Human rights in Estonia are acknowledgedas being generally respected by the government. Nevertheless, there are concerns in some areas, such as detention conditions, excessive police use of force, and child abuse. Estonia has been classified as a flawed democracy, with moderate privacy and human development in Europe. Individuals are guaranteed on paper the basic rights under the constitution, legislative acts, and treaties relating to human rights ratified by the Estonian government. Estonia was ranked 4th in the world by press freedoms.

Several international and human rights organisations, such as Human Rights Watch, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe in 1993 and the UN Human Rights Council in 2008 have found little major apparent issues or patterns of systematic abuse of human rights or discrimination on ethnic grounds, while others, such as Amnesty International in 2009, have raised concerns regarding immigrants, and regarding the Russophone minority, who "suffer unemployment rates almost twice as high as among ethnic Estonians".

History
Estonians' individual human rights and collective rights to exist as an ethnic entity, have been routinely violated for eight centuries since the Northern Crusades and Baltic German rule, followed by two centuries of Russian imperial suzerainty and ending with half a century of Soviet occupation. Estonia's first constitution of 1920 included safeguards for civil and political rights that were the standard of the day. The 1925 Law on Cultural Autonomy was an innovative piece of legislation that provided for the protection of the collective rights for citizens of non-Estonian ethnicities.

Estonia in the international human rights system

As of end of 2010, European Court of Human Rights has delivered 23 judgments in cases brought against Estonia (beginning from 2001); in 19 cases, it found at least one violation of the European Convention on Human Rights or its protocols. In 2001, Estonia has extended a standing invitation to Special Procedures of UN Human Rights Council.

Participation in basic human rights treaties

Latest documents in reporting procedures

Overviews by human rights organisations

Amnesty International
According to Amnesty International, linguistic minorities face discrimination in a number of areas, especially in employment and education. Migrants were exposed to harassment by state officials and attacks by extremist groups. Criminal investigations into allegations of excessive use of force by police were dismissed. Also Estonian security police, Kaitsepolitsei, made allegations against the Legal Information Centre for Human Rights (LICHR), which it claims is widely seen as an attempt to misrepresent the organization and to undermine its work.

Human Rights Watch
According to Human Rights Watch report, 1993, the organisation did not find systematic, serious abuses of human rights in the area of citizenship. Non-citizens in Estonia were guaranteed basic rights under the Constitution of Estonia. However, there were some problems concerning the successful integration  of some who were permanent residents at the time Estonia gained independence.

Freedom House
According to Freedom House, Estonia has wide political rights and civil liberties. Political parties are allowed to organize freely and elections have been free and fair. Public access to government information are respected and the country has a freedom of the press, although a 2007 report discussed Estonia's Kaitsepolitsei security organs as the nation's political police. Also religious freedom is respected in law and in practice. Corruption is regarded as a relatively minor problem in Estonia. The judiciary is independent and generally free from government interference.

United Nations Human Rights Council
The 2008 report of Special Rapporteur on racism to United Nations Human Rights Council noted the existence of political will by the Estonian State authorities to fight the expressions of racism and discrimination in Estonia. According to the report, the representatives of the Russian speaking communities in Estonia saw the most important form of discrimination in Estonia is not ethnic, but rather language-based (Para. 56). The rapporteur expressed several recommendations including strengthening the Chancellor of Justice, facilitating granting citizenship to persons of undefined nationality and making language policy subject of a debate to elaborate strategies better reflecting the multilingual character of society (paras. 89-92).

UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
The UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) examines regular reports of the member States on how the rights are being implemented under Article 9 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. In its 2010 concluding observations the Committee noted some positive aspects, and raised concerns and made recommendations with regard to Estonia's compliance with the convention. Concerns named in the report included: lack of protection of minorities from hate speech; racial motivation of crimes not being an aggravating circumstance; strong emphasis on Estonian language in the state Integration strategy; usage of punitive approach for promoting Estonian language; restrictions of the usage of minority language in public services; low level of minority representation in political life; persistently high number of persons with undetermined citizenship,  etc.

Other institutions
According to Cliohres, the European Network of Excellence organized by a group of 45 universities publication the alleged violations of human rights of the Russian-speaking population in Estonia has served as a pretext of trying to lock the region within the sphere of influence of Russia. Moscow's attempts to take political advantage over the issue of the Russophone minority in Estonia have been successful as Kremlin has used every international forum where the claims of the violations of human rights in Estonia have been presented.

The United Nations Development Programme's forum Development and Transition has discussed the situation of Estonia and Latvia in 2005.

James Hughes, a US sociologist from the Trinity College, claimed Latvia and Estonia are both states "captured by the titular ethnic groups", employing a "sophisticated and extensive policy regime of discrimination" against their respective Russophone populations. He names three "pillars" of discrimination: refusal of citizenship, language usage, and participation rights, and claims discrimination is constrained by the "economic dependence on Russophone labour".

Nils Muiznieks, a Latvian politician, former minister for Social Integration, claimed, "Hughes provides simple conclusions about the complex realities of minority policies and inter-ethnic relations in Estonia and Latvia".

Both the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) mission in Estonia and the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities declared in 1993 that they could not find a pattern of human rights violations or abuses in Estonia.

According to Human Right Report of United States Department of State, Estonia generally respects the human rights of citizens and the large ethnic Russian noncitizen community. However, there were problems with police use of force, conditions in detention and lengthy of pre-trial detention. Also there were problems in domestic violence, inequality of women's salaries, child abuse, and trafficking of women and children.

According to Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as at 2011, the evaluations given by UN Committee on economic, social and cultural rights show acute human rights issues, in particular in the field of rights of national minorities, to remain unresolved in Estonia.

Issues

Surveys related to human rights
Surveys conducted between 1993 and 1997 found ethnic Russians living in the Baltic states generally did not see themselves as particularly threatened or suffering from "apartheid" or racism as the Russian government often contended; a British survey in 1993 showed that "solid majorities of ethnic Russians did not consider their situations as "dangerous, difficult or especially burdensome" and found 69% of Russian speakers disagreed with the view that non-citizens and minorities were badly treated, while a Russian survey in 1995 found only 8% of Russian speakers felt their human rights were being violated.

According to a 2008 survey of 500 ethnic Russians conducted by the EU Fundamental Rights Agency, 59% of those questioned characterized ethnic discrimination as very or fairly widespread in the country. 27% claimed they had experienced discrimination based on their ethnic origin in the past 5 years, including 17% during the past 12 months (compared to 4–5% in Lithuania and Latvia.) Discrimination at workplace was characterized as widespread, with 72% of poll participants saying that a different ethnic background would be hindering to advancement. 39% said they had experienced discrimination during the past 5 years when looking for work, including 16% during the past 12 months—the highest rate in all the countries surveyed. 10% confirmed that they avoid certain places, such as shops or cafés because they believed they would receive bad treatment due to their ethnic background.

However another survey result in 2008 found only 3% of ethnic Russians said they had regularly experienced hostility or unfair treatment because of their ethnicity, and 9% occasionally; 1% stated they had been regularly offended on the basis of their ethnicity while 7% occasionally. This survey found that while most of the respondents had not actually experienced any discrimination personally, they nevertheless held the belief that the level of discrimination was high.

The European Centre for Minority Issues has examined Estonia's treatment of its Russophone minority. In its conclusion, the centre stated that all international organisations agree that no forms of systematic discrimination towards the Russian-speaking population can be observed and praises the efforts made thus far in amendments to laws on education, language and the status of non-citizens, there nevertheless remains the issue of the large number of such non-citizens. As of September 2, 2009, 102,466, or 7.5% of Estonia's population remain non-citizens, dropping from 32% in 1992 and 12% in 2003. In November 2005 a survey was conducted among residents with undetermined citizenship. The results show that 61% of those residents wanted Estonian citizenship, 13% Russian citizenship and 6% citizenship of another country. 17% of the respondents were not interested in acquiring any citizenship at all. It was found that the older the respondent, the more likely he or she doesn't want to have any citizenship. The survey also showed that respondents who were born in Estonia were more likely to wish to get Estonian citizenship (73%), than those not born in Estonia (less than 50%).

Recent studies have shown that one of the significant factors of statelessness is the advantage of retaining an ambiguous legal status to everyday life; on one hand it is easier for immigrants without Estonian citizenship to travel back to Russia while on the other hand lack of citizenship poses no problems for living in Estonia; a survey in 2008 found that 72% of ethnic Russian respondents cite the ease of travel to Russia as one of the reasons people do not seek Estonian citizenship and 75% state that the fact of lack of citizenship does not hinder their lives is another reason

Several human rights related researches are conducted every year by Estonian local human rights organizations, for example the Estonian Institute of Human Rights.

Employment
72% of 500 questioned ethnic Russians believed that different ethnic background is hindering to workplace advancement. Russian government officials and parliamentarians echo these charges in a variety of forums. Such claims have become more frequent during times of political disagreements between Russia and these countries and waned when the disagreements have been resolved.

According to the 2008 survey by TIES, a project coordinated by the University of Amsterdam, 38.9% of Russian and 25.2% of Estonian respondents think that "Russians experience hostility or unfair treatment because of their ethnicity" at work "occasionally", "regularly", or "frequently". 51.4% of Russian and 50.4% of Estonian respondents also think that Russians experience ethnic discrimination looking for work. Same report says 40% of Estonians and 44% of Russians think it is "more difficult" or "much more difficult" for Russians to find a job, compared to Estonians. 10% of Estonians and 15% of Russians, on the other side, believe it is "easier", or "much easier" for Russians to find a job.

A 2005 study by European Network Against Racism found that 17.1% of ethnic non-Estonians claimed that they had experienced limitations to their rights or degrading treatment in the workplace during the last 3 years because of their ethnic origin.

Amnesty had noted in a 2006 report that members of the Russian-speaking minority in Estonia enjoy very limited linguistic and minority rights, and often find themselves de facto excluded from the labour market and educational system. The discriminating policies of Estonia have led to "disproportionately high levels of unemployment among the Russian-speaking linguistic minority. This in turn has further contributed to social exclusion and vulnerability to other human rights abuses. In consequence, many from this group are effectively impeded from the full enjoyment of their economic, social and cultural rights (ESC rights)."

Charles Kroncke and Kenneth Smith in a 1999 article published in the journal Economics of Transition argue that while there was no ethnicity based discrimination in 1989, the situation in 1994 was completely different. According to the article, there is substantial evidence of discrimination against ethnic Russians in the 1994 Estonian labour market. The evidence examined in the article also suggested that Estonian language ability does not significantly affect wages. Kroncke and Smith also point out the surprising fact, that Estonian-born ethnic Russians appear to fare worse than immigrant ethnic Russians. A later study by Kristian Leping and Ott Toomet published in 2008 in the Journal of Comparative Economics reports that a lack of fluency in the Estonian language and segregated social networks and school system, rather than ethnicity, as the prime reason for the apparent wage gap between Estonian and non-Estonian speakers.

Education
Since restoration of independence in 1991, Estonia has been funding Russian-language elementary, comprehensive and high schools alongside Estonian-language schools, with future reform planned since the late 1990s but repeatedly delayed.  The reform plan was commenced in 2007.

According to schedule, 60% of all subjects of grades 10, 11 and 12 are to be taught in Estonian by 2011 in all state-funded schools.  All state-funded schools already teach Estonian literature in Estonian since the 2007/2008 academic year.  The government has been reserved authority to grant waivers and extensions to some state-funded schools on a case-by-case basis.

In the 2007/2008 academic year, 49 Russian schools (79%) were teaching Music in Estonian, 30 Russian schools (48%) were teaching Social Studies in Estonian and 17 Russian schools (27%) taught both transition subjects in Estonian.

Amnesty International has recommended that the authorities provide more support for teachers and adequate resources for students who will be required to replace Russian with Estonian as their language of teaching and instruction; replacing Russian with Estonian as their learning language to successfully manage this transition.

According to the 2008 survey by TIES, 50% of ethnic Russian respondents think that the statement, "As a result of [2007 school] reform the quality of education for Russian youth will worsen" is "exactly true" or "moderately true". Report also notes that "a significantly larger share of Estonians complete higher education, while Russians more often only finish secondary education. At the same time, there were no significant differences between Estonians and Russians school success in terms of drop-out rates from basic and secondary school."

Ethnicity and crime
UN Committee Against Torture in its 2008 report on Estonia notes that "approximately 33 per cent of the prison population is composed of stateless persons, while they represent approximately 8 per cent of the overall population". The Committee calls this representation "disproportionate", and urges Estonia to take additional steps to protect rights of non-citizens and stateless residents. In 2008, about 78% of non-citizens were ethnic Russians; less than 3% ethnic Estonians. As of 2006, approximately 60% of the ethnic Russian population were non-citizens, 40 percent were stateless.

Treatment of Roma
The Council of Europe stated in 2006 that "the Roma community in Estonia is disproportionately affected by unemployment and discrimination in the field of education." The European Commission had previously conducted close monitoring of Estonia in 2000 and concluded that there was no evidence that these minorities are subject to discrimination.

Bronze Night incident

A number of organisations have commented on the events surrounding the Bronze Night incident. There was a concern expressed about possible human right violations perpetrated by both demonstrators and police. During the April 2007 riots in Tallinn, some police allegedly used excessive force against demonstrators. Eight criminal cases opened against officers, where charges were dropped in six, and two were pending at year's end. The International Federation of Human Rights (FIDH)–a coalition of 155 human rights groups– urged the Estonian authorities to investigate all acts of human rights violations during the night. The organisation called upon the Estonian authorities to "put an end to any practice of discrimination against the Russian-speaking minority, which constitutes about 30% of the Estonian population, and to conform in any circumstances with the provisions of the International Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination." FIDH and LHRC also condemned acts of vandalism perpetrated by demonstrators in Tallinn, as well as the blockade of the Estonian embassy in Moscow.

Trafficking in persons

According to the CIA World Factbook, "Estonia is a source, transit, and destination country for women subjected to forced prostitution, and for men and women subjected to conditions of forced labor". Estonia also "does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking, being the only country of the EU without a specific trafficking law.

Exploitation of children
Independent Special Rapporteur Najat Maalla M'jid of the United Nations has said that Estonia has taken clear steps to protect children from exploitation, although the human rights expert has commented that "young people remain at risk and continued vigilance from authorities is needed."

Sexual orientation

Homosexual sex, which was illegal in the Soviet Union, was legalised in Estonia in 1992. The age of consent is 14 years and was equalized for both homosexual and heterosexual sex in 2001. Homosexuals are not banned from military service and there are no laws discriminating homosexuals.

Estonia transposed an EU directive into its own laws banning discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment from May 1, 2004. A survey carried out in September 2002 found that there was a high level of discrimination against gay, lesbian and bisexual people in Estonia.

External views

Journalists
According to veteran German author, journalist and Russia-correspondent Gabriele Krone-Schmalz, there is deep disapproval of everything Russian in Estonia. She contends that the alleged level of discrimination regarding ethnic Russians in Estonia would have posed a barrier to acceptance into the EU; however, Western media gave the matter very little attention. However the European Commission conducted close monitoring of these countries compliance with the Acquis communautaire in regard to minority rights prior to accession to the EU, the Commission claimed that there is no evidence that these minorities are subject to discrimination.

In an interview with the Dutch newspaper NRC Handelsblad, Hans Glaubitz, a former ambassador of the Netherlands to Estonia, mentioned that he resigned due to the homophobia and racism once they could not "cope with gay hatred and racism on the Estonian streets."

International rankings
Democracy Index, 2008: 37 out of 167
Worldwide Press Freedom Index, 2008: 4 out of 173.
Internet freedom score: 13 (2009), 10 (2011), 10 (2012), and 9 (2013) (where a score of 1 is most free and 100 least free).
Worldwide Privacy Index, 2007: 13 out of 37.
Worldwide Quality-of-life Index, 2005: 68 out of 111.
Human Development Index, 2010: 34 out of 169.
Freedom in the World, 2008: Political rights score: 1 and Civil liberties score: 1  (1 being most free, 7 least free).
Global Corruption Report, 2007: 24 out of 163.

See also
 Estonian nationality law
 History of Russians in Estonia
 Internet censorship and surveillance in Estonia

References

Further reading
 European Commission against Racism and Intolerance. ECRI Report on Estonia. Fourth monitoring cycle. 2010-03-02.

External links
Intergovernmental organizations
Human rights in Estonia on OHCHR portal
Documents on Estonia by the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights
Documents on Estonia by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance
International NGOs
Human Rights Watch documents on Estonia
Amnesty International
 Estonia // Human rights in Europe. Review of 2019 p. 26
 AI country-specific reports: Estonia: The right to freedom of peaceful assembly must be protected (2006), Linguistic minorities in Estonia: Discrimination must end (2007)
Governmental organizations
Chancellor of Justice
Local NGOs
Legal Information Centre for Human Rights
Estonian Institute of Human Rights
Estonian Human Rights Centre

Human rights in Estonia


Sona Glacier  is the Himalayan glacier situated in the eastern part of Uttarakhand in the Pithoragarh district of India.

Geography
Sona Glacier is located at the base of five peaks of Panchachuli in the Lassar Yankti - Darma valley. With Meola Glacier it forms the famous Panchchuli Glacier as mixed glacial system. One can reach here as glacial trek through Tawaghat-Bailing-Son—Duktu. Sona glacier and Meola glacier serves the route to climb Panchchuli peaks from east facing direction. Sona glacier is situated north to Meola Glacier. It is situated just below peaks Nagalaphu (6,410 m) and Panchachuli-1 (6,355 m). It is divided into Upper and Lower. The direction of the glacier is south west to north east. It is located on the East to Panchachuli massif.

See also
 List of glaciers

References

Glaciers of Uttarakhand
Geography of Pithoragarh district

Sona Glacier


Benji is a 1974 American family film written, produced and directed by Joe Camp. It is the first in a series of five films about the golden mixed breed dog named Benji. Filmed in and around McKinney and Denton in Texas, the story follows Benji, a stray but friendly dog, who is adored by some of the townspeople, including two children named Cindy and Paul. The children fail to convince their father, Dr. Chapman, to allow Benji to stay at their home. When the children are kidnapped by a band of robbers as part of a ransom, Benji attempts to rescue them. The film grossed $45 million on a budget of $500,000, and its theme song received an Oscar nomination for Best Original Song. The film was turned down by every studio in Hollywood; Camp had to form his own film company to distribute the film worldwide. This film was Frances Bavier's and Edgar Buchanan's last film before they retired from acting and died in 1989 and 1979 respectively.

Plot
Benji, a stray dog who lives in an abandoned house on the outskirts of a small town, sets about his daily ritual of visiting human friends; he has no fixed home, but he desires one, and he likes the children of the Chapman family, Paul and Cindy, best. Mary, their housekeeper, feeds him, but she knows that the children's father, Dr. Chapman, must not find out about him because he'll fire her on the spot. One day, their father is about to appear, so they hide Benji under the table. After outwitting Dr. Chapman, the children leave for school and Mary explains to Benji that Dr. Chapman stubbornly dislikes dogs, but he is a nice man. Continuing on his route, Benji chases a cat and greets Officer Tuttle, who announces his wedding engagement and tells Benji that he, too, will soon meet the lady of his dreams. At Bill's Café, Benji wakes Bill from his morning nap and receives a bone as payment.  Returning home, Benji finds three suspicious characters, Linda, Henry, and Riley, breaking in. Although Henry and Riley are spooked by legends that the house is haunted, Linda intends to propose the location as a hideout to their boss Mitch, mastermind of their illicit activities. Henry leaves a bag of groceries behind, and Benji eagerly consumes an open pudding cup.

The next morning at the Chapman home, the children brush Benji, hoping their father will accept him into the family, but Mary tells them that the doctor will not change his mind. After impressing his human friends with his new hairstyle, Benji encounters a pretty white dog in the park who is scavenging through his favorite trashcan. Benji presents her with the bone he received from Bill, and she follows him back to the Chapman house, where Mary brushes her, brings her food and names her Tiffany after the jewelry store. Benji and Tiffany frolic in the park, but when they return to Benji's home, they find that Riley and Henry have returned. Riley points out that Henry's groceries have been overturned and becomes increasingly anxious that the house is haunted. As Mitch and Linda arrive to survey the property, Riley tells Henry that a pudding cup is missing, but Henry warns him against upsetting their plans.

The following morning, Dr. Chapman finally discovers that his folks have been feeding and associating with Benji, and tells his despondent children that Benji carries diseases and forbids them to keep him as a pet, despite Cindy's tearful pleas. Later, Riley writes a ransom note to extort money from Dr. Chapman by threatening his children, but Henry throws it on the floor, writes a new one, and orders Riley to deliver it when he gives him the signal. Meanwhile, Mitch surprises Henry and Linda by actually kidnapping the Chapman children. Benji races to the Chapman home to alert the humans but is shooed out by Mary, not understanding his message. Benji returns to his home to steal the ransom note, hoping that by doing that, he'll make the police follow him to the source of trouble, but he is stopped, and the note is taken from him. Benji is at a loss at what to do next. He then follows Officer Tuttle into the police station, but gets locked in. When he barks through an intercom, he is released by a passing policeman.

Returning to the crime scene, he snatches Riley's first ransom note and is grabbed by Mitch. Tiffany rushes out and bites him and gets a vicious kick in return; she is not killed, but her leg is sore and bruised. Benji runs home, where he finds that Linda has preceded him in an attempt to cut off his efforts. She snatches the note from Benji and puts it in her purse. He growls and barks, and Mary berates him and carries him away, but he bites her and lunges at Linda, causing the note to fall out. Mary reads it and rushes it to Dr. Chapman, who demands to know where his children are, and Linda breaks down in tears. Benji leads the police, the FBI, Dr. Chapman, and Mary back to the hideout. Meanwhile, the kidnappers are concerned that Linda has not returned, and Henry and Riley argue that they should leave. As they walk outside, however, the police hold them at gunpoint and the children are reunited with their father and Mary. Their father is so proud of the dogs that he says they can stay with them permanently, much to their and the children's delight.

Cast
 Higgins as Benji
 Patsy Garrett as Mary
 Cynthia Smith as Cindy Chapman
 Allen Fiuzat as Paul Chapman
 Peter Breck as Dr. Chapman
 Christopher Connelly as Henry
 Tom Lester as Riley
 Mark Slade as Mitch
 Deborah Walley as Linda
 Herb Vigran as Lt. Samuels
 Frances Bavier as Lady with Cat
 Edgar Buchanan as Bill
 Terry Carter as Officer Tuttle
 Larry Swartz as Floyd
 J.D. Young as Second Policeman
 Tiffany as White Dog
 January L'Angelle as Student (uncredited)
 John P. Biff Painter as Store Burglar

Theme song
The movie's theme song, "I Feel Love", recorded by the country music musician Charlie Rich, won a Golden Globe award for Best Original Song in 1975.

Production
The outdoor scenes were filmed primarily in McKinney, Texas; and the house located at 1104 South Tennessee Street served as the "haunted house" where the Chapman kids were held hostage, as well as serving as production headquarters during the filming. The house has since been renovated into a bed and breakfast. The park scenes were in Dallas. The municipal building was filmed in Denton, Texas.

The film and the ensuing franchise was created after Joe Camp expressed concern over the overabundance of family films released through the four wall distribution concept. He told Variety magazine in 1977: "It has become an industry-caused thing, but the G rated classification has to some degree become 'if it's G, it can't be for me'."  Camp observed that four-wall companies had saturated the market for G-rated product; in response to the diminished quality of their films, he created Benji.

Higgins appeared on screen with Edgar Buchanan, with whom he had appeared in the TV series Petticoat Junction; this was the final film for both.

Reception
Produced on a budget of $500,000, it grossed $39.6 million in the United States, making it the ninth highest-grossing film of 1974. The film grossed a total of $45 million in worldwide receipts. The film earned an 86% approval rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes.

Variety called the film "a very superior piece of family fare. Its star is a dog, ragtag in appearance and with a winning way that should endear it to every audience fortunate enough to catch the picture." Gene Siskel gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, calling it "agreeable" but criticizing "a few cheap grabs for emotion." Linda Gross of the Los Angeles Times called it a "cheery family film" that was "prettily photographed." Michael Grossbard of The Monthly Film Bulletin described the film as "quite effectively told from a doggy-eye view" and wrote that Joe Camp "seems to have cracked the Disney monopoly on family entertainment with his first effort, though the Master in his heyday had more wit, originality and artistry."

Higgins was nominated for a PATSY Award for the best animal performance of the year in a feature film, but lost out to Tonto the cat from Harry and Tonto.

In 2006, the film was nominated by the American Film Institute as one of the most inspirational films of the past 100 years.

See also
 List of American films of 1974

References

External links

1974 films
1970s adventure films
American mystery films
Films about dogs
Benji
Films directed by Joe Camp
Films scored by Euel Box
1974 directorial debut films
1970s English-language films
1970s American films

Benji (1974 film)


Torc Waterfall () is a  high,  long cascade waterfall formed by the Owengarriff River as it drains from the Devil's Punchbowl corrie lake at Mangerton Mountain.  The waterfall, which lies at the base of Torc Mountain, in the Killarney National Park, is  from Killarney in County Kerry, Ireland.  The waterfall is a popular site on the Ring of Kerry and the Kerry Way tours.

Naming

The word Torc is from the Irish translation of a "wild boar", and the area is associated with legends involving wild boars.  One legend is of a man who was cursed by the Devil to spend each night transformed into a wild boar, but when his secret was revealed by a local farmer, he burst into flames and disappeared into the nearby Devils Punchbowl on Mangerton Mountain from which the Owengarriff River emerged to hide the entrance to his cave beneath the Torc Waterfall.  There is also the story of how the legendary Irish warrior, Fionn MacCumhaill, killed a magical boar on Torc mountain with his golden spear.

Geology

The 20 meters high waterfall is formed by the Owengarriff River as it drains from the Devil's Punchbowl lough, a deep cirque high above in Mangerton Mountain.

Torc Waterfall sits on a geological fault called the Muckross to Millstreet Fault Line. Torc Mountain consists of 400 million-year-old Devonian Old Red Sandstone, but the base around Muckross Lake is circa 100 million years younger and consists of Carboniferous Limestone.  At some stage, after the limestone was deposited, a period of tectonic-plate collision occurred and the land under Torc was lifted up 3,000 metres, re-exposing the underlying older sandstone.

Visiting

Torc Waterfall is  from Killarney, and  from the gates of Muckross House, in the Killarney National Park.  The cascade is one of the main points on the  Kerry Way walking tour, and a popular stop-off location on the larger Ring of Kerry tour.

The waterfalls are a 200 metre walk from the car park (at ) just off the N71 road, and the climb to the top of the waterfalls is by way of a stone path of about a hundred steps (and circa 55 metres in elevation gain), and takes around 30 minutes to complete.  Red deer are frequently seen and heard in the area.

Killarney National Park has a number of loop-trails around the Torc Waterfall of varying lengths, called the Blue, Yellow and Red Trails.  The Red Trail climbs Cardiac Hill (also called Huntsman's Hill or the Cardiac Steps), and involves climbing a very steep series of stone steps (the starting point is half a kilometre west of the waterfall car-park off the N71) to an observation point and stone beehive hut, half-way up Torc Mountain at circa , giving views of the Lakes of Killarney, and then looping back eastwards to join the Old Kenmare Road and descend via Torc Waterfall.

A marked hiking trail also runs from the waterfall to the top of Torc Mountain  via the Old Kenmare Road, however, hikers can avoid Torc Waterfall and start from the upper car-park above the waterfall (at 55 metres, ), to complete the 8–kilometre 3 hour route to the summit of Torc Mountain and back.

See also

 Ladies View
 Moll's Gap
 Black Valley
 Gap of Dunloe

References

External links
Torc Waterfall on Tourism Ireland website or this  guide.

Tourist attractions in County Kerry
Landforms of County Kerry
Killarney
Waterfalls of the Republic of Ireland
Parks in County Kerry

Torc Waterfall


Reconnaissance by fire (also called recon by fire) is a way for soldiers to find out where the enemy is by shooting at them and seeing where they shoot back from. When the enemy shoots back, it tells the soldiers where they are located, how many they are, and what kind of weapons they have. Once they have this information, they can make a plan to attack the enemy or to stay safe.

World War II
During World War II, the Allies used recon by fire to find the location of the enemy by shooting and seeing where they shot back from. This tactic was used instead of the older method where tanks would follow behind soldiers on the ground, which was slow and didn't put enough pressure on the enemy. The new way was fast, and soldiers would shoot their weapons constantly as they moved forward to keep the enemy distracted and aim off target. They also used this tactic when they were travelling with trucks that had big machine guns.

Vietnam War
During a battle in Vietnam, a group of American soldiers had a lot of bullets. Their leader, Lieutenant Colonel Hal Moore, told them to shoot at anything that looked suspicious at the same time. This made a lot of noise and made the enemy think they were found out. The enemy then came out and charged at the Americans, and the Americans destroyed them.

Military tactics

Reconnaissance by fire


The Estonian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ECCI) is a business network in Estonia. The largest in the country, it has over 3000 members. The chamber has operated continuously since 1989. Originally established in 1925, it was closed down after 15 years during the Soviet occupation, resuming after re-independence in 1989.

Organization
The ECCI is governed by a board of 15 people, with a President. Staff are employed at the main office in Tallinn, and also in regional offices in Pärnu (west coast), Tartu (south-east/central), Jõhvi (east) and Kuressaare (western isles).

Services of the Estonian Chamber of Commerce and Industry
The services offered by the Chamber include consultations, issue of foreign trade documents, searching for cooperation partners, contact events, training and other activities necessary for business activities of entrepreneurs. In providing services, the Chamber is supported by competent personnel and diverse databases that contain information regarding companies, laws and regulations etc. The Chamber of Commerce pays a lot of attention to communication between the members and facilitating business activities.

Publications
Publications include: Leading Brands of Estonia  and Estonian Export Directory.
The ECCI was involved in the creation of the national standards body for Estonia, known as Eesti Standardikeskus (EVS), as a non-profit association. EVS is recognised by the International Organization for Standardization.

References

External links

Organizations established in 1925
1925 establishments in Estonia
Organizations based in Tallinn
Chambers of commerce
Business organizations based in Estonia


Brigadier General Trần Quang Khôi (24 January 1930 – 1 April 2023) was a South Vietnamese general of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN). He commanded the ARVN III Armor Brigade and III Corps Assault Task Force (ATF) throughout III Corps Tactical Zone and in defense of the City of Bien Hoa against the final Communist Ho Chi Minh Campaign offensive in South Vietnam.

General Khôi died in Chantilly, Virginia on 1 April 2023, at the age of 93.

Early life and education
Trần was born in Đa Phước Hội village, Mỏ Cày district, Bến Tre Province, in South Vietnam to his father Trần Quang Chiêu and mother Lê Thị Hòa. He grew up in Vĩnh Thanh Vân village, Châu Thành Rạch Giá, Kiên Giang Province.

After having arrived in the United States in May 1993 under the Humanitarian Resettlement Program (HO), part of the Orderly Departure Program (ODP), Khôi studied at the George Mason University in Virginia, majored in French Studies, and graduated with a Master of Arts degree in 1998.

Biography
Read by Senator Richard H. Black before the Senate of Virginia

On the 10th of February 2014

	BG Tran Quang Khoi is a 1952 graduate of the Vietnamese National Military Academy.  He received an MA in French Studies from George Mason University in Virginia.

	His Military education included: the French Cavalry School at Saumur in 1955 (Advanced Course), the US Army Armor School at Fort Knox in 1959 (Advanced Course), and the US Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth in 1972–1973
	In early 1970, his combined-arms Task Force 318 spearheaded the US/VN incursion into Cambodia destroying large NVA logistical installations and damaging heavily NVA main forces.

	In November 1970, he organized, trained 3rd Armored Cavalry Brigade and commanded it in Cambodia to secure the border against NVA infiltrations into III Corps area.

The Paris Peace Accords signed on 27 January 1973 nominally ended the VN War but in fact, provided opportunity for North VN to take over South VN.  As the U.S. withdrew troops and cut support, the military situation grew increasingly serious.  Finally, North VN supported by the Soviet Union and Communist China used armed aggression against the Republic of South VN.

	In March 1974, NVA 5th Infantry Division surrounded DUC Hue Base defended by ARVN 83rd Ranger Battalion.  In 3 days the ARVN 3rd Cav. Brigade (+) broke the siege defeating the NVA 5th Division by a night river crossing and a surprise counterattack in Cambodia.

	During the last days if the VN War, the III Corps Assault Force (IIICAF) under BG Tran Q. Khoi command defended Bien Hoa City, defeated NVA 341st Division in its vicinity, forcing the enemy to give up the fight an withdraw with very heavy casualties.

	Then the NVA concentrated all of his forces (15 divisions) to attack Saigon.

	In the morning of 30 April 1975, the IIICAF left Bien Hoa rushed to rescue Saigon but had to stop the fighting when BG Khoi heard the President's voice on the radio ordering all ARVN to cease fire and surrender.

	In the end, BG Khoi refused to flee the country with his C and C ship and joined his fighting men in captivity in North VN.  Only with the help of Senator John McCain did the Communists release him from concentration camps after 17 years and let him go to the U. S. to reunite with his family in Virginia in May 1993.

Military education
Vietnamese National Military Academy in Đà Lạt, class of 1952
French Cavalry School at Saumur, France, in 1955 (Advanced Course)
United States Army Armor School in Fort Knox, Kentucky, in 1959 (Advanced Course)
Master of Military Arts and Sciences (MMAS) degree from US Army, Command and General Staff College in Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, class of 1972–1973.

Military service
Trần served with the ARVN 5th Cavalry to Xuan Loc.

His combined-arms Task Force 318 spearheaded the Cambodian Campaign.

Trần organized and trained III Armor Brigade and commanded it in Cambodia.

Trần was captured at the end of the battle and spent 17 years in a re-education camp. In 1992, he was released and in 1993, he received political asylum from the United States.

Quotes
I was most sorry for the outcome of the war, but I had done my best. I let my troops execute the President's final order for themselves: I had nothing more to say. But deep in my heart, I silently thanked all of them for their courage, sacrifice, and dedication until the very last minute of the war. Together, we had fulfilled our obligation and oath of allegiance.
I shall never repent having done what I did, nor complain about the consequences of my captivity. If history were to repeat itself, I would choose the same path. By doing so, I know from experience that I would lose everything but HONOR.

References

External links
General Tran Quang Khoi biography
Brigadier General Tran Quang Khoi's biography of his unit's fight to defend South Vietnam: "Fighting to the Finish"

1930 births
2023 deaths
Army of the Republic of Vietnam generals
American people of Vietnamese descent
Vietnamese exiles
Non-U.S. alumni of the Command and General Staff College
South Vietnamese military personnel of the Vietnam War
Vietnamese anti-communists
People from Bến Tre Province

Trần Quang Khôi


John Joseph Conley (27 September 1920 – January 1991) was an English professional footballer, who played as a centre-forward.

Conley was born in Whitstable, Kent and joined Charlton Athletic as a junior, but on failing to make the grade joined Torquay United in May 1939. The onset of war resulted in Conley's debut being delayed, it finally coming on 31 August 1946 in a 1–1 draw away to local rivals Exeter City. He was dropped after his debut, replaced by Dudley Kernick, but scored twice on his return to the side, after missing just one game, in a 2–2 draw at home to Mansfield Town.

He soon became a regular in the Torquay side and scored his first hat-trick in a 3–0 win at home to Bristol Rovers on 18 January 1947. He finished the season as Torquay's leading goalscoring, scoring 23 times in just 34 league games.

The following season was a struggle for Torquay, the side finishing in 18th place (out of 22) in Third Division South, but Conley continued to flourish, scoring 11 times in 31 league games and one goal in five FA Cup games as Torquay reached the Third Round before losing to Stockport County. He also scored the second hat-trick of his career, scoring three times as Torquay won 4–1 at home to Southend United on 18 October 1947. That season, all but eleven of Torquay's 73 league goals were scored by just four players, Ron Shaw (17), Charlie Hill (12) and Dennis Lewis (10) the others.

The 1948–49 season was a much better one for Torquay. They finished 9th in the league and Conley top-scored with 19 goals in 39 games. His haul included three hat-tricks, all at Plainmoor, against Walsall, Reading and Newport County.

Conley was Torquay's leading goalscorer for a third time in the 1949–50 season, hitting 14 goals in 37 league games as Torquay finished in 5th place. The following season saw Conley begin the season with a new strike partner, Sammy Collins, who would go to be Torquay's highest goalscorer of all time. Conley played just 15 times, scoring five goals, scoring in his final game, a 4–1 win at home to Bristol City on 18 November 1950, before a serious leg injury led to his retirement from the professional game.

He later played for his hometown side Whistable.

He joined Swindon Town as Chief Scout and was assistant manager of the Swindon side, working under Danny Williams, when they reached the 1969 League Cup final.

In 1984, he and Williams were awarded a testimonial by Swindon, a Swindon guest team including John Hollins, Alan Hudson, future Swindon manager Lou Macari and Chris Kamara facing Southampton on 11 September 1984.

References

1920 births
1991 deaths
People from Whitstable
English men's footballers
Torquay United F.C. players
Men's association football forwards
Swindon Town F.C. non-playing staff
Charlton Athletic F.C. players
Footballers from Kent

Jack Conley (English footballer)


The Buddhist Congregation Dharmaling is a Buddhist organization, which main office is registered to the Office for religious communities of the Government of Slovenia. Buddhist Congregation Dharmaling is also signatory of an agreement with the State of Slovenia, and is as such the 6th religious community to have signed such agreement in Slovenia (after the four Christian faiths and the Muslim community).

Following primarily the Gelug lineage, the head of the organization, Lama Shenphen Rinpoche – a Western reborn and officially recognized tulku by the Tibetan community – has a non sectarian (Rime) type of approach. The Congregation's teachings and practices are traditional, but are adapted to be accessible to Westerners and the life they live. A regular program of teaching exists in different countries and more periodical teachings are taking places in other countries where a study group exists. Retreats and seminars are also organized each year.

Dharmaling is also active in the humanitarian fields, through AMCHI non profit organization created since 1989, and its Foundation.

Background
Dharmaling now exists as a registered religious community in Slovenia and Hungary, and as non profit organization in Austria and Russia. There are several groups apart from these main branches, more organized as study groups, regularly organizing the visits of Lama Shenphen Rinpoche, such as in Romania or France.

A premise was purchased in Ljubljana, Slovenia and was consecrated as a Buddhist temple. This became also the main seat of the Buddhist Congregation Dharmaling.

Spiritual teachers and lineage
The main teacher and spiritual director of the organization is Lama Shenphen Rinpoche.

Dharmaling invites teachers of different lineages of Buddhism. As visiting teachers Dharmaling already received Geshe Khedrup a Lharampa Geshe from Sera-Jhe monastery, and Tulku Gyatso a Rinpoche from Kham (Tibet).

Lineage
The main transmission of teaching and practices is coming from the Gelug tradition, but also from Nyingma and Kagyu schools. The practices are primarily Gelug, but Shenphen Rinpoche has written several practices which are not connected with one school in particular, to allow common practice.

Activities

Program of teachings and practices
Dharmaling's program is composed of regular teachings on traditional texts and more general lectures. According to the time and place Rinpoche chooses to follow on a series of teaching, sometimes over several months a specific text, or to give a talk on a specific subject.

Lama Shenphen Rinpoche teaches regularly the root traditional texts: "The 37 practices of a Bodhisattva", "Lam Rim", "The Wheel of Sharp Weapons", "The Heart Sutra", "Lojong", but also giving teachings on more general subjects to highlight the understanding of some concepts and find a corresponding way to practice them in everyday life. Among such subjects are "Peace and Emptiness", "How to deal with emotions", "Entering the Vajrayana Path", and "Practice of Bodhicitta in every day life".

Humanitarian activities
Dharmaling has engaged in several humanitarian missions, through AMCHI, a non profit organization created to separate the religious activities from the humanitarian ones.

Notes

 (en) Črnič (septembre 2009) "Some dilemmas of sociological study of contemporary political dimensions of religion – the case of the Church of Holy Simplicity" in ESA 2009, Lisboa: Religion and the Sociology of Religion in Europe.

External links
 Dharmaling Foundation web site
  Prvi budistični tempelj v Sloveniji  24ur.com
 signature of the agreement with the State of Slovenia (article in Slovene)

Buddhist organizations in Europe
Buddhist temples in Slovenia
Tibetan Buddhist organizations
Religion in Ljubljana
Organizations based in Ljubljana

Buddhist Congregation Dharmaling


The Battle of Ingalls was a gunfight on September 1, 1893 between United States Marshals and the Doolin-Dalton Gang, during the closing years of the Old West era, in Ingalls, Oklahoma. The Doolin-Dalton Gang had been involved in a number of train robberies and bank robberies, beginning around 1891. They had found a safe haven in the town of Ingalls, which unwittingly harbored many outlaws during that period. On September 1, 1893, a posse was organized by the new United States Marshal, Evett Dumas "E.D." Nix, which entered the outlaw town of Ingalls with the intent to capture the gang. The lawmen were engaged in a gunbattle in which three of the fourteen lawmen carrying Deputy Marshals' commissions would die as a result of the battle.

Battle
The gunbattle began when the US Marshals, led by Deputy Marshal John Hixon, engaged "Bittercreek" Newcomb, which resulted in a shootout exchange that left Newcomb badly wounded after firing, at the most, two rounds. By a first hand account given later by US Marshal Nix, a large number of the outlaws then opened fire from a saloon, resulting in the lawmen returning fire, killing one horse and firing in such a manner as to force the outlaws to flee out a side door of the saloon, taking refuge in a large stable. A civilian known only as Murray, who owned the saloon, then engaged the Marshals in a shootout from his saloon's front doorway, during which the marshals shot him in the ribs and arm. Murray was badly wounded and arrested. He pursued damages against the government two years later, but lost his case much thanks to US Marshal Nix staunchly defending his deputy marshals' actions.

From an extremely good and elevated angle, "Arkansas Tom" Jones then opened fire with a rifle. Having an advantage over the marshals, he was able to push them into points of cover, during which he shot Deputy Marshal Thomas Hueston. Hueston would die the next day. It had been Deputy Marshal Hueston who, on November 29, 1892, along with Ford County, Kansas Sheriff Chalkey Beeson had shot and killed Doolin Dalton gang member Oliver Yantis. Ingalls bystander Young Simmons was fatally shot by a stray round as he attempted to take cover inside Vaughn's Saloon. Another bystander, known as Old Man Ramson, was hit in the leg.

Bill Doolin, the co-leader of the gang, shot and killed Special Deputy Marshal Richard Speed, while co-leader Bill Dalton shot Deputy Marshal Lafayette Shadley, who died the following day. Shadley had fired on Dalton prior to himself being shot, breaking the leg of the outlaw's horse and toppling Dalton to the ground. Dan "Dynamite Dick" Clifton was then hit in the neck and wounded, but still able to ride. Deputy Marshal Jim Masterson eventually threw dynamite into where Jones was hiding, stunning him, after which he was captured.

Of the outlaws, "Bittercreek" Newcomb was seriously wounded but escaped, "Dynamite Dick" Clifton was slightly wounded but escaped, and "Arkansas Tom" Jones, who had shot at least one of the deputies and one citizen, was stunned by the dynamite and captured. The saloon owner, Murray, who had taken up arms and sided with the outlaws, survived, spent some time in prison and later sued the marshals over his being shot. The rest of the gang escaped unscathed. Gang member Charley Pierce, who escaped, was later said to have been wounded during that gunfight, and was known for a fact to have gone into hiding with Newcomb shortly after the gunbattle, at which time both men were cared for by Newcomb's girlfriend Rose Dunn.

Eventually, the gang was wiped out, some by capture, but most being killed by Deputy US Marshals. Most were brought down by the celebrated Three Guardsmen, Deputy Marshals Heck Thomas, Bill Tilghman and Chris Madsen. Two of the gang, "Bitter Creek" Newcomb and Charley Pierce, were killed by the Dunn Brothers, who were bounty hunters. The last of the gang to fall was Richard "Little Dick" West, killed in 1898 by Deputy Marshal Madsen. The actual last member to be killed was Roy Daugherty aka Arkansas Tom. He was killed in a shootout with Joplin, MO police August 16th, 1924.

References

External links
Doolin Dalton Gang vs US Marshals
Bill Doolin and his Wild Bunch Gang
Oklahoma Centennial on the Battle of Ingalls
Gunfight at Ingalls

American frontier
1893 in Oklahoma Territory
American Old West gunfights
September 1893 events

Battle of Ingalls


André Schild (1910 – 13 July 1981): born in Fontainemelon or Cernier in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel. He was a linguist and former administrator of the Universal Esperanto Association (Universala Esperanto Asocio) in Geneva, and the director of the Oficie por li lingue international auxiliari Occidental (Office for the International Auxiliary Language Occidental) in the 1940s in Basel. He taught at the Benedict School (Bénédict-Schule) in Basel. He published the outline of his Neolatino system in 1947.

Involvement with Interlingua
After his involvement with Esperanto and Occidental, Schild later joined the movement for Interlingua and became co-founder of the World Interlingua Union (Union Mundial pro Interlingua) which was founded on 28 July 1955 in Tours, France - he was elected first Secretary General of the WIU (1955–1958). Editor of the first official WIU organ, Circular al cognoscitores e amicos de Interlingua (22 February 1954), Circular al prime membros del UMI (26 May 1954), Lista del membros (August 1954), Bulletin del Union Mundial pro Interlingua (October 1954, January, March and June 1955) and Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI) - bulletin publicate per le Secretariato General (August 1955). Language Editor of Le Currero del Mundo (September–December 1955 until August 1957) and of Bulletin de Interlingua (September 1957 until June 1959). He published the manual Interlingua in 20 lectiones in French, Italian and German. He edited almost entirely the whole text of the large German-Interlingua Dictionary. - From the 24–27 July 1971 he attended the 4th International Interlingua Conference in Basel. He has an obituary in Currero nº 66/1981.

References

 http://www.interlingua.com/historia/conferentias/basel-1971-photos.htm
 The Rotarian; An International Magazine - May 1950
 Discussiones de Interlingua by Alexander Gode, p. 72
 R.L. Stevenson: Gulielmo del molino. La planura e las stelas. Traduction per H.Littlewood. 30 pp.

Interlingua
Interlingua speakers
Linguists from Switzerland
Swiss Esperantists
1910 births
1981 deaths
20th-century linguists
Interlingue speakers

André Schild


Santiago could mean:

Places
In Argentina:
Santiago del Estero Province
Santiago del Estero, capital of the province

In Brazil:
Santiago, Rio Grande do Sul

In Cape Verde:
Santiago, Cape Verde

In Chile:
Santiago, Chile, the capital
Santiago (commune)
Santiago Province, Chile
Santiago Metropolitan Region

In Colombia:
Santiago, Norte de Santander
Santiago, Putumayo
Santiago de Cali

In Costa Rica:
Santiago de Palmares, Palmares Canton
Santiago de Paraíso, Paraíso Canton
Santiago de Puriscal
Santiago de San Rafael, San Rafael Canton
Santiago de San Ramón, San Ramón Canton

In Cuba:
Santiago de Cuba Province
Santiago de Cuba, capital of the province

In Dominican Republic:
Santiago Province (Dominican Republic)
Santiago de los Caballeros, capital of the province

In Ecuador:
Santiago de Guayaquil
Santiago Island (Galápagos)

In Jamaica:
Santiago, a Spanish possession that later became Jamaica

In Mexico:
Santiago de Querétaro
Santiago, Nuevo León
Santiago, Baja California Sur
Santiago River (Mexico), a river of eastern Mexico

In Panama:
Santiago de Veraguas, Veraguas

In Paraguay:
Santiago, Paraguay, a town and district in Misiones Department

In Peru:
Santiago de Surco, a district of Lima
Santiago de Chuco, Santiago de Chuco District, a province of the La Libertad region
Santiago River (Peru), a tributary of the Marañón River

In the Philippines:
Santiago, Agusan del Norte
Santiago, Ilocos Sur
Santiago City, Isabela province

In Portugal:
Santiago (Lisbon), a parish in the municipality of Lisbon
Santiago (Tavira), a parish in the municipality of Tavira
Santiago do Cacém, a parish and a municipality in the Setúbal
Santiago de Piães, a parish in the municipality of Cinfães
Vale de Santiago, a parish in the municipality of Odemira

In Spain:
Santiago de Compostela, Galicia
Santiago (Valdés), a parish in the municipality of Valdés
Santiago (Sariego), a parish in the municipality of Sariego
Santiago (comarca), a comarca in the province of A Coruña
Santiago del Teide, Canary Islands

In the United States:
 Santiago Peak, a mountain in Orange County, California
 Santiago High School, Garden Grove, California
 Santiago Township, Sherburne County, Minnesota
 Santiago, Pennsylvania

Santiago


The Lledr Valley () is a valley in Snowdonia in north Wales.  It runs from the top of the Crimea Pass, north of Blaenau Ffestiniog down to Betws-y-Coed.

The A470 road follows the line of the valley, as does the railway line from Blaenau Ffestiniog to Llandudno, and within the valley there are stations at Roman Bridge, Dolwyddelan, and Pont-y-Pant.

Dolwyddelan is the main settlement in the valley.

The river Lledr, which gives its name to the valley, joins the River Conwy to the south of Betws-y-Coed.

Industry
During the Victorian period the valley was renowned for its slate quarries, which were concentrated around Dolwyddelan. These quarries worked the Nod Glas Formation, which extended across Mid and North Wales. It was primarily a bed of soft, black shale, but in the area of the Dolwyddelan syncline it was partially metamorphisised into slate. The principle quarries in the valley were:

 Prince Llewellyn quarry and Chwarel Fedw
 Chwarel Ddu
 Ty'n-y-bryn quarry and Penllyn
 Rhiw-goch quarry

References

Valleys of Conwy County Borough

Lledr Valley


The Surge 2 is a 2019 action role-playing video game developed by Deck13 Interactive and published by Focus Home Interactive, that is the sequel to The Surge. The game was released for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One on 24 September 2019, while an Amazon Luna version released on 20 October 2020. It received positive reviews from critics.

Gameplay
The Surge 2 is an action role-playing game played from a third-person perspective. The game features a character creator which allows players to customize the appearances and gender of their player avatar. Players can utilize a variety of melee weapons to defeat enemies, whose limbs can be targeted and removed individually. Players can also dodge and parry attacks, which requires players to properly angulate their equipped weapon. Combat drones and consumables such as bio-sensors can also be deployed. When players kill or dismember their opponents, they can collect and equip the weapons, armor enhancements or tech left by them. Jericho city, the game's setting, offers alternate paths which players can explore freely. In the game, players will meet different non-playable characters and have to make different choices which will affect the game's world and story. Players can also leave graffiti messages in their game's world for other players to see.

Synopsis

Setting
The Surge 2 is set in a dystopian future where humans have exhausted the world's resources, leading to strained social and environmental conditions bringing mankind to the brink of extinction. CREO, one of the largest tech conglomerates, makes attempts at restoring the environment but with the task taking too long, a second process is developed, Project UTOPIA, a means to use nanites to complete the project faster but costing the lives of 95% of humanity. The nanites behind the project gain sentience, becoming a Rogue Process, and faced with the CREO board voting against their use, trigger a system-wide crash, killing or corrupting every machine and human connected to the CREO network. Project UTOPIA is then launched by an automated system, carrying the Rogue Process nanites.

The central plot of The Surge 2 takes place in Jericho City, an advanced metropolis surrounded by a giant wall aimed at stemming the advance of the nanites. It follows an unnamed male or female character, dubbed the "Warrior", who is searching for Athena Guttenberg, the granddaughter of CREO founder Jonah Guttenberg. The Warrior's journey brings them into conflict with the A.I.D. disaster relief unit who are evacuating the city, and the Children of the Spark, a religious cult that worships the Spark, an unstable but powerful source of energy. Led by Matriarch Celeste, the cult believes that the coming of the nanites is foretold by their prophecy of humans ascending beyond mortality by merging with machines. The Children are split into two factions under Celeste's two sons; Eli, prophet and heir to the Spark, and Johnny, his drug-addicted, slovenly brother who uses a physical-enhancing drug to manipulate his underlings. The Warrior is aided by Warren, the protagonist of the first game, who is now a masked man seeking the truth behind the actions of A.I.D.

Plot
Aboard an airplane, the player character befriends a young girl, Athena Guttenberg. The UTOPIA rocket collides with the plane, releasing its nanite payload which severely damages the craft, causing it to crash on the outskirts of Jericho City. Seemingly the only survivor, the comatose player character is recovered to a prison medical facility. Two months later, the player character is awoken by visions of Athena calling to them as her "Warrior". The prison is attacked by the Delver, a gigantic nanite-creature, freeing the prisoners and allowing the Warrior to escape after installing on themselves a powerful exoskeleton to enhance their abilities. Emerging out into Jericho City, the Warrior learns that the city is now infested with nanites, which are slowly claiming the city and infecting the citizens.

The Warrior meets a disguised Warren, and they also learn about the Children of the Spark, who believe the crisis foretells the coming of the Spark Incarnate. Brother Eli tasks the Warrior with defeating his brother Little Johnny, so that they can reach the crash site to search for Athena. The Warrior defeats Johnny, but is then betrayed by Eli who intends to claim glory by killing the person who killed his brother. Eli is killed by the warrior. At the crash site, the warrior has one of many visions revealing Athena's journey since the plane crash.

The Warrior pursues Athena's trail to the artificial nature reserve, Gideon Point, where the Delver is hiding. After killing the Delver, the Warrior learns that Athena had taken control of it to release the Warrior from the prison. The Warrior meets with CREO founder Jonah Guttenberg at the CREO Institute of Technology (CIT), and learns that Athena has been captured by A.I.D. Working with Warren, the Warrior infiltrates A.I.D. command and discovers that they have been abducting children under the guise of evacuation and using them in failed nanite-based experiments to try and communicate with the nanite swarm. All of the children have died during the experiments, except Athena because her exposure on the plane changed her, making her more suitable for the experiment. The Warrior defeats General Ezra-Shields who is guarding her, but the process begins before he can interfere. Athena is seemingly destroyed and absorbed into the swarm, reborn as a gigantic nanite serpent. An explosion of nanite activity is triggered, devastating Jericho City.

The Warrior returns to CIT and finds Eli has been resurrected and trying to gain access to Jonah's nanite research. After the Warrior kills Eli for a second time, Jonah reveals that he can remove Athena from the swarm, but that they will require a significant power source, the Spark. Infiltrating the Cathedral of the Spark, the Warrior defeats Eli's mother, Matriarch Celeste, after witnessing her revive Eli again using their own nanite technology. Eli's nanite-infused body grants him superhuman abilities. He leaves with the Spark, believing himself to be the Spark Incarnate that is destined to control the swarm and reshape the world in his own image. Eli kills Jonah and steals his research on connecting with the swarm, which combined with the Spark allows him to steal Athena's powers. The Warrior pursues Eli to the Wall, a massive barrier built around the city, and confronts him.

Eli now possesses near God-like abilities, reshaping himself as Archangel Eli. The Warrior defeats Eli a final time, freeing Athena and her powers, and is given the choice of either executing or sparing Eli. Depending on decisions made throughout the game, Athena takes on her human form composed of nanites and either commends the Warrior for their humanity and compassion, or makes them serve as her guardian because of their lust for power. It is implied that the Warrior died in the plane crash, and Athena used her abilities to revive them as a hybrid of man and nanite. In the aftermath, Athena muses that machines will always be imperfect because they are made by imperfect beings, but that giving them a soul can make a difference.

Development
Deck13 Interactive led the game's development. One of the team's goals was to ensure the game would offer players' freedom and choices. Therefore, unlike the first game, The Surge 2 allows players to create their own customizable characters. It also supports a larger variety of combat styles with the introduction of five weapon types. The team also reworked the game's artificial intelligence, with AI-controlled enemies being able to coordinate with each other during combat. Unlike the first game, which takes place in a factory, The Surge 2 takes place in a larger, more vertical city. By changing the setting, Deck13 was able to implement more diverse environments and introduce more alternate paths and characters for players to meet.

Publisher Focus Home Interactive announced the game in February 2018. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on 24 September 2019, and for Amazon Luna on 20 October 2020.

Reception

The Surge 2 received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic.

References

External links

2019 video games
Action role-playing video games
Deck13 games
Focus Entertainment games
PlayStation 4 games
Single-player video games
Video games developed in Germany
Video games with gender-selectable protagonists
Windows games
Xbox Cloud Gaming games
Xbox One games
Soulslike video games
Video games about cults

The Surge 2


The use of mobile phones in schools has become a controversial topic debated by students, parents, teachers and authorities.

People who support the use of mobile phones believe that these phones are useful for safety, allowing children to communicate with their parents and guardians, and teaching children how to deal with new media properly as early as possible. In addition, people suggest that schools should adapt to the current technological landscape where mobile phones allow access to vast amounts of information, rendering the need to memorize facts obsolete, allowing schools to shift their focus from imparting knowledge to emphasizing critical thinking skills and fostering the development of essential personal qualities.

Opponents of students using mobile phones during school believe that mobile phones are the main source of declining mental health among adolescents, hampering social development and enabling cyberbullying. It is argued that, in the classroom, phones can be a constant disruption and may be used inappropriately, such as by cheating on tests, taking inappropriate photographs, and playing mobile games. Phones would also be a distraction, taking away attention that should be going to the teacher. In 2023, the United States surgeon general issued an advisory warning that social media can carry "a profound risk of harm to the mental health and well-being of children and adolescents."

To prevent distractions caused by mobile phones, many schools have implemented policies that restrict students from using their phones during school hours. The company Yondr, for example, pioneered the concept of phone-free schools with a lockable pouch product that students place their phones in at the start of each school day, allowing them to experience the focus, creativity, and relief that comes from a phone-free learning environment. Some administrators have attempted cell phone jamming to monitor and restrict phone usage, with the goal of reducing distractions and preventing unproductive use. However, these methods of regulation raise concerns about privacy violation and abuse of power, as well as being illegal in certain jurisdictions.

Studies
A 2015 study published in the journal Computers in Human Behavior demonstrated that among undergraduate students total usage of mobile phones, measured in number of minutes per day and not limited to school time, was "a significant and negative predictor of college students' academic performance, objectively measured as cumulative GPA." Moreover, the abundant use of mobile technology among young people largely explains the inadequate use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in both personal and school environments. Consequently, actions have been taken that contribute to more responsible use of this type of technology in students' personal, school, and social lives.

In 2015, Dakota Lawson and Bruce B. Henderson performed a study to examine the relationship between mobile phone use in class and information comprehension. The study involved 120 students from an introductory psychology course, mostly first-year students. The result showed that students who were texting in the class had significantly lower test scores even when the material that was presented was simple: mobile phone use in class impairs students' comprehension and performance. This study was performed after several similar studies in the past and corroborated their results.

Furthermore, researchers Julia Irwin and Natasha Gupta of Macquarie University performed an experiment in 2016 testing the effect of Facebook-related distractions in the classroom. The researchers found that students who were interested in the subject material and the way it was presented were less likely to be distracted by Facebook. However, the students with access to phones still performed poorer than students that were not allowed access to cell phones during the lecture.

A 2017 collective study, published by Applied Cognitive Psychology, indicated that college students retained less knowledge when allowed to use or possess a cell phone during lectures. During the experiment, students who were not allowed access to a cell phone tested better than those who had access to cell phones.

Despite the numerous drawbacks that come with the use of cell phones in classrooms, there are benefits to having them available in a school setting. In 2017, Dr. James Derounian conducted a study involving a hundred participants at the University of Gloucestershire. His study revealed that 45% of students believe that the use of phones in classrooms supports their education. One of the most commonly mentioned ways that phones provided such academic support was digital access to textbooks. The ability to access scholarly material on mobile devices allowed students to engage more deeply with the information presented. Still, Derounian mentioned that there could be "an element of social desirability conveyed in the student views given."

An article by Emma Henderson, a journalist for the United Kingdom (UK) publication The Independent, describes phantom vibrations caused by "learned bodily behavior," where the part of the body to which the phone is closest becomes very sensitive. As a result, even the slightest vibrations can cause a person to believe that the phone has vibrated when, in reality, it has not. These are known as phantom vibrations. Nine out of ten people claimed to have felt these phantom vibrations in their pockets, raising serious concerns about the overuse of cell phones and the resulting dependency that people develop. Therefore, breaking the habit of frequently checking one's phone can not only be beneficial for students but also convey more respect towards the professors and teachers whose lectures are constantly interrupted by cellular distractions.

Regulations by country

Australia
In Australian schools, mobile phones are advised to be used only in case of calls to parents or guardians and that only if the parent or guardian allows the phone to be used to during school activities such as school excursions, camps and extra-curricular activities at school.

Mobile phones with cameras are restricted within school premises while entirely banned within certain sections such as changing rooms, bathrooms, gyms and swimming pools. They are only allowed to film or take photographs of people only with their signed permission or, if the person is under eighteen, to have a parent or guardian to give a sign permission note allowing for these actions. If a student is found with a mobile phone or devices within these areas, they will be confiscated; and, depending on the situation, charges or consequences will be given.

Mobile phones are not allowed to be used for sending harassing or threatening messages. If a student does commit such an act, higher authorities will become involved, including the police since this being a violation of privacy and harassment. Due to bullying, privacy and harassment issues being a major issue in Australia, if a student or teacher does break this law, it may leave them with a criminal record, leaving them at a disadvantage in the future.

Mobile phones are discouraged in terms of their use within the classroom unless they can be appropriately incorporated into the learning environment. Former Premier of New South Wales, Gladys Berejiklian, stated in an ABC news article that the policy was intended to "ensure mobile phones and other smart devices complement students' learning".

Australian educational institutes have been divided on whether phones should be completely banned in classrooms or only allowed for certain amounts of time during school hours. Since 2019, the New South Wales government has banned phones completely from its primary schools. In a public statement justifying the policy, Berejiklian declared that the ban would encourage children to avoid using technology that could "upset them or make them feel uncomfortable". From 2020 onwards, the Victorian Department of Education has similarly barred the use of mobile phones in all public schools, both primary and secondary.

The reason for banning phones is to stop bullying both online and physically and to remove distractions from the classrooms. "Mobile phones, unfortunately, are not only distracting but also causing stress for young children—and we can't have that continue," NSW Premier Gladys Berejiklian told Seven's Sunrise. This will be implemented by removing students' access to phones during the day unless a parent or guardian requests that the student needs to use it. The teacher will always have the phone kept with him somewhere where the student is still able to access it before and after school.

High school restrictions
While mobile phones are already banned in classrooms without teacher permission and banned in primary schools nationwide, mobile phone bans or restrictions in high schools (secondary schools) during lunch and recess breaks and during free time have become a highly controversial issue and laws vary in each state and territory, as well as by school. While proponents of bans and restrictions suggest that it could decrease distractions and cyberbullying (particularly with social media usage) and increase students' academic abilities and social skills, there is no evidence that phone bans decrease cyberbullying or increase listening in class. Phone bans in high schools are generally more likely to be supported by the centre-left Labor Party governments, while the centre-right Liberal/National Coalition is normally opposed to them, and the Coalition is strongly opposed to them in New South Wales.

Phones are currently banned or restricted in public and state primary and secondary schools in every jurisdiction except for the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and Queensland. However, while Queensland plans to introduce a blanket ban in 2024; the ACT has no formal plans to introduce a blanket ban.

In New South Wales, the issue of phone bans has been perhaps more controversial than in any other state or territory. The New South Wales Coalition (currently in Opposition) is strongly opposed to a blanket, and during the 12 years of Coalition government in New South Wales, the state government repeatedly refused to enforce a blanket ban in high schools (though the state government did introduce a blanket ban in primary schools in 2018). During the 2023 New South Wales state election campaign, the Coalition again refused to enforce a blanket ban on mobile phones in public high schools, instead allowing schools to individually decide, while the Labor Party promised a blanket phone ban in public high schools if elected. Then-Premier Dominic Perrottet and his Cabinet were vocally opposed to a blanket ban on mobile phones in public high schools, with then-Education Minister Sarah Mitchell being perhaps one of the biggest critics of such a ban. The Labor Party won a minority government at the election, and newly-elected Premier Chris Minns and his Cabinet reiterated that a blanket ban on mobile phones in public high schools began at the beginning of Term 4 in 2023, despite a large amount of controversy.

In 2020, Victoria became the first state to enforce a blanket ban, and South Australia and Tasmania soon followed. In New South Wales, a blanket ban will come into place in Term 4 of 2023 while in Queensland a ban will come into place in Term 1 of 2024. In Western Australia and the Northern Territory, rules intended to stop students from using their mobile phones at public high schools are in place, but they involve less restrictive measures than other states and territories, as phones only need to be off and not accessed during the day, though this policy is unclear as it does not specifically outline restrictions for usage on school excursions or other non-classroom activities such as recess and lunch breaks or during drink breaks in extracurricular sport activities, for example.

China
Ever since November 2018, all primary and secondary schools in China's Shandong province have banned the use of mobile phones in classrooms. In February 2021, China announced that children would be banned from using mobile phones in schools unless they have written parental consent.

France
Mobile phones are allowed in the school setting at any age. The only thing that is enforced is that work needs to be completed first before phones are used. They are requested to stay in students bags but as soon as work is completed they can use them whenever.

Greece
It is completely allowed by law to use mobile phones by students in school as long as their work is done first. This includes calls, texting, or any kind of camera use. Students must switch off their mobile phones or set to silent mode and keep them in their bags until their work is done and then they can use them when they please.

Malaysia
For schools under the Malaysian Ministry of Education, it is a disciplinary offence for students to bring their phones to school as well as to the dormitories of boarding schools. Students are expected to use the school's public phones or borrow a teacher's mobile phone in the case of an emergency. Phones brought to school will be confiscated and the parents of the students who brought the phones will be notified to retrieve the phones. If the student is a first-time offender, a warning will be issued. The student and their parents will also have to sign a letter of undertaking () in which the student promises not to bring their phone to school again. If the student is a repeating offender, they will be restricted from using school or dormitory facilities or will be excluded from school programs or activities.

Turkmenistan
Since 2020, all secondary schools in Turkmenistan have banned the use of mobile phones during lessons in order to increase the productivity of the educational process. The ban applies not only to school children, but also to teachers: now, during the lessons, they must put their phones on silent mode. Pupils can only use phones outside the school.

United Kingdom
In the UK, a survey showed that there were no mobile phone bans in schools in 2001 but by 2007, 50% of schools had banned mobile phones during the school day. This number increased to 98% by 2012. These bans were implemented by either forbidding students from bringing phones onto school premises or by making students hand their phones in at the beginning of the day. According to a study by the London School of Economics, students' academic performance improved when policies were implemented to ban cell phone usage in schools. This ban not only helped students score higher on exams but also reduced the students' temptation to use cell phones for non-scholarly purposes.

Secondary schools are introducing new, strict laws on mobile phones where students under sixteen years of age will have to put their phones away for the entire day after scientific evidence has demonstrated that students become more sociable, alert and active in the school environment without them. Students place their phones inside a registered locker when they arrive at school and are only allowed to retrieve them once school has finished. With this happening, schools have found a positive impact on the students: more students are active outside, along with greater numbers attending clubs and social events. Nick Gibb told The Times, "I believe very strongly that children should be limiting their own [phone] use at home. Every hour spent online and on a smartphone is an hour less talking to family, and it's an hour less exercise and it's an hour less sleep. And of course, it is a lack of sleep that research is showing can have a damaging effect on a child's mental health."

The schools did note that the positive impact was greater for students under the age of eleven rather than in older students. In fact, it was shown that older students actually suffered from a restricted use of learning platforms on their phones such as educational apps assisting in studying or learning skills. Students that were caught with their mobile phones between the school time period were given punishments such as detention, expulsion or warnings. In doing so, children have been taught to limit the amount of time they spend online and focus more on their school lives along with other social activities. Nevertheless, people in England have argued against this. Patsy Kane has stated, "There's a fantastic range of apps now for revision—and the students are really motivated to use them."

United States
In the past, some United States schools installed mobile phone jammers to prevent cell phones from working on campuses. However, the sale and use of jammers is illegal in the US under the Federal Communications Act of 1934, because jammers cut off 9-1-1 calls and can disrupt air navigation if they are used near airports. In 2012, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) became stricter in enforcing the ban on jammers. Mt. Spokane High School in Washington state once installed a jammer to prevent students from calling and text-messaging but removed the device after it decided that it was "probably not legal" under federal law. In 2015, a Florida science teacher received a five-day unpaid suspension for installing a jammer in his classroom.

In 2005, the New York City Department of Education imposed a citywide ban on mobile phones in public schools. However, according to The New York Times, the ban was "inconsistently enforced, with some schools allowing students to carry phones as long as staff members [did] not hear or see them, and other schools—particularly those with metal detectors at the doors—maintaining a strict ban." The ban was unpopular among parents as well because it impeded communication between them and their children. In March 2015, the citywide ban was lifted, with Mayor Bill de Blasio fulfilling a campaign promise. Under the new policy, school principals in consultation with teachers and parents may set rules on use and storage of mobile phones during instructional time and lunch breaks. While the default rule is that phones must remain hidden, principals may also elect to "require students to store phones in backpacks or other designated places, allow the use of phones during lunch, or allow phones to be used for instructional purposes." De Blasio said that the policy shift would allow parents to stay in better touch with their children, especially in case of an emergency. The New York City Schools Chancellor, Carmen Fariña, supported this policy by noting that the change means that students in schools with metal detectors would no longer have to pay outside vendors to store phones for them during the school day.

When asked which type of phone-restriction policy they prefer, students tended to support the side that grants them the opportunity to bring mobile phones onto the school campus, arguing that phones allow them to reach their parents if any problem occurs. In response to the issue of parent-student communication, parents also argue that there is not a replacement for mobile phones and therefore that phones are an essential device for students to have accessible, raising concerns about a child in danger or not feeling safe not being able to contact a parent and receive assistance. Parents also believe that giving a child a phone teaches responsibility. A boarding school in Massachusetts banned the use of smart phones, but not digital cameras and laptops, and handed out light phones for basic call and texting.

Theft of mobile phones is another concern in some schools. In 2012, following an undercover investigation, thirteen juvenile students in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, were arrested and charged with running a cell-phone-theft ring that resulted in the theft of several thousand dollars worth of mobile phones, tablets, and other electronics.

An increasing number of schools are now allowing the use of cell phones as learning tools. However, the collective use of cell phones in schools poses other technological challenges. Some schools reported that allowing all students to use cell phones at the same time slows down school bandwidth speeds, and hence some schools have blocked phones from accessing the school Wi-Fi.

Phone use in schools is not just an issue for students and teachers but also for other employees of educational institutions. According to the Governors Highway Safety Association, while no state bans all mobile phone use for all drivers, twenty states and the District of Columbia prohibit school bus drivers from using mobile phones. School bus drivers have been fired or suspended for using their phones or text-messaging while driving.

In Utah, a bill proposed to ban the use of mobile phones in classrooms, but never implemented.

Messaging applications
Cellphone applications have been created to support the use of phones in school environments. As of February 2018, about 80,000 applications are available for teacher use. A variety of messaging apps provide communication for student-to-student relationships as well as teacher-to-student communication. Some popular apps for both students, teachers, and parents are Remind and ClassDojo. About 72% of top-selling education apps on iOS are for preschoolers and elementary school students. These apps offer many different services such as language translation, scheduled reminders and messages to parents.

The app Remind is another way for teachers to communicate with parents and school administration. This app not only allows teachers to send out scheduled text messages to parents but also provides a class blog for teachers to share upcoming due dates, tests and quizzes, and other class information.

Another app that allows students to communicate with one another is GroupMe. GroupMe allows students to communicate in a group-chat format through Wi-Fi instead of using cellular data. Even some college-aged students use this app for sharing course information.

See also
 Mobile learning
 Social media in education

References

External links
 Cell Phones in American High Schools: A National Survey, Journal of Technology Studies
 Huang, G. (2013). Research Issues and Applications of Mobile and Ubiquitous Learning
Schools
School and classroom behaviour

Mobile phone use in schools


Danie Keulder (born 2 August 1973) is a former Namibian cricketer. He played for Namibia between 1994, when he first appeared for the team in the ICC Trophy, against Canada which his team lost by eight wickets, having put a mere 51 runs on the board, and 2005.

He also participated in a not-so crushing defeat by the Netherlands, which saw Klaas-Jan van Noortwijk and Feiko Kloppenburg score 255 of the 314 runs between six batsmen in 50 overs, including a 228 second-wicket partnership.

Keulder retired from cricket in 2005 following a back injury.

References

External links

1973 births
Living people
Namibian cricket captains
Namibia One Day International cricketers
Namibian cricketers

Danie Keulder