Rudolf Sanzin (4 June 1874 – 2 June 1922) was an Austrian engineer and locomotive designer.

Life
Rudolf Sanzin was born in Mürzzuschlag, in the province of Styria, Austria on 4 June 1874. His father was an official with the Austrian Southern Railway or Südbahn. After completing his A levels (Matura) he studied at the Graz University of Technology until 1900. The following year he was himself given a job with the Südbahn, but did his doctorate in 1904 at Graz (with a dissertation entitled Investigations into the performance of a locomotive and confirmation of the optimum loading of the same).

His subsequent publications caught the attention of the railway ministry, with the result that Karl Gölsdorf recruited him to the ministry, where he worked as a design engineer. Later on, he became the head of the department for the design of electric locomotives in the then Electrification Office.

He obtained post-doctoral qualifications at Graz in 1906 and at the Vienna University of Technology in 1909, where he was appointed as a reader in 1919.

In addition to his career work, he was also an avid artist and produced numerous drawings and water colours. This activity led however to his death: whilst on holiday in Trieste he died as a result of poisoning from one of his paints on 2 June 1922.

He rests in a grave in Vienna's central cemetery, no. 16B-9-25. In 1942 the Sanzingasse street in Vienna's Favoriten district was named in his honour.

See also
 List of railway pioneers

Sources
HR Ing. Albrecht: Dr. Rudolf Sanzin †, In: Zeitschrift des österreichischen Ingenieur- und Architektenverein, 1922, ISSN 0372-9605

1874 births
1922 deaths
People from Mürzzuschlag
Austrian railway pioneers
Austrian railway mechanical engineers
Graz University of Technology alumni
Academic staff of TU Wien
Deaths by poisoning
Engineers from Austria-Hungary

Rudolf Sanzin


A pootch is a poke that is pairt o an item o claes, reaked throu an appenin in the claes. The material o the claes is shapit tae mak thae wee pokes or spleuchans that are verra haundy for haudin smaw amoonts o siller an ither wee objects for daily uise.

Pootchs can be on breeks, sarks, skirts, or dresses. Pootchs come in verra sindry styles, shapes, closed or unclosed wi zippers or buttons. Some styles o claes tho, daena hae pootchs.

An "oxter-pootch" is a pootch on the breest o a sark or jaiket.

See forby

 Rype-pootch

Pairts o cleidin

Pootch


The Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra (MSO) is an American symphony orchestra based in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The orchestra performs primarily at the Bradley Symphony Center in Allen-Bradley Hall. The orchestra also serves as the orchestra for Florentine Opera productions.

History
The precursor ensemble to the orchestra was the Milwaukee Pops Orchestra, a part-time ensemble which had been founded 10 years earlier.  In 1959, the orchestra formally changed its name to the Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra, hiring Harry John Brown as its first music director.  During his nine-year tenure, Brown led the orchestra's transition from a semi-professional pops group to a fully professional, full-time symphony orchestra.

During the tenure of Kenneth Schermerhorn, the orchestra's second music director, from 1968 to 1980, the orchestra had begun its 'State Tour' programme of concerts around Wisconsin, to such cities as Fish Creek, Fond du Lac, Marinette, Ripon, Rhinelander, Three Lakes, West Bend, and Whitewater, Wisconsin, as well as Naperville, Illinois.  The orchestra also initiated its concerts for students, gave its first performance at Carnegie Hall in 1972, and embarked upon its first international tour to the Dominican Republic in March 1974.  At Schermerhorn's invitation, Margaret Hawkins founded the Milwaukee Symphony Chorus in 1976.  Lukas Foss served as the orchestra's third music director, from 1981 to 1986, which saw a notable increase in performances of contemporary music and American compositions, along with the orchestra's first European tour in 1986.

Zdeněk Mácal was the orchestra's fourth music director, from 1986 to 1995.  The orchestra began to record for Koss Classics during this period, recording the entirety of Antonín Dvořák's symphonies and tone poems under Mácal's baton, established its Arts in Community Education program in 1990, and toured Japan in 1992.  From 1995 to 1997, Stanisław Skrowaczewski served as the orchestra's artistic advisor, prior to the advent of Andreas Delfs as the orchestra's fifth music director from 1997 to 2009.  In 1999, the orchestra performed in Cuba, the first American symphony orchestra to do so since the U.S. embargo against Cuba was implemented in 1962. Despite luggage delays, food poisoning that affected the majority of the touring musicians, and the political controversy surrounding the tour, the orchestra played to great acclaim, resulting in the release of The Cuba Concerts in 2000. In 2004, the orchestra released its recording in English of Engelbert Humberdinck's Hansel and Gretel.  Delfs became the orchestra's conductor laureate after the conclusion of his tenure in 2009.

Edo de Waart was the orchestra's most recent music director, from 2009 to 2017.  His appointment was unusual in that de Waart had not conducted the orchestra prior to his appointment.  Upon the conclusion of his tenure, the orchestra granted de Waart the title of conductor laureate. The orchestra's current assistant conductor is Ryan Tani. Past principal pops conductors have included Doc Severinsen, who holds the title of Principal Pops Conductor Emeritus, and Marvin Hamlisch.

In December 2017, the orchestra purchased the former Warner Grand Theatre, with the intention to relocate there in 2020.

In May 2018, Ken-David Masur first guest-conducted the orchestra.  The orchestra immediately re-engaged him for a subsequent guest-conducting appearance in September 2018.  On the basis of these concerts, in November 2018, the orchestra announced the appointment of Masur as its next music director, effective with the 2019-2020 season, with an initial contract of 4 seasons.  Masur took the title of music director-designate with immediate effect.

The orchestra has presented more than 100 world and American premieres of works by composers such as Lukas Foss, Philip Glass, Geoffrey Gordon, Daron Hagen, Roy Harris, Erich Korngold, Gian Carlo Menotti, Marc Neikrug, Matthias Pintscher, Daniel Schnyder, Jean Sibelius, Roberto Sierra, Gunther Schuller, William Schuman, Ottorino Respighi, Richard Rodgers, and others.  Over 22 compositions have been by MSO musicians.

Recordings and broadcasts
The MSO has also released 14 recordings on the Koss Classics and Telarc labels. These include such projects as the complete symphonies of Antonín Dvořák; an all-Kodaly disc; an acclaimed recording of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9; Berlioz' Symphonie Fantastique;  Prokofiev's Alexander Nevsky; and Smetana's Ma Vlast.  On September 16, 2005, the MSO became the first American orchestra to sell recordings of recent concerts for download on iTunes and through the orchestra's web site.

The Cuba Concerts CD features a live recording made during the MSO's 1999 Cuba Millennium Tour. 1999 also saw the release of an a cappella CD featuring the Milwaukee Symphony Chorus.  In 2002, the MSO released a CD featuring Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet and Tchaikovsky's The Nutcracker.  In 2004, the MSO released the first modern recording in English of Humperdinck's Hansel und Gretel, on the Avie label.

The orchestra is also featured on radio broadcasts via the WFMT Radio Network.

Music directors
 Harry John Brown (1959–1968)
 Kenneth Schermerhorn (1968–1980)
 Lukas Foss (1981–1986)
 Zdeněk Mácal (1986–1995)
 Andreas Delfs (1997–2009)
 Edo de Waart (2009–2017)
 Ken-David Masur (2019-)

See also
Lipinski Stradivarius
Milwaukee Symphony Chorus

References

External links
Official website

American orchestras
Culture of Milwaukee
Musical groups from Milwaukee
Musical groups established in 1959
Wikipedia requested audio of orchestras
Performing arts in Wisconsin
1959 establishments in Wisconsin

Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra


Norilsk is a city in Krasnoyarsk Krai in Siberia, with almost 180,000 people. It lies about  north of the arctic circle, and over   north of Krasnoyarsk.  There are many ore deposits in the region, especially nickel and copper. Mining ore is linked to heavy pollution of the environment. Norilsk was founded in 1935 as a site of industry, to be able to mine the ore. In 1939, the decision was taken to also build a city. Norilsk got the status of a city in 1953.

Norilsk is the northernmost city with more than 100.000 inhabitants. It is the second largest city within the arctic circle, only Murmansk is larger. Norilsk and Yakutsk are the only large cities built in the continuous permafrost zone. This means that even in summer, the ground remains frozen.

The nickel deposits of Norilsk-Talnakh are the largest-known nickel-copper-palladium deposits in the world.  The smelting of the nickel ore is directly responsible for severe pollution, which generally comes in the form of acid rain and smog. By some estimates, one percent of global sulfur dioxide emission comes from Norilsk's nickel mines.

Norilsk is a closed city. This means that a special permit is needed to be able to travel to Norilsk. This permit is  issued both by the Russian government, and the local mining comany. Foreigners usually do not get this permit.

Religion

Most people in Norilsk are Christian: They belong to the Russian Orthodox Church. There is a Russian Orthodox Cathedral, and several churches of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. In 1998, a mosque was built for the local Tatar community: It is considered to be the northernmost Muslim prayer house in the world.

Transportation
Norilsk can only be reached by airplane, or by boat.There is a railway line, which connects the city to Dudinka, on the river Yenisei. The airport lies about  west of the ciry. Dudinka is about  to the west. It is a large port on the river Yenisei. While at first, there was only the railway, a road to Dudinka has been built. The raiway now only handles freight.

May 2020 incident

On 29 May 2020 a fuel reservoir collapsed, flooding the nearby Ambarnaya River with 20,000 tonnes of diesel fuel. The reservoir was the property of the local mining company, a Nornickel subsidiary, NTEK. Russian president Vladimir Putin declared a state of emergency.  The fuel was a reserve used as a backup for the main gas supply to a power plant. The storage tank was built on permafrost. According to a statement by the company, the permafrost could possibly have melted and become unstable because of climate change. An area of 350 square kilometres (135 square miles) has been contaminated. It will be difficult to clean this because there are no roads and the river is too shallow for boats and barges. Oleg Mitvol estimates that the clean-up will cost about 100 billion rubles (1.5 billion US$) and take 5–10 years.

References

Cities and towns in Krasnoyarsk Krai

Norilsk


Gisela Kraft (28 June 1936 - 5 January 2010) was a German author and poet.   She also undertook extensive work as a literary translator from Turkish to German.

Gisela Kraft formed her own judgements and lived by them.   One adjective that repeatedly appears in sources describing her is "idiosyncratic".

Life
Gisela Kraft was born in Berlin, where she grew up during the war years.   Between 1956 and 1959 she undertook a training in Theatre and Eurythmy in Berlin, Stuttgart and Dornach.   Between 1960 and 1972 she engaged in a succession of theatre jobs.   An abrupt change came in 1972 when she enrolled at the Free University in West Berlin and embarked on a degree course in Islamic studies.   Six years later, in 1978, she received her doctorate with a dissertation (subsequently published) on the Turkish poet Fazıl Hüsnü Dağlarca.   She stayed on at the Free University as an academic researcher at the Institute for Islamic studies from 1978 till 1983.

During the early 1980s Kraft was chair of the "Neue Gesellschaft für Literatur" ("New Society for Literature") in West Berlin which she co-founded.   She was also actively involved, within the wider Peace movement, in the "Artists for Peace" ("Künstler für den Frieden") initiative.   A committed socialist, in November 1984 Kraft relocated from the west to East Berlin.   In the west she had found herself under attack from Turkish leftwing intellectuals because she had dared to translate Nâzım Hikmet's Bedreddin Epic.   In the east she was offered a permanent translating job with a major publisher.   It was unusual for West Germans to emigrate permanently to East Germany at this time:  in a posthumously published memoir entitled "Mein Land, ein anderes" (loosely "My country, a different way") Kraft would recall in comic detail the difficulty the East German frontier official checking her papers had in accepting that she had no plans to "return home" to the west.

She lived, sometimes critical but generally happily in the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) for the next six years.  In the east she was able to support herself as a poet in a way that would have been more difficult or impossible in the west, and she quickly developed a network of close friends, although perhaps her most constant companion during this period was her overindulged cat, Sofia ("Söfchen"), a present from the poet Hinnerk Einhorn after the death of her "western" cat, Leila, shortly after the crossing to the east : one of the most important services a friend could provide was to look after the cat when Kraft had to be away from home overnight for a poetry reading.   She also developed a deep affection for and knowledge of Sorbian language and literary culture.   Some years after the changes which led to reunification, she relocated to Weimar which she had known when she was a child because it was where her grandmother lived, and where from 1997 she lived out the rest of her life.

At the end Gisela Kraft fell ill with cancer.  She refused conventional medical treatment and suffered a long decline, dying in the arms of her favourite sister, Reinhild, at a clinic in Bad Berka, near her Weimar home.

Works
In her poetry and in her prose works Gisela Kraft treated her impression of her travels in the Near East and her scholarly research of Turkish culture.  From this she emerged as a literary translator from Turkish.   She received the Weimar Prize for this in 2006.   In 2009 she was awarded the Christoph Martin Wieland Translator Prize for her epilogue to Nâzım Hikmet's "Die Namen der Sehnsucht" ("The Names of Yearning").

Published output (selection)

 Die Überfahrt des Franziskus, Spieltext, Bärenreiter Verlag, Kassel 1977
 Fazil Hüsnü Dağlarca – Weltschöpfung und Tiersymbolik, Dissertation, Klaus Schwarz Verlag, Freiburg im Breisgau 1978
 Eines Nachts in der Zeit, Gedichte, Edition der 2, Berlin 1979
 Die Schlange Gedächtnis, Märchen, Harran Verlag, Berlin 1980
 Wovon lebt der Mensch, (nach Lew Tolstoi). Spieltext, Bärenreiter Verlag, Kassel 1980
 Istanbuler Miniaturen, Gedichte, Verlag Eremiten-Presse, Düsseldorf 1981
 Aus dem Mauer-Diwan, Gedichte, Verlag Eremiten-Presse, Düsseldorf 1983
 Schwarzwild, Geschichten, LCB-Editionen 73, Berlin 1983
 Müllname oder Vom Abschied der Gegenstände, Erzählung, Verlag Eremiten-Presse, Düsseldorf 1984
 An den zeitlosen Geliebten, Gedichte, Verlag Eremiten-Presse, Düsseldorf 1985
 Katze und Derwisch, Gedichte, Aufbau Verlag, Berlin & Weimar 1985, erweiterte Ausgabe 1989
 Sintflut, Märchen und Träume, Mitteldeutscher Verlag, Halle/Saale 1990
 Prolog zu Novalis, Roman, Aufbau Verlag, Berlin & Weimar 1990
 West-östliche Couch – Zweierlei Leidensweisen der Deutschen, Noten und Abhandlungen, Aufbau Taschenbuch Verlag, Berlin 1991
 Keilschrift, Gedichte, Aufbau Verlag, Berlin & Weimar 1992
 Zu machtschlafener Zeit, Postpolitisches Fragment, Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1994
 Madonnensuite, Romantiker-Roman, Verlag Faber & Faber, Leipzig 1998
 Prinz und Python, Erzählung, Verlag Eremiten-Presse, Düsseldorf 2000
 Schwarz wie die Nacht ist mein Fell, Katzenverse & Collagen, quartus Verlag, Bucha bei Jena 2001
 Rundgesang am Neujahrsmorgen, Eine Familienchronik, Edition Muschelkalk, Wartburg Verlag, Weimar 2001
 Matrix, Gedichte, Eremiten-Presse, Düsseldorf 2003
 Planet Novalis, Roman in 7 Stationen, Verlag Faber & Faber, Leipzig 2006
 Aus Mutter Tonantzins Kochbuch, 33 Gedichte, quartus-verlag, Bucha bei Jena 2006
 Weimarer Störung: Gedichte aus dem Nachlass, Edition Muschelkalk, Bd. 33, hrsg. von Kai Agthe, Wartburg Verlag, Weimar 2010
 Mein Land, ein anderes – Deutsch-deutsche Erinnerungen, Edition Azur, Dresden 2013

Translations (selection)

 Fazıl Hüsnü Dağlarca: Brot und Taube, Berlin 1984
 Fazıl Hüsnü Dağlarca: Komm endlich her nach Anatolien, Berlin 1981
 Yunus Emre & Pir Sultan Abdal: Mit Bergen mit Steinen, Gedichte –Dağlar ile taşlar ile, Harran Verlag, Berlin 1981
 Nâzim Hikmet: Bleib dran, Löwe!, Berlin 1984 (übersetzt zusammen mit H. Wilfrid Brands)
 Nâzim Hikmet: Die Liebe ein Märchen, Berlin 1987
 Nâzim Hikmet: Schakale, Frankfurt am Main 1981
 Nâzim Hikmet: Unterwegs, Frankfurt am Main 1981
 Nâzim Hikmet: Die Namen der Sehnsucht, Zürich 2008
 Marja Krawcec: Ralbitzer Sonntag, Düsseldorf 1993
 Aziz Nesin: Surnâme, Düsseldorf 1988
 Vasif Öngören: Die Küche der Reichen, Berlin 1980
 Aras Ören: Deutschland, ein türkisches Märchen, Düsseldorf 1978
 Aras Ören: Die Fremde ist auch ein Haus, Berlin 1980
 Aras Ören: Mitten in der Odyssee, Düsseldorf 1980
 Aras Ören: Privatexil, Berlin 1977
 Bekir Yıldız: Südostverlies, Berlin 1987
 Bekir Yıldız: Topkapi-Harran einfach, Berlin 1983

References

Writers from Berlin
German travel writers
Translators from Turkish
1936 births
2010 deaths
20th-century German translators

Gisela Kraft


Otto Ivar Wickman (10 July 1872 in Lund – 20 April 1914 in Saltsjöbaden) was a Swedish physician, who discovered in 1907 the epidemic and contagious character of poliomyelitis.

Life and achievements

Education and academic career
Son of a merchant, Wickman began his medical studies at Lund University in 1890, and passed the state medical examination in 1901 at the Karolinska Institute at Solna near Stockholm. In 1905 he published his doctoral thesis on poliomyelitis "Poliomyelitis acuta" in German, and the doctoral exam in 1906 qualified for  the post of  a docent for neurology at the Karolinska Institute, besides working as a district physician in the Östermalm district in Stockholm from 1907 to 1909.

As a pupil of pediatrician Karl Oskar Medin, whom he held in high esteem, Wickman predominantly devoted himself to the studies of infantile paralysis (poliomyelitis). Besides his thesis, his 1907 publication Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Heine-Medin'schen Krankheit has been rated as innovative. In the field of neurology he also published several articles.

After 1909 Wickman spent more and more time abroad. He worked at the institute of pathology and anatomy in Helsingfors and did psychiatric studies in Paris. Repeatedly having to cope with financial difficulties, he spent his last two years in Breslau and Straßburg, in both places working  as an assistant to Adalbert Czerny, the co-founder of modern pediatrics.  At the age of 41 he took his life by a shot in the heart in April 1914.

Application for the Medin chair
The reasons for his suicide are not known, since Wickman did not leave a farewell letter or any other notes. Colleagues report that the failure of his application for the post of Professor of Pediatrics at the Karolinska Institute, which, until 1914, Medin had held, was a heavy blow for him.

When the position was opened for applicants in 1912, Wickman was convinced that he had great chances of becoming successor to his mentor.  The commission of the Stockholm Faculty of Medicine, however, preferred one of his two co-applicants in December 1913. On the one hand the members of the commission blamed Wickman for not having shown sufficient diversity in his research work: as many as half of his 22 scientific publications were dealing with polio. On the other hand, there was the serious reproach that he had not given a public audit lecture, which was part of the application procedure. He had reported sick because of his "insomnia" and only submitted a sick note by Professor Czerny, who acknowledged his pupil's good didactic capacities. There is much reason to assume that Wickman eschewed the public lecture because of his stuttering, which considerably hampered his fluency of speech.

Work in polio research

Wickman became known for his achievements in polio research. As a pupil of Karl Oskar Medin and studying the findings of Jakob Heine and Adolf von Strümpell he made detailed clinical and epidemiological studies to establish the hitherto controversial hypothesis that polio can be transferred through physical contact.
He was provided with illustrative evidence mainly from the great Swedish epidemic of 1905 with a total of 1,031 recorded cases. Using the example of the small village Trästena in today's Töreboda he could show that persons with a large contact surface were infected with polio more easily. Within only six weeks 49 children had contracted the disease. First he observed a spreading of the disease along streets and railway lines. After weeks of field trials Wickman succeeded in establishing the fact that the local school played a prominent role in the spread of the disease which henceforth he named Heine-Medin disease.
Wickman published most of his articles and books in German and most of them were quickly translated into English. He came to the conclusion that polio was highly contagious. He suggested taking the so-called abortive and nonparalytic cases as seriously as the grave ones with paralysis, since they were –  as he emphasized –  instrumental in the spread of the disease. He assumed that the agent could be passed on by presumably healthy persons, and he was the first to find that polio was not exclusively, not even mainly, a disease affecting the central nervous system. Based on his observations he came to the conclusion that the incubation period of polio was three to four days, which had long been disputed but was confirmed in the middle of the twentieth century.

When he coined the term Heine-Medin disease he followed a suggestion of Sigmund Freud, who considered the naming of a disease after its discoverer less problematic than naming it after symptoms or agents. Wickman had found out that Heine's term Spinale Kinderlähmung (spinal infantile paralysis) and Medin's work on poliomyelitis only referred to parts of the disease.   Wickman's term, however, was not to assert itself in the long run.

When in 1908, in Vienna, the discovery of the poliovirus by Karl Landsteiner and Erwin Popper was announced, Wickman did not give up his work as a clinical researcher and pediatrician. Neither did he join the Swedish team of clinical virologists.  To him and his findings it did not make much difference, whether the polio agent was a virus or a bacterium.

Wickman's legacy and posthumous honours

Wickman's research work received only little immediate recognition outside the world of medical specialists. The obituary of his colleague Arnold Josefsson after Wickman's early death is an exception: "The death of Ivar Wickman means the loss of an outstanding personality, not only for our country, but for the medical world as a whole."

In the meantime, however, he has become recognized as a pioneer of polio research. In 1958 he was posthumously honoured by being inducted into the Polio Hall of Fame in Warm Springs, Georgia, USA. Third in line after Heine and Medin, followed by Landsteiner and eleven more polio experts and two laymen (one of them US-president Franklin D. Roosevelt), his bronze bust was revealed. Wickman's classification of the different forms of polio is referred to by the European section of the World Health Organization (WHO)  as a "milestone" in polio eradication.

On the other hand, as late as 1971 polio expert and author John Rodman Paul still commented on Wickman's impact: "Considering the importance of the contributions of Ivar Wickman, I do not believe that his work is fully appreciated today."

References

Bibliography
 Studien über Poliomyelitis acuta. Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Myelitis acuta, Diss. Stockholm 1905 (German)
 Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Heine-Medinschen Krankheit (Poliomyelitis acuta und verwandter Erkrankungen), Karger Verl., Berlin 1907 (German)
 Om den s.k. akuta poliomyelitens uppträdande i Sverige 1905, Stockholm 1907 (Swedish)
 Die akute Poliomyelitis bzw. Heine-Medinsche Krankheit. Mit zwölf Textabbildungen und zwei Tafeln, Berlin 1911 (German)
 Die Spasmophilie der Kinder, in: Oswald Bumke u.a. (Ed.), Handbuch der Neurologie, vol. 5: Spezielle Neurologie, part 4, Springer, Berlin 1914 (German)

Literature
 John R. Paul: A History of Poliomyelitis. Yale University Press, New Haven u.a. (Connecticut/USA) 1971 (= Yale studies in the history of science and medicine, 6), , S. 88–97
 Hans J. Eggers, Milestones in Early Poliomyelitis Research (1840 to 1949), in: Journal of Virology, 73, 1999, S. 4533-4535
 Per Axelsson: Ivar Wickmans akademiska motgång - om en tjänstetillsättning och en akademiskt defekt,  in: Läkartidningen, edited by Sveriges läkarförbund, 100, 2003.
 Per Axelsson: Höstens spöke. De svenska polioepidemiernas historia 1880-1965. Carlsson, Stockholm 2004 (= Diss. Umeå 2004),  (Swedish); with abstract in English: The Autumn Ghost. The History of Polio Epidemics in Sweden.

1872 births
1914 deaths
Swedish scientists
Academic staff of the Karolinska Institute
Swedish neurologists
Polio
Karolinska Institute alumni
Lund University alumni
20th-century Swedish scientists
19th-century Swedish scientists
1914 suicides
Suicides by firearm in Sweden

Ivar Wickman


Solomon Gandz (2 February 1883, Tarnobrzeg, Austria – 30 March 1954) was a historian of science.

Gandz published on the history of mathematics and astronomy in medieval Jewish and Islamic civilizations.

From 1915 to 1919, Gandz was professor of Jewish theology and Jewish history in the gymnasium and realschule in Vienna.

From 1923 to 1234, he was librarian and professor of Arabic and Medieval Hebrew at the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary of Yeshiva University in New York.

From 1942 until his death in March 1954, he was research professor of the history of Semitic Civilization at the Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, (except for the war years when he was in government service).

Selections from his collected works were published by KTAV Publishing House NY in 1970. "Studies in Hebrew Astronomy and Mathematics" by Solomon Gandz. Selected with an introduction by Professor Shlomo Sternberg of Harvard.

Among his major works is his annotated translation of Maimonides' Code "Sanctification of the New Moon" included in the Yale Judaica Series as well as his edition of Mishnat ha-Middot.

Works
 Gandz, S.: "The invention of the decimal fractions and the application of the exponential calculus by Immanuel Bonfils of Tarascon (c. 1350)", Isis 25 (1936), 16–45.
 Solomon Gandz: "Studies in Hebrew Astronomy and Mathematics"  Selected with an introduction by Professor Shlomo Sternberg of Harvard. KTAV Publishing House NY 1970.

See also
 Astronomy in medieval Islam
 Mathematics in medieval Islam

References
 Martin Levey, "Solomon Gandz, 1884-1954", Isis Vol. 46, No. 2 (Jun., 1955), pp. 107–110 .

1883 births
1954 deaths
20th-century Austrian historians
Jewish historians
Historians of astronomy
Historians of mathematics
Jews from Galicia (Eastern Europe)
People from Tarnobrzeg

Solomon Gandz


Islam is the second largest religion by population of North Macedonia, after Orthodox Christianity. In 2017, Muslims carried 34% to 39% of the total 2017 Macedonian population.

Muslims in Macedonia are mostly descended from Albanians immigrants, and a small Turk, Xoraxane Roma, Bosnian immigrants and Macedonian convert to Islam (Torbeshi). Most of them are Sunni Islam of Hanafi Madh'hab and Bektashi.

North Macedonia
North Macedonia

Islam in North Macedonia


A door closer is a mechanical device that regulates the speed and action of a door's swing. Manual closers store the force used to open the door in some type of spring and reuse it to close the door. Automatic types use electricity to regulate door swing behavior.

Door closers can be linked to a building's fire and security alarm systems.

History

Early days
One of the first references concerning a device to close a door can be found in the writings of Hero of Alexandria who describes his "automata" which controlled the doors of temples, both opening and closing them automatically. Weights and levers have also been used to close doors, Another device for smaller domestic doors used a loop of rope or skein fixed to the door frame, that was twisted, with a piece of wood placed in between the twists to push the door. The opening of the door twists the skein further, when the door is released the rope's torsional force pushes the arm back against the door, thereby closing it.

In more modern times the clock manufacturers Thwaites and Reed in 1850 claimed to be the original inventors of the spiral door spring. The earliest English patent for a door closing device consisting of weights and pulleys was issued in 1786 to Francis Moore The first English patent issued that mentions a spring can be traced to a few years later to that of Henry Downer. (Ironmonger) of Fleet Street, London recognised for the invention of a "spring to shut a door" (1790), There were even earlier devices invented to close a door, for instance, Mr Delevitz's model of a door with spiral spring hinges (1768) Earlier still is reference by way of a letter between Sir Edward Filmer (3rd Bart.) and his brother, Beversham Filmer dated 1748, in which they discuss a door spring. Whilst not a door closer, there was a mechanical statue, reported in the Stamford Gazette and displayed by a Monsieur Delanois at the White Swan in Stamford, December 21, 1736, that opened and closed his own door.

Closer development
The first door closers consisted of just a spring mechanism only, as time went on the rate at which the door closed was arrested or checked by adding an additional checking device. Door closers at this time were known as a door spring and check. Later these two devices were combined into one unit that both closed the door and slowed the speed at which this was done. These early "door closers" used a pneumatic piston to check the speed, later models used a hydraulic or oil filled device for the same effect.

The first patent for a pneumatic device to prevent the sudden slamming of a door was given to William Bullock and James Boaz, on May 13, 1813 (Patent Number 3695). An improved hydraulic device to prevent the "clapping" (slamming) of doors was patented by William Overden Snr and William Overden Jnr in 1864. Door closers that utilize the properties of vulcanised Indian rubber have also been patented and used.

The use of door closers expanded during the Victorian era. Companies such as William Tonks and Son, James Cartland and Sons and William Newman and Son and were all based in and around Birmingham. receiving in 1974 an award for their one millionth door closer produced.
In 1907 the Briton B was first placed on the market.

In the United States, Lewis. C. Norton started his business in 1877, entering the door closer market in 1880 with a door check for the Boston Trinity Church. Eugene Blount, Francis Richards and Joseph Bardsley also played important parts in the development, improvement and commercialization of door closers along with other companies, including Yale, Norton, Rixson and The Shelby Spring Hinge Company.

Since the 1970s/1980s Dorma and GEZE have pushed to dominate the door closer business, with Ingersol Rand, ASSA ABLOY, RIXSON having large portions of the American market.

Types

Manual

A spring, hydraulic pressure, or a combination of both, is found in manual door closers.
The energy used in opening the door is stored in a spring (compression, torsion, tension, volute or leaf), and released to close the door. Spring tension is typically adjustable, altering both opening and closing force. Most door closers use oil-filled hydraulic dampers to limit closing speed, and allow for soft closing.  Other types use a friction-based mechanical speed control mechanism.

"Controlled closers" use adjustable hydraulic valves to variously regulate the door's opening and closing speed, latch speed, and delayed action return. These allow setting of the "sweep speed" (the rate which the door travels along the majority of its closure, the sole closing setting on basic closers); the "latch speed" (the rate in the last 10 to 15 degrees of closing arc, allowing it to be set faster than the "sweep" to ensure proper latch closure); "delayed action" (which slows sweep speed dramatically for roughly the first half of its range, allowing more time for passage), and opening speed (preventing a door from being opened too fast, a useful feature in crowded environments, and those where the young, old, or infirm may be present).  It is also particularly well-suited to exterior doors where there is a danger of wind catching and blowing them open, potentially harming the door, nearby objects, people, or pets.

Automatic

An automatic door closer, more often called a "door opener", opens the door itself, typically under the control of a push button, motion detector or other device, and then uses a motion sensor or proximity detector to determine when it is safe to close it.

Automatic mechanisms are also be used for security purposes, being controlled by a keypad, swipe card, or biometrically controlled
electromagnetic device.  The latter include retina scanners, fingerprint readers, and voice recognition technologies.

Electric door closers may also be hooked to a building's fire alarm system. A triggered alarm  cuts power to any  electromagnetic hold-open device, allowing the doors to close.

Configurations

There are seven configurations of interior door-closer:

 Surface-mounted
 Concealed in frame (jamb)
 Concealed in header (transom)
Concealed in floor
 Concealed in door
Concealed in shoe
Integral to hinge
 Spring Hinge
 Self-Closing Hinge

Overhead or surface-mounted door closers come in four variations: slide-track arm, regular arm surface mounted, parallel arm surface mounted, and top jamb mounted, most are surface mounted although some manufacturers offer concealed models too.

Another type of surface mounted door closer is attached to the door frame behind the door (where the hinges are) next to the middle hinge. The "arm" (tail) rests against the door, and a spring that is twisted by the user opening the door closes the door by returning to its pre-twisted shape. This type of door closer is referred to as a "tail" spring and is one of the more simple mechanisms, having no damping control.

There is also the storm door and screen door variation of the door closer: As the name implies, these piston type closers are used on storm doors, security, and screen doors which give the home an extra line of defense against weather, intruders, and insects.  Whereas interior closers typically use hydraulics, storm door closers are more typically pneumatic, using air and springs to close the door.  Storm door closers often have a small metal square washer on the rod that is used to lock the closer in the open position if required, more recent models have a button to actuate the hold open feature to make this process easier. Concealed, jamb-mounted type door closers, mounted in morticed recesses in the door and door frame, are concealed when the door is closed. These are available in controlled and uncontrolled versions, selected according to the application for which they are intended. Such concealed closers when mounted inside a pocket in the door frame (door jamb) are commonly known as "perco's" or perkomatic closers

When door closers are mounted in the header they are known as transom closers. These can be HO (hold open) or NHO (none hold open).

Door closers that are mounted in the floor directly under the pivot point beneath a decor plate are referred to as floor springs and come in two variations, single action for doors opening one way (right and left hand) and double action for doors that open inward and outward, both types can either be none hold open (NHO) or hold open (HO). They consist of a pivot which protrudes from the top of the device and mates to a shoe (or strap) that the door is connected to, some kind of spring and a damping device to control the rate at which the door closes (very early ones had no damping), these damping devices are either pneumatic (known as an air spring or air check) or hydraulic in nature. When a floor spring is used to control a door, they can be used in conjunction with hinges but generally have a single pivot point at the top of the door, this pivot point is known as a top centre. Floor springs are usually the most expensive and most hard wearing of all the door closing devices in use.

The shoe door closer, known as a heel spring, is housed entirely in the 'heel' of the door, inside a shoe. This shoe looks very much like the shoe used in conjunction with floor springs.

Spring hinge uses a spring mounted in a hinge and is integral to its design. The spring can be either visible or hidden within a tube and can be found more commonly on interior doors. When used on doors that open both ways they are known as double action spring hinges.

A self-closing hinge combines door closers and spring hinges with an optional hold open feature into one component. These closer hinges eliminate the visual and physical clutter of using additional devices, as well as reduce maintenance problems associated with overhead and in-floor door closers. They are especially useful where other types of closers are difficult to use. The most durable self-closing hinge can handle doors up to 440 lb.

Usage
Door closers are widely used in both residential and non-residential settings. At home, they are most commonly found on screen and storm doors. They are also used in numerous applications in commercial, industrial, institutional, and public facilities from libraries and schools to museums and airports.

Fire safety
In non-residential settings, door closers are most commonly installed on bathroom doors, fire doors, and exit doors. During a fire, any door that penetrates a firewall must be fire-rated. Fire doors need to be closed in case of fire to help prevent the spread of fire and smoke. Any fire doors which are normally held open must automatically close and lock when a fire is present in the building. The function of an emergency exit rim device (crash bar or panic bar) will permit escape through a fire door, however it must re-latch once released. (A fire door must not be "dogged" to disable its latch.) In most countries fire door performance will be governed by national standards.

Temperature control
Door closers also play a role in maintaining desired interior temperatures, reducing air movement in and out of conditioned space.

Security
Door closers also play a role in security at building entrance doors, closing doors once somebody has passed through and re-latching the door lock.

Noise control
In buildings that require noise control (Studios) door closers play an important part in the suppression of unwanted noise both in and out rooms and the buildings themselves.

Privacy
Door closers are often used to ensure privacy in toilets and washrooms.

Hygiene
Door closers can also play a part in keeping buildings and rooms free from dirt, debris and pests.

See also
 Door loop, a method for providing electric cabling to a door

References

External links

Door automation
Ironmongery
Door furniture

Door closer


Zero-waste fashion refers to items of clothing that generate little or no textile waste in their production. It can be considered to be a part of the broader sustainable fashion movement. Zero-waste fashion can be divided into two general approaches: pre-consumer zero-waste fashion, which eliminates waste during manufacture, and post-consumer zero-waste fashion, which generates clothing from garments such as second-hand clothing. Historically, zero-waste models have been utilised in folk clothing, including the kimono, sari, and chiton, among others.

Pre-consumer zero-waste design
There are two general approaches to pre-consumer design. In zero-waste pattern design, the designer creates a garment through the pattern-cutting process, working only within the space allotted by the fabric width. This approach directly influences the design of the final garment, as the pattern-cutting process is a primary design step. Alternatively, zero-waste manufacturing is a holistic approach that aims to eliminate textile waste without modifying garment patterns. This approach allows garments and fabric to be fully used with no fabric wasted.

Gradable zero-waste apparel design
Mass-producing garments using a zero-waste approach poses many obstacles, as many patterns created to be zero-waste are not designed to be mass-produced. The Carrico Zero-waste Banded Grading technique is one proposed solution that utilizes bands to cut patterns without wasting textiles. In this technique, carefully planned seam placements grow or shrink allowing sizing of the clothing item up or down to create three different sizes of a garment. After conducting the study, they found that the technique was successful at creating one- or two-piece items. Some issues with this practice include the proportion of the differently sized garments and inconsistencies in seam allowances.

Differences from standard fashion production
A standard garment production process may begin with a drawing of the desired garment, a pattern is then generated to achieve this design, a marker is made to most efficiently use the fabric, and the pattern pieces are then cut from the cloth, sewn, packed, and distributed to retailers. Standard garment production generates an average of 15% textile waste.

Waste elimination hierarchy
The waste hierarchy consists of the three 'R's' - Reduce, Reuse, Recycle - in order of impact. Zero-waste fashion design reduces or even eliminates pre-consumer textile waste. However, it does not necessarily address waste created during the use life and disposal phase of the garment's life cycle.

During textile production, many pollutants are emitted into the environment. The textile and apparel industry are some of the most polluting, and both have a low recycling rate of about 15%. Zero-waste fashion design could significantly reduce gaseous emissions during the production process and help to reuse material waste.

Notable contributions
Dorothy Burnham: Cut My Cote from 1973 was a seminal text that summarized decades of Burnham's research into cuts of traditional dress.
Madeleine Vionnet's design approach aligns well with zero-waste fashion design; many of her garments had minimal waste.

References

External links

NYTimes Article on Zero Waste

Clothing and the environment
Waste minimisation

Zero-waste fashion


Paul Anthony Bannon (15 November 1956 – 15 February 2016) was an Irish professional footballer who played most of his career as a centre forward, moving to centre half for his last few years in the League of Ireland. Bannon played in England, Wales, the Netherlands, Greece and Ireland, making over 200 career appearances.

Early life
Bannon was born in Dublin, the son of Tipperary senior inter-county hurler, three-time All-Ireland title winner, Séamus Bannon.

Career

Corby Town
Bannon began his career at Nottingham Forest, scoring consistently for the club's reserve side, but never made a senior appearance for the club. Despite the offer of a trial at Swansea City, in July 1977, Bannon joined Southern Football League side Corby Town, making his debut in the first leg of a cup match, a 1–1 draw with Bedford Town. However, he failed to turn up to the second leg of the match which saw him handed a two-week suspension by the club and he would later be fined a weeks wages later in the season after failing to appear at a league match against Burton Albion. Bannon scored 11 goals in 38 matches for the club but, following a row with manager John Loughlan, was released in April 1978. Loughlan later stated: "On reflection it was probably the best thing I ever did for him [...] He was susceptible to any bad influence in the town and certain so-called friends did not help. They were forever trying to lead him astray". Loughlan would later send Bannon a congratulatory telegram on his return to the Football League in 1979.

Football League
Following his release, Bannon briefly played Gaelic football but soon returned to association football with Welsh club Ammanford Town and his impressive form in the opening months of the 1978–79 season, scoring 16 times by October, saw him join Bridgend Town. He again scored consistently and, in February 1979, he joined Football League Third Division side Carlisle United for a fee of £8,500. He spent four years with the Cumbrians, making his debut in a 2–1 defeat to Bury in February 1979, and won promotion to Division Two with the club during the 1981–82 season. In his final year with Carlisle, he spent a brief period on loan with Darlington in 1983 where he made three league appearances.

In 1983, Bannon joined Bristol Rovers and scored double figures in his first season at Eastville Stadium, including a goal in the team's 1984 Gloucestershire Cup final victory over local rivals Bristol City. The following season, Bannon spent short spells on loan at Cardiff City, making four appearances, and Plymouth Argyle where he made two substitute appearances in November in matches against Wigan Athletic and Walsall without scoring.

Greece

After a period playing for NAC Breda in the Netherlands, PAOK Bannon spent the 1987–88 Alpha Ethniki season with PAOK F.C. He played 20 matches and scored nine league goals, including a hat-trick on 14 February against Levadiakos, which made him the club's joint top scorer. At the end of the season, he moved on to Greek champions Larissa. Their first foray into the European Cup was soon over. In the first round of the 1988–89 European Cup, they were drawn against Neuchâtel Xamax of Switzerland. They overcame the Swiss 2–1 in the first leg, but fell to the same scoreline away. The match went to penalties, and Larissa lost 3–0 with Bannon missing the second kick. Bannon finished the league season with three goals from 11 appearances, and then returned home to Ireland.

Ireland
He made his League of Ireland debut for Cork City on 3 September 1989, the opening day of the 1989–90 season, against Drogheda United. Signed as a centre forward, Bannon went back to centre half because of Cork's injury problems, and he was playing in that position when he scored his first league goal, against Dundalk at Oriel Park on 5 November 1989. Former Cork player and manager Dave Barry included Bannon as a defender in his all-time Cork City eleven, selected in 2004.

Bannon played in Cork's first ever European game, against Torpedo Moscow in the 1989–90 European Cup Winners' Cup. Despite suffering from a virus, he played as the lone striker, and had Cork's only two chances – one header over the bar, one saved – as they lost 5–0 in Moscow. Bannon also played twice against Bayern Munich in the 1991–92 UEFA Cup. Overall, he made four appearances for Cork in Europe.

Bannon scored the only goal of the semi-final, against St Patrick's Athletic, to put Cork through to the 1992 FAI Cup Final. They lost 1–0 to Bohemians. In his last game for Cork, he scored the winning goal to win the 1992–93 League of Ireland Premier Division title at the RDS Arena.

He finished his playing career with Cobh Ramblers, and then assisted Mick Conroy with the running of a youth academy in Cork. Successful graduates include Ireland internationals Colin Healy, Damien Delaney and Liam Miller.

After spending 17 years working for the FAI, he died on 15 February 2016.

Honours
Bristol Rovers
 Gloucestershire Cup winner: 1984

Cork City
 League of Ireland Premier Division winner: 1992–93

References

Sources
Irish Football Handbook by Dave Galvin & Gerry Desmond ()

1956 births
2016 deaths
Association footballers from Dublin (city)
Republic of Ireland men's association footballers
Men's association football forwards
Men's association football defenders
Nottingham Forest F.C. players
Corby Town F.C. players
Carlisle United F.C. players
Darlington F.C. players
Bristol Rovers F.C. players
Cardiff City F.C. players
Plymouth Argyle F.C. players
NAC Breda players
PAOK FC players
Athlitiki Enosi Larissa F.C. players
Cork City F.C. players
Cobh Ramblers F.C. players
English Football League players
Eerste Divisie players
Super League Greece players
League of Ireland players
Republic of Ireland expatriate men's association footballers
Irish expatriate sportspeople in Greece
Irish expatriate sportspeople in the Netherlands
Irish expatriate sportspeople in England
Irish expatriate sportspeople in Wales
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Expatriate men's footballers in the Netherlands
Expatriate men's footballers in Greece
Ammanford A.F.C. players

Paul Bannon


The City Mayor of Bacolod ((); ) is the local chief executive and head of the City Government of Bacolod. Along with the Governor of Negros Occidental and the Governor of Negros Oriental, as mayor of a highly urbanized city, he sits as one of the chief executives of Negros Island.

History
While Bacolod was first established as a town on January 20, 1755, the capital of Negros Island in 1846 and the capital of Negros Occidental in 1890, the archives of the City Government of Bacolod lists Bernardino de los Santos as Gobernadorcillo upon the establishment of Bacolod as the capital of Negros Occidental after the division of the island, while Gregorio Gonzaga as the recorded Presidente Municipal in 1894. Bacolod, being a pueblo and municipality then, was composed of a municipal council headed by a president. The Presidente Municipal may opt to be assisted by deputies normally called Tiniente Mayor.

As the Province of Negros Occidental grew in importance due to the sugar industry, Bacolod became a hub for business and politics, drawing more immigrant families into the city. Along with nearby Silay, population swelled due to economic and work opportunities, including education and the Sugar Exchange Center located near the town plaza.

Cityhood
Through Commonwealth Act No. 326, sponsored by Representative Pedro C. Hernaez of the Second District of Negros Occidental, Bacolod was chartered as a city on June 18, 1938. Alfredo Montelíbano, Sr. became the first city mayor upon his inauguration on October 18, 1938, along with the formal inauguration of the City Government of Bacolod. On the City Plaza still stands the tindalo tree planted by President Manuel Quezon as a reminder of the inauguration ceremonies.

As a highly urbanized city
Batas Pambansa Blg. 51 elevated the status of the city further as a highly urbanized city on December 22, 1979. Due to this, the Provincial Government of Negros Occidental ceased to have control over Bacolod. It received funding directly from the national allocation, but meant that the citizens of Bacolod cannot vote for the officials of the Provincial Government nor run for elective provincial posts.

The last city official to have become won a post in the province was former Governor Alfredo Montelibano, Jr. After the promulgation of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Bacolod City was given its own representation in Congress as the Lone District of Bacolod.

List

References

Mayors of Bacolod
Lists of mayors of places in the Philippines

Mayor of Bacolod


នាឡិកាខ្សាច់ ឬនាឡិកាកែវ គឺជាឈ្មោះឧបករណ៍ម្យ៉ាង សម្រាប់វាស់ពេលវេលារយៈពេលខ្លី ទៅតាមតម្រូវការរបស់អ្នកប្រើប្រាស់។ នាឡិកាខ្សាច់នេះ មានវាស់ពេលចំនួន៣នាទី ក៏មាន ១ម៉ោងក៏មាន ទៅតាមខ្នាតដែលគេឆ្នៃធ្វើមក។ តាមភាសាបរទេស គេអាចហៅថាអេកថែមមើ (eggtimer) ព្រោះជាឧបករណ៍ ដែលគេប្រើសម្រាប់កំណត់ពេលស្ងោរស៊ុត។ នាឡិកាប្រភេទនេះ មានអំពូលពីរធ្វើអំពីកែវ តភ្ជាប់គ្នា ជាទំរង់បញ្ឈរ ដើម្បីឲ្យខ្សាច់ហូរពីអំពូលកែវផ្នែកខាងលើ ចុះមកផ្នែកខាងក្រោម តាមរន្ធដ៏តូចនៅត្រង់ផ្នែកកណ្តាល។ នៅពេលដែលខ្សាច់ហូរអស់ពីអំពូលកែវផ្នែកខាងលើ គេអាចត្រឡប់ឧបករណ៍នេះបញ្ច្រាស់មកវិញ គឺអំពូលដែលនៅផ្នែកខាងក្រោម ដាក់នៅផ្នែកខាងលើវិញ ហើយចាប់គិតរយៈពេល ដែលខ្សាច់ហូរចុះមកអំពូលខាងក្រោម ឡើងវិញ។ កត្តាដែលធ្វើឲ្យឧបករណ៍នេះ វាស់ពេលបានត្រឹមត្រូវ មិនលំអៀង គឺ គេត្រូវគិតអំពីចំនួនខ្សាច់ ដែលត្រូវដាក់បញ្ចូល ក្នុងអំពូលនោះ ទំហំរបស់អំពូល ទំហំផ្នែកកណ្តាល (ផ្នែក ក) ដែលខ្សាច់ត្រូវហូរចុះ និងគុណភាពរបស់ខ្សាច់។ ក្រៅពីខ្សាច់ប្រភេទនេះ គេអាចប្រើម្សៅសំបកស៊ុត ឬម្សៅម៉ាបក៏បាន។  (sources disagree on the best material). បច្ចុប្បន្ននេះ នាឡិកាខ្សាច់ ត្រូវបានគេប្រើសម្រាប់វាស់រយៈពេលស្ងោរស៊ុត ឬវាស់រយៈពេលគិត របស់ដៃគូ ក្នុងការលេងល្បែងមួយចំនួន ដូចជាល្បែងអុក ត-អក្សរ ឬ រៀបអក្សរ ជាដើម។

ប្រវត្តិ

ដើមកំណើតនៃនាឡិកាខ្សាច់មិនត្រូវបានគេដឹងច្បាស់លាស់ទេ តែវាត្រូវបានណែនាំទៅក្នុងទ្វីបអឺរ៉ុបនៅសតវត្សទី៨ ដោយសង្ឃមួយព្រះអង្គ ព្រះនាម Luitprand ដែលមកពីព្រះវិហារគ្រឹស្គមួយនៅឆាត្រេស ប្រទេសបារាំង។ Fresco "Allegory of good Government" ត្រូវបានបង្កើតដំបូងនៅឆ្នាំ១៣៣៨ ដោយលោកAmbrogio Lorenzetti។ នាឡិកាខ្សាច់ ត្រូវបានគេពេញនិយមប្រើប្រាស់ នៅអំឡុងដើមសតវត្ស៍ទី១៤ Unlike its predecessor the clepsydra, or water clock, which may have been invented in ancient Egypt, the hourglass is believed to have originated in medieval Europe. This theory is based on the fact that the first written records of it were mostly from logbooks of European ships. Written records from the same period mention the hourglass, and it appears in lists of ships stores. An early record is a sales receipt of Thomas de Stetesham, clerk of the English ship La George, in 1345:
"The same Thomas accounts to have paid at Lescluse, in Flanders, for twelve glass horologes (" pro xii. orlogiis vitreis "), price of each 4½ gross', in sterling 9s. Item, For four horologes of the same sort (" de eadem secta "), bought there, price of each five gross', making in sterling 3s. 4d."

Hourglasses were very popular on board ships, as they were the most dependable measurement of time while at sea.  Unlike the clepsydra, the motion of the ship while sailing did not affect the hourglass.  The fact that the hourglass also used granular materials instead of liquids gave it more accurate measurements, as the clepsydra was prone to get condensation inside it during temperature changes.  Seamen found that the hourglass was able to help them determine longitude, distance east or west from a certain point, with reasonable accuracy.

The hourglass also found popularity on land as well. As the use of mechanical clocks to indicate the times of events like church services became more common, creating a 'need to keep track of time', the demand for time-measuring devices increased. Hourglasses were essentially inexpensive, as they required no rare technology to make and their contents were not hard to come by, and as the manufacturing of these instruments became more common, their uses became more practical.

Hourglasses were commonly seen in use in churches, homes, and work places to measure sermons, cooking time, and time spent on breaks from labor. Because they were being used for more everyday tasks, the model of the hourglass began to shrink.  The smaller models were more practical and very popular as they made timing more discreet.

After 1500 A.D., the hourglass was not as widespread as it had been. This was due to the development of the mechanical clock, which became more accurate, smaller and cheaper, and made keeping time easier.  The hourglass, however, did not disappear entirely. Although they became relatively less useful as clock technology advanced, hourglasses remained desirable in their design. Some of the most famous hourglasses are the twelve-hour hourglass of Charlemagne of France and the hourglasses of Henry VIII of England, made by the artist Holbein in the 16th century. The oldest known surviving hourglass resides in the British Museum in London.

Not until the 18th century did the Harrison brothers, John and James, come up with a marine chronometer that significantly improved on the stability of the hourglass at sea. Taking elements from the design logic behind the hourglass, they were able to invent a marine chronometer that was able to accurately measure the journey from England to Jamaica, with only a miscalculation of five seconds, in 1761.

ការរចនា
The shape behind the hourglass has hardly any written evidence of why its external form is the shape that it is. The glass bulbs used, however, have changed in style and design over time. While the main designs have always been ampoule in shape, the bulbs were not always connected.  The first hourglasses were two separate bulbs with a cord wrapped at their union that was then coated in wax to hold the piece together and let sand flow in between. It was not until 1760 that both bulbs were blown together to keep moisture out of the bulbs and regulate the pressure within the bulb that varied the flow.

វត្ថុធាតុ
ប្រភេទនាឡិកានេះ ខ្លះគេដាក់គ្រាប់ខ្សាច់ម្យ៉ាងដ៏ល្អិតនៅខាងក្នុង ហៅថា នាឡិកាខ្សាច់ ខ្លះទៀតគេប្រើល្បាយដែលលាយដោយម្សៅម៉ាប សំណប៉ាហាំង និងកំទេចសំបងស៊ុតដែលដុតរួច។ ក្រោយមក គេក៏ធ្វើការប្រៀបធៀបលម្អិតទាំងនោះ ដើម្បីរកឲ្យឃើញថា តើលម្អិតណាមួយហូរយ៉ាងទៀងទាត់ពីអំពូលលើចុះមកអំពូលក្រោម។ ទីបំផុតគេរកឃើញថា ដើម្បីសម្រេចបានលំហូរឥតខ្ចោះមួយ សមាមាត្រនៃលម្អិតនោះមួយៗត្រូវមានទំហំ1/12 ឬច្រើនជាងនេះ ប្រៀបនឹងក-អំពូល តែមិនអាចធំជាង1/2នៃទំហំក-អំពូលឡើយ។

Practical uses

Hourglasses were an early dependable, reusable and accurate measure of time. The rate of flow of the sand is independent of the depth in the upper reservoir, and the instrument will not freeze in cold weather.

From the 15th century onwards, they were being used in a range of applications at sea, in the church, in industry and in cookery.

During the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan around the globe, his vessels kept 18 hourglasses per ship. It was the job of a ship's page to turn the hourglasses and thus provide the times for the ship's log. Noon was the reference time for navigation, which did not depend on the glass, as the sun would be at its zenith. More than one hourglass was sometimes fixed in a frame, each with a different running time, for example 1 hour, 45 minutes, 30 minutes, and 15 minutes.

Modern practical uses
While they are no longer widely used for keeping time, some institutions do maintain them.  Both houses of the Australian Parliament use three hourglasses to time certain procedures, such as divisions.

The sandglass is still widely used as the kitchen egg timer; for cooking eggs, a three-minute timer is typical, hence the name "egg timer" for three-minute hourglasses. Egg timers are sold widely as souvenirs.

Sand timers are also sometimes used in games such as Pictionary and Boggle to implement a time constraint on rounds of play, and provide a sense of urgency to the game of Quicksand.

Symbolic uses

Unlike most other methods of measuring time, the hourglass concretely represents the present as being between the past and the future, and this has made it an enduring symbol of time itself.

The hourglass, sometimes with the addition of metaphorical wings, is often depicted as a symbol that human existence is fleeting, and that the "sands of time" will run out for every human life. It was used thus on pirate flags, to strike fear into the hearts of the pirates' victims. In England, hourglasses were sometimes placed in coffins, and they have graced gravestones for centuries.  The hourglass was also used in alchemy as a symbol for hour.

The former Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich in London used an hourglass on its coat of arms, symbolising Greenwich's role as the origin of GMT. The district's successor, the Royal Borough of Greenwich, uses two hourglasses on its coat of arms.

Modern symbolic uses

Recognition of the hourglass as a symbol of time has survived its obsolescence as a timekeeper. For example, the American television soap opera Days of our Lives, since its first broadcast in 1965, has displayed an hourglass in its opening credits, with the narration, "Like sands through the hourglass, so are the days of our lives," spoken by Macdonald Carey.

កំព្យូទ័រភាគច្រើន graphical user interfaces នៅពេលដែលកំពុងដំណើរការកម្មវិធីណាមួយ ទស្សន៍ទ្រនិច (cursor) ដែលស្ថិតនៅក្នុងកម្មវិធីនោះ ដូរទៅជារូបនាឡិកាកែវ បញ្ជាក់ថា កម្មវិធីនេះកំពុងធ្វើប្រតិបត្តិការ ហើយមិនមានប្រតិកម្ម (មិនអនុញ្ញាត) ឲ្យអ្នកប្រើប្រាស់បញ្ចូល ឬបញ្ជាលើកម្មវិធីនេះឡើយ។ សញ្ញានាឡិការកែវនៅក្នុងកម្មវិធីមួយ មិនអាចមានឥទ្ធិពលលើកម្មវិធីដទៃឡើយ។ អ្នកប្រើប្រាស់អាចធ្វើការងារលើកម្មវិធីដទៃទៀត កំឡុងពេលដែលកម្មវិធីនេះ កំពុងធ្វើប្រតិបត្តិការ។ នៅពេលដែលរូបសញ្ញានាឡិកាកែវនេះរលត់បាត់ បញ្ជាក់ថា កម្មវិធីនេះនៅក្នុងលក្ខណៈរង្វិលជុំ រង់ចាំការបញ្ចប់ពីអ្នកប្រើប្រាស់ ឬធ្វើការងារបន្តទៀត ដូចជា បញ្ចូលCDជាដើម។ នៅក្នុងប្រព័ន្ធយូនីកូដ រូបនាឡិកាកែវនៅU+231B ().

Hourglass motif

Because of its symmetry, graphic signs resembling an hourglass are seen in the art of cultures which never encountered such objects. Vertical pairs of triangles joined at the apex are common in Native American art; both in North America, where it can represent, for example, the body of the Thunderbird or (in more elongated form) an enemy scalp, and in South America, where it is believed to represent a Chuncho jungle dweller.  In Zulu textiles they symbolise a married man, as opposed to a pair of triangles joined at the base, which symbolise a married woman.  Neolithic examples can be seen among Spanish cave paintings. Observers have even given the name "hourglass motif" to shapes which have more complex symmetry, such as a repeating circle and cross pattern from the Solomon Islands. Both the members of Project Tic Toc,from television series the Time Tunnel and the Challengers of the Unknown use symbols of the hourglasse representing either time travel or time running out.

មើលផងដែរ
 Water clock
 Marine sandglass

ឯកសារយោង

អានបន្ថែម
Books

Periodicals

នាឡិកាខ្សាច់


Ektos Programmatos (Off The Road) is a live album by popular Greek artist Eleftheria Arvanitaki and it was released in 1998 by Polygram Greece. The album includes "old-time classic" Greek songs that Eleftheria and her band used to play and sing during the breaks of their tours, after the end of concerts, etc...The album sold over 100,000 copies in Greece and was certified Double Platinum.

This is her first album to be imprinted with the Mercury Records label, as her previous albums with Polygram Greece were Polydor Records items. Universal Music Greece has since continued to assign the Mercury label to her local releases.

Track listing

Disc 1
"Solo Serviko, Solo Bouzouki" (Instrumental)
"To Ksefantoma"
"Apopse Sto Diko Sou Mahala"
"As Ein' Kala T' Agori Mou"
"Kindynos Thanatos"
"Ti Simera, Ti Avrio, Ti Tora"
"Siganopsihalisma"
"Parastratisa Gia Sena"
"Gennithika Gia Na Pono"
"Synnefiasmeni Kyriaki"
"Den Klaio Gia Tora"
"Oso Axizeis Esy"
"To Pouli"
"To Paploma"

Disc 2
"Hilies Vradies
"I Zoi Mou Oli"
"Istoria Mou"
"Siko Horepse Koukli Mou"
"Ti' Thela Kai S' Agapousa"
"Mavro Mou Helidoni, Ta Lianohortaroudia, Mavri Thalassa"
"Horepsete"
"I Trata Mas I Kourelou"
"Tzivaeri"
"Mes Tou Aigaiou Ta Nera"
"Milo Mou Kai Mantarini"
"Stis Pikrodafnis Ton Antho, O Giatros"
"Amarantos"
"Parapono"
"Tis Kseniteias"
"Den Tha Ksanagapiso"
"Tis Gynaikas I Kardia"

Eleftheria Arvanitaki live albums
Greek-language albums
1998 live albums
Universal Music Greece live albums
PolyGram live albums
Mercury Records live albums

Ektos Programmatos


The third Langerado Music Festival was held on March 12 and March 13, 2005.  This marked the first year of Langerado as a multi-day event and the debut of the festival at Markham Park in Sunrise, FL. Over 10,000 festival patrons attended the show in 2005.  The 2005 Langerado was also the first time the event had multiple aftershows at various venues in the area, forming what came to be known as "Late-Night Langerado."

Lineup
The artists that attended the festival included The String Cheese Incident, Medeski Martin & Wood, Toots & the Maytals, Keller Williams, Karl Denson's Tiny Universe, Michael Franti & Spearhead, De La Soul, Umphrey's McGee, MOFRO, Particle, the Dirty Dozen Brass Band, Soulive, Antibalas Afrobeat Orchestra, the New Deal, Robert Walter's 20th Congress, New Monsoon, Donavon Frankenreiter, the Benevento/Russo Duo, Kaki King, the Spam Allstars, the Hackensaw Boys, deSol, DJ Williams Projekt, Pencilgrass and the Wrinkle Neck Mules.

Langerado
Langerado Music Festival
2005 in American music
2005 music festivals
Langerado

2005 Langerado Music Festival


A Dangerous Man: Lawrence After Arabia is a 1990 British television film depicting the experiences of T. E. Lawrence and Emir Faisal of the Hejaz at the Paris Peace Conference, after the end of the First World War. One of the conference's many concerns was determining the fates of territories formerly under the rule of the defeated Ottoman Empire. The film stars Ralph Fiennes (in his first film role) as T. E. Lawrence, Alexander Siddig (then credited as Siddig El-Fadil) as Faisal, Denis Quilley as Lord Curzon, and Nicholas Jones as Lord Dyson. It was made by Anglia Films and Enigma Television first screened in April 1990 on the ITV network, before being aired on PBS in May 1992.

The film was produced in 1990, a year after David Lean's film epic Lawrence of Arabia (1962), was re-released to cinemas. It serves as an unofficial sequel to that earlier film, as it depicts events that happened after the First World War.

The film's screenplay was written by Tim Rose Price. Christopher Menaul directed.

Synopsis
The film starts with a quotation from Lawrence's 1926 book Seven Pillars of Wisdom which is used to provide the title of the film:

"All men dream: but not equally. Those who dream in the dark recesses of the night awake in the day to find all was vanity. But the dreamers of the day are dangerous men, for they may act their dreams with open eyes, and make it possible."

T.E. Lawrence is received before representatives of the British delegation, and urges them to back the claims of the Hashemites, who fought in the Arab Revolt and thus directly benefited British interests in the region. But when Faisal arrives at the post-war Paris Peace Conference, 1919 to claim Syria for Arab rule, after the break-up of the Ottoman Empire, he is delayed by French diplomats, uncertain of his intentions. Lawrence joins Faisal's negotiating staff despite attempts by the French and British to exclude the Arabs altogether (The only country portrayed sympathetically is the United States, with Woodrow Wilson's dictum to let populations decide for themselves, in terms of self-government for colonial and territorial areas).

Lawrence defends Faisal's claim to Syria by citing previous British undertakings to Faisal's father in a "secret letter", as well as their joint triumphant march into Damascus against the Turks. Faisal's main demand at the conference is for Syria to be governed by Arabs. France has a stake there, however, and has made previous colonial agreements with Great Britain which complicate matters.

Rebuffed in their initial attempts, Lawrence and Faisal tap into their celebrity status and return to the conference wearing traditional Arab robes thus becoming the talk of Paris. His sincere efforts on behalf of his Arab friends gain him allies, including Gertrude Bell and Winston Churchill. But Lawrence's newly-gained popularity after the recent Great War poses a further complication, as popular films promote him, a white European, as the "Uncrowned King of Arabia". The wartime friendship between him and Faisal is thereby strained, most notably when the two are granted an audience with Wilson, who is more interested in hearing of Lawrence's adventures than listening to Faisal's demands. As negotiations reach a peak, Lawrence is called away to his dying father's bedside. He arrives too late to see his father again alive and must leave too soon to see him buried. Meanwhile, without Lawrence by his side to handle negotiations, Faisal is forced to accept a French military presence in Syria. Lawrence angrily confronts French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, who defends French territorial claims to Syria that date back to the Crusades. Lawrence reminds Clemenceau who it was that actually won The Crusades.

The British and French challenge the Hejaz delegation's claim to Damascus, and Lt General Sir Harry Chauvel, the Australian commander of the Desert Mounted Corps of which the 10th Australian Light Horse Regiment of the 3rd Australian Light Horse Brigade was part of his force, vouches for his regiment having been first to reach the capital and formally accepting the surrender of the city. (Lawrence in theory was the senior British adviser to Faisal's Army and under Chauvel's command-Lawrence did not see it that way.) With his cause crumbling, Lawrence beseeches the American delegation to intervene. But an aide to Wilson tells Lawrence that the President has fallen ill and cannot receive him. Even in desperation, Lawrence cannot bring himself to oblige Madame Dumont, the wife of the French emissary, who propositions him. With nothing to lose, Lawrence releases information on the secret agreement between the British and French governments. He is denounced by Lord Curzon and the leaders of the British delegation as having acted like an enemy spy. Lawrence grimly observes that control of petroleum resources in the Middle East had been the primary objective of the British and French all along. Faisal and the Hejaz delegation return to Syria, where he proclaims himself king. Meanwhile, Churchill attempts to console Lawrence, promising to work with him to make things right.

A despondent Lawrence watches a newsreel showing his exploits with Faisal during the Arab Revolt. He then makes his way to see Faisal one more time. The strain in their relationship is relieved, as the two friends embrace again. Faisal expects to be deposed soon by the French, while Lawrence ruefully recalls the newsreels that dubbed him "The Uncrowned King of Arabia." Faisal laments that it is a title that suits both of them.

As newsreel footage of Lawrence and Faisal fades to white, a postscript states that after his overthrow in Syria, Faisal was installed (with help from Lawrence and Churchill) as King of Iraq, where he reigned until his death in 1933. Lawrence receded from public view and served without distinction in the British Army and the Royal Air Force before he died in a motorcycle accident less than two years after Faisal's death.

Throughout the film, Lawrence is shown writing what would become his most lasting publication, Seven Pillars of Wisdom.  As in the 1962 film Lawrence of Arabia and many biographies, the film suggests that Lawrence favours relationships with men over women. Ralph Fiennes plays Lawrence as hesitant in the public eye, smiling when forced to, knowing when to be hard in his negotiations, and completely alien to the world of women.

Cast and characters
 Ralph Fiennes as T. E. Lawrence
 Alexander Siddig (as Siddig El-Fadil) as Faisal
 Denis Quilley as Lord Curzon
 Nicholas Jones as Lord Dyson
 Michael Cochrane as Winston Churchill
 Gillian Barge as Gertrude Bell
 Jim Carter as Richard Meinertzhagen
 Paul Freeman as Dumont
 Polly Walker as Madame Dumont
 Robert Arden as Woodrow Wilson
 Arnold Diamond as Georges Clemenceau
 Bernard Lloyd as Lloyd George

Legacy
The film was a significant breakthrough for both its leading performers. After seeing Fiennes' performance, Steven Spielberg went on to cast him in the role of Amon Göth in Schindler's List, for which he was brought to international attention and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Siddig's performance caught the attention of Star Trek producer Rick Berman, who invited Siddig to audition for Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. He eventually was cast as the station's doctor, Julian Bashir.

Awards and nominations

Awards
International Emmys, 1992
 Best Drama

References

External links

 A Dangerous Man: Lawrence After Arabia at the Allmovie
 Tony Scott. "Great Performances a Dangerous Man: Lawrence After Arabia". Variety (5 May 1992)
 Chris Willman. "A Dangerous Man". Los Angeles Times (8 May 1992)
 A Dangerous Man: Lawrence after Arabia.  DVD Talk

1992 films
1992 television films
1992 drama films
British sequel films
British television films
British films based on actual events
Films set in 1919
International Emmy Award for Drama winners
Cultural depictions of T. E. Lawrence
Cultural depictions of Winston Churchill
Cultural depictions of Georges Clemenceau
Cultural depictions of David Lloyd George
Cultural depictions of Woodrow Wilson
Films set in Syria
Films set in Paris
Films set in France
Films directed by Christopher Menaul
1990s English-language films

A Dangerous Man: Lawrence After Arabia


Ayudhapurusha is the anthropomorphic depiction of a divine weapon in Hindu art. Ayudhapurushas are sometimes considered as partial incarnates of their divine owners.

The sex of the personified weapon is determined by the gender of the weapon in the Sanskrit language. The suffix "purusha" (man) is added to masculine weapons and "devi" (goddess) to female ones. The weapons Shakti, Heti (a Hatchet-like weapon) and Gada (mace), especially Kaumodaki (the mace of Vishnu), Dhanus/Dhanushya ("bow") are women. Chakra, especially Vishnu's Sudarshana Chakra (discus of Vishnu), Shankha ("conch"), Padma (lotus), Ankusha (elephant goad), Pasha (noose), Trisula (trident), vajra (thunderbolt), Khadga (sword), Danda (a sceptre or club), Bana/Shara ("arrow") and Bhindi (sling) are depicted male.

While weapons are personified in ancient Hindu epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the ayudhapurushas were depicted in sculpture starting from the Gupta era. They might be depicted as humans with the weapons against them or holding the weapon or with the weapon on their head or emerging from it. The most popular ayudhapurushas are associated with the god Vishnu and appear in his iconography.

Textual references
The first instance where weapons are personified in Hindu scriptures is in the Hindu epic Ramayana. Two daughters of the Prajapati Daksha, Jaya and Vijaya, are married to the sage Krisasva. For the destruction of rakshasas, Jaya bore fifty sons - powerful divine weapons who could take any form. Suprabha gave birth to fifty invincible sons who were called Samharas ("destroyers"). These magical weapons were known as Shastra-devatas – the gods of weapons - and were given to king Kaushika, who later became the sage Vishvamitra. The weapons served him and later his pupil Rama, an avatar of Vishnu. The Mahabharata states that at the time of the chakra-mushala conflict, the weapons of Krishna – another avatar of Vishnu, and his brother, Balarama, appear in human form from the heavens to watch the battle. They include Krishna's Sudarshana Chakra and Kaumodaki, and Balarama's Samvartaka (plough) and Saumanda (pestle). The Duta-Vakya ("envoy's message") of the Sanskrit playwright Bhasa (c. 2nd century BCE – 2nd century CE) describes an episode from the Mahabharata when Krishna goes as an envoy to Kauravas' court to broker peace between them and their cousins the Pandavas, on behalf of the latter. However, when the Kauravas try to arrest Krishna, Krishna assumes his Vishvarupa (universal form) and summons his weapons, who appear as humans. The ayudhapurushas include the discus Sudarshana Chakra, the bow Sharanga, the mace Kaumodaki, the conch Panchajanya, and the sword Nandaka, elaborate descriptions of whom are found in the text. This is the only Sanskrit play that depicts the weapons on stage as humans. The Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa mentions about dwarf-like ayudhapurushas denoting Vishnu's chakra, lotus, sword, bow, and mace.

Textual descriptions

Treatises such as the Vishnudharmottara Purana and various Agamas describe the iconography of the ayudhapurushas. Shakti is depicted as a red-hued woman seated on a wolf. The Danda is a fearful black-complexioned man with wrathful red eyes. The Khadga is also a dark and angry man. Pasha is depicted as a male snake with seven hoods. Dhvaja ("banner") is a yellow-coloured strong man with his mouth wide open. The Trishula is a handsome black-complexioned man with lovely eyebrows. The Shankha is described as a white male with adorable eyes. The Bana (arrow) is a red-coloured man with beautiful eyes, however the Vaikhaashagama describes it to be a black-complexioned eunuch with three eyes, dressed in white clothes and riding on the wind. The Dhanus (bow) is a red lotus coloured female with a stringed bow on her head. The Vishnudharmottara Purana describes Chakra as man with a fat belly and round eyes, decorated with various ornaments and holding a chamara (chowry) and with Vishnu's left hand on his head. The slim-waisted woman Gada holds a chowry in her hands and is adored with ornaments, with Vishnu's right hand resting on her head.

While the Sudarshana Chakra is depicted as a subordinate figure with Vishnu, in many South Indian Vishnu temples, the Chakra as an ayudhapurusha is worshipped in its own shrine attached to the central temple. Here, the Chakra is regarded as an aspect of Vishnu and called Chakra-rupi Vishnu – Vishnu in the form of the Chakra. In the outline of the ordinary circular Chakra with a hexagram inscribed in it (shat-kona-chakra) – stands the personified Chakra in fierce form generally with eight arms. Often, Yoga-Narasimha, the lion-man ferocious aspect of Vishnu is depicted on the back of the Chakra sculpture. The Shilparatna describes that the fierce Chakra-rupi Vishnu should hold in his hands gada, chakra, a snake, a lotus, musala (a pestle), tramsha, pasha and ankusha. He is depicted as radiant as the sun and with protruding tusks from the sides of his mouth. Another description describes the Chakra as a sixteen-armed fierce form of Vishnu. He holds a chakra, shankha, bow, parashu, asi (sword), arrow, trishula, pasha, ankusha, agni (fire), khadga (sword), shield, hala (plough), musala, gada and kunta. Three-eyed and golden-coloured with protruding tusks, the Chakra stands in the shat-kona-chakra, with Narasimha on the reverse of the sculpture.

Sculptural depictions

An ayudhapurusha is generally depicted as a two-armed figure, prescribed to shown with a karanda mukuta (conical crown). An ayudhapurusha may be depicted as a dwarf, concurring with Kalidasa's description in the Raghuvamsa. Such icons are present in Rajgir, Mahabalipuram and Badami. They may be depicted as normal humans as in Udayagiri Caves and in the Sheshashayi Vishnu panel of the Gupta era (320–550 CE)  Deogarh temple. At Deogarh, the Sudarshana Chakra is depicted against the Chakra/wheel and the Kaumodaki holding a gada. In another instance, the ayudhapurushas are depicted without their weapons, though C. Sivaramamurti opines that there is enough evidence to identify them as ayudhapurushas. The human Chakrapurusha depicted against the Chakra is seen on the chakra-vikrama coin of the Gupta ruler Chandragupta II where the Chakrapurusha – here denoting the wheel of sovereignty – is dedicated bestowing the three pellets of sovereignty to the king. The Gupta era and medieval sculptures often depict the ayudhapurushas in normal human proportions. Chola and Chalukya sculptors continued the trend, mostly focussing on the Sudarshana Chakra in a fierce multiple-armed human form. Sometimes, the ayudhapurusha is depicted emerging from the associated weapon.

In another variation, the ayushapurusha stands besides the deity with folded hands (in anjali mudra posture) with the weapon depicted on the head as part of the crown or the weapon mark on the forehead. The Sudarshana Chakra with the Chakra on his head in Deogarh and Chola era bronzes of Chakra and Gada in similar fashion are some illustrations.

In the last variation of the ayudhapurusha iconography, he/she holds the associated weapon. Common examples are the Sudarshana Chakra, the Shankha-purusha and Kaumodaki, mostly found in Uttar Pradesh and Bengal art. Sharanga with the bow in his hand and Nandaka with the sword as in Deogarh are other examples.

In some cases, the weapon may be depicted as in both anthropomorphic and their true form. While the central icon of Vishnu may hold the weapons, the ayudhapurushas of the same weapon may stand at the feet of the central icon.

Notes

References

Hindu deities
Anthropomorphism
Weapons in Hindu mythology

Ayudhapurusha


Helen Cornelius (born Helen Lorene Johnson; December 6, 1941) is an American country singer-songwriter, best remembered for a series of hit duets with Jim Ed Brown, many of which reached the U.S. country singles top ten during the late 1970s and early 1980s.

Biography
Helen Cornelius was born in Monroe City, Missouri, and was raised on a farm nearby. Her older brothers played in country bands, and she formed a singing trio with sisters Judy and Sharon. Together they toured locally with the blessing of their father. Subsequently, Helen began touring on her own with a backup band called The Crossroads.

After completing high school, Cornelius wed and became employed as a secretary. She began touring again at the end of the 1960s and signed with Screen Gems Music as a songwriter in 1970. When the company went under, she sent a demo tape to Jerry Crutchfield, who offered her a contract with MCA Records; eventually she signed with Columbia Records, with whom she released two singles. In 1975, she signed with RCA Records; two further singles followed with little recognition.

In 1976, she recorded a duet, "I Don't Want to Have to Marry You" with Jim Ed Brown; it was a major success in America. Further solo singles failed to take off, but her next duet with Brown, "Saying Hello, Saying I Love You, Saying Goodbye", was another smash, and the pair began playing on the TV show, Nashville on the Road. She continued to record with Brown, releasing the hits "I'll Never Be Free", "If the World Ran Out of Love Tonight", "Don't Bother to Knock", "Lying in Love with You", and finally notching a solo hit with "Whatcha Doin' After Midnight Baby". In 1981, after topping the U.S. country charts one last time with Brown with "Morning Comes too Early", Cornelius separated with Brown, and enjoyed moderate success as a solo artist, touring with The Statler Brothers and performing in an Annie Get Your Gun road show. In 1988, she and Brown reunited for a nationwide tour.

Cornelius opened Nashville South in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, in the 1990s, where she performed with a house band nightly. Early in the 2000s, she took a regular gig at the Jim Stafford Theater in Branson, Missouri.  Most recently, Cornelius has been an active participant in the Country's Family Reunion series, which airs on RFD-TV.

Discography

Albums

Albums with Jim Ed Brown

Singles

Singles with Jim Ed Brown

Music videos

References

1941 births
American women country singers
American country singer-songwriters
Living people
Singer-songwriters from Missouri
Country musicians from Missouri
People from Monroe City, Missouri
21st-century American women

Helen Cornelius


A soda fountain is a machine that produces carbonated soft drinks, known as fountain drinks. It does this by mixing a flavored syrup or a concentrate, with carbon dioxide and purified (usually chilled) water. The process can either be done manually, or it can be automated, by a vending machine. The first soda fountains appeared in the 18th century. They spread during the 19th century and were widely used by the early 20th century.

Soft drinks
Machines

Soda fountain


The Article 29 Working Party (Art. 29 WP), in full the Working Party on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data, was an independent European Union advisory body on data protection and privacy. It was made up of a representative from the data protection authority of each EU Member State, the European Data Protection Supervisor and the European Commission.

The composition and purpose of Art. 29 WP was set out in Article 29 of the Data Protection Directive (Directive 95/46/EC), and it was launched in 1996. It was replaced by the European Data Protection Board (EDPB) on 25 May 2018 in accordance with the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) (Regulation (EU) 2016/679).

Its main stated missions were to:
 provide expert advice to the States regarding data protection;
 promote the consistent application of the Data Protection Directive in all EU state members, as well as Norway, Liechtenstein and Iceland;
 give to the Commission an opinion on community laws (first pillar) affecting the right to protection of personal data; and
 make recommendations to the public on matters relating to the protection of persons with regard to the processing of personal data and privacy in the European Community.

The Working Party elected a chairman and two vice-chairmen, each with a two-year term of office. Their term of office was renewable only once. The Working Party's secretariat was provided by the European Commission.

The European Commission also hosts a website with documents adopted by the Art. 29 WP, press released from their plenary meetings, and other relevant information, such as on standard contractual clauses.

See also

 Right to be forgotten
 EU–US Privacy Shield

References

External links
 Art.29 Data Protection Working Party
 European Union page regarding Data Protection
 European Data Protection Supervisor

Data protection authorities
European Union law
1996 establishments in Europe

Article 29 Data Protection Working Party


Clive John Derby-Lewis (22 January 1936 – 3 November 2016) was a South African politician, who was involved first in the National Party and then, while serving as a member of parliament, in the Conservative Party. In 1993, he was convicted of conspiracy to murder South African Communist Party leader Chris Hani and sentenced to death, a sentence which was later reduced to life imprisonment. Derby-Lewis was described as a "right-wing extremist" by The Daily Telegraph; and as someone who "even by South African standards...has acquired over the years a reputation as a rabid racist" by journalist and South Africa commentator John Carlin.

He was repeatedly denied parole after he began applying in 2010, after objections from the Hani family. After his parole was declined multiple times, his appeal was taken to court where the judge granted him medical parole on 29 May 2015. He was released from prison in June 2015 after serving 22 years, due to terminal lung cancer. He died from the disease on 3 November 2016.

Background
Derby-Lewis, who was born in Cape Town, was a South African with German and Scots ancestry. He grew up in Kimberley and was educated at the then-Christian Brothers' College. He articled as a chartered accountant and worked for both an accounting firm and an oil company; he also became an Extraordinary minister of Holy Communion at Blessed Sacrament Church in Johannesburg before he left the Catholic Church in the early 1980s. He later joined the Afrikaanse Protestantse Kerk (English: Afrikaans Protestant Church), notable as a staunch supporter of Apartheid.

He spent nineteen years as a volunteer in the South African Citizen Force and became the youngest ever commanding officer of the Witwatersrand Rifles Regiment, affiliated with the Cameronians. He was awarded the John Chard Medal for long and meritorious service.

Community and political history
Derby-Lewis joined the National Party and became a town councillor for Bedfordview (1972–1977), Deputy Mayor (1973–1974) and ultimately Mayor (1974–1975), and was made a Freeman of the Johannesburg Mini-Council. He served as the member representing Edenvale, Gauteng, on the Transvaal Provincial Council (1972–1981) where he spent several years as the National Party spokesman for Education and Hospital Services. He also served on the boards of numerous other bodies including hospitals, primary and high schools, and a school for physically challenged children.

Through his involvement in politics, he met Gaye Derby-Lewis, a former nun originally from Australia. They married in 1986. This was his second marriage. Derby-Lewis had three children from his first marriage.

Parliamentary history
Derby-Lewis was a founder member of the Conservative Party at the time of its split from the National Party in 1982, due to a softening of the government's apartheid policies of racial segregation. He was a member of the new party's General Council and Parliamentary Caucus until 1993. He also served on the Transvaal Party Council, in addition to the council's Information and Financial Committee.

Following his unsuccessful election bid in the Krugersdorp constituency, Derby-Lewis was nominated as a member of parliament in 1987 (after the then constitution allowed for political parties to nominate members to the House of Assembly, in addition to their elected representatives). Derby-Lewis served on a number of parliamentary committees. He also represented the Conservative Party on the Standing Committees of Parliament dealing with the Provincial Affairs of Natal, as well as Trade and Commerce.

When the Conservative Party became the Official Opposition he was appointed Chief Spokesman on Economic Affairs, Technology and Mineral Affairs. He was the only member of the Conservative Party Parliamentary Caucus to have served in all four levels of government in South Africa.

During his tenure in Parliament, Derby-Lewis and others in the Conservative Party were staunchly opposed by the anti-apartheid Progressive Federal Party. In March 1988, Derby-Lewis was described by opposition leader Harry Schwarz as the "biggest racist in Parliament".

Derby-Lewis lost his seat after the 1989 election, and was subsequently appointed to the State President's Council, an advisory group, where he served as a member of the Economic Affairs and the Amenities Committees.

He visited London twice in an official Conservative Party of South Africa delegation, including that of June 1989, which included their leader, Dr. Andries Treurnicht and Natal party chief Carl Werth. About that time he joined the London-based Western Goals Institute as an honorary Vice-President, and was one of their delegation to the 22nd World Anti-Communist League Conference in Brussels in July 1990.

During his political career Derby-Lewis had a long history of racially inflammatory remarks, a number of which were considered off-putting even by his Conservative Party colleagues who themselves favoured a racially divided South Africa. In 1989 he claimed in Parliament that "If AIDS stops Black population growth it will be like Father Christmas." He was also overheard in 1989 remarking "What a pity" in response to a report by a minister that an aircraft had had to brake to avoid a black man on the runway at Johannesburg's airport (he later apologised, alleging that the comment had just "slipped out"). Commenting on this, Andries Beyers (a senior Conservative Party official at the time) said: "I think sometimes he became an embarrassment to us. He was very, very hardline. He had a calling to bring English-speakers to the CP, but his personal style put them off."

Assassination of Chris Hani
After the arrest of Janusz Waluś, a Polish immigrant to South Africa, for the assassination on 10 April 1993 of Chris Hani (general secretary of the South African Communist Party and leader of the African National Congress' military wing), it appeared that Derby-Lewis was involved. He had abetted Waluś and had aided him by delivering him the gun used in the assassination. A list of senior ANC and South African Communist Party figures had been developed allegedly by Arthur Kemp and included Nelson Mandela and Joe Slovo.

In October 1993, Derby-Lewis was convicted of conspiracy to murder and sentenced to death for his role in the assassination. The sentence was commuted to life imprisonment when capital punishment was outlawed in 1995. Derby-Lewis confessed his role in the assassination in his application to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission for amnesty. He said the assassination was encouraged or sanctioned by senior leaders of the Conservative Party. In his defence, Derby-Lewis said that he was acting "in defence of my people, who were threatened with a Communist take-over." He added that his Christian faith within the Afrikaanse Protestant Church was central to his decision: "As a Christian, my first duty is to the Almighty God before everything else. We were fighting against communism, and communism is the vehicle of the Antichrist."

The amnesty application was denied in April 1999. In 2000, the Cape High Court dismissed an application by Derby-Lewis and Waluś to overturn the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's decision.

Derby-Lewis applied in June 2010 for parole, on the grounds that he was over 70, and was entitled to parole in terms of South African law for having served more than 15 years in prison. The following November, Derby-Lewis' lawyer reported that Derby-Lewis was receiving treatment for skin cancer and prostate cancer, hypertension, and for a gangrenous spot in his leg.

On three further occasions (2011, 2013, and 2015) Derby-Lewis was denied medical parole. According to his representative advocate Roelof du Plessis: "The recommendation of the medical parole advisory board refers to a stage 3b cancer of the right lung with probable or inconclusive spread to the left adrenal glands, is inoperable and there is marginal response to concurrent chemo and radiotherapy with poor prognostic features". He died in November 2016.

References

External links

1936 births
2016 deaths
Politicians from Cape Town
Afrikaner people
South African people of Scottish descent
South African people of German descent
Apartheid in South Africa
South African assassins
South African people convicted of murder
South African prisoners sentenced to death
People convicted of murder by South Africa
Prisoners sentenced to death by South Africa
South African politicians convicted of crimes
National Party (South Africa) politicians
Conservative Party (South Africa) politicians
Politicians convicted of murder
People who testified at the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)
People paroled from life sentence
Deaths from cancer in South Africa
White supremacist assassins

Clive Derby-Lewis