil Christian Bonnevie (28 April 1881 – 26 September 1972) was a Norwegian jurist and peace activist. He also served as a Member of the Norwegian Parliament.

Biography
Bonnevie was born in Trondheim as the son of Jacob Aall Bonnevie (1838-1904) and his second wife, Susanne Bryn (1848-1927). He was the younger brother of physician Kristine Bonnevie (1872-1948) and judge Thomas Bonnevie (1879-1960).

He took his artium at Aars and Voss School  in 1900.  He was a reserve officer in the Norwegian Army, attaining the rank of Second Lieutenant in 1901. He was awarded his  Cand. jur. in 1904. In 1905, he became a magistrate in Moss in Østfold. The following the year, he became   deputy proxy at Vinger and Odalen in Hedmark . He was a prosecutor in Kristiania (now Oslo) from 1907 to 1910. He was a lawyer at Kristiania Court of Appeal from 1915. From 1923 to 1929 he was a District Court Judge  in Kristiania. He was assigned to the Agder Court of Appeal in 1936, Eidsivating Court of Appeal from 1949 and Borgarting Court of Appeal in 1950.

From 1917 to 1919, he was editor of the journal Folkefred. He was a board member of the Norwegian Peace Association (Norges Fredsforening)  from 1916 to 1924 and chaired the organization from 1926 to 1929.
He served as a member of the Parliament of Norway from Bodø and Narvik (Bodø og Narvik) in Nordland with the Labour Party from 1913 to 1915 and for Nordland fylke from 1934 to 1936.

See also
 List of peace activists

References

1881 births
1972 deaths
Politicians from Trondheim
Norwegian Army personnel
Norwegian jurists
Labour Party (Norway) politicians
Members of the Storting
Norwegian anti-war activists
Norwegian people of French descent
Burials at the Cemetery of Our Saviour
Carl

Carl Bonnevie


System 7, codenamed "Big Bang", and later (as of version 7.6) also known as Mac OS 7, is a graphical user interface-based operating system for Macintosh computers and is part of the classic Mac OS series of operating systems. It was introduced on May 13, 1991, by Apple Computer It succeeded System 6, and was the main Macintosh operating system until it was succeeded by Mac OS 8 in 1997. Current for more than six years, System 7 was the longest-lived major version series of the classic Macintosh operating system (to date, only Mac OS X had a longer lifespan).  Features added with the System 7 release included virtual memory, personal file sharing, QuickTime, QuickDraw 3D, and an improved user interface.

With the release of version 7.6 in 1997, Apple officially renamed the operating system "Mac OS", a name that had first appeared on System 7.5.1's boot screen. System 7 was developed for Macs that used the Motorola 680x0 line of processors, but was ported to the PowerPC after Apple adopted the new processor in 1994 with the introduction of the Power Macintosh.

Development
The development of the Macintosh system software up to System 6 followed a fairly smooth progression with the addition of new features and relatively small changes and upgrades over time. Major additions were fairly limited. Some perspective on the scope of the changes can be seen by examining the official system documentation, Inside Macintosh. This initially shipped in three volumes, adding another to describe the changes introduced with the Mac Plus, and another for the Mac II and Mac SE.

These limited changes meant that the original Macintosh system remained largely as it was when initially introduced. That is, the machine was geared towards a single user and task running on a floppy disk based machine of extremely limited RAM. However, many of the assumptions of this model were no longer appropriate. Most notable among these was the single-tasking model, the replacement of which had first been examined in 1986's "Switcher" and then replaced outright with MultiFinder in System 5. Running MultiFinder normally required a larger amount of RAM and a hard drive, but these became more common by the late 1980s.

While additions had been relatively limited, so had fixes to some of the underlying oddities of the system architecture. For instance, to support a limited form of multitasking, the original Mac OS supported small co-resident programs known as desk accessories, which had to be installed into the system using special tools. If the system were able to support multiple tasks, this one-off solution would no longer be needed — desk accessories could simply be small programs, placed anywhere. Yet, as MultiFinder was still optional, such a step had not been taken. Numerous examples of this sort of problem could be found throughout the system.

Finally, the widespread adoption of hard drives and local area networks led to any number of new features being requested from users and developers. By the late 1980s, the list of new upgrades and suggested changes to the existing model was considerable.

Pink and Blue
In March 1988, shortly before the release of System 6, technical middle managers at Apple held an offsite meeting to plan the future course of Mac OS development. Ideas were written on index cards; features that seemed simple enough to implement in the short term (like adding color to the user interface) were written on blue cards, longer-term goals like true multitasking on pink cards, and "far out" ideas like an object-oriented file system on red cards. Development of the ideas contained on the blue and pink cards was to proceed in parallel, and at first the two projects were known simply as "blue" and "pink" (including Taligent). Apple intended to have the "blue" team (which came to call themselves the "Blue Meanies" after characters in Yellow Submarine) release an updated version of the existing Macintosh operating system in the 1990–1991 time-frame, and the "pink" team to release an entirely new OS around 1993.

As Blue was aimed at relatively "simple" upgrades, the feature list reads to some degree as a sort of "System 6, corrected". In the underlying OS, a number of formerly optional components were made mandatory:

 32-bit QuickDraw, supporting so-called "true color" imaging, was included as standard; it was previously available as a system extension.
 A new Sound Manager API, version 2.0, replaced the older ad hoc APIs. The new APIs featured significantly improved hardware abstraction, as well as higher-quality playback. Although technically not a new feature for System 7 (as these features were available for System 6.0.7), Sound Manager 2.0 was the first widespread implementation of this technology to make it to most Mac users.
 System 7 paved the way for a full 32-bit address space, from the previous 24-bit address space.  This process involved making all of the routines in OS code use the full 32 bits of a pointer as an address—prior systems used the upper bits as flags. This change was known as being "32-bit clean". While System 7 itself was 32-bit clean, many existing machines and thousands of applications were not, so it was some time before the process was completed. To ease the transition, the "Memory" control panel contained a switch to disable this feature, allowing for compatibility with older applications but rendering any installed RAM over 8 MB unusable.
 System 7 made MultiFinder's cooperative multitasking mandatory.

Furthermore, a number of oddities in the original System, typically included due to limited resources, were finally changed to use basic underlying OS features:
Trash was now a normal directory, allowing items to be preserved between reboots and disk eject events instead of being purged.
"System extensions" (small pieces of INIT code that extended the system's functionality) were relocated to their own subfolder (rather than in the root level of the System Folder itself as on earlier versions) and they could be installed or removed at the user's will simply by moving these "extensions" to or from the folder and then rebooting the computer. There was an auto-routing feature for extensions, control panels, fonts and Desk Accessories where they could simply be dropped onto the System folder. The system would detect the type and automatically place the moved files in the appropriate subdirectories. On reboot, the System would read the files and install the extensions, without the user having to do anything else. Additionally, all extensions and panels (see below) could be temporarily disabled by holding down the shift key when booting up. Later versions of System 7 offered a feature called "Extensions Manager", which simplified the process of enabling/disabling individual extensions. Extensions were often a source of instability and these changes made them more manageable and assisted trouble-shooting.
Similarly, the Control Panel desk accessory became the Control Panels folder (found in the System Folder, and accessible to the user from an alias in the Apple menu). The control panels themselves became separate files, stored within this directory. Control panels are essentially system extensions with a user interface.
The Apple menu (previously home only to desk accessories pulled from "DRVR" resources in the System file) now listed the contents of a folder ("Apple Menu Items"), including aliases (see below). Desk accessories had originally been intended to provide a form of multitasking and were no longer necessary now that real multitasking was always enabled. The desk-accessory technology was deprecated, with System 7 treating them largely the same as other applications. Desk accessories now ran in their own process rather than borrowing that of a host application.
Under System 6, the Apple Menu contained both a list of desk accessories and a list of running programs under MultiFinder. In System 7 the list of active programs was relocated to its own Application Menu.

The system also offered a wide variety of new features:

Personal File Sharing. Along with various UI improvements for AppleTalk setup, System 7 also included a basic file sharing server allowing any machine to publish folders to the AppleTalk network.
Aliases. An alias is a small file that represents another object in the file system. A typical alias is small, between 1 and 5 KB. Similar in concept to Unix symbolic links and Windows shortcuts, an alias acts as a redirect to any object in the file system, such as a document, an application, a folder, a hard disk, a network share or removable medium or a printer. When double-clicked, the computer will act the same way as if the original file had been double-clicked. Likewise, choosing an alias file from within an "Open" dialog box would open the original file. (Unlike the path-based approach of shortcuts and symbolic links, aliases also store a reference to the file's catalog entry, so they continue to work even if the file is moved or renamed. Aliases have features of both hard links and symbolic links found on Unix-based systems. All three are supported on macOS.)
Drag and drop. Document icons could be dragged with the mouse and "dropped" onto application icons to open in the targeted application. Under System 6, one either double-clicked on a document icon to open its associated application, or one could open the desired application and use its Open dialog box. The development of the drag-and-drop paradigm led to a new concept for some applications—such as StuffIt Expander—whose main interactions were intended to be via drag and drop. System 7.5's Drag Manager expanded the concept system-wide to include multiple data types such as text or audio data.
"Stationery", a template feature that allowed users to save often-used document styles in special format. "Stationery-aware" applications would create a new, untitled file containing the template data, while non-aware applications would immediately show a Save As dialog box asking the user for the file's name.
Balloon Help, a widget-identification system similar to tooltips.
AppleScript, a scripting language for automating tasks. While fairly complex for application programmers to implement support for, this feature was powerful and popular with users, and it remains supported as part of macOS.
AppleEvents. Supporting AppleScript was a new interprocess communication model for "high-level" events to be sent into applications, along with support to allow this to take place over an AppleTalk network.
Publish and Subscribe. This feature permitted data "published" by one application to be imported ("subscribed to") by another, and the data could be updated dynamically. Programmers complained that the API was unwieldy, and relatively few applications ended up adopting it.
TrueType outline fonts. Up to this point, all fonts on the Macintosh were bitmapped, or a set of bitmapped screen fonts paired with outline PostScript printer fonts; TrueType for the first time offered a single font format that scaled to any size on screen and on paper. This technology was recognized as being so important that a TrueType extension for System 6 was also released, along with an updated Font/DA Mover capable of installing these new kinds of fonts into the System 6 System file.
A newly colorized user interface. Although this feature made for a visually appealing interface, it was optional. On machines not capable of displaying color, or those with their display preferences set to monochrome, the interface defaulted back to the black-and-white look of previous versions. Only some widgets were colorized—scrollbars, for instance, had a new look, but buttons remained in black and white.
System 7.1 marked the advent of System Enablers, small extensions that were loaded at startup to support Macintosh models introduced since the last OS revision. Under System 6, Apple had to introduce a number of minor revisions to the OS solely for use with new hardware. Apple introduced an unprecedented number of new Macintosh models during the System 7 era, leading to some confusion over which System Enabler went with which computer(s).

Software
System 7 was the first Apple operating system to be available on compact disc, although it shipped on a set of 15 floppy disks initially. Unlike earlier systems, System 7 did not come bundled with major software packages. Newly purchased Macintosh computers had System 7 installed and were often bundled with software such as HyperCard, At Ease and Mouse Practice. Later, the Macintosh Performa family added various software bundles including ClarisWorks, The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, Microsoft Bookshelf, Spectre VR and Power Pete. Since System 7 was introduced before the Internet came to popular attention, software such as MacTCP, FreePPP and Netscape were not included at first, but was later available on disk from Internet service providers and bundled with books such as Adam C. Engst's Internet Starter Kit for Macintosh. Power Macintosh machines also included NuCalc, a graphing calculator. System 7 also includes AppleTalk networking and file sharing software in the form of system extensions and control panels.

The basic utilities installed by default with System 7 include TeachText (which was replaced by SimpleText in later versions) for basic text editing tasks and reading readme documents. Also available on the additional "Disk Tools" floppy disk are Disk First Aid for disk repair and Apple HD SC Setup for initializing and partitioning disks.

Later versions of System 7, specifically System 7.5 and Mac OS 7.6, come with dedicated "Utilities" and "Apple Extras" folders including: AppleScript, Disk Copy, QuickDraw GX Extras and QuickTime Movie Player. More optional extras and utilities could be manually installed from the System CD.

Transition to PowerPC
System 7.1.2 is the first version of the Macintosh System Software to support Apple's new PowerPC-based computers. 68k applications that had not yet been updated to run natively on these systems were emulated transparently (without the user having to intervene) by a built-in 68k processor emulator. Fat binaries, which contained the code necessary to run natively on both PowerPC and 68k systems, became common during this time. This process was similar to the distribution of universal binaries during the Mac transition to Intel processors in 2006, as well as the Mac transition to Apple silicon beginning in 2020.

System 7.1.2 is the only release of the Macintosh operating system that boots stating "Welcome to Power Macintosh." This despite the OS being designed to run on 68k Macintoshes that were upgraded to PowerPC, but without Power Macintosh branding. Subsequent System 7 release 7.1.2P reverted this.

PC compatibility
System 7.0 and 7.1 offered a utility called Apple File Exchange, which could access the contents of FAT- and Apple II-formatted floppy disks. System 7 Pro, System 7.5 and up shipped with PC Exchange, previously a separate product, which allowed the system to mount FAT-formatted floppy disks on the desktop in the same manner as regular Macintosh disks.

OS/2 disks were read as PC DOS disks, due to fact that OS/2 used the FAT file system. At this time, Macs could also read and write UNIX file systems with the help of extra software.

System 7 allowed users to access PC networks and allowed communication via TCP/IP and other compatible networking stacks. Actual PC software compatibility, however, required third-party software such as SoftPC, which allowed some MS-DOS and early Microsoft Windows programs to run, or Connectix Virtual PC, which allowed the Mac to run Windows via full PC emulation.

Other PC compatibility solutions took a more native approach by running Windows and MS-DOS by using x86 expansion cards with an x86 chip on the card. Apple offered some systems configured this way, marketed as "DOS Compatible"—a card with dedicated x86 CPU and RAM was used, while the Mac hard drive, sound subsystem, networking and input provided services to the PC. The PC could run simultaneously with the Mac, and the user could switch between the two in a fashion similar to a KVM switch. The earliest of these systems were 680x0 based systems running System 7. System 7 provided the support for accessing the PC volume from the Mac through its own PC Exchange software, and actual control of the PC hardware was accomplished by way of control panels.

Miscellaneous
At the time of its release, many users noticed that performance suffered as a result of upgrading from System 6 to System 7, though newer hardware soon made up for the speed difference. Another problem was System 7's large "memory footprint": System 6 could boot the system from a single 800k floppy disk and took up about  of RAM, whereas System 7 used well over a megabyte. It was some time before the average Mac shipped with enough RAM built in for System 7 to be truly comfortable. System 7 was the first system release that could no longer be usefully run on floppy-only systems. Although most Macintosh models sold at the time included a hard disk as standard equipment, owners of older models were required to upgrade their hardware by buying either a new Mac or an external SCSI hard disk drive if they wished to run System 7.

In order to take advantage of System 7's virtual memory feature, a Macintosh equipped with a paged memory management unit (PMMU) is required. The Motorola 68030 CPU has one built-in, and one can be added to the motherboard of the Motorola 68020-equipped Macintosh II. The other Macintosh model using an 68020, the Macintosh LC, cannot use virtual memory. Apple introduced the 68030-equipped Macintosh LC II shortly after System 7's introduction. Despite the newer processor, the LCII retained the earlier model's 16-bit bus and did not perform any faster than the LC it replaced.

Despite these setbacks, System 7.0 was adopted quite rapidly by Mac users, and quickly became one of the base requirements for new software.

The engineering group within Apple responsible for System 7 came to be known as the "Blue Meanies", named after the blue index cards on which were written the features that could be implemented in a relatively short time as part of Apple's operating system strategy. In comparison, the pink index card features were handled by the Pink group, later becoming the ill-fated Taligent project.

System 7.0 was the last version of the Macintosh operating system that was available at no charge and could be freely redistributed.  Although System 7 could be purchased from Apple, the cost was nominal and considered to only cover duplication and media. It was common for Macintosh dealers to allow customers to use the store's demo machines to copy System 7 install disks for the cost of a box of floppies. CD-ROM magazines such as Nautilus included System 7 on their disks. After Mac users downloaded thousands of copies of System 7 from the online services (AOL, CompuServe and GEnie), Apple surveyed the services and based on this popularity started selling the Mac OS as a retail product with System 7.1.  Apple continued charging for major operating system upgrades until the release of OS X Mavericks in 2013.

Version history

Soon after the initial release of System 7, the 7.0.1 minor update was released in October 1991, which updated the Portable and Brightness control panels, added the Caps Lock extension, which showed an up-pointing arrow onscreen if the Caps Lock key was depressed on PowerBooks, and added the Cache Switch control panel in additional to RAM disk and sound management optimizations for 68040 systems. Three small patches called "System 7 Tune-Up" also followed, which initially added an extension "System 7 Tuner" that improves memory management by quitting unused items, like apps and AppleTalk, and added "minimum" and "preferred" memory allotments to an application's Get Info box in its 1.0 version. This would be followed by version 1.1, which updated the "System 7 Tuner" extension to 1.1, included LaserWriter driver version 7.1.1 and added a hidden extension called "Tuna Helper", intended to fix the "disappearing files" bug in which the system would lose files. The final release, 1.1.1, would include everything 1.1 included but also add the StyleWriter 7.2.2 printer drivers, Chooser 7.1 and a minor update to Tuna Helper.

System 7.1
In August 1992, the 7.1 update was released.  This was the first version of the system software that Apple charged money for.  Of this change, David Pogue wrote:

New to 7.1 is the Fonts folder. This replaced the often time-consuming method of dragging fonts to and from the System file, introduced in System 7.0; it also replaced the Font/DA Mover application from System 6, which could also be used with 7.0. System 7.1 also included a lot of internal changes to support internationalization of dates, time, and numbers.  It was also the first version to support "Enablers", which removed the requirement to release a new version of the system software every time new hardware was released.

A set of specialized versions of 7.1, ranging from 7.1P1 to 7.1P6 (excluding 7.1P4) were created and included with various Performa models that were already available or were released after 7.1.  These specialized versions included At Ease, Launcher, and some other changes that were integrated into later versions of the system software.

The first major upgrade was System 7.1.1, also known as "System 7 Pro". This release was a bundle of 7.1 with AppleScript tools, QuickTime and Apple Open Collaboration Environment (AOCE). While System 7 had some trouble running on slightly older machines due to its memory footprint, System 7 Pro barely fit into any Macintosh computers of the time. It was most commonly used for its minor bug fixes rather than its new functionality.

Apple joined the AIM alliance (Apple, IBM and Motorola) shortly after the release of System 7 in 1991, and started work on PowerPC-based machines that later became the Power Macintosh family. Support for these machines resulted in System 7.1.2.

System 7.1.2 was never offered for retail sale; it shipped with the first batches of the PowerPC Macs and a 68k version shipped with a small number of Quadra 600 series systems. Later shipments shipped with System 7.5 instead.

System 7.1.2P was the same as 7.1.2, and shipped with the Performa 630, LC 630 and Quadra 630 models that were released between July and November 1994.

System 7.5
On September 12, 1994, the next major version, System 7.5, was released, which included bug fixes from previous updates and added several new features, including:

An updated startup screen featuring a progress bar
A new interactive help system called Apple Guide
A clock in the menu bar (based on the free "SuperClock" control panel by Steve Christensen)
An Apple menu item called Stickies (formerly a third-party application called "PasteIt Notes"), which provided virtual Post-It Notes
WindowShade, another former shareware control panel, provided the ability to condense a window down to its title bar. Introduced as a "minimize" feature to compete with Windows 95 as Mac OS had no taskbar or dock.
MacTCP was bundled, enabling any Macintosh to connect to the Internet out of the box for the first time.
The Control Strip (a fast way to change the system volume, control the playback of audio CDs, manage file sharing and printers and change the monitor resolution and color depth) was enabled on desktop Macintosh models for the first time. It had previously only been included with the PowerBook series.
A new Desktop Patterns control panel allowed for tiled patterns up to 128x128 pixels with 8-bit color; previous versions were limited to 8x8 pixel tiles with a maximum of eight possible colors. Similar functionality was found on earlier system versions exclusive to Performa models and was housed in the General Controls panel.
The Extensions Manager (enabling the user to turn extensions and control panels on and off; also based on a formerly third-party control panel)
PowerTalk, a system-level email handling service and the originator of the Keychain system.
The Launcher, a control panel containing shortcut buttons for frequently used programs (in a manner akin to the macOS Dock)
A hierarchical Apple menu (folders within the Apple Menu Items folder would expand into submenus showing their contents. Again, based on a third party control panel; HAM by Microseeds publishing)
System-wide drag & drop for text and other data (selections can be simply dragged with the mouse and dropped to their new destination, bypassing the clipboard)
A scriptable Finder
QuickDraw GX, a 2-D graphics rendering and geometry engine
For the PowerPC only, an advanced, 3d Graphing Calculator, secretly developed at Apple by a former third party contractor
Support for OpenDoc

System 7.5 was codenamed "Capone", a reference to Al Capone and "Chicago", which was the code name for Microsoft's Windows 95, and was also the name of the default system font used in Mac OS until version 8.

System 7.5.1 was primarily a bug fix of 7.5, but also introduced a new "Mac OS" startup screen in preparation for Mac clones.

System 7.5.2, released only for the first PCI-based Power Macs, was notable for introducing Apple's new networking architecture, Open Transport.

System 7.5.3, a major bug-fix update that also included Open Transport for other PowerPC-based machines as well as some 68k-based machines. 7.5.3 also made several improvements to the 68k emulator, and added translucent dragging support to the Drag Manager. It also included the first version of Control Strip to be compatible with all Macs. This was also the first version of Mac OS to support SMP (9500/MP).

System 7.5.3 Revision 2 included: performance enhancements; better reliability for PowerBooks using the third-party RAM Doubler program; improved reliability for PowerBook 500, 2300, and 5300 series computers with the PowerPC Upgrade Card; improved reliability when using the Startup Disk control panel; and improved reliability when copying files to 1 GB hard disks.

System 7.5.3 Revision 2.1 was shipped with the Performa 6400/180 and 6400/200; this particular release was specific to these machines as there were stability problems with System 7.5.3 Release 2 on the new hardware, especially with the video card and transferring files over LocalTalk.

System 7.5.4 was pulled due to a mistake at Apple, in which some components were not included in the installer.

System 7.5.5 included significant performance improvements for virtual memory and memory management on PowerPC-based Macs, including the elimination of one type 11 error. Also included were a number of reliability improvements, such as fixes for Macs using floppy disks equipped with a DOS compatibility card, improved hard disk access for PowerPC PowerBooks and Performa 5400 through 9500 computers, fixes for Macs that included an Apple TV Tuner or Macintosh TV Remote Control, improvements to LocalTalk and networking (especially for the Performa 5400 and 6400), fixes to system startup for the faster 180 MHz Macs (which included PowerPC 604 or 604e processors), improved reliability when using sound-intensive applications on Quadra or Centris computers that contained the PowerPC upgrade card, and improved stability when using multiple background applications and shared printers on a network. System 7.5.5 is also the last System 7 release that can run on 68000-based Macs such as the Macintosh Plus and Macs with ROMs that lack support for 32-bit addressing such as Macintosh IIcx. 7.6 and later required a 68030 processor and 32-bit-addressing-capable ROM and will automatically turn on 32-bit addressing on boot.

Mac OS 7.6
Mac OS 7.6 (codenamed "Harmony") was the last major update, released in 1997. With 7.6, the operating system was officially called "Mac OS" instead of "System". New features include a revamped Extensions Manager, more native PowerPC code for Power Macs, more bundled Internet tools and utilities, and a more stable Finder with increased memory allocation. In this version, the PowerTalk feature added in 7.5 was removed due to poor application support, and support for a large number of older Macintosh models was dropped.

The minor update to Mac OS 7.6.1 finally ported the 68k exception handling routines to PowerPC, turning type 11 errors into less harmful errors (type 1, 2 or 3, usually) as crashing applications would more often terminate safely instead of crashing the operating system.

Through this period, Apple had been attempting to release a completely new "modern" operating system, named Copland. When the Copland project was abandoned in 1996, Apple announced plans to release an OS update every six months until Rhapsody (which would by 2001 evolve into what was released as Mac OS X) shipped. Two more releases were shipped, now officially branded as "Mac OS" — Mac OS 7.6 and the minor bug fix 7.6.1. Future versions were released as Mac OS 8–8.6 and Mac OS 9–9.2.

Likely due to coming out during a troubled time in Apple's history, 7.6 is known for having a number of bugs, most notably the inability to customize what components are installed during installation and its tendency to crash on some systems when they are shut down whilst a RAM disk is in use.

Releases

Timeline

See also
 List of Apple operating systems
 List of Macintosh software
 Inside Macintosh
 Mini vMac
 Project Star Trek

References
 Notes

 Citations

 Bibliography
 Jim Carlton, Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania, and Business Blunders, Times Business/Random House, 1997.
 Amit Singh, Mac OS X Internals: A Systems Approach, Addison-Wesley, 2007.

Further reading
 Harry McQuillen, 10 Minute Guide to System 7 (1991),
 Stuple, S. J., Macintosh System 7.5 For Dummies Quick Reference (1994),
 Bob Levitus, Macintosh System 7.5 for Dummies (November 1994),
 from apple.com
 from apple.com
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External links
 System 7 Today
 The Compact Mac Trio: System 6 or 7?
 System 7 Flash Simulation in 1-Bit Black and White
 System 7 Flash Simulation in Color
 PCE.js emulator running System 7

1991 software
Classic Mac OS
PowerPC operating systems

System 7