Johann(es) Schreck, also Terrenz or Terrentius Constantiensis, Deng Yuhan Hanpo 鄧玉函, Deng Zhen Lohan, (1576, Bingen, Baden-Württemberg or Constance – 11 May 1630, Beijing) was a German Jesuit, missionary to China and polymath. He is credited with the development of scientific-technical terminology in Chinese.

Early life

Schreck studied medicine starting in 1590 at the Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg, the University of Altdorf. After graduating, he is also known to have worked as an assistant to the mathematician François Viète in Paris in around 1600. After Viète's death in 1603, he moved to the University of Padua, where he was a student of Galileo Galilei, but studied medicine.

Schreck had an exceptional facility with languages; he spoke German, Italian, Portuguese, French and English. Like most educated men of his time, he wrote his letters in Latin. He also mastered Ancient Greek, Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic. Later in his life, he learned Chinese.

Sojourn in Rome
He became a highly respected medic and was affiliated to the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome, which he joined on 3 May 1611, a few days after Galileo Galilei. Together with two other German-speaking members of the Accademia, Giovanni Faber and Theophilus Müller, he worked on the encyclopaedia of botany Rerum medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus which had been begun decades before by Francisco Hernández de Toledo and purchased, incomplete, by Federico Cesi. This work did not occupy him for long however, as he decided to join the Jesuit order, taking his vows on 1 November 1611. Galileo described his decision as "Una gran perdita" – "a big loss".

Passage to China
The founder of the Jesuit mission in China, Matteo Ricci, had sent his colleague Nicolas Trigault back to Europe to search out new missionaries who could share the most advanced scientific ideas with the Chinese. Trigault met Schreck in Rome in 1614, while Schreck was studying theology, and persuaded him to go to China. To raise money and equipment for their mission, they travelled around Europe in 1616, soliciting donations and collecting books, mechanical equipment and scientific instruments. One of their donors was Cardinal Federico Borromeo of Milan, who gave them what was to be the first western telescope in China.

In April 1618, Schreck sailed from Lisbon with a group of Jesuits Trigault had assembled, including Giacomo Rho and Johann Adam Schall von Bell. After several pirate attacks and outbreaks of disease Schreck arrived at Goa in October 1618. He continued on his way, collecting samples of flora and fauna wherever he stopped en route; Giulio Aleni later claimed that alone he had discovered more than five hundred new plants. His plan was to produce a compendium with the title Plinius Indicus (The Indian Pliny), similar to Hernandez's volume on Mexico. He worked on this project throughout his stay in China, and expanded it to include descriptions of more than 8,000 varieties of plant, but his early death meant it was never finished. His manuscripts were preserved, perhaps into the eighteenth century, in the collections of the Portuguese College in Beijing, but are now lost.

Early work in China
Schreck reached Macau on 22 July 1619 during a period towards the end of the reign of the Ming Emperor Wanli, when Jesuits had been expelled from Beijing and Nanjing. He, therefore, spent nearly two years in Macau learning Chinese before continuing to Hangzhou in June 1621. There, probably in collaboration with a Christian convert named Li Zhizao, he wrote Taixi renshen shuogai (An Outline of Western Theories of the Human Body), based on Theatrum anatomicum by Caspar Bauhin. This work described the human body, the senses and language, including an outline of Matteo Ricci's famous memory palace. The book was edited by another convert, Bi Gongchen, and published after Schreck's death.

After reaching Beijing in late 1623 Schreck began collaborating closely with a judge and military inspector from Shaanxi named Wang Zheng. In 1627 the two of them published Yuanxi Qiqi Tushuo Luzui (), (Diagrams and explanations of the wonderful machines of the Far West).

Astronomy
Matteo Ricci had asked Trigault to bring back missionaries with a knowledge of astronomy and, as Schreck was the ablest of the new recruits, much of the work translating and explaining astronomical works fell to him. For help in this task, Schreck wrote for advice to Johannes Kepler who replied in 1627, explaining how predictions could be improved by using an elliptical model for the Moon's orbit, and enclosing a copy of his new Rudolphine Tables. In advance of the solar eclipse of 21 June 1629 over Beijing, Schreck and Nicolò Longobardo competed with Chinese astronomers to predict the timing with the greatest accuracy. The Jesuits' calculations were more accurate, and on this basis, the Emperor Chongzhen asked them to undertake a revision of the Chinese calendar.

Schreck also produced plans for building astronomical instruments, which were approved by the Emperor. However he died shortly afterwards, and the project was completed by Johann Adam Schall von Bell and Giacomo Rho. Schall also published a manuscript by Schreck containing much of his knowledge of astronomy and related mathematics, called Ce tian yue shuo () (Brief Description of the Measurement of the Heavens). This describes the basics of astronomy, the movements of heavenly bodies, the working of the telescope, and sunspots, although the existence of these had been known in China for some time. Schall likewise revised and published two works by Schreck on trigonometry, Da ce () (The Great Measurement) and Ge-yuan ba-xian biao () (A Table of Eight Lines), the latter together with Rho.

Death
Schreck is said to have died as a result of a medical experiment on himself. He is buried in the Zhalan Cemetery in Beijing.

See also

 Jesuit China missions

References

External links

"Johannes Schreck-Terrentius Constantiensis. Wissenschaftler und Chinamissionar" (HWTG Konstanz)
 Rainer-K. Langner: Kopernikus in der Verbotenen Stadt. Wie der Jesuit Johannes Schreck das Wissen der Ketzer nach China brachte.  S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt 2007
 Isaïa Iannaccone:  L'ami de Galilée  2008 Livre de Poche
Digital version of Schreck's 'Yuanxi Qiqi Tushuo Luzui' (1627)
 Isaia Iannaccone: "Johanns Schreck Terrentius. Le scienze rinascimentali e lo spirito dell'Accademia dei Lincei nella Cina dei Ming", Napoli 1998, Ed. by Istituto Universitari Orientale, 147 PP.

1576 births
1630 deaths
People from Sigmaringen (district)
17th-century German Jesuits
Roman Catholic missionaries in China
University of Freiburg alumni
University of Altdorf alumni
Jesuit missionaries in China
German sinologists
German expatriates in China
German Roman Catholic missionaries
German male non-fiction writers
Jesuit scientists
Members of the Lincean Academy

Johann Schreck


One way to learn new skills is by observing the behavior of other people or animals. This is called  Observational learning. It is a form of social learning which can take different forms.  In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement;  instead a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher with surroundings is needed. For a child,  a model is someone of authority or higher status in an environment. In animals, observational learning is often based on classical conditioning. In classical conditioning instinctive behavior is provoked by observing the behavior of another (e.g. mobbing in birds), but other processes may be involved as well.

In humans
Many behaviors that a learner observes, remembers, and imitates are actions that the model does not try to intentionally instill:  A child may learn to swear, smack, smoke, and deem other inappropriate behavior acceptable through poor modeling. Albert Bandura claims that children continually learn desirable and undesirable behavior through observational learning. Observational learning suggests that an individual's environment, cognition, and behavior all incorporate and ultimately determine how the individual functions and models.

Through observational learning, individual behaviors can spread across a culture through a process called diffusion chain. This occurs when an individual first learns a behavior by observing another individual and that individual serves as a model for other individuals  to learn the behavior.

Culture plays a role in whether observational learning is the dominant learning style in a person or community. Some cultures expect children to actively participate in their communities: the children are therefore exposed to different trades and roles on a daily basis. This exposure allows children to observe and learn the different skills and practices that are valued in their communities.

Albert Bandura, who is known for the classic Bobo doll experiment, identified this basic form of learning in 1961. The importance of observational learning lies in helping individuals, especially children, acquire new responses by observing others' behavior.

 Albert Bandura states that people's behavior could be determined by their environment.  Observational learning occurs through observing negative and positive behaviors. Bandura believes in reciprocal determinism in which the environment can influence people's behavior and vice versa. For instance, the Bobo doll experiment shows that the model, in a determined environment, affects children's behavior. In this experiment Bandura demonstrates that one group of children placed in an aggressive environment would act the same way, while the control group and the other group of children placed in a passive role model environment hardly shows any type of aggression.

In communities where children's primary mode of learning is through observation, the children are rarely separated from adult activities. This  allows children to use observational learning skills in multiple spheres of life. This learning through observation requires them to be attentive.  Culturally, they learn that their participation and contributions are valued in their communities. This teaches children that it is their duty, as members of the community, to observe others' contributions so they gradually become involved and participate more in the community.

In animals

When an animal is given a task to complete, it is almost always more successful after observing another animal doing the same task before them. Experiments with several different species have shown the same effect: animals can learn behaviors from peers. However, there is a need to make a difference between the propagation of behavior and the stability of behavior. An animal might show the behaviour just once. In this case, the behaviour is not stable.  Research has shown that social learning can spread a behavior, but there are more factors regarding how a behaviour is spread from one generaton of animals to the next, in an animal culture.

Learning in fish
Experiments with ninespine sticklebacks showed that individuals will use social learning to locate food.

Social learning in pigeons

A study in 1996 at the University of Kentucky used a foraging device to test social learning in pigeons. A pigeon could access the food reward by either pecking at a treadle or stepping on it. Significant correspondence was found between the methods of how the observers accessed their food and the methods the initial model used in accessing the food.

Social learning in crows
The University of Washington studied this phenomenon with crows: There is a tradeoff between acquiring costly information firsthand and learning that information socially. Using social learning is easier for the individual, but there is a risk of inaccuracy.  The experimenters exposed wild crows to a unique "dangerous face" mask as they trapped, banded, and released 7-15 birds at five different study places around Seattle, WA. An immediate scolding response to the mask after trapping by previously captured crows illustrates that the individual crow learned the danger of that mask. There was a scolding from crows that were captured that had not been captured initially. That response indicates conditioning from the mob of birds that assembled during the capture.

Learning from peers is called horizontal social learning, learning from parents is called vertical social learning. Horizontal social learning is consistent with the lone crows that recognized the dangerous face without ever being captured. Children of captured crow parents were conditioned to scold the dangerous mask, which demonstrates earning from parents. The crows that were captured directly had the most precise discrimination between dangerous and neutral masks than the crows that learned from the experience of their peers. The ability of crows to learn doubled the frequency of scolding, which spread at least 1.2  km from where the experiment started to over a 5-year period at one site.

Observational learning in Everyday Life
Observational learning allows for new skills to be learned in a wide variety of areas. Demonstrations help the modification of skills and behaviors.

Learning physical activities
When learning skills for physical activities can be anything that is learned that requires physical movement, such as  learning a sport, learning to eat with a fork, or learning to walk. There are multiple important factors that help with modifying physical skills and psychological responses from an observational learning standpoint. Modeling is a factor in observational learning where the skill level of the model is considered. When someone is supposed to demonstrate a physical skill such as throwing a baseball the model should be able to execute the behavior of throwing the ball flawlessly if the model of learning is a mastery model. Another model that can be used is a coping model: This model would  show a physical skill that they have not yet mastered or achieved high performance in. Both models are found to be effective and can be used. These models can be used as interventions to increase observational learning in practice, competition, and rehabilitation situations.

Neuroscience
Recent research in neuroscience has shown that mirror neurons are the basis for observational learning. These specialized visuomotor neurons fire action potentials when an individual performs a motor task and also fire when an individual passively observes another individual performing the same motor task. In observational motor learning, the process begins with a visual presentation of another individual performing a motor task, this acts as a model. The learner then needs to transform the observed visual information into internal motor commands that will allow them to perform the same motor task; this is known as visuomotor transformation. Mirror neuron networks provide a mechanism for visuo-motor and motor-visual transformation and interaction. Similar networks of mirror neurons have also been implicated in social learning, motor cognition and social cognition.

References

Further reading on animal social learning

 Zentall, T.R. (2006). Imitation: Definitions, evidence, and mechanisms. Animal Cognition, 9  335–353. (A thorough review of different types of social learning) Full text
Learning
Pages with unreviewed translations

Observational learning


Musoma is  a city in the east shore of lake Victoria of Tanzania. It is the capital of Mara Region, one of the administrative Regions of Tanzania. It also serves as the administrative centre of Musoma Rural District and Musoma Urban District.

Location
The city sits on the eastern edge of Lake Victoria, close to the International borders  of Tanzania with Kenya and Uganda. Musoma is located approximately , directly south of the geographical point where the borders of the three East African countries intersect. The town is located approximately , by road, northeast of Mwanza, the nearest large city. Musoma lies approximately , by road, northwest of Arusha, the location of the headquarters of the East African Community. The coordinates of Musoma are:1° 30' 0.00"S, 33° 48' 0.00"E (Latitude:-1.5000; Longitude:33.8000).

History and Etymology

The name Musoma comes from the word Omusoma which means,  a spit. The name refers to Musoma's many spits pointing into the surrounding Lake Victoria.

Among the current resident ethnic groups of Mara, the site that later developed into the town of Musoma was first settled by the Kurya subtribe of Abhakabhwa, commonly called Wakabwa. They also gave the name to the location. Hence, Musoma originates from the Kabwa word 'Omusoma', which actually means a piece of land that protrudes into the Lake, essentially, a peninsula. All the kingdoms in Mara, which are actually sub-kingdoms of people with a common ancestry use the word 'Omusoma' (for the Wakabwa, as well as the Wajita and the closely related sub tribes of Wakwaya, Waruri, Wakara, and Wakerewe) and 'Omosoma' (for the many Kurianic sub-tribes such as Abhakerobha - commonly called Wakiroba; Wasimbiti, Wakenye, nk.).  The full name is actually "Omosoma (or 'Omusoma') ghwa Nyabhamba".

Musoma was hotly contested and witnessed many intra-ethnic wars, particularly between the Wakabwa and their kins, the Wakiroba - who were second to arrive in the location after the Wakabwa. The Wakabwa brought in their allies, the non-Bantu Luo and were on the tip of winning the war. The Wakiroba turned to their allies, the Wakwaya but were still heading for defeat. Seeing the situation worsen, the Wakwaya and Wakiroba sought support from the Germans, who at that time had arrived in Mwanza but not yet conquered present day Mara. It was under severe attacks by the German Canons that the Wakabwa and their allies the Luo could be defeated and chased away from the area. A legacy of this war are several mass graves just outside Musoma, particularly in Nyabhange (now commonly called Nyabangi) in Kiroba Land. From that time on, the Wakiroba and Wakwaya became resident neighbors of Musoma, dominating its population for a very long time. Now Musoma is significantly cosmopolitan.

The first headquarters of the occupying Germans was established in Nyabangi, but - just like in the case of Bagamoyo on the Indian Ocean Coast, which was the first Capital of German East Africa - it  was abandoned due to shallow waters that made an unsuitable location for a harbour. Musoma became the new capital. Today, the old German 'Boma' is testimony to this history of Musoma.

Geography

The city is situated  in a heavily indented bay. The Mara River, after which the administrative region of Mara Region is named, flows into Lake Victoria, in nearby Kirumi in Kiroba/Simbiti Land.

Climate
Musoma has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw).

Notable persons from Musoma and Mara

Population
The 2002 national census put the population of Musoma at 104,851. The
2012 Census showed a population of 134,327.

People
Tanzania's founding leader, President Julius Kambarage Nyerere and Tanzania's former Prime Minister, Joseph Sinde Warioba, both attended Mwisenge Middle School in Musoma. The politician and ambassador Paul Bomani was born in Musoma in 1925.

Musoma is home to the Wakiroba subtribe of the Kuria, and to the Kwaya subtribe that is closely related with Wajita, Waruri, Wasimbiti and Wakara. It is also home to the Wajita, Waruri, Wakara, all Kuria sub tribes (including the Wazanaki and Waikizu), and the Luo, among others. Over time, several ethnic groups from other parts of Tanzania and East Africa have chosen Musoma as their home, such as Somalis. Altogether more than 12 ethnic groups live in Musoma.

Notable persons from Musoma and Mara
Musoma has produced many famous Tanzanians. Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere, the father of the nation and de facto leader of its people from 1954 when he became Chairman of Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), attended Mwisenge Primary School in Musoma. So did Justice Joseph Sinde Warioba, the country's former Prime Minister and Vice President. In fact the student list of Mwisenge reads like a 'who is who' in Tanzania's first Republic: Joseph Warioba Butiku, Col. Selemani Kitundu, Moses Mang'ombe, and others.Other senior politicians from Mara include late Bhoke Munanka, Stephen Wassira, late Abel Mwanga, Makongoro Nyerere, Nimrod Mkono, Dr.Steven Kebwe, Shyrose Bhanji, Gaudencia Kabaka and Athony Mtaka .

Mara has also produced many top rank military leaders of the country, including three Chiefs of Defence Forces: Generals David Musuguri, Late Ernest Kyaro, and George Waitara. Other generals from Mara include Late Maj. General Mwita Marwa, Brg. Gen Christopher Gimonge, and Lt. Gen Sylvester Ryoba, Late Col. Dr M M Nsimba and Lt. Col. Dr. Josiah Mekere.

A list of retired Ambassadors who hail from Mara include late James Ndobho, Nimrod Lugoe and Charles Nyirabu (late) and Ambassador Joshua Opanga. Also on the list of notable retired Ambassadors to hail from Mara Region are the former lecturer at the University of Dar es Salaam, Ambassador Dr. Marwa Mwita Matiko (now Advocate of the High Court of Tanzania), Ambassador Mrs Nyasugara Kadege, Ambassador Dr. James Nzagi and Ambassador Professor Joram Mukama Biswaro who is now AU Chairperson's Representative in South Sudan.

Mara has also produced several top notch academics. The list of senior academicians from Mara include: Prof Dominic Kamabarage the Vice Chancelor for Mwalimu Julius Nyerere University of Agriculture and Technology, Prof Majura Selekwa who heads the Mechatronics and Robotics Laboratories at North Dakota State University in USA, Transportation Engineering Professor Deo Chimba of Tennessee State University in USA, Professor Thobias Sando of University of North Florida, Economics professor Samuel Mwita Wangwe, Professor Lloyd M. Binagi, Professor Kohi, Professor Bwatondi, Professor Mohabe Nyirabu and the late Professor Paul Masyenene Biswalo, Professor Sarungi, Professor Daudi Mukangara, Professor Julius Nyang'oro and Professor Sospeter Muhongo, Tanzania's first professor of Geology. Prof. Muhongo is now a minister, Prof  Nyankomo Wambura Marwa, associate professor in Blockchain Economics and Development Finance at the University of Johannesburg Business and visiting researcher at Stellenbosch  School Business School in South Africa . He also worked with Herbert Smith Center for Technology Management and Entrepreneurship at the University of New Brunswick Canada. Francis Shasha Matambalya, Tanzania's first indigenous professor of international trade was also born in Musoma. He is a scholar of international repute in his area of specialization. Professor Ibrahim Juma, a judge with Tanzania's Court of Appeal also hails from Musoma. Mara has also produced several chemists such as Abdallah A. Kalimbika, Emmanuel Marwa, Peter Musiba, Magori Nyangi and Robert Christopher. Also Geologist Christopher Mkono hail from Mara

Other important people to hail from Mara are Alphayo Kidata, Head of TRA, Dr Samwel Nyantahe of CTI, Musiba Masamba the Meteorologist of Tanzania Meteorological Agency, Dr.Ayub Ryoba of TBC and Esther Matiko the Tarime Urban MP.

Mara has also produced several top-notch athletes: Footballer Mohammed Bakari Tall (Simba and National Team), footballer Mbwana Samata (Simba, TP Mazembe, and National Team; winner of the African Footbal Champions League with TP Mazembe), footballer Amir Kiemba (Simba and National Team, footballer Ally Mchumira (The Young Africans 'Yanga' and National Team), the Isangura Brothers (boxing, Olympians, and Commonwealth Games Medal Winners), the late Bhoke Matambalya (Jeshi Stars and national teams, ladies basketball and netball), the late Feada Faru (Jeshi Stars and national teams, ladies basketball and netball)and Late Sulusi (National athletics), Late Samuel Mahesa (JKT & Jeshi Stars Basketball and National Team).

Mara has also produced several successful business people in Tanzania and East Africa. Probably the most popular of them is industrialist Mwita Gachuma, who possesses several factories in Mwanza. He is also a hotelier. Others include Mr. Vedastus Manyinyi Mathayo who is also a businessman of remarkable stature, numbering among the few local billionaires in Tanzania who hail from Mara.Also there are emerging international social entrepreneurs like Prof Nyankomo Wambura Marwa under his Canadian flagship company of Matumaini Capital Inc.
Source: Masimulizi ya Historia ya Watu wa Mara. Mara Elders Meetings.

Economic activity

Many people in Musoma are engaged in fishing Nile perch from the lake, or own and run small businesses, or are simply employed in the  public sector or private sector (both formal and informal). Those living in Musoma Rural District are also Pastoralists, and many grow cotton as a cash crop. There are plans underway to construct a railway line from the port of Tanga on the Indian Ocean, through Arusha, around Serengeti National Park to Musoma. From Musoma, goods will be transferred to barges and transported over Lake Victoria, to Port Bell in Kampala. The project is a joint venture between the governments of Tanzania and Uganda and is expected to cost about US$1.9 billion. The city is also served by Musoma Airport.

Sport
The Tanzanian Premier League football club Biashara United is based in Musoma.

See also
 Musoma Airport
 Mara Region
 Railway stations in Tanzania

References

Populated places on Lake Victoria
Cities in the Great Rift Valley
Populated places in Mara Region
Tanzania–Uganda border crossings
Regional capitals in Tanzania

Musoma


Aston Rowant railway station was opened in 1872 and was a part of the Watlington and Princes Risborough Railway. Having closed in 1961, there have been proposals to reopen the station not only to the heritage services of the Chinnor and Princes Risborough Railway, but also National Rail commuter services operated by Chiltern Railways.

History
Operated from the outset by the Great Western Railway it stayed part of that company after the Grouping of 1923. The station passed on to the Western Region of British Railways on nationalisation in 1948, and was then closed by the British Transport Commission. The station was closed to passengers on 1 July 1957 and to goods in January 1961.

A single track ran through the station running through to pass under a bridge carrying the A40 main road between Oxford and London.

The station appeared in four films: The Captive Heart (1946), My Brother Jonathan (1947), My Brother's Keeper (1948) and Portrait of Clare (1950). Excerpts of these films can be found at The Watlington Branch Line YouTube Playlist.

Present day
The station site is to be found just before the B4009 road meets the A40 road at the bottom of Beacon Hill near the M40 motorway. If approaching from the direction of Stokenchurch, the site is immediately to the right after passing the Icknield Way. The site is at a point where a bridge took the road over the line; this overbridge remains but is infilled to road level.

The actual station site is to be found near a path through a wooded area. An area where some remains may be covered is near the edge where the earth is piled high with little undergrowth. The area is now overgrown, yet a flat concrete surface is visible and the track bed is still apparent in undergrowth at the end of the flat area.

If explored, the overgrown area of the site reveals signs of the station's platform. The original railings of the platform are heavily bent and twisted from nature but are still in their original position. The goods platform too can still be clearly made out showing the brick construction. Bricks etc. can be found strewn around this area of the site and at the edges, where the original boundary fences remain.

Future
There were reports in 1997 that the Chinnor and Princes Risborough Railway (CPRR) wished to extend its operations to Aston Rowant. A joint venture between the CPRR and Chiltern Railways was also proposed whereby the national rail operator would construct a new station at Aston Rowant to allow frequent weekday commuter services along the Icknield Line to connect with main line traffic through to London Marylebone, leaving the CPPR to run heritage services at other times. The scheme, which would cost around £3m, would seek to take advantage of Aston Rowant's location near junction 6 of the busy M40 motorway.

References

Sources

External links
 Station on navigable 1946 O.S. map
 Photograph of Aston Rowant Station

Disused railway stations in Oxfordshire
Former Great Western Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1872
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1957
1872 establishments in England
1957 disestablishments in England

Aston Rowant railway station


The Tournament Players Club Sawgrass (TPC Sawgrass) is a golf course in the southeastern United States, located in Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida, southeast of Jacksonville. Opened  in the autumn of 1980, it was the first of several Tournament Players Clubs to be built. It is home to the PGA Tour headquarters and hosts The Players Championship, one of the PGA Tour's signature events, now held in March. Paul and Jerome Fletcher negotiated a deal with the PGA Tour, which included the donation of  for one dollar (the original check is prominently displayed in the clubhouse).

The TPC Sawgrass is situated in Ponte Vedra Beach's Sawgrass development. It has two individual courses, the Stadium Course and the Valley Course. The Stadium Course was designed by noted golf course architects Pete and Alice Dye, and is known as one of the most difficult golf courses in the world. Constructed specifically to host The Players Championship, it employs a distinctive "stadium" concept: like in other sports, fans at the TPC sit in "stands" made of raised mounds of grass. It is known for its signature hole, the par-3,  17th, known as the "Island Green," one of golf's most recognizable and difficult holes. It has a capacity of 36,000.

The course has been featured for many years on the best-selling Tiger Woods PGA Tour series of video games.

Dye's Valley Course hosted the Web.com Tour Championship from 2013 to 2015.

History
Built on  in the northeastern Florida swampland, it is about a mile west of the Atlantic Ocean. The course contains many challenging features: narrow fairways lined with hazards like marshes and "waste bunkers" (long strips of sand that groundskeepers never maintain); dozens of deep "pot bunkers," strategically placed to catch even a slightly misplaced shot; thick rough that features craters and mounds; tall, shot-obstructing palm trees; and rock-hard, lightning-fast

The Tournament Players Championship had been played at adjacent Sawgrass Country Club from 1977 through 1981, one more year than originally planned, as heavy rains during construction pushed its debut back a year. When it moved west to the Stadium Course in 1982, the story was not eventual winner Jerry Pate, but the complaints the players had about the new course, which had supposedly been built in their honor. "It's Star Wars golf, designed by Darth Vader," Ben Crenshaw pronounced. When asked if the TPC suited his playing style, Jack Nicklaus replied, "No, I've never been very good at stopping a 5-iron on the hood of a car." J. C. Snead called the course "90 percent horse manure and 10 percent luck."

Over the following year, Dye tweaked the course, making the greens less severe and replacing several  After the changes, the course became far more playable. "Now it's a darn good golf course," Crenshaw said of the improvements.

The course was the site of the U.S. Amateur in August 1994, where 18-year-old Tiger Woods defeated Trip Kuehne in the finals,  the first of his three consecutive victories.

The Island Green
TPC Sawgrass's signature hole is the Stadium Course's 17th, known simply as the "Island Green," although it is technically a peninsula. It measures only  from tee to green (requiring only a pitching wedge for most pros), but it consists of nothing but a -long green with a tiny bunker in front of it. Save a small path to the green, the green is completely surrounded by water, and its location amidst many trees causes the wind to swirl over it. Club selection in the weather conditions at the hole is a huge consideration, as there is nowhere to land the ball but on the green, in the small bunker, or in the water. It is estimated that more than 100,000 balls are retrieved from the surrounding water every year, courtesy of professionals and tourists alike.

The Island Green design came by accident: the original design for the 17th was to be a simple par-3 green only partially surrounded by a lake. However, the soil surrounding the 17th consisted of sand, which is necessary to build a good golf course, but rare on the otherwise swampy property, and by the time the course was near completion all the sand had been dug from the area, leaving a large crater. Alice Dye suggested the Island Green concept, remembering another course with a similar green. Pete was not thrilled at the idea but went ahead with it, in the process creating one of golf's most recognizable holes. Because of its popularity among fans, Golf Channel devotes eleven cameras to it during the tournament.

Probably the most famous incident that has occurred on the Island Green involved Brad Fabel in the 1998 event. His tee shot successfully landed on the green, but then a seagull swooped onto the green and picked up his ball several times. The gull found it difficult to hold the ball in its bill, but finally managed to carry it into the air and over the water, where it dropped it. One of the TV commentators quipped that the 17th now had yet another hazard. Under Rule 18-1 of the Rules of Golf, as a bird is considered an "outside agency" and as Fabel's shot was at rest, he was permitted to replace the ball at the spot where the ball initially came to rest on the green.

In the gusty opening round in May 2007, a record fifty balls found the water at the 17th hole, which broke the single-round tournament record of 45 set

During the week of Super Bowl XXXIX, played at nearby Jacksonville in February 2005, Fox Sports organized a "closest to pin" contest with MLB players, NFL players, and NASCAR drivers competing (all sports properties of the network) on the 17th green. Dale Jarrett defeated Trent Green and John Smoltz in the final by being the only player to make it on the green.

In the final round of the 2019 Players Championship, Venezuelan Golfer Jhonattan Vegas made the longest putt in the history of the hole with a distance of 69 feet, 7 inches.

Scorecard

Source:

Gallery

References

External links

Golf clubs and courses in Florida
Golf clubs and courses designed by Pete Dye
Golf clubs and courses designed by Bobby Weed
Sports venues in Jacksonville, Florida
Buildings and structures in St. Johns County, Florida
1980 establishments in Florida
Hotels in the Jacksonville metropolitan area

TPC at Sawgrass


Christ Church is a Church of England church in Coxley, Somerset, England. It was built in 1839–40 to the designs of Richard Carver and is a Grade II listed building.

History
Christ Church was built as a chapel of ease to the parish church of St Cuthbert's in St Cuthbert Out. Owing to the insufficient accommodation provided by the parish church and its considerable distance for some of the parishioners, chapel of eases were built at East Horrington (St John's) and Coxley to improve church accommodation for St Cuthbert Out. Christ Church was built to serve an area of the parish containing approximately 500 inhabitants, including at Coxley and Polsham. Funds were raised by public subscription and a grant from the Bath and Wells Diocesan Church Building Association.

Construction of the church began in 1839 to the designs of Richard Carver of Taunton. The church was designed to accommodate 270 people, with 196 of the seats being free and unappropriated. The completed building was consecrated by the Bishop of Bath and Wells, the Right Rev. George Henry Law, on 23 June 1840. The event also saw a sermon preached by Rev. J. H. Pinder, one of the Bishop's chaplains and a professor of theology. Coxley was made its own ecclesiastical parish on 14 September 1844.

Christ Church was restored and reseated in 1903–04 for an approximate cost of £500. The plans were drawn up by the Diocesan architect Mr. Edmund Buckle and the work was carried out by Messrs. Dell Brothers of Wells. Work began in September 1903 and the church was reopened on 27 February 1904, the event being attended by the Bishop of Bath and Wells, the Right Rev. George Kennion, among other clergy in the diocese. Prior to the restoration, the church's walls were in "urgent need of thorough repair" and the building also required reseating and reheating, particularly as the existing pews were considered uncomfortable and impractical.

Shortly after work began, it was discovered that the church's flooring was also in need of replacement. A new floor of wooden blocks was laid in order to allow the new benches to be installed, and tiles laid in the aisle. The church's walls, gallery and font were all restored, the interior redecorated, new benches of Austrian oak installed, the pulpit relocated, the trusses of the roof altered and the east window raised and enlarged. A new oak pulpit was also gifted by friends and parishioners in memory of Rev. Dr. R. T. Wallace, the late vicar of Coxley.

A new gateway into the churchyard was built in 1963, owing to the danger posed by passing traffic for parishioners using the original gate off the main road. Repair and redecoration work to the church's interior was carried out around 1997. Today the church forms part of the benefice of Coxley with Godney, Henton and Wookey.

Architecture
Christ Church is built of coursed and squared rubble stone, with a slate roof. It is made up of a five-bay nave, chancel, west porch and north vestry. The roof's west gable has a bell-cot with a single bell and the west end of the nave contains a gallery designed for the organ and choir. The church's organ was built by Sweetland of Bath in 1857 and later rebuilt in 1936 by W.G. Vowles Ltd of Bristol.

References

External links
 The Parish Churches of Coxley with Godney, Henton & Wookey website

Churches in Somerset
Church of England church buildings in Mendip District
Grade II listed churches in Somerset
Churches completed in 1840

Christ Church, Coxley


David Lloyd may refer to:

Entertainment
 David Lloyd (biographer) (1635–1692), author of Lloyd's Memoirs of Excellent Personages
 David Lloyd (tenor) (1912–1969), British tenor
 David Lloyd (writer) (1934–2009), American television writer
 David Lloyd (comics) (born 1950), illustrator of the graphic novel V for Vendetta
 David Lloyd (actor) (born 1955), English actor and screenwriter
 David Lloyd (broadcaster), British radio broadcaster
 David Lloyd (musician), singer with Uropa Lula
 David Lloyd (sportscaster), SportsCenter anchor for ESPN

Sports
 David Lloyd (footballer, born 1872), for Thames Ironworks
 David Lloyd (footballer, born 1928) (1928–2000), for York City
 David Lloyd (riflemaker and sportsman) (1910–1996)
 David Lloyd (cricketer), (born 1947), known as "Bumble", England Test cricketer, coach, and commentator
 David Lloyd (cricketer, born 1992), Glamorgan cricketer
 Dave Lloyd (American football) (1936–2014), former National Football League player
 David Lloyd (tennis) (born 1948), founder of the David Lloyd Tennis Clubs
 Dave Lloyd (cyclist) (born 1949), and coach
 David Lloyd (squash player) (born 1965)

Other
 David Lloyd (Dean of St Asaph) (1597–1663), Welsh cleric and author of The Legend of Captain Jones
 David Lloyd (priest) (c. 1688–1747?), Welsh cleric and translator
 David Lloyd (judge) (1656–1731), chief justice of colonial Pennsylvania
 David Lloyd (botanist) (1937–2006), New Zealand plant scientist and victim of poisoning scandal
 David Lloyd (diplomat) (born 1940), British ambassador to Slovenia
 David Lloyd (Welsh politician) (born 1956), Welsh politician
 David Lloyd (chemist) (born 1974), Irish chemist and Vice Chancellor of the University of South Australia
 David Lloyd (academic), professor of English and political activist
 David Lloyd (police commissioner), British police commissioner
 David Lloyd Leisure, a franchise of gym and racquet clubs in UK and western Europe

See also
David Lloyd Jones (disambiguation)
David Lloyd George (1863–1945), Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during World War I
Gareth David-Lloyd (born 1981), actor who plays Ianto in the television series Torchwood

David Lloyd


Anchorage Island is an island about 1 km long and 0.5 km wide, approximately 2 km north-west of Davis Station. It was mapped by Norwegian cartographers from aerial photographs taken by the Lars Christensen Expedition (1936–37). Its name comes from the fact that ships arriving to relieve Davis Station used the island as an anchoring point.

It is located close to the Antarctic mainland and is uninhabited. Three crosses are located on the island commemorating Australian expeditioners who have died while at Davis Station.

References

Islands of Princess Elizabeth Land

Anchorage Island, Princess Elizabeth Land


The Cactaceae is a monograph on plants of the cactus family written by the American botanists Nathaniel Lord Britton and Joseph Nelson Rose and published in multiple volumes between 1919 and 1923. It was landmark study that extensively reorganized cactus taxonomy and is still considered a cornerstone of the field. It was illustrated with drawings and color plates principally by the British botanical artist Mary Emily Eaton as well as with black-and-white photographs.

History

Nathaniel Lord Britton was a Columbia University geology and biology professor who left the university in 1895 to become the founding director of the New York Botanical Garden. Much of his own field work was done in the Caribbean. Joseph Nelson Rose was an authority on several plant families, including parsley (Apiaceae) and cacti (Cactaceae). He had been a plant curator at the Smithsonian since 1896, and while working there he made several field trips to Mexico, collecting specimens for the Smithsonian and for Britton's newly founded New York Botanical Garden. Together, Britton and Rose published many articles on the stonecrop family (Crassulaceae) before embarking in 1904 on research leading towards The Cactaceae. With the support of Douglas T. MacDougal, director of the Carnegie Institution for Science's Desert Botanical Laboratory, the Carnegie Institution agreed to fund the project. Rose took a leave of absence from the Smithsonian to pursue it, and both Rose and Britton were named Carnegie Institution Research Associates in 1912, when more focused work on the project began. Between 1912 and 1916 Rose and Britton did extensive field work, collecting specimens and touring the botanical gardens and notable collections of Europe, the Caribbean, and North, Central, and South America.

In this period, cactus taxonomy was in a disorganized state with only a few very large and heterogeneous genera. Britton and Rose broke these old-style catch-all genera into smaller, more defined genera, ultimately classifying 1255 species under 124 genera. It has been argued that with this first major overhaul of cactus genera, they ushered in an era of 'splitting' or liberalism in cactus taxonomy, in contrast to the conservative 'lumping' approach that characterized their predecessors.

Britton and Rose defined their genera by the characteristics of the cactus plants' vegetation, flowers, and fruit, as well as by their geographic distribution. They drew on their own and others' field work, as well as on greenhouse studies and specimens in herbaria to describe species included in their exhaustive study. An important aspect of their work was their careful reexamination of existing type specimens, many of which turned out to have been incorrectly identified.

Britton and Rose published The Cactaceae in four volumes through the Carnegie Institution between 1919 and 1923. It "set new standards in cactus botany" and has been called Britton's "magnum opus". Though it was considered definitive in its own day, the taxonomy of Cactaceae has remained problematic, due in part to difficulties in preserving type specimens of cactus. Several taxonomic reorganizations have succeeded Britton and Rose's work, with a major one dating to 1984. (See Cactus entry for more details.) Despite this, the excellence of their work is reflected in the fact that some 50 of the 79 genera they authored were still considered phylogenetically sound in 1990, though some had been redefined.

A black-and-white reprint of the second (1937) edition of The Cactaceae was published by Dover Publications in 1963. In 2006, Daniel Schweich undertook a project to digitize the entire book, and all four volumes can now be downloaded in full color.

Illustrations

In 1911, the British illustrator Mary Emily Eaton moved to New York, where she was employed by the New York Botanical Garden for two decades. The great majority of color plates in the four volumes of  The Cactaceae  are by Eaton, with a handful by other artists such as Deborah Griscom Passmore, Helen Adelaide Wood, and Kako Morita. Eaton's compositions are striking and her watercolors are noted for their crispness and accuracy of botanical detail.

The color plates are supplemented by black-and-white line drawings as well as by black-and-white photographs of cacti, ranging from long shots taken in the field to close-up details. One contemporary reviewer called The Cactaceae "the most sumptuous botanical publication" since William Rickatson Dykes' 1913 book The Genus Iris.

References

External links

 The Cactaceae (complete text, downloadable, full color)
 The Cactaceae (complete text online, black-and-white)

Florae (publication)
Botanical art

The Cactaceae


The Awatovi Ruins, spelled Awat'ovi in recent literature, are an archaeological site on the Hopi Reservation in northeastern Arizona, United States.  The site contains the ruins of a pueblo estimated to be 500 years old, as well as those of a 17th-century Spanish mission.  It was visited in the 16th century by members of Francisco Vázquez de Coronado's exploratory expedition.  In the 1930s, Hopi artist Fred Kabotie was commissioned by the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of Harvard University to reproduce the prehistoric murals found during the excavation of the Awatovi Ruins.  The site was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964.

The site has been studied, and now even the campsite of the archeologists is itself of archeological interest:  the Awatovi Expedition of the Peabody Museum campsite is itself deemed an archeological site worthy of further study.

Pre-European history
Awatovi was founded sometime after 1300, according to ceramics recovered from the archaeological excavations of Awatovi. It quickly grew to be the largest and most important village within the Hopi area. It housed members of the Bow Clan and was the largest of the villages on Antelope Mesa. Recent research has placed Awatovi as the leading village of a macro-cluster that included the villages on Antelope Mesa, on First Mesa, and an outlying cluster of villages at Homol'ovi on the Little Colorado River some 50 miles (80 kilometers) to the south. There is some archaeological evidence to suggest that while modern Hopis claim ancestry with the Jeddito Phase sites, including Awatovi, these Jeddito villages may not have been Hopi.

European contact
Awatovi was the first of the Hopi villages to be visited and conquered by the Spanish. In the early 16th century, Awatovi was one of the largest and most important of the villages. It had already been in existence for about 450 years. The first European visitor, in 1540, was Pedro de Tovar, dispatched by Francisco Vázquez de Coronado to the Hopi villages a week after the capture of Hawikuh. A skirmish occurred when de Tovar arrived, but the inhabitants quickly sued for peace and offered presents of cloth, skins, turquoise, and maize. The five remaining Hopi pueblos then offered fealty to the King of Spain.

The Spanish did not visit Hopi again until 1583, when the Antonio de Espejo expedition spent several days at the Hopi villages before turning southwest to the Verde Valley. Juan de Oñate, in 1598, found the Hopis ready to capitulate formally to the King of Spain. Oñate visited the pueblos again in 1605, and Captain Gerónimo Marquez in 1614, but not until 1629 did the Spanish make any substantial missionary effort among the Hopis. This same year the Spanish friars built the mission of San Bernardo de Aguatubi over the main kiva at Awatovi, following the practice of "supremacy" where the church would be built over the most important site of the heathen religion. The documentary record indicates abusive behavior by priests at Awatovi in the 1650s. In 1656, a young Hopi man by the name of Juan Suñi was sent to Santa Fe as an indentured servant because he impersonated the resident priest at Awatovi, an act believed to have been carried out in the spirit of Hopi clowning.

During the Pueblo Revolt, the Hopis razed the church at Awatovi and killed the priests operating at the other Hopi villages. The Hopis expected reprisals for participating in the 1680 rebellion, but none came. When Diego de Vargas, the reconqueror, arrived in 1692, the Hopis apparently reswore their allegiance to Spain, and he departed without incident. Not long afterward, the Spaniards rebuilt the mission of San Bernardo de Aguatubi.

In 1700, tensions began to grow in the pueblo of Awatovi between the converted Hopis and traditionalists. By the end of 1700, the extreme hostility of most Hopis to Christian converts at Awatovi led to the destruction of the pueblo. The attackers killed all the men at Awatovi, and scattered the women and children among the other villages. The site was never reoccupied.

History after abandonment
Important early work at Awatovi was reported by Jesse Walter Fewkes in 1893–95. Extensive archeological excavations were conducted at Awatovi by J. O. Brew of the Peabody Museum in the 1930s. Brew's extensive artifact collections and archives are held at the Peabody Museum. Most of his excavations have been backfilled. "Not all Hopis approved of the Awatovi excavations; Awatovi was forsaken for a reason. By the time the Peabody's initial Department of the Interior permit ran out in 1939, the site, always on tribal land, was directly under Hopi control. The tribe chose not to renew the permit. The Awatovi Expedition opened during the Great Depression and was closed by a world war and changing circumstances."

"Because of World War II most of the reports for the Awatovi Expedition were not published until later, but by 1978 eleven reports started to appear. A "final" report for the Awatovi Expedition has never been written.""The multidisciplinary project attracted professional and avocational scholars from a wide range of disciplines. Former lawyer Watson Smith was, at the time, an enthusiastic amateur archaeologist.  He joined the expedition as a volunteer during the 1936 season and became one of its most productive researchers, as well as one of the Southwest's foremost archaeological scholars. In this classic volume [9] of the Peabody Museum Papers series, first published in 1952, Smith reported on the remarkable painted murals found at Awatovi and other Puebloan sites in the underground ceremonial chambers known as kivas."

"For several years, Museum of Northern Arizona (MNA) researchers and associates have been studying the mural and pottery paintings of Hopi and other Pueblos, with an eye toward developing a traveling exhibit. The project, formerly known as the Southwest Mural Project, was put on hold in 2003 while the MNA board reviewed the project's progress and worked to obtain a memorandum of understanding with the Hopi Tribe." "MNA and the Hopi Tribe signed the MOU in March of 2005 which, in part, allowed the project to move forward."

References

Further reading
 Watson Smith,  Kiva Mural Decorations at Awatovi and Kawaika-a, with a Survey of Other Wall Paintings in the Pueblo Southwest, Papers of the Peabody Museum, 2006 reprint
 Hester A. Davis, Remembering Awatovi: The Story of an Archaeological Expedition in Northern Arizona, 1935–1939, Peabody Museum Monographs. 2008 reprint

External links
 Awatovi Black-on-yellow Ladle at Arizona State Museum
 Hopi Nation Exemplary Arts: Section C – Subject: Ceremony – Ancient and Contemporary Images, photo gallery includes Awatovi mural images
 Watson Smith, Kiva Mural Decorations at Awatovi and Kawaika-a: With a Survey of Other Wall Paintings in the Pueblo Southwest, Papers of the Peabody Museum, hardcover 2006
 Hester A. Davis, Remembering Awatovi: The Story of an Archaeological Expedition in Northern Arizona, 1935–1939, Peabody Museum Monographs, paperback 2008
 Hopi Iconography Project at the Museum of Northern Arizona
 An Architectural History of Awatovi Pueblo, 2019 presentation to the Verde Valley Archaeology Center by Dennis Gilpin, M.A., RPA PaleoWest Archaeology

Hopi
Ruins on the National Register of Historic Places
Hopi Reservation
Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Arizona
National Register of Historic Places in Navajo County, Arizona
National Historic Landmarks in Arizona
Native American populated places
Former populated places in Navajo County, Arizona
History of Navajo County, Arizona
Ancient Puebloan archaeological sites in Arizona

Awatovi Ruins


Mount Pugh (or Pugh Mountain, or native name Da Klagwats) is a peak near the western edge of the North Cascades, in Washington state. It is located  west of Glacier Peak, one of the Cascade stratovolcanoes. It rises out of the confluence of the White Chuck River (on the north) and the Sauk River (on the southwest), giving it very low footings. For example, it rises  above the Sauk River Valley in just over ; its rise over the White Chuck River is almost as dramatic. The mountain is named for John Pugh, who settled nearby, in 1891.

According to Fred Beckey, "Nels Bruseth apparently made the first ascent in 1916". Earlier unrecorded ascents, including possibly much earlier Native American ascents, are possibilities, since the easiest ascent route is non-technical.

The trail to the summit is easily negotiable most of the way but the last  is along a razorback ridge with significant exposure. This is the Northwest Ridge, Trail Number 644, which actually starts in the Sauk River Valley on the southwest side of the mountain. The total elevation gain is almost exactly one mile ().

Climate
Mount Pugh is located in the marine west coast climate zone of western North America. Most weather fronts originate in the Pacific Ocean, and travel northeast toward the Cascade Mountains. As fronts approach the North Cascades, they are forced upward by the peaks of the Cascade Range (Orographic lift), causing them to drop their moisture in the form of rain or snowfall onto the Cascades. As a result, the west side of the North Cascades experiences high precipitation, especially during the winter months in the form of snowfall. Due to its temperate climate and proximity to the Pacific Ocean, areas west of the Cascade Crest very rarely experience temperatures below  or above . During winter months, weather is usually cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger.

Geology
The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences.

The history of the formation of the Cascade Mountains dates back millions of years ago to the late Eocene Epoch. With the North American Plate overriding the Pacific Plate, episodes of volcanic igneous activity persisted. In addition, small fragments of the oceanic and continental lithosphere called terranes created the North Cascades about 50 million years ago.

During the Pleistocene period dating back over two million years ago, glaciation advancing and retreating repeatedly scoured the landscape leaving deposits of rock debris. The U-shaped cross section of the river valleys are a result of recent glaciation. Uplift and faulting in combination with glaciation have been the dominant processes which have created the tall peaks and deep valleys of the North Cascades area.

See also

 Geography of Washington (state)
 Geology of the Pacific Northwest

Gallery

References

External links

Mountains of Washington (state)
Mountains of Snohomish County, Washington
Cascade Range
North Cascades

Mount Pugh


The Battle of Gwoździec was fought in 1531 as part of the Polish-Moldavian Wars.

The conflict was instigated by voievod Petru Rareş of Moldavia when he interfered in the succession disputes over the Hungarian throne and invaded southern Poland in support of the Ottomans. Grand Hetman Jan Tarnowski, the leader of the Polish counter-offensive, attacked and ultimately defeated Petru's forces at Gwoździec near Kolomyia, Ukraine. Tarnowski withdrew his forces northeast, but was outnumbered and besieged during the Battle of Obertyn.

Since 1945 the town of Gwoździec has been located in Ukraine and known as Hvizdets.

References

1531 in Europe
Conflicts in 1531
Gwozdiec
Gwozdiec
Military history of Ukraine
1530s in Poland

Battle of Gwoździec


The Reactable is an electronic musical instrument with a tabletop tangible user interface that was developed within the Music Technology Group at the Universitat Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona, Spain by Sergi Jordà, Marcos Alonso, Martin Kaltenbrunner and Günter Geiger.

In late 2010, a mobile version of the Reactable was released for iOS.

Basic operation
The Reactable is a round translucent table, used in a darkened room, and appears as a backlit display. By placing blocks called tangibles on the table, and interfacing with the visual display via the tangibles or fingertips, a virtual modular synthesizer is operated, creating music or sound effects.

Tangibles
There are various types of tangibles representing different modules of an analog synthesizer. Audio frequency VCOs, LFOs, VCFs, and sequencers are some of the commonly used tangibles. There are also tangibles that affect other modules: one called radar is a periodic trigger, and another called tonalizer limits a VCO to the notes of a musical scale.

Using tangibles with the display
The table itself is the display. As a tangible is placed on the table, various animated symbols appear, such as waveforms, circles, circular grids, or sweeping lines. Some symbols merely show what the particular tangible is doing, others can be used by fingertip to control the respective module.

Example of operation
If a VCO tangible is placed on the table, a VCO module is added to the virtual synthesizer. In the display, a waveform will appear between the tangible and the "output" (a bright spot at the center of the table), and a circle appears around the tangible which allows fingertip control of the amplitude of the waveform. Additionally, in this example the tangible can be rotated by hand to change the frequency.

Placing a filter tangible between the VCO and the output causes the VCO's waveform to connect to the filter, and the filter waveform to connect to the output. If an LFO tangible is placed near the VCO, a waveform will then appear connecting those two, and the LFO will modulate the VCO.

Structure
The main user interface consists of a translucent table. Underneath the table is a voice recorder, aimed at the underside of the table and inputting video to a personal computer. There is also a video projector under the table, also connected to the computer, projecting video onto the underside of the table top that can be seen from the upper side as well. There is an audio engine based on Pure Data and SuperCollider

Placed onto the table are the tangibles that have fiducials attached to their underside which are seen through the table by the camera. The fiducials are printed black-and-white images, consisting of circles and dots in varying patterns, optimized for use by reacTIVision. reacTIVision then uses the fiducials to understand the function of a particular tangible.

Most of the tangibles are flat, with one fiducial on the underside. Some other tangibles are cubes, with fiducials attached to several sides, allowing those tangibles to serve multiple functions.

Currently, there are two versions of the Reactable, Reactable Live! and the Reactable experience. Reactable Live is a smaller, more portable version designed for professional musicians. The Reactable experience is more like the original Reactable, and suited for installations in public spaces.

reacTIVision

The live video stream received from a digital video camera is processed by the open-source computer vision software called reacTIVision, originally developed by Martin Kaltenbrunner and Ross Bencina for the Reactable project. reacTIVision detects cartesian and rotational placement of fiducials on the table surface, then emits the specially designed Open Sound Control based network protocol called TUIO, which communicates to the actual synthesizer and visualization software that outputs to the video projector. reacTIVision is also capable of multi-touch fingertip tracking.

Presentations

The Reactable has been presented and performed at various festivals and conferences such as Ars Electronica, Sónar, NIME and SIGGRAPH. Over the years, the Reactable team has showcased more than 150 presentations and concerts in more than 30 countries around the world.

Icelandic singer Björk is perhaps the first musician outside of the select presentations and demonstrations to use a Reactable in live performance. Björk's 2007 world tour supporting her 2007 release Volta used the instrument in several songs including "Declare Independence"; Björk's live inaugural use of the instrument took place at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival on April 27, 2007.

Recently splitting into two models, the Reactable Experience is on display in many exhibitions. Some of these include: INTECH, Discovery World, Museum of Science and Industry, Sub Mix Pro, ZKM, and Game Science Center Berlin.

During the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, the Reactable was featured at the CODE festival. Throughout February, this event featured interactive media paired with sports and music.

In March 2010, a Reactable was installed at Discovery Place in Charlotte, North Carolina. as part of the 'Think it up' exhibition which opened to the public on May 1, 2010

From July 2, 2010, until October 1, 2010, a Reactable Experience was on display in the Science Gallery in Trinity College Dublin, Ireland, as part of their 'BioRhythm' exhibition.

There is Reactable at the Centre des sciences de Montréal in Montreal, Canada.

In 2011 the band Nero featured a Reactable in the music video of their single "Promises".

From March 2011 a Reactable is on display in Copernicus Science Centre, Warsaw, Poland. It is a part of "Re:Generation" exhibition and is available for use by visitors.

British band Coldplay used a Reactable during their performance of their song "Midnight" during iTunes Festival at SXSW on March 11, 2014.

Awards
The Reactable received much attention from bloggers and was featured in major TV shows and popular magazines. Rolling Stone Magazine claimed that the Reactable was the hot instrument of 2007. The device has also received several awards including Prix Ars Electronica Golden Nica for Digital Musics, the MIDEM Hottest Music Biz Start-Up Award, and two D&AD Yellow Pencil Awards in 2008.

See also
 Audiocubes
 Multi-touch
 Tenori-on
 Turntables

References

External links

 Reactable website
 Music Technology Group
 View Demo 1
 View Demo 2

Electronic musical instruments
Experimental musical instruments
Surface computing
User interfaces

Reactable


Ramiro Garcés (died 6 January 1083) was the second son of king García Sánchez III of Pamplona and queen Stephania. He was a powerful nobleman in the region around Nájera and Calahorra and a major figure at the courts of both Navarre and Castile. He was ambushed and killed while trying to take possession of the castle of Rueda de Jalón during the Reconquista.

In Navarre
Ramiro is first mentioned in a charter of his father's dated 18 April, probably 1052, as an infans, and he continued to appear as infans, during the reign of his brother, Sancho IV. He confirmed a charter on 11 March 1055, and another, a grant of Gomesano, Bishop of Calahorra, on 19 March 1058. On 20 July 1062 Ranimirus infans, Garsea rex prolis (infante Ramiro, child of king García) donated property to the prior of San Martín de Albelda, which was confirmed by the then lord of Calahorra, Fortún Garcés. The will of queen Stephania, dated 1066, bequeathed some property to Ramiro, who is referred to as in Sancto Stephano in a charter of Sancho IV's of 17 April 1072. He appears as domnus Ranimirus, dominator Sanacti Stefani (lord Ramiro, lord of Saint Stephen) on 6 August that year. He can be seen subsequently involved in the politics of the neighbouring Kingdom of Aragon, when he witnessed a charter of Garsias [...] Aragonensium episcopus (García [...] bishop of the Aragonese) introducing the Augustinian rule into the cathedral of San Pedro de Jaca (1076/9), using only the formula regis filius (son of the king).

In Castile
In 1076 Sancho IV was assassinated, leaving infant heirs, and the kingdom's neighbors pounced on the opportunity. The western provinces were annexed by Alfonso VI of Castile while in Pamplona, the capital, Sancho Ramírez of Aragon was elected king by the nobles. Bernard Reilly believed that Ramiro became a ward of Alfonso VI at Nájera in June and July 1076, but as Ramiro must have been an adult this seems unlikely. He was certainly at the Castilian court by 3 September 1079, however, when he and his sister Ermesinda signed confirmed a charter of Aldefonsus (Alfonso) imperator totius Hispanie. Ermesinda married Fortún Sánchez, lord of Yarnoz, while Ramiro's other sister, Urraca, married García Ordóñez, a powerful Castilian magnate.

Ramiro appears as lord of Calahorra between 1076 and 1082. On 18 April 1081, Alfonso VI confirmed Ramiro's donation of property to Santa María la Real of Nájera, which his father had founded, and he donated a servant to San Martín de Albelda on 23 January 1082.

Death
The circumstances surrounding Ramiro's death are narrated at length by the Historia Roderici. In December 1082 Albofalac, the governor of Rueda de Jalón, made a pronunciamiento in a favour of Yusuf al-Muzaffar, the imprisoned brother of al-Muqtadir, recently deceased ruler of Zaragoza, and rebelled against al-Mu'tamin, al-Muqtadir's son and successor. At the same time Ibn al-Royolo, who had brought Denia to al-Muqtadir in 1076, was now suspected of intriguing with Alfonso VI against al-Mu'tamin. Further, a recently failed embassy led by Sisnando Davidiz to the court of Zaragoza may have warmed Alfonso to the invitation of Albofalac to take part in his revolt, which he eventually requested. Alfonso sent an army under Ramiro Garcés and Gonzalo Salvadórez, lord of Lara. Ramiro and Gonzalo held talks with Yusuf, now free (Albofalac had been his jailer), who may have urged them to request the king's presence. Alfonso did appear, but only for a short while. After his departure, Yusuf suddenly died. Albofalac, through Ramiro, then invited Alfonso to take possession of his castle of Rueda, and the king sent Ramiro and Gonzalo under a safe conduct. When they and their men entered the castle, they were massacred by the garrison, who pelted them with stones. One of the nobles killed was Ramiro's  half-brother, Sancho Garcés.

The disaster is placed in 1084 by the Annales Compostellani, Chronicon Iriense, Chronicon Burgense, and Annales Complutenses. The date of the Historia Roderici, however is confirmed by the Chronica Naierensis and has the support of Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Antonio Ubieto Arteta, R. A. Fletcher, and B. F. Reilly.

Notes

Sources
Barton, Simon. 1997. The Aristocracy in Twelfth-Century León and Castile. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Barton, Simon and Richard A. Fletcher, edd. 2000. The World of El Cid: Chronicles of the Spanish Reconquest. Manchester: Manchester University Press. .
Catalán, Diego. 1966. "Sobre el «Ihante» que quemó la mezquita de Elvira y la crisis de Navarra en el siglo XI". Al-Andalus, 31(1): 209–35.
Fletcher, Richard A. 1989. The Quest for El Cid. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. .
Reilly, Bernard F. 1988. The Kingdom of León-Castilla under King Alfonso VI, 1065–1109. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

1083 deaths
People of the Reconquista
Year of birth unknown
Sons of kings

Ramiro Garcés, Lord of Calahorra


Mānoa Falls is a 150-foot waterfall along the Manoa Falls Trail in Honolulu, Hawaii. Swimming in the pool below the waterfall is highly discouraged because there is a threat of becoming infected with Leptospirosis, a disease causing mild to moderate flulike symptoms that can last for 1 to 2 weeks. Many tourists are attracted to the waterfall and the scenery throughout the trail leading to it. Another attraction near Mānoa Falls is the Lyon Arboretum, which preserves many endangered Hawaiian plant species. The hike to the waterfall and back takes about one hour. The waterfall and surrounding area experience rainfall almost every day, and flash floods can occur.

Characteristics
Mānoa Falls is located on the island of Oahu in Honolulu, Hawaii, in Manoa Valley, and comprise a 150 foot waterfall that empties into a small pool of water. The waterfall is nestled in the mountains of Koolau in a tropical rainforest. Since the area surrounding the waterfall is considered a tropical rainforest, it is prone to heavy rainfall often making the ground damp and muddy The high amount of precipitation leads to a high amount of plant life near the falls. There is often less water in the waterfall during the summer months, which leaves peak tourism extending from summer to fall, before the rainy months of November–March.

Dangers

Leptospirosis
Swimming in the pool at the bottom of the falls is discouraged. This is due both to occasional rockfalls and to the bacterial disease leptospirosis, which causes severe flu-like symptoms. Leptospirosis is found in freshwater and is common in tropical climates. In Hawaii, rats and mice often carry the disease and can easily transfer it to humans through their urine.

Deaths
A 19 year old valedictorian from Kaiser High School, in Honolulu, Hawaii, died from falling from the top of Mānoa Falls on June 15, 2016. Kristi Takanishi died two days after the incident and the cause of death was determined to be from blunt force trauma to the head.

A 27 year old man died from falling from the top of Mānoa Falls on December 17, 2018. The man's name has yet to be released.

Phillip Scott Mann fell from the top of the falls and died on April 11, 2012. His body was not found until around 2p.m. the following day April 12th. Cause of death was blunt force trauma from the almost 200ft fall. Phillip was from Scottsmoor, Florida, and moved to Hawaii in 2011.

Ecology

The Lyon Arboretum is located at the entrance to the Mānoa Falls Trail in Mānoa Valley. It contains over 5000 plant species. Some plant species included are heliconias, gingers, aroids, bromeliads, and some native Hawaiian plants. Many tourists visit the arboretum but some also go for research and academic purposes. It provides several different programs that develop innovations to restore endangered native Hawaiian plants.

Sources

Waterfalls of Hawaii
Oahu
Landforms of Oahu
Tourist attractions in Honolulu County, Hawaii

Manoa Falls