Medicine in ancient Rome was highly influenced by ancient Greek medicine, but also developed new practices through knowledge of the Hippocratic Corpus combined with use of the treatment of diet, regimen, along with surgical procedures. This was most notably seen through the works of two of the prominent Greek physicians, Dioscorides and Galen, who practiced medicine and recorded their discoveries. This is contrary to two other physicians like Soranus of Ephesus and Asclepiades of Bithynia, who practiced medicine both in outside territories and in ancient Roman territory, subsequently. Dioscorides was a Roman army physician, Soranus was a representative for the Methodic school of medicine, Galen performed public demonstrations, and Asclepiades was a leading Roman physician. These four physicians all had knowledge of medicine, ailments, and treatments that were healing, long lasting and influential to human history.

Ancient Roman medicine was divided into specializations such as ophthalmology and urology. To increase their knowledge of the human body, physicians used a variety of surgical procedures for dissection that were carried out using many different instruments including forceps, scalpels and catheters.

Introduction

The Roman Empire was a complex and vigorous combination of Greek and Roman cultural elements forged through centuries of contact. Later Latin authors, notably Cato and Pliny, believed in a specific traditional Roman type of healing based on herbs, chants, prayers and charms easily available to and by the head of household.

Greek medicine was introduced into Italy with the establishment and development of military and political contacts between the two regions. It was not until the introduction of the healing god Asclepius in 291 BC and the arrival of the Greek doctor Archagathus in 219 BC that foreign medicine was publicly accepted in Rome, mainly due to future overall adaptation to the Roman practices.

Setting aside some of the broader implications of the Greek influence on Roman society, the effect of ancient Greek medicine, ethnography, and meteorology was particularly pertinent to two fields: architecture and health care. This was particularly important from the perspective of the Roman army, in which there were many medical advances. A medical corpus was established, permanent physicians were appointed, the valetudinaria (military hospitals) were established, and in Caesar's time, the first traces of systematic care for the wounded appeared. The variety and nature of the surgical instruments discovered in Roman remains indicate a good knowledge of surgery.

Roman medicine
Roman medicine was highly influenced by the Greek medical tradition. Prior to the introduction of Greek medicine Roman medicine was a combination of religion and magic. The first Roman physicians were religious figures with no medical training or the head of the family. The first professional physicians were Greek physicians.  Asclepiades of Bithynia arrived in 124 BC. He was a popular physician known for his kindness to his patients often prescribing wine, rest and a swinging couch. The incorporation of Greek medicine into Roman society allowed Rome to transform into a monumental city by 100 BC. Like Greek physicians, Roman physicians relied on naturalistic observations rather than on spiritual rituals; but that does not imply an absence of spiritual belief. Tragic famines and plagues were often attributed to divine punishment; and appeasement of the gods through rituals was believed to alleviate such events. Miasma was perceived to be the root cause of many diseases, whether caused by famine, wars, or plague. The concept of contagion was formulated, resulting in practices of quarantine and improved sanitation. The Romans established systems of public hygiene indicating there was an understanding that this was of importance to public health. This can be seen in their practices of burying the dead outside the city walls, their large supplies of water available through aqueducts, public bathing areas and public sewage systems. They also began draining swamps in close proximity to cities.

One of the first prominent doctors in Rome was Galen. He became an expert on the human anatomy by dissecting animals, including monkeys, in Greece. Due to his prominence and expertise in ancient Rome, Galen became Emperor Marcus Aurelius' personal physician.

In 46 BC, Julius Caesar granted Roman citizenship to physicians when the Roman army had a need for trained surgeons. The Romans conquered the city of Alexandria in 30 BC, which was an important center for learning; its Great Library held countless volumes of ancient Greek medical information. The Romans adopted many of the practices and procedures they found in the Great Library. In 10 AD Augustus gave tax immunity to physicians practicing in Rome, as well as excluding them from public duties.  These incentives caused uneducated and unqualified physicians to flood to Rome, causing tax exemption to only be offered to a select number of public physicians per region.

Greek symbols and gods greatly influenced ancient Roman medicine. The caduceus, a staff wrapped with two snakes, was originally associated with Hermes, the Greek god of commerce. This symbol later became associated with the Roman god Mercury. Later, in the 7th century, the caduceus became associated with health and medicine due to its association with the Azoth, the alchemical "universal solvent".

Opposition to Greek medicine in Rome / Pre-Physicians
Cato the Elder despised every aspect of Greek society the Romans decided to mimic including sculptures, literature and medicine. He regarded the welcome given in Rome to Greek medicine and physicians as a major threat.
In Rome, before there were doctors, the paterfamilias (head of the family) was responsible for treating the sick. Cato the Elder himself examined those who lived near him, often prescribing cabbage as a treatment for many ailments ranging from constipation to deafness. He would issue precise instructions on how to prepare the cabbage for patients with specific ailments. He also used cabbage in liquid form. For example, a mixture of cabbage, water, and wine would be embedded in a deaf man's ear to allow his hearing to be restored. Cato would treat fractured or broken appendages with two ends of a cut reed that were bandaged around the injury.

Contributors

Many Greek doctors came to Rome. Many of them strongly believed in achieving the right balance of the four humors and restoring the natural heat of patients. Around 200 BC many wealthy families in Rome had personal Greek physicians. By around 50 BC, it was more common than not to have a Greek physician.  Physicians were also more inclined to study anthropology, biology and physiology because of the great impact that philosophy had on them. The popular belief was that philosophy created interest in medicine as opposed to medicine creating an interest in philosophy.

Dioscorides

Pedanius Dioscorides (c. 40–90 AD), was a Greek botanist, pharmacologist and physician who practiced in Rome during the reign of Nero. Dioscorides studied botany and pharmacology in Tarsus. He became a well-known army surgeon. While traveling with the army, Dioscorides was able to experiment with the medical properties of many plants. Compared to his predecessors, his work was considered the largest and most thorough in regards to naming and writing about medicines, many of Dioscorides predecessors work was lost. Dioscorides wrote a 5-volume encyclopedia, De materia medica, which listed over 600 herbal cures, forming an influential and long-lasting pharmacopoeia. De materia medica was used extensively by doctors for the following 1500 years. Within his five books, Dioscorides mentions approximately 1,000 simple drugs. Also . . . contained in his books, Dioscorides refers to opium and mandragora as a sleeping potion that can be used as a natural surgical anesthetic.

Galen

Galen of Pergamon (129 – c. AD 216) was a prominent Greek physician, whose theories dominated Western medical science for well over a millennium. By the age of 20, he had served for four years in the local temple as a therapeutes ("attendant" or "associate") of Asclepius. Although Galen studied the human body, dissection of human corpses was against Roman law, so instead he used pigs, apes, sheep, goats, and other animals. Through studying animal dissections, Galen applied his animal anatomy findings and developed a theory of human anatomy.

Galen moved to Rome in 162. There he lectured, wrote extensively, and performed public demonstrations of his anatomical knowledge. He soon gained a reputation as an experienced physician, attracting to his practice a large number of patients. Among them was the consul Flavius Boethius, who introduced him to the imperial court, where he became a physician to Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Despite being a member of the court, Galen reputedly shunned Latin, preferring to speak and write in his native Greek. He treated Roman emperors Lucius Verus, Commodus, and Septimius Severus. In 166, Galen returned to Pergamon, but went back to Rome for good in 169.

Galen followed Hippocrates' theory of the four humours, believing that one's health depended on the balance between the four main fluids of the body (blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm). Food was believed to be the initial object that allowed the stabilization of these humours. By contrast, drugs, venesection, cautery and surgery were drastic and were to be used only when diet and regimen could no longer help. The survival and amendment of Hippocratic medicine is attributed to Galen, who coupled the four qualities of cold, heat, dry, and wet with the four main fluids of the body, would remain in health care for another millennia or so.

Galen wrote a short essay called "The Best Doctor Is Also A Philosopher", where he writes that a physician needs to be knowledgeable about not just the physical, but additionally logical and ethical philosophy. He writes that a physician "must be skilled at reasoning about the problems presented to him, must understand the nature and function of the body within the physician world, and must practice temperance and despise all money". The ideal physician treats both the poor and elite fairly and is a student of all that affects health. Galen thought that eleven years of study was an adequate amount of time to make a competent physician. He references Hippocrates throughout his writings, saying that Hippocratic literature is the basis for physicians' conduct and treatments. The writings of Galen survived longer than the writings of any other medical researchers of antiquity. Galen also wrote an astrological doctrine, De diebus decretorus (Critical Days Book III), in which he describes the importance of astrology in prognosis and diagnosis.

Asclepiades

Asclepiades studied to be a physician in Alexandria and practiced medicine in Asia Minor as well as Greece before he moved to Rome in the 1st century BC. His knowledge of medicine allowed him to flourish as a physician. Asclepiades was a leading physician in Rome and was a close friend of Cicero.

He developed his own version of the molecular structure of the human body. Asclepiades' atomic model contained multi-shaped atoms that passed through bodily pores. These atoms were either round, square, triangular. Asclepiades noted that as long as the atoms were flowing freely and continuously, then the health of the human was maintained. He believed that if the atoms were too large or the pores were too constricted, then illness would present in multiple symptoms such as fever, spasms, or in more severe cases paralysis.

Asclepiades strongly believed in hot and cold baths as a remedy for illness; his techniques purposely did not inflict severe pain upon the patient. Asclepiades used techniques with the intent to cause the least amount of discomfort while continuing to cure the patient. His other remedies included music therapy to induce sedation, and consuming wine to cure headache and a fever. Asclepiades is the first documented physician in Rome to use massage therapy.

Aulus Cornelius Celsus

Celsus (25 BC–AD 50) was a Roman encyclopaedist who wrote a general encyclopaedia about many subjects. His exact place of birth as well as when he lived are unknown; however, it is known he lived during the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. The only surviving work from his larger encyclopaedia is De Medicina. This work contains eight volumes, two of which are on surgery. De Medicina provides some of the best accounts of Roman medicine during his time. Its contents proved to be valuable even into the 15th century after Pope Nicolas V rediscovered it, becoming the first medical book to be published in 1478. It is still debated if he practiced medicine himself or just compiled the works of the time, much of it from Greek sources. This is important because at the time Greeks were looked down upon by the Romans and thus so was the work of doctors.

In his book he discussed the two different schools of thought at the time relating to medicine he calls "Empirics" and "Dogmatics". Empirics followed empirical observation while Dogmatics needed to understand the theory behind how a treatment works. Celsus is also credited with writing on four of the five characteristics of inflammation, redness (rubor), swelling (tumour), heat (calor), and pain (dolor). Galen would write about the fifth, loss of function (functio laesa).

Soranus

Soranus was a Greek physician born in Ephesus, who lived during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian (98–138 AD). According to the Suda, he trained at the Alexandria School of Medicine and practiced in Rome. Soranus was a part of the Methodic school of Asclepiades, which fostered the ideals of the Hippocratic doctrine. He was the chief representative of the Methodic school of physicians. Soranus's most notable work was his book gynaecology, in which he discussed many topics that are considered modern ideas such as birth control, pregnancy, midwife's duties, and post-childbirth care. His treatise Gynaecology is extant (first published in 1838, later by V. Rose, in 1882, with a 6th-century Latin translation by Muscio, a physician of the same school). He accounts for the internal difficulties that could arise during labor from both the mother and the fetus. He also did work with fractures, surgery, and embryology.

Hospitals

The Roman medical system saw the establishment of the first hospitals; these were reserved for slaves and soldiers. Physicians were assigned to follow armies or ships, tending to the injured. In Rome, death was caused by a combination of poor sanitation, famine, disease, epidemics, malnutrition, and warfare; this led to high Roman mortality rates. The development of health services was prolonged by the unsympathetic attitudes of the Romans towards the sick, superstition, and religious beliefs.

Ancient Roman hospitals were established by the 1st century BC as military hospitals known as valetudinaria. The valetudinaria began as a small cluster of tents and fortresses dedicated to wounded soldiers. The original hospitals were built along major roads, and soon became part of Roman fort architecture. They were usually placed near the outer wall in a quiet part of the fortification. The earliest known Roman hospitals of the Roman Empire were built in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, in the reign of the emperor Trajan. The Roman military established these hospitals, as the army's expansion beyond the Italian Peninsula meant that the wounded could no longer be cared for in private homes. The temporary forts developed into permanent facilities over time. It is possible that some valteduinaria were established at earlier parts of history. They may also have been established by Julius Caesar. Other hospitals were possibly built during the reign of Augustus or Claudius.

Valetudinaria were field hospitals or flying military camps primarily used to treat soldiers in the military. Access to these hospitals was likely an important perk of military service. The care these institutions provided was likely highly professional for the time, and they were capable of holding up to 200 patients. Celsus describes these hospitals as large and staffed by "over-worked doctors". These over-worked doctors were known as the medici. Alongside the medici, there was a group of veterinarians, administrators, and wound dressers, known as veteranarii, optio valetudinarii, and capsarii respectively. Other hospitals were designed to care for slaves. Slave valetudinaria were of lower quality then the military hospitals, with less equipment and poorer doctors. Roman writers compared these institutions to veterinary care, and equated the treatment these hospitals gave to barbarity.

A standard valetudinarium was a rectangular building consisting of four wings, connected by an entrance hall that could be used as a triage center. Each legion's hospital was constructed to accommodate 6–10% of the legion's 5,000 men. The building also included a large hall, reception ward, dispensary, kitchen, staff quarters, and washing and latrine facilities. All of these hospitals were the exact same shape and layout, and one was located in every castra.

Doctors could also set up public clinics in tabernae. Tabernae were another way of getting medical attention in ancient Rome. These facilities were very expensive, and there was no inpatient care. This method was rare; it was far more common for the physician to arrive at the patient's house. People who could not afford a doctor or go to a valetudinaria would pray at a temple of Asclepius, the Roman god of medicine, for healing.

Surgery

Surgery was typically used as a last resort because of the risks involved. When surgery did happen though, it was usually limited to the surface of the body because doctors recognized that injuries regarding the body's most important physiological functions (brain, heart, spine, etc.) could not usually be treated. There were a variety of surgical tools in ancient Rome. For example, bone levers were tools used to remove diseased bone tissue from the skull and to remove foreign objects (such as a weapon) from a bone. The ancient Romans were capable of performing techniques like cataract surgery and caesarean sections. They also could perform more outdated procedures such as bloodletting. Ancient Roman surgery was developed in the 2nd century from Greek techniques by doctors such as Galen.

Medicines

Diet

Correct diet was seen as essential to healthy living. Food was perceived to have a healing effect or a causative effect on disease, determined by its impact on the humors; as well as preventing disease. Some of these foods included rice, chic peas, and olives, which were widely used by the Roman military. At an archaeological site, other plants were found that were used for medicinal purposes such as lentils, garden peas, and figs. A variety of meats were also discovered at the site which were believed to be used for sick individuals. Poultry, eggs, and oysters were used as a diet for those with health issues. Moderation of foods was key to healthy living and gave rise to healthy eating philosophies. When diet no longer promoted health, drugs, phlebotomy, cautery, or surgery were used. Patients having control of their lives, managing their own preventative medical diets, and the freedom to seek physicians, indicates that patient autonomy was valued.

Herbal and other medicines

Roman physicians used a wide range of herbal and other medicines. Their ancient names, often derived from Greek, do not necessarily correspond to individual modern species, even if these have the same names. Known medicines include:

Statues and healing shrines were sites of prayer and sacrifice for both the poor and the elite, and were common throughout the Roman Empire. Reverence for shrines and statues reflected a search for healing, guidance, and alternatives to ineffectual human physicians and drugs.

In 2013, Italian scientists studied the content of a Roman shipping vessel, known as the Relitto del Pozzino, sank off the coast of Populonia, Tuscany around 120 BC, which was excavated during the 1980s and 90s. The vessel had a medicine chest with pyxides inside, which contained medicinal tablets or pills full of a number of zinc compounds, as well as iron oxide, starch, beeswax, pine resin and other plant-derived materials, all probably served as some sort of eye medicine or eyewash.

Treatments

Healing sanctuaries

A physician's overall goal was to help those afflicted by disease or injury as best as they could; the physician's credibility rested on their successful cures. Of course they could not reliably cure ailments; sometimes the best they could hope for was that their treatments did not worsen their patients' problems. Many physicians were criticised by their peers for their inability to cure an apparently simple illness. Gaps in physician-provided care were filled with several types of supernatural healthcare; the Romans believed in the power of divine messages and healing. There have been descriptions of many gods from multiple religions that dealt with destruction or healing. For example, in 431 BC, in response to the plague running rampant all over the country of Italy, the temple of the Apollo Medicus was accredited with an influence of healing.

Scattered across Greco-Roman and Egyptian history are descriptions of healing sanctuaries dedicated to the various healing gods. Sick or injured Romans would often flock to Asclepieia, temples dedicated to Asclepius, the god of healing, as it was believed that the god actually inhabited the sanctuary and would provide divine healing to supplicants. The process itself was simple: the sick person would give a specified donation to the temple, and then undergo a process called "incubation" in which they would relocate to a special room where the god would be able to contact them, often through dreams in which the god would either prescribe care or provide it themselves. Often the type of cure prescribed would be rather similar to the actual medical practices of physicians of the time. This type of supernatural care did not conflict with mainstream healthcare. Physicians would often recommend that patients go to a healing sanctuary when they were afflicted by an illness that the physician could not cure. This allowed the reputation of the physician to remain unharmed, as it was seen more as a referral than as a failure.

Stab wounds
Roman physicians tried their best to help treat battlefield wounds. Celsus describes treatments early Roman doctors used for battlefield abdominal wounds. Celsus describes that doctors should first observe the color of the intestines to see that if they are "...livid or pallid or black…" in which case treatment is impossible. If the large intestine is found to be cut he says treatment is unlikely to be successful but suggests suturing the intestine. Treatment of abdominal wounds should occur quickly and for fear exposed intestines would dry out. Celsus suggests adding water to the intestines to prevent this. The Romans also knew about the delicate care needed for such complex wounds. Assistants with surgical hooks were used to stitch up large abdominal wounds. They were used to help separate the margins of the abdomen because both the inner membrane and the surface skin needed to be sutured with two sets of stitches because it could be broken easily. The Romans applied a variety of ointments and dressings to these wounds. Celsus describes 34 different ones.

Colostrum

Colostrum is the first form of milk produced by lactating mammals. Both Greek and Roman medical texts prescribe the use of a variety of substances, of varying medical and religious significance. Several substances, such as sulfur, asphalt and animal excrement, were associated with the practice of human purification. The practice of using a woman's breast milk as a medicine has very early roots in Egyptian medical texts. In several such texts there are references to the use of the milk of a woman who has given birth to a male child. This practice is said to be based on depictions in several statues of the goddess Isis breastfeeding her son, the god Horus. Both Egyptian and Greek texts state that the milk used for medicinal purposes should be strictly from a woman who has borne a male child. The treatments using breast milk differed vastly between Greek and Roman culture. In Greek medicine, milk was very rarely actually consumed. Instead, it was used in recipes for ointments and washes that would treat burns and other skin-related maladies. These treatments were exclusively given to women, as women's bodies were viewed as "polluted" in some sense. In stark contrast, the Roman use of colostrum was more widespread and varied. Stories suggest that adults drinking breast milk was viewed as socially acceptable, but was not common unless used for treatment. The milk was instead ingested by the patient, and the treatment was given to both men and women, which then allowed the views of the female body to be viewed as analogous compared to their male peers, rather than as the opposites they have been for centuries before. In general, while not every single fear about the changing medical views of female physiology went away, the Romans then seemed less concerned about the so-called "pollution" of a woman's body and therefore need to have the women have special requirements needed for "purification."

It has been shown in modern times that having patients ingest mother's milk (or colostrum) is actually a rather effective treatment due to the benefits associated with it. For example, the use of colostrum has been shown to prevent the growth of Staphylococcus bacteria, which are a known cause of several types of infection. Colostrum is about half as effective as some antibiotics prescribed to patients today. Colostrum is also effective against the bacterium chlamydia. Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted disease in which some subtypes of it can cause trachoma, which is a major source of cause for severe sight impairment, if not blindness. Colostrum was a reasonably effective treatment for Chlamydia in the absence of other antibiotics.

Diagnostic methods

Dreams

Dream interpretation was another avenue for treatment of illnesses by physicians. Often the interpretations of a patient's dreams would actually determine what treatment they received. A Hippocratic work titled Regimen in Acute Diseases details much of the principles outlined by Galen: specifically the humors and examples of how they could be used to prescribe treatment. The theme of this method is knowing the patient. To know how to treat a person, the physician must become familiar with and interpret the important aspects of their lives: the climate, their food intake, how much they sleep, how much they drink, any injuries. They would then draw conclusions about the patient and what must be done to set them back to equilibrium. The fourth book of the Regimen is the earliest mention of the topic of dream medicine. Dreams were used by physicians in diagnosis. They added another layer of depth to the physician's investigation of the patient. The soul was thought to serve the purpose that the brain has been discovered to serve. Sensation, pain, motion and other physiological concepts were thought to be the work of the soul. It was also thought that the soul continues the work of bodily upkeep even when a person is sleeping. Thus, dreams would show what ailed a person.

There were two types of dreams associated with medicine: prophetic and diagnostic. Prophetic dreams were divine in origin and foretold good or bad tidings for the future. Diagnostic dreams were a result of the soul telling what afflicted the body. If the dreams were of normal everyday events, their body was healthy and in equilibrium. The farther from the norm, and the more chaotic the dreams were, the more ill the patient was. The treatments that were recommended addressed what the dreams showed, and attempted to set the body right through consumption of food that carried the correct humor characteristics.

Astro-medicine
Galen wrote a treatise on diagnosis and prognosis by celestial movement.  This ancient medical practice associated that disease and parts of the body were affected by the movement or location of the sun, moon and planets.  This is similar to horoscopic astrology and the notion of astrological signs.  These celestial signs were only a part of the process in his work Critical Days. Galen also includes that the patients' feces, urine, sputum should be examined for diagnosis. He states that examination of the excrement could indicate a disease of the respirator system, urinary tract or vascular system. Many physicians at the time believed in the association of astrology and medicine. Book III of Galen's writing he correlates the lunar phases which cause changes in the tides to also cause changes the fluid humors in the body. He also makes reference to "medical months", which are based on the two periods of the moons which are about two calendar months. There were also days that were considered critical including day seven, fourteen and day twenty which were considered favorable for a medical crisis to occur.

Textual transmission

Galenic medical texts embody the written medical tradition of classical antiquity. Little written word has survived from before that era. The volume of Galen's extant written works, however, is nearly 350 – far surpassing any other writer of the period. Prior to Galen, much of medical knowledge survived through word of mouth. The tradition of transmission and translation originated with the De materia medica, an encyclopaedia written by Pedanius Dioscorides between 50 and 70 AD. Dioscorides was a Roman physician of Greek descent. The manuscripts classified and illustrated over 1000 substances and their uses.

De materia medica influenced medical knowledge for centuries, due to its dissemination and translation into Greek, Arabic, and Latin. Galen wrote in Greek, but Arabic and Syriac translations survived as well. He referenced and challenged written works by Hippocratic physicians and authors, which gave insight into other popular medical philosophies. Herophilus, known for his texts on anatomy through dissection, and Erasistratus, also known for anatomy and physiology, survive through Galenic reference. Galen also referenced the written works of Soranus, a physician of the Methodic school known for his four-book treatise on gynecology. His synthesis of earlier medical philosophies and broad range of subjects produced the textual legacy that Galen left for the medical community for the next 1500 years.

See also

 Ancient Egyptian medicine
 Ancient Greek medicine
 Byzantine medicine

References

Sources
 Medical News Today: Ancient Roman Medicine

Further reading

Roman
Ancient Roman science
Rome

Medicine in ancient Rome


Peter and Gordon were a British pop duo, composed of Peter Asher (b. 1944) and Gordon Waller (1945–2009), who achieved international fame in 1964 with their first single, the million-selling single "A World Without Love". The duo had several subsequent hits in America in the British Invasion era including "I Go to Pieces", "Lady Godiva", "Woman", "True Love Ways" and "Nobody I Know".

History
Peter Asher and his sister Jane were child actors in the 1950s. They played siblings in a 1955 episode of the television series The Adventures of Robin Hood. Jane Asher and Paul McCartney dated each other between 1963 and 1968, and Peter and Gordon recorded several songs written by McCartney but credited to Lennon–McCartney. Those hits included "A World Without Love" (US & UK #1), "Nobody I Know" (US #12; UK #10) and "I Don't Want To See You Again" (US #16, but not a hit in the UK).

With "Woman" (US #14; UK #28), McCartney used the pseudonym Bernard Webb to see whether he could have a hit song without his name attached. First pressings of the US Capitol single listed the composer as "A. Smith". The song reached #14 in the US and #28 on the UK Singles Chart in 1966. Peter and Gordon also recorded the John Lennon-penned Lennon–McCartney song, "If I Fell", which was previously recorded by The Beatles and released on their 1964 album, A Hard Day's Night.

Other hits for the duo included "I Go to Pieces" (US #9), written by Del Shannon and given to Peter and Gordon after the two acts toured together. The duo also recorded remakes of Buddy Holly's "True Love Ways" (US #14 and UK #2 in 1965), and The Teddy Bears' "To Know Him Is To Love Him", retitled "To Know You Is To Love You" (US #24 and UK #5 in 1965).

Peter and Gordon had their last hit in the UK in late 1966 with "Lady Godiva", which reached #16 there (and #6 in the US), whilst their success lasted into 1967 in the US, with "Knight in Rusty Armour" and "Sunday for Tea" both registering in the upper reaches of the Billboard Hot 100 that year.

Peter Asher subsequently became head of A&R for Apple Records.  He continued his career as a recording executive in California, where he managed and produced Linda Ronstadt and James Taylor throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Asher also produced recordings for Cher, 10,000 Maniacs, and Diana Ross. His daughter, Victoria Asher, is a member of the alternative group Cobra Starship.

In August 2005, Peter and Gordon reunited onstage for the first time in more than 30 years, as part of two tribute concerts for Mike Smith of The Dave Clark Five in New York City. This was followed by full concerts at The Fest for Beatles Fans (formerly Beatlefest) conventions that began the following year. Paul McCartney heard about the reunion shows and sent a message to congratulate them on reuniting. Peter and Gordon told Palmiere at the Las Vegas Festival for Beatles Fans that they were to perform at the 2006 Adopt-A-Minefield show with Paul McCartney but the show was subsequently cancelled by McCartney, due to his impending divorce from Heather Mills.

In the spring of 2007 and 2008, Peter and Gordon were featured performers in the EPCOT Flower Power concert series at Walt Disney World. Also in 2007, they performed as part of Love-In: A Musical Celebration, a tribute to the music of the 1960s, which was filmed at the Birch North Park Theatre in San Diego, California, and released on DVD in March 2009. On 21 August 2008, they performed a free concert on the pier in Santa Monica, California.

The pair played numerous times at the 50 Winters Later celebration, in February 2009, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the death of Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens and the Big Bopper. This was held in Clear Lake, Iowa, at the Surf Ballroom.

They subsequently performed in Chicago, New Jersey and at the Festival for Beatles Fans convention in Las Vegas, 1 and 2 July 2009, where, according to a report by journalist Peter Palmiere for Beatlefan magazine, the pair were the performing highlight of the convention.

Gordon Waller died of a heart attack on 17 July 2009 in Ledyard, Connecticut, at the age of 64.

Certifications
"World Without Love", "Nobody I Know", "True Love Ways", and "Lady Godiva" each sold over one million copies, and were awarded gold discs.

Discography

References

External links
 McCartney Thrilled By Peter & Gordon Reunion
 "Peter and Gordon reunite at Fest for Beatle Fans"

British Invasion artists
English pop music duos
Male musical duos
Capitol Records artists

Peter and Gordon


Rizah Mešković (born 10 August 1947) is a Bosnian former professional football player and manager who played as a goalkeeper. At international level he played for the Yugoslavia national team once in 1972, and was a participant at the 1974 FIFA World Cup in West Germany.

Throughout his football career, both as a player and coach, Mešković had many success and received a good number of awards from UEFA, FIFA and the Football Association of Yugoslavia (FJS).

Club career

Sloboda Tuzla
According to Mešković, he started his professional football career at boyhood age, and the first club that he ever played in was FK Sloboda Tuzla from 1964, where he remained until 1973, that is, until his departure to HNK Hajduk Split. According to Gojko Škrbić, Sloboda sold him to Hajduk for two years with the compensation of the then 14 million old dinar.

In the 1968–69 Yugoslav Second League season, Sloboda won 36 points and scored 50 goals, while Mešković capitulated only nine times, the least of all other Second league and First league goalkeepers.

Hajduk Split
For the "Bili (The Whites)", Mešković played 107 games, 53 games in the championship, 9 games in the cup, 6 in European competitions, and 39 games in friendly matches. He stood on the goal for the first time in a farewell game of the legendary Radomir Vukčević (Vučka), Ivica Hlevnjak and Pero Nadoveza. The first official appearance for Hajduk, was in the Yugoslav Cup on 12 August 1973, in the starting lineup against FK Vardar, which Hajduk won with 5:1.

While at Hajduk, The fans gave him the nickname "Mate" and sang the song "From Marjan's blowing the breeze Mešković keeps the door guarding us." A strong and powerful goalkeeper, safe in running ins, with Hajduk he won two Yugoslavian Championships in 1974 (with 33 appearances) and 1975 (with 16 appearances). He also won 3 cups in a row in 1973, 1974 and in 1976.

789 minutes without a goal
Rizah holds in the territory of the former Yugoslavia a record  of 789 minutes of not conceding a goal. That series of not conceding a goal was broken by Vladimir Petković. The last goal he received was in a match against FK Željezničar Sarajevo in Split on 25 November 1973 (1: 1). From that game, goals weren't conceded  in matches played against: FK Borac Banja Luka in Banja Luka (0: 0), then OFK Belgrade in Split (2: 0), FK Vojvodina in Split (3: 0), GNK Dinamo Zagreb in Zagreb (0: 1), OFK Bor in Split (3: 0), FK Radnički Niš in Niš (0: 1) and NK Čelik Zenica in Split (1: 0). Only in the 22nd round Hajduk lost from FK Sarajevo 1: 0.However, in that game, Brane Oblak, Ivan Buljan, Slaviša Žungul and Mićun Jovanić did not play. The players that did play were: Mešković, Vilson Džoni, Vedran Rožić, Luka Peruzović, Dragan Holcer, Mario Boljat, Željko Mijač, Dražen Mužinić, Joško Gluić, Jurica and Ivica Šurjak.

From AZ Alkmaar to Orebić
With 107 games to his name, he left Hajduk in 1976 and joined Dutch club AZ Alkmaar where he  stayed until 1979 and had to fight for his place between the posts with Gerrit Vooys. After Alkmaar, he returned to Tuzla and once again joined Sloboda in 1979 where he stayed until 1983, after which he went to several domestic clubs. They were: FK Budućnost Banovići, where he stayed from 1983 to 1984, then FK Radnik Bijeljina from 1984 to 1985, NK Bratstvo Gračanica, from 1985 to 1987. He ended his career in NK Orebić where he played from 1987 to 1988.

International career
For the national team of Yugoslavia, he played one game, on 29 June 1972, against Scotland, a game that was played in the Brazil Independence Cup in Belo Horizonte which ended with a score of 2: 2. He was also a part of the squad that played at the 1974 FIFA World Cup in West Germany. However, Mešković didn't play a single game at the Cup.

Coaching career
He started his coaching career with the completion of the coaching school in Sarajevo, and already in 1988 he trained the Yugoslav B team and next year FK Sloboda Tuzla. Finally in the 1990, he became an assistant coach to Ivica Osim in the Yugoslavia A team.

In 1991 as a member of the Yugoslavia staff, he went to the United Arab Emirates where he coached several clubs and A and B national teams. He also spent some time in Saudi Arabia as a coach (Al Ahli SC in Jeddah, 2001–2002). After Saudi Arabia he also coached in Qatar (Al Sadd in Doha, 2002–2005 as an assistant). However, he spent most of his time in the Emirates where he trained clubs Al Wahda FC (1991–1992) in Abu Dhabi, Al Shabab Al Arabi Club (1992–1993, 1999–2001 and 2005–2007), Al Wasl F.C. (1997–1998) from Dubai and Al Nasr SC (1998–1999) also in Dubai. He ended his professional coaching career in 2007.

Honours

Player
Hajduk Split
Yugoslav First League: 1974, 1975
Yugoslav Cup: 1973, 1974, 1975–76

AZ Alkmaar
KNVB Cup: 1977–78

Manager
Al Ahli
Crown Prince Cup: 2001–02
Saudi Federation Cup: 2001–02
GCC Champions League: 2002

References

External links

  Serbia national football team website

1947 births
Living people
Footballers from Tuzla
Men's association football goalkeepers
Yugoslav men's footballers
Yugoslavia men's international footballers
1974 FIFA World Cup players
FK Sloboda Tuzla players
HNK Hajduk Split players
AZ Alkmaar players
FK Budućnost Banovići players
FK Radnik Bijeljina players
NK Bratstvo Gračanica players
Yugoslav Second League players
Yugoslav First League players
Eredivisie players
Yugoslav expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in the Netherlands
Yugoslav expatriate sportspeople in the Netherlands
Yugoslav football managers
Bosnia and Herzegovina football managers
FK Sloboda Tuzla managers
Al Wahda FC managers
Al Shabab Al Arabi Club (Dubai) managers
Al Nassr FC managers
Al-Sharjah SCC managers
Al Hilal SFC managers
Al Wasl F.C. managers
Al-Nasr SC (Dubai) managers
Al-Ahli Saudi FC managers
UAE Pro League managers
Saudi Pro League managers
Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate football managers
Expatriate football managers in the United Arab Emirates
Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in the United Arab Emirates
Expatriate football managers in Saudi Arabia
Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia
Expatriate football managers in Qatar
Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in Qatar

Rizah Mešković


Chris Marinelli (born March 3, 1987 in Quincy, Massachusetts) is former American football offensive tackle. He was signed as an undrafted free agent by the Denver Broncos in 2010. He played in college at Stanford.

Early years
Marinelli was born in Quincy Massachusetts and moved to Braintree Massachusetts while in high school. Marinelli attended Boston College High School in Dorchester, Boston, where he was a three-year starter at defensive tackle and two-year starter on offense, where he played tight end as a junior and offensive tackle as a senior. For his career, he finished with 160 tackles, 17 quarterback sacks, 12 pass breakups, 10 forced fumbles, five fumble recoveries, one interception and a forced safety.

Considered a three-star recruit by Rivals.com, Marinelli was listed as the No. 46 offensive tackle prospect in the nation. He chose Stanford over Boston College and Duke University.

College career
After redshirting his initial year at Stanford, Marinelli played in 10 games and started five of the last six games at right tackle. He was named to the Pac-10's All-Freshman team. Having established himself as a solid player, Marinelli started all 12 games at right tackle in his sophomore season.

In his junior year, he started 11 of 12 games, missing only the Washington State game with an injury. He earned All-Pacific-10 honorable mention honors for the second consecutive time.

In 2009, Marinelli was moved over to the left side, and helped set a new school-record for rushing with 2,692 yards, breaking the 1949 record of 2,481 yards. The Cardinal offensive line allowed a Pac-10 low six sacks on the year, which was the second lowest total in the nation. Marinelli earned All-Pac-10 First-team honors and was also an All-American selection by Rivals.com

Professional career

Denver Broncos
Marinelli was signed by the Broncos on April 26, 2010.  He was released on July 27, 2010.

Indianapolis Colts
Marinelli was claimed off waivers on July 28, 2010, by the Indianapolis Colts.  He was released by the Colts on September 4, 2010.

References

External links
Denver Broncos bio
Stanford Cardinal bio

1987 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Braintree, Massachusetts
Players of American football from Norfolk County, Massachusetts
American football offensive tackles
Stanford Cardinal football players
Denver Broncos players
Indianapolis Colts players
Boston College High School alumni

Chris Marinelli


Mary Geraldine (Bonnie) Baker, née George (July 10, 1918 – December 17, 2003) was an all-star catcher in the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL) from 1943 to 1952.

Career
She also served as player-manager with the Kalamazoo Lassies in 1950, becoming the only woman in league history to do so. Besides, she was one of 68 Canadian players in the AAGPBL, while her sister, Genevieve George, also played in the league for the Lassies.  With the majority of major-league baseball players in the military during World War II, Phil Wrigley owner of the Chicago Cubs, established the AAGPBL in 1943. It continued play until 1954. The first year it played by softball rules, but the rules were gradually changed until they were nearly identical with professional baseball rules.

Saskatchewan Mary Baker's eight brothers and sisters were all baseball catchers, so it stood to reason that Baker would become one too. She was scouted by a professional scout, Hub Bishop who also scouted notable Saskatchewan athletes like Gordie Howe of the Detroit Red Wings. When she joined the AAGPBL, she promised her husband, who was fighting overseas in World War II, that she would quit the game when he returned. Baker, 5'5", 135 lbs. (165 cm, 61 kg), a former model, was often chosen by the league to pose for publicity shots and act as a league spokesperson. Baker was the league's most publicized player and was referred to as "Pretty Bonnie Baker" by the press. She appeared on the popular television show What's My Line? on August 17, 1952, and her picture also appeared in Life magazine.

She began her career with the South Bend Blue Sox in the league's first season, and stayed with the team until 1950. Although she was easily the most recognized AAGPBL player, glamour never stopped her from doing her job. In 1946 Baker had an all-star season, stealing a league-leading 94 bases, batting .286 and with a .965 fielding percentage.  During the 1950 season, Baker was traded to the Kalamazoo Lassies to act as player-manager. The struggling Lassies placed last in the league with a 36–73 record. The following year the league passed a rule banning female managers. Baker skipped the 1951 season to have a daughter, Maureen (Chickie), but returned to the Lassies for one year in 1952.

She was an all star in 1943 and 1946, and played in 930 games in her career. She hit .235 for her career, with 1 home run, 244 RBI and 465 runs. Her career fielding average was .953.    She returned to Saskatchewan, where she led the Regina Legion softball team to the World Ladies Softball title. In 1964-65 she worked for Regina radio station CKRM, as the first female sports broadcaster in Canada. She also managed the Wheat City Curling Club for 25 years.

Baker appeared as a contestant on the August 17, 1952 episode of the tv game show What's My Line?. Panellist Dorothy Kilgallen guessed that Baker was a professional baseball player.

Death and honours
Baker died of respiratory failure at 85. Fellow AAGPBL player Arleene Noga remembers her as "a complete player with all five tools — a real competitor." In 1998 she was inducted into the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame. She is also a member of the Saskatchewan Sports Hall of Fame and the Saskatchewan Baseball Hall of Fame, and is part of the special exhibit on the AAGPBL in the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York.

The 1992 Geena Davis-Tom Hanks movie A League of Their Own was a fictional account of the AAGPBL. Davis's character, Dottie Hinson, is loosely based on Bonnie Baker.

In 2018, Baker was posthumously inducted into the Canada's Sports Hall of Fame.

In 2023 there was a Heritage Minute created about her.

References

External links
Her entry in the Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan
Her statistics at Encyclopedia of Baseball Catchers
Obituary from the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum
TV appearance from "What's My Line?"

1918 births
2003 deaths
All-American Girls Professional Baseball League managers
All-American Girls Professional Baseball League players
Kalamazoo Lassies players
South Bend Blue Sox players
Baseball players from Regina, Saskatchewan
Canadian expatriate baseball players in the United States
Canadian radio sportscasters
Deaths from respiratory failure
Women sports announcers
20th-century Canadian sportswomen

Bonnie Baker (baseball)


Arabisation (or Arabization) is a process where the influence of Arabic populations grows in an area. This will mean that the Arab ways of doing things will replace other ways over time. It will also mean that the Arabic lanuage will become more important. Usually, this will also mean that Islam will spread in the area. Non-Arabic populations will be assimilated over time (or leave the area altogether).

Examples where Arabization happened are the south of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal, called Mozarabs), in the Middle Ages (undone by the Reconquista). In the Mahgreb, Arabization drove away many Berber people. Arabization also happened in the Near and Middle East.

In Sudan and other parts of East Africa, Arabization also took place. In those areas, it was driven by trade.

When Turkish troops and their allies conquered the city of Afrin in Syria, in 2018, they settled Arab people there. According to Kurdish sources, in June of 2018, almost 60 percent of the population  of Afrin were Arabs. Before the Turkish troops took the city, the German newspaper, 'Die Welt' reported that ninety percent of the popuation of Afrin had been Kurds.

References

Cultural assimilation

Arabization


A Wreath for Udomo is a 1956 novel by the South African novelist Peter Abrahams.  The novel follows a London-educated black African, Michael Udomo, who returns to Africa to become a revolutionary leader in the fictional country of Panafrica and is eventually martyred.  The novel explores a revolutionary politics, exploring the diversity of actors and political communities needed to overcome colonial oppression.

The novel was controversial at the time of its publication, because it represented revolutionary independence from a tropical African country, before the first such independence by the Gold Coast.  Critic Bernth Lindfors described the character of Udomo as being modeled off real revolutionary leaders in Africa, including Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta and Nnamdi Azikiwe.

Critical reception
Kirkus Reviews in May 1956 generally received the novel well, describing it as "a powerful story [...] it has its moments of tenderness in first one, then another love story". But Kirkus also expresses discomfort with the novel, noting that is "disturbing, violent" and "wont be an easy book to place, for the moral code, the sexual code is remote from our understanding."

The Wilson Library Bulletin in September 1957called the novel Abraham's "most effective contribution so far to world understanding of the racial problems of Africa."

Stage play
A Wreath for Udomo was the title of a stage play adapted from Abrahams' novel by New York playwright William Branch. The play was a success when first produced in the US in 1960, and subsequently in London by the Negro Theatre Workshop at the Lyric Theatre in 1961 (featuring Earl Cameron and Edric Connor).

References

Further reading

1956 novels
20th-century South African novels
Novels by Peter Abrahams
Alfred A. Knopf books

A Wreath for Udomo


Pontederia is a genus of tristylous aquatic plants, members of which are commonly known as pickerel weeds. Pontederia is endemic to the Americas, distributed from Canada to Argentina, where it is found in shallow water or on mud. The genus was named by Linnaeus in honour of the Italian botanist Giulio Pontedera.

Pontederia plants have large waxy leaves, succulent stems and a thick pad of fibrous roots. The roots give rise to rhizomes that allow rapid colonization by vegetative reproduction. Species are perennial, and produce a large spike of flowers in the summer. There is a species of bee (Dufourea novaeangliae) that exclusively visits Pontederia cordata; waterfowl also eat the fruit of the plant.

Pontederia cordata and Pontederia crassipes (formerly known as Eichhornia crassipes), have become invasive in many tropical and temperate parts of the globe, but are, on the other hand, efficient biological filters of polluted water in constructed wetlands.

Species
Pontederia includes the following 25 accepted species:

 Pontederia africana (Solms) M.Pell. & C.N.Horn
 Pontederia australasica (Ridl.) M.Pell. & C.N.Horn
 Pontederia azurea Sw.
 Pontederia brevipetiolata (Verdc.) M.Pell. & C.N.Horn
 Pontederia cordata L.
 Pontederia crassipes Mart.
 Pontederia cyanea (F.Muell.) M.Pell. & C.N.Horn
 Pontederia diversifolia (Vahl) M.Pell. & C.N.Horn
 Pontederia elata (Ridl.) M.Pell. & C.N.Horn
 Pontederia hastata L.
 Pontederia heterosperma (Alexander) M.Pell. & C.N.Horn
 Pontederia korsakowii (Regel & Maack) M.Pell. & C.N.Horn
 Pontederia meyeri (A.G.Schulz) M.Pell. & C.N.Horn
 Pontederia natans P.Beauv.
 Pontederia ovalis Mart. ex Schult. & Schult.f.
 Pontederia paniculata Spreng.
 Pontederia paradoxa Mart. ex Schult. & Schult.f.
 Pontederia parviflora Alexander
 Pontederia plantaginea Roxb.
 Pontederia rotundifolia L.f.
 Pontederia sagittata C.Presl
 Pontederia subovata (Seub.) Lowden
 Pontederia triflora (Seub.) G.Agostini, D.Velázquez & J.Velásquez
 Pontederia vaginalis Burm.f.
 Pontederia valida (G.X.Wang & Nagam.) M.Pell. & C.N.Horn

References

External links
 Google Books - Creating Freshwater Wetlands by Donald A. Hammer

Pontederiaceae
Commelinales genera
Aquatic plants
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Pontederia


The House of Representatives of Belize is one of the two chambers of the National Assembly, the other being the Senate. It was created under the 1981 constitution by Prime minister, George Cadle Price. Members are commonly called "Area Representatives" rather than Member of Parliaments (MPs).

Area Representatives are Elected by winning a majority of votes in their respective Constituencies under the First-past-the-post voting system. In addition, they must also win above 50% of the vote to be elected. The body is directly descended from the British Honduras Legislative Assembly created in 1954 with nine elected members. It had been expended several times since: to 18 in 1961, 28 in 1984, 29 in 1994 and finally 31 in 2008. The Leader of the majority Party in the Belize House typically becomes Prime Minister of Belize. However, if that Leader rejects to be Prime minister he/she can appoint a new Leader of the party or appoint any senior member of the Party, who served as a Cabinet minister in the past.

Current members of the House of Representatives by district

The elected representatives and their constituencies according to the Elections and Boundaries Department are:

 Belize District

 Caribbean Shores: Kareem Musa (PUP) Shadow Minister of Communication
Freetown: Francis Fonseca (PUP)
Pickstock: Wilfred Elrington (UDP) Minister of Foreign Affairs
Fort George: Said Musa (PUP) Shadow Minister of Education (Science and Technology)
Lake Independence: Cordel Hyde (PUP) Shadow Deputy Prime Minister
Albert: Tracy Panton (UDP) Minister of State for Economic Development, Petroleum, Investment, Trade and Commerce
Collet: Patrick Faber (UDP) Deputy Prime Minister
Mesopotamia: Michael Finnegan (UDP) Minister of Housing and Urban Development
Queen's Square: Dean Barrow (UDP) Prime Minister
Port Loyola: Anthony Martinez (UDP) Minister of Human Development
Belize Rural North: Edmond Castro (UDP) Minister of Transport
Belize Rural South: Manuel Heredia (politician) (UDP) Minister of Tourism
Belize Rural Central: Beverly Williams (UDP) Minister of State for Agricultural

 Orange Walk District

Orange Walk North: Gaspar Vega (UDP) Minister of Natural Resources
 Orange Walk Central: Johnny Briceño (PUP) Leader of the Opposition
Orange Walk East: Elodio Aragon (UDP) Minister of State for National Security and Defence
Orange Walk South: Jose Mai (PUP) Shadow Minister of Agriculture
 Cayo District
Cayo North: Omar Figueroa (UDP) Second Minister of State for Agriculture
Cayo South: Julius Espat (PUP) Shadow Minister of Rural Development
Cayo West: Erwin Contreras (UDP) Minister of Economic Development
Cayo Central: Rene Montero (UDP) Minister of Works
Cayo North East: Orlando Habet (PUP) Shadow Minister of Health
Belmopan: John Saldivar (UDP) Minister of National Security and Defence
Corozal District
Corozal North: Hugo Patt (UDP) Second Minister of Natural Resources
Corozal South West: Angel Campos (UDP) Minister of State for Health
Corozal Bay: Pablo Marin (UDP) Minister of Health
Corozal South East: Florencio Marin Jr. (PUP) Shadow Minister of National Security and Defence
Stann Creek District
Dangriga: Frank Mena Minister of State for Finance
Stann Creek West: Rodwell Ferguson Shadow Minister of Works
Toledo District
Toledo West: Oscar Requena (PUP) Shadow Minister of Tourism
Toledo East: Mike Espat (PUP) Shadow Minister of Public Service and Energy

Politics of Belize
Belize

House of Representatives (Belize)


Ektara (literally "one-string", also called iktar, ', yaktaro gopichand') is a one-string instrument.  It is most often used in traditional music from Bangladesh, India , Egypt, and Pakistan.

The ektara was a regular string instrument of wandering bards and minstrels from India.  It is plucked with one finger. The ektara usually has a stretched single string.  An animal skin is over a head made of dried pumpkin/gourd, wood or coconut.  The neck is a pole or split bamboo cane.

Pressing the two halves of the neck together loosens the string.  This lowers its pants. The sound can be changed many ways by slight changes in pressure.

The various sizes of ektara are soprano, tenor, and bass. The bass ektara, sometimes called a dotara'' often has two strings.

Other websites

Folk instruments
Plucked string instruments

Ektara


Children of the Night is an album by Canadian recording artist Nash the Slash. Released in 1981 after Nash toured the United Kingdom in 1980 supporting Gary Numan, the album quickly gained cult status with its unique sound, created using electric mandolins, electric violins, drum machines and other sonic devices. The album sleeve proudly proclaims "There are no guitars."

In amongst original material by Nash were quirky covers of Jan and Dean's "Dead Man's Curve" and The Rolling Stones' "19th Nervous Breakdown". His adaptation of Deep Purple's "Smoke on the Water" was entitled "Dopes on the Water", while the opening composition "Wolf" quoted musical passages from Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf.

The album was recorded in six weeks at Britannia Row Studios, London, in late 1980 and produced by Steve Hillage. It was released on the Virgin Records label Dindisc, which was owned by Richard Branson. The album was re-released on CD in 2000 with bonus tracks.
The cover photo was taken at the road entrance looking up from Paddington Station, London.

Track listing
All tracks composed by Nash the Slash; except where indicated
 "Wolf"
 "Dead Man's Curve" (Jan Berry, Roger Christian, Artie Kornfeld, Brian Wilson)
 "Children of the Night" (Toby Dammit, Nash the Slash)
 "Deep Forest"
 "In a Glass Eye"
 "19th Nervous Breakdown" (Mick Jagger, Keith Richards)
 "Swing Shift (Soixante Neuf)" (Toby Dammit, Nash the Slash)
 "Metropolis"
 "Dopes on the Water" (Ritchie Blackmore, Ian Gillan, Roger Glover, Jon Lord, Ian Paice)
 "Danger Zone"
 "Wolf" (live version 1980) *
 "Danger Zone" (live version 1980) *
 "Reactor No. 2" (Slash) *
 "Swing Shift" (original version) *
 "Swing Shift" (flexi version) *
 "Children of the Night" (live version 1997) *

* Bonus tracks on CD re-release only 2000

Personnel

Martyn Atkins – Artwork
Gavin Cochrane – Photography
Nick Griffiths – Engineer
Steve Hillage – Producer
Nash the Slash – Synthesizer, mandolin, composer, keyboards, voices, electronic percussion, pedals, electric violin, devices

References

1981 albums
Nash the Slash albums
Albums produced by Steve Hillage

Children of the Night (album)


Olympian Publishing is a publishing house with offices in Chicago, IL, USA.

Founded in 2005 by Peter Weglarz, the books released from Olympian Publishing have been noteworthy for high production quality, specifically re-creating the feel of vintage or antique books.  In 2006 Olympian secured the rights in early 2006 to publish Dan Brereton's Nocturnals.

Titles
 The Union of Hope and Sadness: The Art of Gail Potocki (2006) (with introduction by Jim Rose of The Jim Rose Circus)

An exploration of the Symbolist paintings of Gail Potocki; with more than 100 works represented and discussed, the 208 page hardcover book also includes essays from Richard Metzger, the host of BBC's Disinformation: the Series and neuroscientist Marina Korsakova-Kreyn, and portraits of Jim and Bébé Rose, Joe Coleman, Grant Morrison, and Claudio Carniero of Cirque du Soleil.

 Chamber of Mystery: Witchcraft (2007) (Various artists and authors, with introduction by Dan Brereton featuring characters from the Nocturnals)

Reprints thirteen stories from classic 1950s horror comics.

 A Nocturnal Alphabet (2007) (by Daniel Brereton)

A macabre children's poem featuring the Nocturnals, illustrated with paintings by Dan Brereton.

 Nocturnals Volume One: Black Planet and Other Stories (2007) (by Daniel Brereton)

Reprints the earliest of the Nocturnals comic stories, written and painted by Dan Brereton (with introduction by Thomas Negovan)

External links
 http://www.olympianpublishing.com
 http://www.nocturnals.com

Book publishing companies based in Illinois
Publishing companies established in 2005
Companies based in Chicago

Olympian Publishing


Air Marshal Shirish Baban Deo, PVSM, AVSM, VM, VSM, ADC was the Vice Chief of the Air Staff (VCAS) of the Indian Air Force. He assumed the office of Vice Chief on 31 December 2016 from Air Chief Marshal Birender Singh Dhanoa and served in the same capacity till his retirement on 30 September 2018.

Early life and education
Deo was born in Nagpur, Maharashtra. He attended Somalwar School and is an alumnus of Defence Services Staff College, Wellington.

Career

Deo was commissioned into the fighter stream of the Indian Air Force on 15 June 1979. He has clocked more than 4000 hours of operational and training flying experience. He held several key operational and administrative appointments at various stages of his service including Fighter Combat Leader; A2 qualified instructor and Directing Staff at TACDE; Chief Operations Officer of a front-line forward base; Commanding Officer of Air Force Station Jodhpur; Director General Air Operations at Air Headquarters; Air Officer Commanding of COBRA Group; AD Commander; Air-I at Headquarters; Central Air Command; Air Officer Commanding in Chief of Eastern Air Command and Air Officer Commanding in Chief of Western Air Command.

Awards and medals
Deo has been awarded several medals: the Param Vishisht Seva Medal, the Ati Vishisht Seva Medal, the Vishisht Seva Medal, and the Vayu Sena Medal.  He was also appointed as Honorary ADC to the President of India on 1 January 2016

Personal life
Deo is married to Mrs. Anjna Deo and they have a son, Karan Deo, who is a group captain in the Indian Air Force. His younger brother, Justice Rohit Deo, is elevated as a Judge of the Bombay High Court on 5 June 2017.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Vice Chiefs of Air Staff (India)
Indian Air Force air marshals
People from Nagpur
Recipients of the Param Vishisht Seva Medal
Indian Air Force officers
Recipients of the Vayu Sena Medal
Recipients of the Ati Vishisht Seva Medal
Military personnel from Maharashtra
Defence Services Staff College alumni

Shirish Baban Deo


John Gross Barnard (May 19, 1815 – May 14, 1882) was a career engineer officer in the U.S. Army, serving in the Mexican–American War, as the superintendent of the United States Military Academy and as a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He served as Chief Engineer of the Army of the Potomac, 1861 to 1862, Chief Engineer of the Department of Washington from 1861 to 1864, and as Chief Engineer of the armies in the field from 1864 to 1865. He also was a distinguished scientist, engineer, mathematician, historian and author.

Early life and career
John G. Barnard was born into a large and gifted family in Sheffield, Massachusetts. His brother, Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard was a longtime educator and president of Columbia University and namesake of Barnard College in New York City. Both John and Frederick, as well as most members of their family, suffered from a hereditary form of deafness which intensified in later years. In early life, when stationed in New Orleans, Barnard married Jane Elizabeth Brand, of Maryland, with whom he had four children. In 1860, he married Anna E. Hall of Harford County, Maryland, with whom he had three children.

In 1833, at the age of 18, Barnard graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, second in a class of forty-three cadets. As one of the top graduates of his class, he was posted as a Second Lieutenant in the United States Army Corps of Engineers, embarking on a 48-year career in that branch.

Barnard's first assignment after being commissioned was as an assistant to Colonel Joseph G. Totten in constructing Fort Adams in Newport, Rhode Island, from 1833 to 1834. Totten was the foremost American military engineer of his day and served as Chief Engineer of the Army for much of Barnard's career. There the two formed a close friendship as evidenced by Barnard's extensive eulogy of Totten which was published in 1866.

Throughout his career, Barnard served on many garrison and fortification details, most notably participating in the construction of coastal defenses at Fort Columbus/Fort Jay, Fort Hamilton and Fort Wadsworth in New York City, New Orleans, Pensacola, Mobile, Fort Livingston, Louisiana, Fort Jackson, Louisiana, Fort St. Philip, Louisiana and on the Pacific Coast at San Francisco. During the Mexican–American War, he headed the construction of American defenses at the captured Mexican port of Tampico, ensuring that city's safety as a vital supply line for American forces advancing on Mexico City. He also worked on the survey of Mexican–American War battlefields. and as chief engineer for the Exploration and Survey of the projected Tehuantepec Railroad in Mexico, in 1850–1851.

From May 31, 1855, through September 8, 1856, Barnard served as the Superintendent of the United States Military Academy, succeeding Robert E. Lee. He then returned to work on coastal defenses, especially in the New York and New Jersey area. During a leave of absence, he studied construction projects in Europe.

Civil War
Soon after the outbreak of the Civil War, U.S. Army commander Major General and Brevet Lieutenant General Winfield Scott, bearing in mind Barnard's success at defending his Tampico-based supply lines during the Mexican–American War, assigned then Major Barnard to the Department of Washington. This was the Union Army unit in charge of defending Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States. On April 28, 1861, Colonel Joseph K. Mansfield, the department commander, a former engineer himself, attached Barnard to his headquarters as chief engineer.

When the Union Army moved into Northern Virginia on May 24, 1861, Barnard oversaw the erection of fortifications on the Arlington hills. He also accompanied the Army to Manassas in July 1861 and was present at the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas).  Between June 1861 and September 1861, Barnard also served on the U.S. Navy's Blockade Strategy Board. Major General George B. McClellan assumed command of the Military Division of the Potomac, the troops around Washington, D.C., on July 23, 1861. On August 15, 1861, McClellan was appointed to the command of the Army and Department of the Potomac, and Barnard became chief engineer of the Military District of Washington. As McClellan formulated his thoughts for fortifications around Washington, D.C., Barnard planned, designed and oversaw their construction.

In Barnard's A Report on the Defenses of Washington, published after the Civil War, he commented on the complexity and ever-changing nature of the project:

From a few isolated works covering bridges or commanding a few especially important points, was developed a connected system of fortification by which every prominent point, at intervals of 800 to 1,000 yards, was occupied by an inclosed field-fort every important approach or depression of ground, unseen from the forts, swept by a battery for field-guns, and the whole connected by rifle-trenches which were in fact lines of infantry parapet, furnishing emplacement for two ranks of men and affording covered communication along the line, while roads were opened wherever necessary, so that troops and artillery could be moved rapidly from one point of the immense periphery to another, or under cover, from point to point along the line.

On September 23, 1861, President Abraham Lincoln appointed Barnard to the grade of brigadier general, U.S. Volunteers, to rank from September 23, 1861. Lincoln formally nominated Barnard as brigadier general on December 21, 1861, and the U.S. Senate confirmed the promotion on March 24, 1862. Barnard was engineer for the Army of the Potomac between August 20, 1861, and August 16, 1862. He participated in the Peninsula Campaign and directed the siege works at Yorktown, Virginia and later the offensive and defensive works on the Chickahominy River. On the march to Harrison's Landing on the James River, he reconnoitered and selected positions for the Battle of Gaines Mill, the passage of White Oak Swamp and the Battle of Malvern Hill.  After the conclusion of his work in that campaign, he again was engaged in working on the defenses of Washington as chief engineer of the Department of Washington until May 1864. He had certain additional special assignments such as devising the defenses of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, during this period.

Upon the death of the Chief of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Brigadier General Joseph Totten, on April 22, 1864, President Lincoln nominated Barnard to be the next Chief of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at the grade of brigadier general, U.S. Army, but Barnard immediately asked that the nomination be withdrawn.

Barnard was Engineer XXII Corps, Department of Washington, between February 2, 1863, and May 25, 1864. Between May 25, 1864, and June 5, 1864, he was chief engineer for the Army of the Potomac. He was on the staff of General Ulysses S. Grant in the Overland Campaign between June 5, 1864, and July 4, 1864. On July 4, 1864, President Lincoln nominated and the U. S. Senate confirmed the award to General Barnard of the honorary rank of brevet major general, U.S. Volunteers, to rank from July 4, 1864, for "Meritorious and Distinguished Services during the Rebellion."

Barnard was appointed chief engineer of the armies in the field with his appointment to General Grant's staff. He remained in this position during the Siege of Petersburg, including the capture of Fort Harrison, the Battle of Hatcher's Run and the final assault on Petersburg, until the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox, Virginia, on April 9, 1865.

General Barnard served in the honor guard for President Lincoln's funeral in April 1865. He was mustered out of the U.S. Volunteers on January 15, 1866.

On April 10, 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated and on May 4, 1866, the U.S. Senate confirmed the award to Barnard of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general, USA, (Regular Army) to rank from March 13, 1865, for "Gallant and Meritorious Service in the Campaign terminating with the Surrender of the Insurgent Army under Gen. R. E. Lee." On July 17, 1866, President Johnson nominated and on July 23, 1866, the U.S. Senate confirmed the award to Barnard of the honorary grade of brevet major general, USA, to rank from March 13, 1865 "for Gallant and Meritorious Services in the Field during the Rebellion."

Postbellum career
Barnard was promoted to colonel in the Regular Army on December 28, 1865, and continued his career in the Army Corps of Engineers until January 1881.

Soon after the close of the war, Barnard was made president of the permanent Board of Engineers for Fortifications and River and Harbor Improvements, a position which he held until his retirement from active service, in January, 1881. Barnard successfully recast the approach to coastal defenses which was required because of the obsolescence of wooden ships and muzzle loading guns. He also advocated the successful use of parallel jetties to improve the mouth of the Mississippi River. He was a prominent member of the United States Lighthouse Board from February 20, 1870, until his retirement on January 2, 1881.

The production of scientific literature in the USA was fostered by Barnard: It was largely through the influence of General Barnard that David Van Nostrand was brought into close association with a group of young army officers who became his friends and later his authors and editorial consultants. Numbered among them were William T. Sherman, H. W. Halleck, Silas Casey, Philip St. George Cooke, Quincy Gillmore, Hugh L. Scott, George W. Cullum, Philip Sheridan and many others known to history.

Barnard was an original member of the Aztec Club of 1847 as well as the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States.

Barnard was a co-founder of the United States National Academy of Sciences, as were several other senior officers of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

General Barnard retired from the Army on January 2, 1881 and died in Detroit, Michigan, on May 14, 1882.  He is interred in Sheffield, Massachusetts.

Writings
Barnard authored several scientific and engineering treatises and Civil War history papers. Among the more notable of these were:
 Phenomena of the Gyroscope analytically examined. 1858.
 Dangers and Defences of New York City. 1859.
 Notes on Seacoast Defence. 1861.
 The C. S. A. and the Battle of Bull Run. 1862.
 Reports of the Engineer and Artillery Operations of the Army of the Potomac from its Organization to the Close of the Peninsular Campaign. (Jointly with General Barry.) 1863.
 Eulogy on the late Major-General Joseph G. Totten, late Chief Engineer, IT. S. A. 1866.
 Report on the Defences of Washington. (P. P. Corps of Engrs., No. 20.)  1871.
 Fabrication of Iron for Defensive Purposes. (Jointly with General Wright and Colonel Michie.) (P. P. Corps of Engrs., No. 21, and supplement.) 1871.
 Report on the North Sea Canal of Holland. (P. P. Corps of Engrs., No. 22.) 1872.
 Problems of Rotary Motion presented by the Gyroscope, the Precession of the Equinoxes, and the Pendulum. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. XIX, 56 pages, 1872.
 On the Internal Structure of the Earth considered as Affecting the Phenomena of Precession and Nutation, being the Third of the Problems of Rotary Motion. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. XXIII, 19 pages, 1877.
 Over 90 articles in Johnson's Cyclopaedia on scientific subjects. 1874–1877.

See also

 List of American Civil War generals (Union)
 List of Massachusetts generals in the American Civil War
 Massachusetts in the American Civil War

Notes

References
 Abbot, Henry L. , Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April 17, 1902.
 Cullum, George W. George W. Cullum's Register of Officers and Graduates of the United States Military Academy Vol. I, 1891.
 Eicher, John H. and Eicher, David J. Civil War High Commands. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, 2001. .
 Hunt, Roger D. and Brown, Jack R. Brevet Brigadier Generals in Blue. Olde Soldier Books, Inc., Gaithersburg, MD, 1990. .
 Sifakis, Stewart. Who Was Who in the Civil War. Facts On File, New York, 1988. .
 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers web site, Commanders of the Corps of Engineers
 Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Blue. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 1964. .
 Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Gray. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 1959. .

External links

 National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
 Scientific American, June 17, 1882, p. 381, General J. G. Barnard obituary

1815 births
1882 deaths
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
Members of the Aztec Club of 1847
People of Massachusetts in the American Civil War
Union Army generals
United States Military Academy alumni
Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
People from Sheffield, Massachusetts

John G. Barnard


Paolo Ferrari (1822–1889), Italian dramatist, was born at Modena. His numerous works, chiefly comedies, and all marked by a fresh and piquant style, are the finest product of the modern Italian drama. After producing some minor pieces, in 1852 he made his reputation as a playwright with Goldoni e le sue Sedici Commedie. Among numerous later plays his comedy Parini e la Satira (1857) had considerable success. Ferrari may be regarded as a follower of Carlo Goldoni, modelling himself on the French theatrical methods. in 1860 he was appointed professor of History at Modena and afterwards at Milan. His collected plays were published in 1877–1880 in 14 volumes.

References

Italian male writers

1822 births
1889 deaths
Writers from Modena

Paolo Ferrari (writer)


Ulrich Friedrich Woldemar Graf von Löwendal (, tr. ; 1700–1755) was a German officer and statesman.

Life
Graf von Löwendal served first under German Emperor Charles VI in the Imperial Army. He joined the Danish Army for a short time, then he returned to the Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Empire. Later he served Augustus II the Strong, who made him Feldmarschall and Generalinspektor of the Saxon Infantry. 1734 to 1735 he commanded the troops of Saxony at the Rhine. Later, like so many Germans, he served in the Imperial Russian Army, fighting the Turks 1739 by Khotyn.

From 1740 until 1743 he was Generalgouverneur of Estonia. 1741 Augustus III, who was Reichsvikar, granted him the title of "Reichsgraf".

French Army
From 1744 to 1755 he served in the French army. Born in Hamburg, he served in the armies of several countries, and from 1740 to 1743 acted as Governor-General of the Ostsee governorates of the Russian Empire. But he is best known for his service in the French army during the War of the Austrian Succession. In the French campaign in the Austrian Netherlands against the Pragmatic Army he served as a subordinate to Maurice de Saxe. He led French forces that captured Ghent in 1745 and Bergen-op-Zoom in 1747. The King of France, Louis XV, made him a Marshal of France for his success in capturing Bergen op Zoom.

In 1755 Louis XV gave Lowendal instructions to act as a Plenipotentiary in negotiations with Prussia, designed to prevent the Seven Years' War from breaking out. However Lowendal died before he could carry out his orders and was replaced by Louis Jules Mancini Mazarini, Duc de Nivernais.

Death
Marshall Ulrich Friedrich Woldemar Graf von Löwendal died on 27 May 1755 in Paris. He had been married twice (first since 23 January 1722 to Theodora Eugenia von Schmettau, daughter of German General Gottlieb von Schmettau; since 13. November 1736 to Barbe Madeleine Gräfin von Szembek) and was father of eight children.

References

Bibliography
 Browning, Reed. The War of the Austrian Succession. Alan Sutton, 1994.
 Dull, Jonathan R. The French Navy and the Seven Years' War. University of Nebraska, 2005.
 Lodge, Sir Richard. Studies in Eighteenth Century diplomacy 1740–48. John Murray, 1930.

1700 births
1755 deaths
Military personnel of the Holy Roman Empire
Members of the French Academy of Sciences

Ulrich Friedrich Woldemar von Löwendal


In the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), by George Orwell, Newspeak is the fictional language of Oceania, a totalitarian superstate. To meet the ideological requirements of Ingsoc (English Socialism) in Oceania, the Party created Newspeak, which is a controlled language of simplified grammar and limited vocabulary designed to limit a person's ability for critical thinking and thus limit the person's ability to articulate abstract concepts, such as personal identity, self-expression, and free will, which are thoughtcrimes, acts of personal independence that contradict the ideological orthodoxy of Ingsoc collectivism.

In the appendix to the novel, "The Principles of Newspeak", Orwell explains that Newspeak follows most rules of English grammar, yet is a language characterised by a continually diminishing vocabulary; complete thoughts are reduced to simple terms of simplistic meaning. The political contractions of Newspeak — Ingsoc (English Socialism), Minitrue (Ministry of Truth), Miniplenty (Ministry of Plenty) — are similar to German and Russian contractions in the 20th century, such as Nazi (Nationalsozialist), Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei), politburo (Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), Comintern (Communist International), kolkhoz (collective farm), and Komsomol (communist youth union). In Newspeak, the contractions often are syllabic abbreviations that hide the ideological content of speech from the speaker and the listener.

In contemporary political usage, the term Newspeak is used to impugn an opponent who, the attacker claims, is introducing new definitions of words to suit their political agenda.

Development of Newspeak
As a constructed language, Newspeak is a language of planned phonology, limited grammar, and finite vocabulary, much like the phonology, grammar, and vocabulary of Basic English (British American Scientific International Commercial English), which was proposed by Charles Kay Ogden in 1930. As a controlled language without complex constructions and ambiguous usages, Basic English was designed to be easy to learn to sound and speak, with a vocabulary of 850 words composed specifically to facilitate the communication of facts, not the communication of abstract thought. Moreover, whilst employed as a propagandist by BBC during the Second World War (1939–1945), Orwell saw the intellectual and communicative disadvantages of Basic English, because, as a controlled language, its constructions impose functional limitations upon the speech, the writing, and the thinking of the users.

In the essay "Politics and the English Language" (1946) and in "The Principles of Newspeak" appendix to Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), Orwell discusses the communication function of English and contemporary ideological changes in usage during the 1940s. In the novel, the linguistic decadence of English is the central theme about language-as-communication. In the essay, that Standard English was characterised by dying metaphors, pretentious diction, and high-flown rhetoric, which he satirised with the term doublespeak, the opaque language that arises from cognitive dissonance, and Orwell concludes that as: "I said earlier that the decadence of our language is probably curable. Those who deny this [decadence] may argue that language merely reflects existing social conditions, and that we cannot influence its development, by any direct tinkering with words or constructions."

That the decline of English went hand-in-hand with the decline of intellectualism among society, and thus facilitated the manipulation of listeners and speakers and writers into consequent political chaos. The story of Nineteen Eighty-Four explains the connection between authoritarian régimes and doublespeak language, earlier discussed in "Politics and the English Language":

Principles
To eliminate the expression of ambiguity and nuance from Oldspeak (Standard English) in order to reduce the English language's communication functions, Newspeak uses simplistic constructions of language, such as the dichotomies of pleasure vs. pain and happiness vs. sadness. Such dichotomies produced the linguistic and political concepts of goodthink and crimethink that reinforce the totalitarianism of The Party over the people of Oceania. The long-term goal of The Party is that, by A.D. 2050, Newspeak would be the universal language of every member of The Party and of Oceanian society, except for the Proles, the working-class of Oceania.

In Newspeak, English root-words function both as nouns and as verbs, which reduces the vocabulary available for the speaker to communicate meaning; e.g. as a noun and as a verb, the word think eliminates the word thought to functionally communicate thoughts, which are the products of intellectualism. As a form of personal communication, Newspeak is spoken in staccato rhythm, using short words that are easy to pronounce, so that speech is physically automatic and intellectually unconscious, by which mental habits the user of Newspeak avoids critical thinking. English words of comparative and superlative meanings and irregular spellings were simplified; thus, better becomes gooder and best becomes goodest. The Newspeak prefixes plus– and doubleplus– are used for emphasis, e.g. pluscold means "very cold" and doublepluscold means "very very cold". Newspeak forms adjectives by appending the suffix –ful to a root-word, e.g. goodthinkful means "Orthodox in thought"; whilst adverbs are formed by adding the suffix –wise, e.g. goodthinkwise means "In an orthodox manner".

Thought control
The intellectual purpose of Newspeak is to make all anti-Ingsoc thoughts "literally unthinkable" as speech. As constructed, Newspeak vocabulary communicates the exact expression of sense and meaning that a member of the Party could wish to express, while excluding secondary denotations and connotations, eliminating the ways of lateral thinking (indirect thinking), which allow a word to have additional meanings. The linguistic simplification of Oldspeak into Newspeak was realised with neologisms, the elimination of ideologically undesirable words, and the elimination of the politically unorthodox meanings of words.

The word free still existed in Newspeak, but only to communicate the absence of something, e.g. "The dog is free from lice" or "This field is free of weeds". The word could not denote free will, because intellectual freedom was no longer supposed to exist in Oceania. The limitations of Newspeak's vocabulary enabled the Party to effectively control the population's minds, by allowing the user only a very narrow range of spoken and written thought; hence, words such as: crimethink (thought crime), doublethink (accepting contradictory beliefs), and Ingsoc communicated only their surface meanings.

In the story of Nineteen Eighty-Four, the lexicologist character Syme discusses his editorial work on the latest edition of the Newspeak Dictionary:

Vocabulary
Newspeak words are classified by three distinct classes: the A, B, and C vocabularies.

The words of the A vocabulary describe the functional concepts of daily life (e.g. eating and drinking, working and cooking). It consists mostly of English words, but they are very small in number compared to English, and each word's meanings are "far more rigidly defined" than in English.

The words of the B vocabulary are deliberately constructed for political purposes to convey complex ideas in a simple form. They are compound words and noun-verbs with political significance that are meant to impose and instill in Oceania's citizens the correct mental attitudes required by the Party. In the appendix, Orwell explains that the very structure of the B vocabulary (the fact that they are compound words) carries ideological weight. The large number of contractions in the B vocabulary—for example, the Ministry of Truth being called Minitrue, the Records department being called Recdep, the Fiction Department being called Ficdep, the Teleprogrammes Department being called Teledep—is not done simply to save time. As with examples of compound words in the political language of the 20th century—Nazi, Gestapo, Politburo, Comintern, Inprecor, Agitprop, and many others—Orwell remarks that the Party believed that abbreviating a name could "narrowly and subtly" alter a word's meaning. Newspeak is supposed to make this effort a conscious purpose:

The B words in Newspeak are supposed to sound pleasant, while also being easily pronounceable, in an attempt to make speech on anything political "staccato and monotonous" and, ultimately, mask from the speaker all ideological content.

The words of the C vocabulary are scientific and technical terms that supplement the linguistic functions of the A and B vocabularies. These words are the same scientific terms in English, but many of them have had their meanings rigidified to attempt, as with the A vocabulary, to prevent speakers from being able to express anti-government thoughts. Distribution of the C vocabulary is limited, because the Party does not want citizens to know more than a select few ways of life or techniques of production. Hence, the Oldspeak word science has no equivalent term in Newspeak; instead, these words are simply treated as specific technical words for speaking of technical fields.

Grammar

Newspeak's grammar is greatly simplifed compared to English. It also has two "outstanding" characteristics: almost completely interchangeable linguistic functions between the parts of speech (any word can function as a verb, noun, adjective, or adverb), and heavy inflectional regularity in the construction of usages and of words. Inflectional regularity means that most irregular words are replaced with regular words combined with prefixes and suffixes. For example, the preterite and the past participle constructions of verbs are alike, with both ending in –ed. Hence, the Newspeak preterite of the English word steal is stealed, and that of the word think is thinked. Likewise, the past participles of swim, give, bring, speak, and take were, respectively swimmed, gived, bringed, speaked, and taked, with all irregular forms (such as swam, gave, and brought) being eliminated. The auxiliaries (including to be), pronouns, demonstratives, and relatives still inflect irregularly. They mostly follow their use in English, but the word whom and the shall and should tenses are dropped, whom being replaced by who and shall and should by will and would.

Prefixes
 "Un–" is used to indicate negation, as Newspeak has no non-political antonyms. For example, the standard English words warm and hot are replaced by uncold, and the moral concept communicated with the word bad is expressed as ungood. When appended to a verb, the prefix "un–" communicates a negative imperative mood; thus, the Newspeak word unproceed means "do not proceed" in Standard English.
 "Plus–" is an intensifier that replaces very and more; thus, plusgood replaces very good and English words such as great.
 "Doubleplus–" is an intensifier that replaces extremely and superlatives; for example, doubleplusgood replaces words such as fantastic and excellent.
 "Ante–" is the prefix that replaces before; thus antefilling replaces the English phrase "before filling."
 "Post–" is the prefix that replaces after.

Suffixes
In spoken and written Newspeak, suffixes are also used in the elimination of irregular conjugations:
 "–ful" transforms any word into an adjective, e.g. the English words fast, quick, and rapid are replaced by speedful and slow is replaced by unspeedful.
 "–d" and "–ed" form the past tense of a verb, e.g. ran becomes runned, stole becomes stealed, drove becomes drived, thought becomes thinked, and drank becomes drinked.
 "–er" forms the more comparison of an adjective, e.g. better becomes gooder.
 "–est" forms the most comparison of an adjective, e.g. best becomes goodest.
 "–s" and "–es" transform a noun into its plural form, e.g. men becomes mans, oxen becomes oxes, and lives becomes lifes.
 "–wise" transforms any word into an adverb by eliminating all English adverbs not already ending in "–wise", e.g. quickly becomes speedwise, slowly becomes unspeedwise, carefully becomes carewise, and words like fully, completely, and totally become fullwise.

Therefore, the Oldspeak sentence "He ran extremely quickly" would become "He runned doubleplusspeedwise".

Newspeak vocabulary

This is a list of Newspeak words known from the novel. It does not include words carried over directly from English with no change in meaning, nor does it include regular uses of the listed affixes (e.g. unbellyfeel) unless they are particularly significant.

The novel says that the Ministry of Truth uses a jargon "not actually Newspeak, but consisting largely of Newspeak words" for its internal memos. As many of the words in this list (e.g. "bb", "upsub") come from such memos, it is not certain whether those words are actually Newspeak.

ante — the prefix that replaces before
artsem — artificial insemination
bb — Big Brother
bellyfeel — the blind, enthusiastic acceptance of an idea
blackwhite — to accept whatever one is told, regardless of the facts. In the novel, it is described as "to say that black is white when [the Party says so]" and "to believe that black is white, and more, to know that black is white, and to forget that one has ever believed the contrary". (See also 2 + 2 = 5)
crimestop — to rid oneself of or fail to understand unorthodox thoughts that go against Ingsoc's ideology
crimethink — thoughts and concepts that go against Ingsoc such as liberty, equality, and privacy, and also the criminal act of holding such thoughts. Frequently referred to by the standard English "thoughtcrime".
dayorder — order of the day
dep — department
doubleplusgood — the word that replaces Oldspeak words meaning "superlatively good", such as excellent, fabulous, and fantastic
doubleplusungood — the word that replaces Oldspeak words meaning "superlatively bad", such as terrible and horrible
doublethink — the act of simultaneously believing two, mutually contradictory ideas
duckspeak — automatic, vocal support of political orthodoxies
equal — the same in amount or quantity. Not used in the sense of having equal rights or freedoms.
facecrime — a facial expression which reveals that one has committed thoughtcrime
Ficdep — the Ministry of Truth's Fiction Department
free — the absence and the lack of something. "Intellectually free" and "politically free" have been replaced by crimethinkful.
fullwise — the word that replaces words such as fully, completely, and totally
goodthink — a synonym for "political orthodoxy" and "a politically orthodox thought" as defined by the Party
goodsex — sexual intercourse only for procreation, without any physical pleasure on the part of the woman, and strictly within marriage
goodwise — the word that replaces well as an adverb
Ingsoc — English Socialism (the political ideology of the Party)
joycamp  — labour camp
malquoted — inaccurate representations of the words of Big Brother and of the Party
Miniluv — the Ministry of Love, where the secret police interrogate and torture the enemies of Oceania (torture and brainwashing)
Minipax — the Ministry of Peace, which wages war for Oceania
Miniplenty — the Ministry of Plenty, which keeps the population in continual economic hardship (starvation and rationing)
Minitrue — the Ministry of Truth, which manufactures consent by way of lies, propaganda, and distorted historical records, while supplying the proles (proletariat) with synthetic culture and entertainment
Oldspeak — Standard English
oldthink — ideas from the time before the Party's revolution, such as objectivity and rationalism
ownlife — a person's anti-social tendency to enjoy solitude and individualism
plusgood — the word that replaces Oldspeak words meaning "very good", such as great
plusungood — the word that replaces "very bad"
Pornosec — the pornography production section (Porno Sector) of the Ministry of Truth's Fiction Department
prolefeed — popular culture for entertaining Oceania's working class
Recdep — the Ministry of Truth's Records Department, where Winston Smith rewrites historical records so they conform to the Party's agenda
rectify — the Ministry of Truth's euphemism for distorting a historical record
ref — to refer (to someone or something)
sec — sector
sexcrime — a sexual immorality, such as fornication, adultery, oral sex, and homosexuality; any sex act that deviates from Party directives to use sex only for government approved procreation
speakwrite — a machine that transcribes speech into text
Teledep — the Ministry of Truth's Telecommunications Department
telescreen — a two-way television set with which the Party spies upon Oceania's population
thinkpol — the Thought Police, the secret police force of Oceania's government
unperson — an executed person whose existence is erased from history and memory
upsub — an upwards submission to higher authority

See also

 2 + 2 = 5
 Authoritarian socialism
 Glossary of Nazi Germany
 Groupthink
Inclusive language
 Language and thought
 LTI – Lingua Tertii Imperii ("The Language of the Third Reich")
 Logocracy
 Philosophy of language
 Sapir–Whorf hypothesis
 Linguistic determinism
 Soviet phraseology
 Un-word of the year

Fiction:
 Ascian language
 Nadsat

Notes

References

Further reading

Burgess, Anthony. Nineteen Eighty-Five. Boston: Little Brown & Co, 1978. . Anthony Burgess discusses the plausibility of Newspeak.
Green, Jonathon. Newspeak: a dictionary of jargon. London, Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985, 1984. .
Klemperer, Victor. LTI - Lingua Tertii Imperii: Notizbuch eines Philologen..  Original German language editions.
Klemperer, Victor & Watt, Roderick H. LTI - Lingua Tertii Imperii: A Philologist's Notebook. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1997. . An annotated edition of Victor Klemperer's LTI, Notizbuch eines Philologen with English notes and commentary by Roderick H. Watt.
Klemperer, Victor & Brady, Martin (tr.). The language of the Third Reich: LTI - Lingua Tertii Imperii: A Philologist's Notebook. London, UK; New Brunswick, NJ: Athlone Press, 2000.  (alk. paper). Translated by Martin Brady.
Young, John Wesley . Totalitarian Language: Orwell's Newspeak and Its Nazi and Communist Antecedents. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1991. . John Wesley Young wrote this scholarly work about Newspeak and historical examples of language control.
The Principles of Newspeak
George Orwell's 1984

Censorship
Constructed languages introduced in the 1940s
Controlled English
Fictional elements introduced in 1949
Fictional languages
Historical negationism
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political linguistics
Propaganda techniques using words
Satire
Words originating in fiction
George Orwell

Newspeak