Underground culture, or simply underground, is a term to describe various alternative cultures which either consider themselves different from the mainstream of society and culture, or are considered so by others. The word "underground" is used because there is a history of resistance movements under harsh regimes where the term underground was employed to refer to the necessary secrecy of the resisters.

For example, the Underground Railroad was a network of clandestine routes by which African slaves in the 19th-century United States attempted to escape to freedom. The phrase "underground railroad" was resurrected and applied in the 1960s to the extensive network of draft counseling groups and houses used to help Vietnam War-era draft dodgers escape to Canada, and was also applied in the 1970s to the clandestine movement of people and goods by the American Indian Movement in and out of occupied Native American reservation lands. (See also: Wounded Knee incident).

The filmmaker Rosa von Praunheim documented the legendary New York underground scene in the 1970s around Andy Warhol in some of his films, for example in Underground and Emigrants (1976) and Tally Brown, New York (1979). Since then, the term has come to designate various subcultures such as mod culture, hippie culture, punk culture, techno music/rave culture, and underground hip hop.

Terminology
The unmodified term "The underground" was a common name for World War II resistance movements. It was later applied to counter-cultural movements, many of which sprang up in the United States during the 1960s.

History
The 1960s and 1970s underground cultural movements had some connections to the Beat Generation, which had, in turn, been inspired by the French philosophers, artists, and poets of the Existentialist movement, which gathered around Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus in Paris during the years that followed the aftermath of World War II. Sartre and Camus were members of Combat, a French resistance group formed in 1942 by Henri Frenay. Frenay, Sartre, and Camus were all involved in publishing underground newspapers for the resistance. The French underground culture which inspired Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg in North America in the 1940s was steeped in socialist thinking before the Cold War began.

In the Esquire magazine (1958), Jack Kerouac stated:

See also
 Alternative culture
 Church of the SubGenius
 Counterculture
 Cult following
 Cyberpunk
 English underground
 History of subcultures in the 20th century
 Notes from Underground
 Neopaganism
 Prague Underground
 Soviet Nonconformist Art
 Ukrainian underground
 UK Underground
 Underground comix
 Underground film
 Underground Literary Alliance
 Underground music
 Underground press

References

External links

1950s neologisms
Subcultures

Underground culture


Friedrich XI, Count of Hohenzollern (died 26 November 1401), nicknamed Friedrich the Elder was a German nobleman.  He was a member of the House of Hohenzollern and a ruling Count of Hohenzollern-Hechingen.

Life
Friedrich was the younger son of Count Friedrich of Strasbourg, from his marriage to Margaret, the daughter of Count Burchard V of Hohenberg-Wildenberg.

After the death of Friedrich IX, Friedrich XI became the senior member of the House of Hohenzollern.  As such, he was the Vogt of Stetten Abbey.

He was a member of the Lion League, which joined the Swabian League of Cities in 1382.  When the latter clashed with Count Eberhard II of Württemberg, Friedrich XI managed to break off the services he had promised to Count Eberhard.

In 1388, he regained the town of Hechingen, which bishop Friedrich of Strasbourg had held.  After a town fire in 1401, he granted the town a letter of liberty.

Friedrich XI died in 1401, and was buried in the Hohenzollern crypt in Stetten Abbey.

Marriage and issue
Before 12 January 1377, Friedrich XI married Adelheid (d. 1413), a daughter of Count Hugo of Fürstenberg-Zindelstein.  Her brother Johann was the last Count of Fürstenberg-Haslah.  Johann died childless in the Battle of Sempach of 1386, and Friedrich XI inherited Bräunlingen from him, which gave rise to a lengthy dispute with the main line of the Fürstenberg family.

From his marriage with Adelheid, Friedrich had the following children:
 Friedrich XII (d. 1443), Count of Hohenzollern, married in 1407 Anna of Sulz (d. 1438)
 Eitel Friedrich I (d. 1439), Count of Hohenzollern, married in 1432 to Ursula Razüns (d. 1477). He had issue:
 Jobst Nikolaus I, Count of Hohenzollern
 Anna, a nun
 Friedrich, a canon in Strasbourg
 Friedrich (d. 1436), Bishop of Constance as Friedrich III
 Friedrich, a monk

Ancestry

References
 Count Rudolph Stillfried-Alcántara and Traugott Maercker: Hohenzollerische Forschungen, C. Reimarus, 1847, p. 203 ff.
 E. G. Johler: Geschichte, Land- und Ortskunde der souverainen teutschen Fürstenthümer Hohenzollern Hechingen und Sigmaringen, Stettin'sche Buchhandlung, Ulm, 1824, Online
 Gustav Schilling: Geschichte des Hauses Hohenzollern in genealogisch fortlaufenden Biographien aller seiner Regenten von den ältesten bis auf die neuesten Zeiten, nach Urkunden und andern authentischen Quellen, Fleischer, Leipzig, 1843, Online

Counts of Hohenzollern
House of Hohenzollern
14th-century births
1401 deaths

Year of birth unknown
People from Hechingen

Frederick XI, Count of Hohenzollern


Martin Andersen Nexø (26 June 1869 – 1 June 1954) was a Danish writer. He was one of the authors in the Modern Breakthrough movement in Danish art and literature. He was a socialist throughout his life and during the Second World War moved to the Soviet Union, and afterwards to Dresden in East Germany.

Biography
Martin Andersen Nexø was born into a large family (the fourth of eleven children) in Christianshavn, at the time an impoverished district of Copenhagen. In 1877 his family moved to Nexø on Bornholm, and he adopted the name of this town as his last name. Having been an industrial worker before, in Nexø he attended a folk high school, and later worked as a journalist. He spent the mid-1890s travelling in Southern Europe, and his book Soldage (1903) (English: Days in the Sun) is largely based on those travels. Like many of his literary contemporaries, including Johannes Vilhelm Jensen, Nexø was at first heavily influenced by  fin-de-siècle pessimism, but gradually turned to a more extroverted view, joining the Social Democratic movement and later the Communist Party of Denmark; his later books reflect his political support of the Soviet Union.

Pelle Erobreren (English: Pelle the Conqueror), published in four volumes 1906–1910, is his best-known work and the one most translated. Its first section was made the subject of the DDR-FS movie Pelle der Eroberer in 1986 and the movie  Pelle Erobreren in 1987. Ditte Menneskebarn (English: Ditte, Child of Man), written from 1917 to 1921, praises the working woman for her self-sacrifice; a Danish film version of the first part of the book was released in 1946 as Ditte, Child of Man. The much-debated Midt i en Jærntid (i.e. "In an Iron Age", English: In God's Land), written in 1929,  satirises the Danish farmers of World War I. During his latter years, 1944 to 1956, Nexø wrote but did not complete a trilogy consisting of the books Morten hin Røde (English: Morten the Red), Den fortabte generation (English: The Lost Generation), and Jeanette. This was ostensibly a continuation of Pelle the Conqueror, but also a masked autobiography.

In 1941, during  Denmark's occupation by the  Germany, Danish police arrested Nexø due to his communist affiliation. Upon his release he traveled to neutral Sweden and then to the Soviet Union, where he made broadcasts to Nazi-occupied Denmark and Norway. After World War II, Nexø moved to Dresden in East Germany, where he was made an honorary citizen. The  Martin-Andersen-Nexø-Gymnasium high school in Dresden was named after him. His international reputation as one of the greatest European social writers grew, especially, but not exclusively, in socialist countries.

Nexø died in Dresden in 1954 and was interred in the Assistens Kirkegård in the Nørrebro neighbourhood of Copenhagen. A minor planet, 3535 Ditte, discovered by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh in 1979, is named after the main character in his novel Ditte, Child of Man.
Martin Andersen Nexø's home in Nexø has become a museum in his memory.

Honours and awards
In 1949, Nexø received an honorary doctorate from the University of Greifswald's Faculty of Arts.

Nexø's works in English
 Ditte: Towards The Stars. Translated by Asta & Rowland Kenney. New York: H. Holt. 1922.
 Days in the Sun. Translated by Jacob Wittmer Hartmann. 1929. (travel book)
 In God's Land. Translated by Thomas Seltzer. 1933.
 Under the Open Sky. My early Years. Translated by J. B. C. Watkins. 1938. (part of an autobiography)
 Pelle the Conqueror 1–2. Translated by Jesse Muir and Bernard Miall. Gloucester, Mass. 1963.
 Ditte. Gloucester, Mass. 1963.
 Pelle the Conqueror. Volume 1: Childhood. Translated by Steven T. Murray. Seattle, WA. New translation from Fjord Press. 1989.
 Pelle the Conqueror. Volume 2: Apprenticeship. Translated by Steven T. Murray & Tiina Nunnally. Seattle, WA. New translation from Fjord Press. 1991.

Film

A film adaptation "Pelle the Conqueror" was made in 1987, directed by Bille August and starring Max van Sydow. It has been licensed for streaming by several services recently.

Literature
Haugan, Jørgen. Alt er som bekendt erotik: En biografi om Martin Andersen Nexø. København: Gad, 1998.
 Ingwersen, Faith & Ingwersen, Niels: Quests for a Promised Land: The Works of Martin Andersen Nexø. 1984. .
 Yde, Henrik: Det grundtvigske i Martin Andersen Nexøs liv I–II. ('The Grundtvig'ian in the life of Martin Andersen Nexø.' Doctor's thesis, 1991.) .
 Yde, Henrik: Martin Andersen Nexø. An Introduction. (in Nordica, vol. 11. 1994).

References

External links

1869 births
1954 deaths
Writers from Copenhagen
Danish communists
Danish journalists
Marxist writers
Danish emigrants
Immigrants to East Germany
Socialist realism writers
Proletarian literature
Danish male novelists
People granted political asylum in the Soviet Union
20th-century Danish novelists

Martin Andersen Nexø


Milakpur is a village situated in the Bhiwani district of Haryana, India. Milakpur comes under Hisar (Lok Sabha constituency), which is represented in Lok Sabha by Dushyant Chautala of INLD. The village serves under the jurisdiction of Bhiwani Administration under police station at Bawani Khera, which also serves as Tehsil to the village.

Location
The Bus stand of the village caters to the needs of more than six villages and the village railway station, Aurangnagar, also provides for surrounding villages.

Economy
The area is known for its large number of brick kilns, which cater to the demand of bricks from surrounding areas and other areas as far flung as Bhiwani and Hisar. However, the residents are not concerned about the pollution and ecological devastation caused by them, perhaps due to lack of environmental awareness. Indeed, not even the authorities are concerned by their detrimental effect on the ecology and the environment of the area.

Like most of the villages in Haryana, Milakpur too has made a big contribution towards the Indian Army as soldiers and officers. Though the former outnumber the latter when quantified. Lack of other economic avenues and poor quality education lead to this choice rather than strong feelings of nationalism and patriotism. In addition to a career in the army, other occupations range from brick kiln management, farming, labour, teaching, to Mom and pop shop management. Of these, farming remains the largest and the default source of livelihood.

Education
Hansi,a town just six kilometers away, exerts significant urban influence upon the village. Increased educational awareness among the people has resulted in a more proactive stance towards education for their wards. In their quest for quality education, the number of pupils attending English medium schools in surrounding urban areas has increased significantly, despite the expensive fees in comparison to the overlooking free state-run schools where only children of under-privileged families find way. Indeed, the quality of state-run schools is so severely worse than urban schools that children from a poorer socio-economic background, who cannot afford urban schools, are compelled to go to private village schools. The quality of education of these schools is questionable and they have nothing in the name of infrastructure. Sanitation facilities are rare. This clearly indicates the shoddy state of education in the area and brings into light the bogus claims of improving quality of education made by the polity. The poor quality of education, in conjunction with other factors, contributes to the sheer prevalence of inequality among people, at large.

External links

See also
 List of Indus Valley Civilization sites

References

Indus Valley civilisation sites
Pre-Indus Valley civilisation sites
Archaeological sites in Haryana
Villages in Bhiwani district
Bhiwani district

Milakpur


The Paoli Massacre or Battle of Paoli was a battle of the American Revolutionary War. It happened at night on September 20, 1777 in Pennsylvania.  British fighters led by Major General Charles Grey surprised Continental fighters led by General Anthony Wayne at night near what is Malvern, Pennsylvania today.

In September 1777, the British army was in Philadelphia.  They had made the Continental Army run away from the city.  George Washington decided to keep the Continental Army nearby so he could watch the British Army.  They also needed the supplies stored at Reading, Pennsylvania, so he put the Continental Army between Philadelphia and Reading.

General Anthony Wayne had troops near Chester, Pennsylvania.  He thought the British did not know he was there, but they did.  Wayne and his men camped near Paoli Tavern on the night of September 20.  During the night, General Charles Grey's men came out of the woods and Anthony Wayne's men mostly ran away.  The British either killed or captured 272 Continentals.

Battle

One Hessian soldier said, "We killed three hundred of the rebels with the bayonet. I stuck them myself like so many pigs, one after the other, until the blood ran out of the touch hole of my musket."

Most of the Continentals lived, but many had bad injuries from being hit with bayonets or swords.

The battle of Paoli was fought with bayonets, which are long blades that soldiers put on the ends of their rifles.  There was almost no shooting.  General Grey told his men not to fire their weapons as guns.  He told them that this would tell the Continentals where they were.  He also told them that this way, they would know anyone firing a gun was an enemy.  This would make them less likely to kill men on their own side in the dark.  Major John Andre said what Grey said:

It was represented to the men that firing discovered us to the Enemy, hid them from us, killed our friends and produced a confusion favorable to the escape of the Rebels and perhaps productive of disgrace to ourselves. On the other hand, by not firing we knew the foe to be wherever fire appeared and a charge (of bayonets) ensured his destruction; that amongst the Enemy those in the rear would direct their fire against whoever fired in front, and they would destroy each other.

Outcome
Major General Charles Grey told his men to take the flint out of their guns.  This way, the guns would not make sparks that the Continentals could see and would not fire by accident, making gunshots that the Continentals could hear.  They took the Continentals by surprise.  For this, Charles Grey got a nickname: "'No Flint' Grey."

General Anthony Wayne was court-martialed, but the court decided he had only made a mistake and not acted dishonorably.

American writers called the battle a "massacre," or brutal killing.  This was propaganda to get readers to believe the British were bad.  General Anthony Wayne would tell his fighters to "remember Paoli" in later battles.  Some British fighters also thought Grey had not done the right thing. British Colonel Charles Stuart called the Battle of Paoli a murder.

References

Battles of the American Revolutionary War
1770s in the United States
18th century in Pennsylvania
September events

Battle of Paoli


r/K selection theory describes the way a species controls its number of offspring.

r-selection species produce many offspring. K-selected species focus on a few. Neither method is in itself superior, and they may occur in the same habitat; e.g., rodents (r-selection) and elephants (K-selection).

The theory was popular in the 1970s and 1980s, but several studies criticized it. The study of life histories has replaced the r/K selection paradigm.

The terminology of r/K-selection was coined by the ecologists Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson, based on their work on island biogeography. Study of the evolution of life history strategies actually has a longer history.

References

Ecology

R/K selection theory


Giuseppe Verdi's Rigoletto Story (2005) is a film version of Giuseppe Verdi's 1851 opera Rigoletto (libretto by Francesco Maria Piave). Filmed in Siena in 2002, it was directed by Gianfranco Fozzi and produced by David Guido Pietroni and Maurizio De Santis distributed worldwide by Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment and Sony Pictures Home Entertainment.

Cast
Rigoletto, the Duke's jester (baritone) – Roberto Servile
Gilda, his daughter (soprano) – Inva Mula
Duke of Mantua (tenor) – Marcelo Álvarez
Sparafucile, an assassin (bass) – Andrea Silvestrelli
Maddalena, his sister (mezzo-soprano) – Svetlana Serdar
Giovanna, Gilda's Nurse (mezzo-soprano) – Paola Leveroni
Count Ceprano (bass) – Boschetti Giulio
Countess Ceprano, his wife (mezzo-soprano) – Emilia Bertoncello
Matteo Borsa, a courtier (tenor) – Giovanni Maini
Count Monterone (baritone) – Cesare Lana
Marullo (baritone) Andrea Cortese

Film details
Film Company: Roadhouse Movie
 Label: Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment
 Producers: David Guido Pietroni and Maurizio De Santis
Stage director: Vittorio Sgarbi
Film director: Gianfranco Fozzi
Post Production: Christian Verzino
Costume Designer: Vivienne Westwood
Conductor: Keri-Lynn Wilson
Orchestra: Arturo Toscanini Foundation
Runtime: USA: 126 minutes
Country: Italy
Language: Italian
Sound Mix: Celeste Frigo, Mauro Casazza
Certification: Australia:G / UK:U
Bonus: Exclusive comic book inside "Rigoletto comix" by Enrico Simonato

External links

2002 films
2000s musical films
Italian musical films
Films based on works by Victor Hugo
Films based on operas by Giuseppe Verdi
Films set in the 16th century
Opera films
2000s Italian films

Giuseppe Verdi's Rigoletto Story


Sembel, located in the capital of Asmara, Maekel Region of Eritrea, is East Africa's oldest archaeological site, dated back to as early as 800 BCE.

Overview
Sembel was the site of a village near Asmara. It was subsequently made a suburb of the capital to its south. Immediately after the Eritrean War of Independence, a large government subsidized housing project was constructed in the area. During its construction and that of a nearby Intercontinental Hotel, evidence of ancient settlement was found. The National Museum of Eritrea later constructed a building to allow viewing of the excavation.

The excavations at Sembel found evidence of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization in greater Asmara. This Ona urban culture is believed to have been among the earliest pastoral and agricultural communities in the Horn region. Artefacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC, contemporaneous with other pre-Aksumite settlements in the Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands during the mid-first millennium BC. Additionally, the Ona culture may have had connections with the ancient Land of Punt. In a tomb in Thebes dated to the reign of Pharaoh Amenophis II (Amenhotep II), long-necked pots similar to those made by the Ona people are depicted as part of the cargo in a ship from Punt.

See also
Adulis
Keskese
Matara
Nakfa
Qohaito

References

Notes
Sembel - Ona culture

• Schmidt, Peter (2002). "Oldest Africa Settlement found in Eritrea" BBC website.

Archaeological sites in Eritrea
Former populated places in Eritrea

Sembel


Gilbert Ames Bliss, (9 May 1876 – 8 May 1951), was an American mathematician, known for his work on the calculus of variations.

Life
Bliss grew up in a Chicago family that eventually became affluent; in 1907, his father became president of the company supplying all of Chicago's electricity. The family was not affluent, however, when Bliss entered the University of Chicago in 1893 (its second year of operation). Hence he had to support himself while a student by winning a scholarship, and by playing in a student professional mandolin quartet.

After obtaining the B.Sc. in 1897, he began graduate studies at Chicago in mathematical astronomy (his first publication was in that field), switching in 1898 to mathematics. He discovered his life's work, the calculus of variations, via the lecture notes of Weierstrass's 1879 course, and Bolza's teaching. Bolza went on to supervise Bliss's Ph.D. thesis, The Geodesic Lines on the Anchor Ring, completed in 1900 and published in the Annals of Mathematics in 1902. After two years as an instructor at the University of Minnesota, Bliss spent the 1902–03 academic year at the University of Göttingen, interacting with Felix Klein, David Hilbert, Hermann Minkowski, Ernst Zermelo, Erhard Schmidt, Max Abraham, and Constantin Carathéodory.

Upon returning to the United States, Bliss taught one year each at the University of Chicago and the University of Missouri. In 1904, he published two more papers on the calculus of variations in the Transactions of the American Mathematical Society. Bliss was a Preceptor at Princeton University, 1905–08, joining a strong group of young mathematicians that included Luther P. Eisenhart, Oswald Veblen, and Robert Lee Moore. While at Princeton he was also an associate editor of the Annals of Mathematics.

In 1908, Chicago's Maschke died and Bliss was hired to replace him; Bliss remained at Chicago until his 1941 retirement. While at Chicago, he was an editor of the Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 1908–16, and chaired the Mathematics Department, 1927–41. That Department was less distinguished under Bliss than it had been under E. H. Moore's previous leadership, and than it would become under Marshall Stone's and Saunders MacLane's direction after World War II. A near-contemporary of Bliss's at Chicago was the algebraist Leonard Dickson.

During World War I, he worked on ballistics, designing new firing tables for artillery, and lectured on navigation. In 1918, he and Oswald Veblen worked together in the Range Firing Section at the Aberdeen Proving Ground, applying the calculus of variations to correct shell trajectories for the effects of wind, changes in air density, the rotation of the Earth, and other perturbations.

Bliss married Helen Hurd in 1912, who died in the 1918 influenza pandemic; their two children survived. Bliss married Olive Hunter in 1920; they had no children.

Bliss was elected to the National Academy of Sciences (United States) in 1916. He was the American Mathematical Society's Colloquium Lecturer (1909), Vice President (1911), and President (1921–22). He received the Mathematical Association of America's first Chauvenet Prize, in 1925, for his article "Algebraic functions and their divisors," which culminated in his 1933 book Algebraic functions. He was also an elected member of the American Philosophical Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Bliss once headed a government commission that devised rules for apportioning seats in the U.S. House of Representatives among the several states.

Work
Bliss's work on the calculus of variations culminated in his classic 1946 monograph, Lectures on the Calculus of Variations, which treated the subject as an end in itself and not as an adjunct of mechanics. Here Bliss achieved a substantial simplification of the transformation theories of Clebsch and Weierstrass. Bliss also strengthened the necessary conditions of Euler, Weierstrass, Legendre, and Jacobi into sufficient conditions. Bliss set out the canonical formulation and solution of the problem of Bolza with side conditions and variable end-points. Bliss's Lectures more or less constitutes the culmination of the classic calculus of variations of Weierstrass, Hilbert, and Bolza. Subsequent work on variational problems would strike out in new directions, such as Morse theory, optimal control, and dynamic programming.

Bliss also studied singularities of real transformations in the plane.

Publications
1925 Calculus of Variations
1933 Algebraic Functions
1944 Mathematics for Exterior Ballistics
1946 Lectures on the Calculus of Variations

References
MacTutor: Gilbert Ames Bliss. The source for most of this entry.
Ames' Students at the Mathematics Genealogy Project

External links
National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir

1876 births
1951 deaths
20th-century American mathematicians
Mathematical analysts
Ballistics experts
People from Chicago
University of Chicago alumni
University of Chicago faculty
University of Missouri faculty
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Presidents of the American Mathematical Society
Mathematicians from Illinois
University of Missouri mathematicians
Members of the American Philosophical Society

Gilbert Ames Bliss


Regina Corrado is an American television writer. She has been nominated for two Writers Guild of America Awards for her work on Deadwood.

Biography
Corrado joined the crew of HBO Western drama Deadwood as a writer for the second season in 2005. The series was created by David Milch and focuses on the growth of a settlement in the American West. Corrado wrote the episode "Childish Things". Corrado and the writing staff were also nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for Outstanding Drama Series at the February 2006 ceremony for their work on the second season. She became a staff writer for the third and final season in 2006 and was promoted to story editor mid-season. She co-wrote the episode "I Am Not the Fine Man You Take Me For" with Milch. She co-wrote the episode "True Colors" with producer Ted Mann. She wrote the episode "Unauthorized Cinnamon". The third season writers were again nominated for the WGA Award for Outstanding Drama Series at the February 2007 ceremony.

In 2007 Corrado became an executive story editor for HBO surf noir John From Cincinnati. The series was created by Milch and Kem Nunn and focuses on the arrival of a messiah like figure in a surfing community. Corrado wrote the episode "His Visit: Day Three". The series was canceled after completing its first season.

In 2009 Corrado joined the crew of FX crime drama Sons of Anarchy as an executive story editor and writer for the second season. The series was created by Kurt Sutter and focuses on a California motorcycle gang. Corrado wrote the episode "Falx Cerebri".

She was promoted to co-producer for the third season in 2010. She co-wrote the episode "Caregiver" with producer Chris Collins, co-wrote the episode "Widening Gyre" with Sutter and co-wrote the episode "Bainne" with Sutter and co-executive producer Dave Erickson. Corrado was promoted again to producer for the fourth season. She co-wrote the third episode "Dorylus" with co-producer Liz Sagal. She co-wrote the sixth episode "With an X" with Collins.

External links

References

American television producers
American women television producers
American television writers
Living people
American women television writers
Place of birth missing (living people)
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century American women

Regina Corrado


Salvador Ponce Lopez (May 27, 1911 – October 18, 1993) was a Filipino writer, journalist, educator, diplomat and statesman.

He studied at the University of the Philippines (UP) and obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in English in 1931 and a Master of Arts degree in Philosophy in 1933. At UP, he was drama critic for the Philippine Collegian and member of Upsilon Sigma Phi. From 1933 to 1936, Lopez taught literature and journalism at the University of Manila. He also became a daily columnist and magazine editor of the Philippine Herald until World War II.

In 1940, Lopez's essay "Literature and Society" won the Commonwealth Literary Awards. His essay posited that art must have substance and that poet José García Villa's adherence to "art for art's sake" is decadent. The essay provoked debates, the discussion centering on proletarian literature, i.e., engaged or committed literature versus the orientation of literature as an art for the sake of art itself.

He was appointed by President Diosdado Macapagal as Secretary of Foreign Affairs and then became ambassador to the United Nations for six years before being reassigned to France for seven years. He would also serve as Chairperson of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.

Lopez was the president of the University of the Philippines from 1969 to 1975. He established a system of democratic consultation wherein decisions such as promotions and appointments were made through greater participation by faculty and administrative personnel; he also reorganized UP into the UP System.

It was during Lopez's presidency that UP students were politically radicalized, launching mass protests against the Marcos regime right from the so-called "First Quarter Storm" in 1970 to the Diliman Commune in 1971. During the latter, Lopez called on all UP students, faculty, and employees to defend the university and its autonomy from Marcos's militarization, as the military sought to occupy the campus in search of alleged leftists, activists, and other opponents of the regime. Due to his defense of UP's autonomy and democracy, many considered him a progressive and a militant member of the UP academe.

References

 Media Museum Who's Who in Print Journalism - Salvador P. Lopez Retrieved September 29, 2005.
 Quindoza-Santiago, Dr. Lilia. Philippine Literature during the American Period Retrieved September 29, 2005.
 Godinez-Ortega, Christine F. The Literary Forms in Philippine Literature Retrieved September 29, 2005.

1911 births
1993 deaths
Filipino educators
Filipino writers
People from Ilocos Norte
University of the Philippines alumni
Secretaries of Foreign Affairs of the Philippines
University of the Philippines
Permanent Representatives of the Philippines to the United Nations
Ambassadors of the Philippines to France
Macapagal administration cabinet members
Presidents of universities and colleges in the Philippines

Salvador P. Lopez


Pressure experiments are experiments performed at pressures lower or higher than atmospheric pressure, called low-pressure experiments and high-pressure experiments, respectively. Pressure experiment are necessary because substances behave differently at different pressures. For example, water boils at a lower temperature at lower pressures. The equipment used for pressure experiments depends on whether the pressure is to be increased or decreased and by how much. A vacuum pump is used to remove the air out of a vacuum vessel for low-pressure experiments. High-pressures can be created with a piston-cylinder apparatus, up to  () and . The piston is shifted with hydraulics, decreasing the volume inside the confining cylinder and increasing the pressure. For higher pressures, up to , a multi-anvil cell is used and for even higher pressures the diamond anvil cell. The diamond anvil cell is used to create extremely high pressures, as much as a million atmospheres (), though only over a small area. The current record is , but the sample size is confined to the order of tens of micrometres ().

References

See also
 Orders of magnitude (pressure)

Physics experiments

Pressure experiment


The Didymoteicho Fortress or Castle (), is an ancient and medieval hilltop citadel complex in the town of Didymoteicho, Eastern Macedonia and Thrace, Greece. It has been an important landmark since ancient times due to the strong fortification surrounding it. The castle is accompanied by several myths, one of the most famous is that of the Forty Arches, and is where Charles XII, King of Sweden, is said to have been imprisoned by the Turks.

Location
Located on the hilltop, strategically placed, due in-part to its strategic location overlooking both the town of Didymoteicho, the Erythropotamos River and the road to Constantinople, it is one of the most important Byzantine-era castles in Thrace and the Balkans.

History
According to the 6th-century historian Procopius, the reconstruction of the walls of Didymoteicho took place during the reign of Justinian I. The castle experienced several long sieges, and as a result The walls were subsequently strengthened during the reign of Constantine V in 751.

In 1206, the fortress (known as Demotika) was besieged by Bulgarian Tsar Kaloyan, who took advantage of the disintegration of the Byzantine Empire. The fortress was later occupied by the Latin Empire. In 1303, with the re-establishment of Byzantine rule, master builder Constantine Tarchaneiotes strengthened the fortifications. This is supported by Topography of building materials and methods that suggest the occupation by Byzantine forces continued into the later period of the empire.

In October 1352, during the Byzantine civil war of 1352–1357, John V Palaiologos, with military support from Serbia commanded by Gradislav Borilović, engaged John VI Kantakouzenos (with backing from Orhan I, the Ottoman bey). The two armies met in an open field close to the fortress walls. The more numerous Ottomans defeated the Serbs, and Kantakouzenos retained the power, while Palaiologos fled to Venetian-controlled Tenedos. According to Kantakouzenos about 7,000 Serbs fell at the battle (deemed exaggerated), while Nikephoros Gregoras (1295–1360) gave the number as 4,000. The battle was the first major engagement of the Ottomans on European soil, and made Stefan Dušan realize the major growing threat of the Ottomans to Eastern Europe. By 1361, the fortress had fallen to the Ottomans.

In a cave next to the 19th-century Cathedral of Saint Athanasios Charles XII, King of Sweden, is said to have been kept under house arrest by the Ottomans. During the Ottoman rule, the structures were not adequately preserved, and by 1848 the fortress was in a ruinous state sustaining severe damage from various incursions as well as those provoked by the Russians who occupied the city in the course of the two Russo-Turkish wars in 1828–29 and 1877–78.

On the evening 10 August 2020 firefighters where called to deal with a large blaze that had broken out within the castle. At around 20:30 Local residents reported smoke and flames emanating from the fortress complex. Over 20 firefighters with 17 vehicles where at the scene to extinguish the fire, that had engulfed an area of 8 acres It was reported that both the Cathedral of Saint Athanasios and Armenian Church had been in real danger of being lost. However, only dry vegetation was burned, in part thanks to the good coordination and quick response from firefighters and local volunteers, something Mayor Romylos Hatzigiannoglou, emphasized in his message to those involved. The cause of the fire has not been precisely determined and is being investigated by the fire service.

Description
The castle is preserved at its longest length, its Byzantine walls are  long and reach a height of 12 meters, with 24 towers in total, some of which bear monograms of Byzantine personalities or decorative and symbolic patterns.

The two central gates of the fortress, known as the Kale Gates, are flanked by five-sided towers dating to the Justinian refurbishment. The West gate facing Erythropotamos river remains intact and contains a smaller gate next to a tower with pointed arches and a court added in the early Ottoman times. Inside the castle there are scattered carved caves which were used as parts of houses. There are a number of Post-Byzantine building within the walls, notably the church of Aghia Aikaterini comprising tombs, the cathedral of Aghios Athanasios (1834), and the church of the Christ (1846).

Current state
Today, 24 towers and post-Byzantine buildings are preserved within the Castle.

See also

Battle of Demotika

Gallery

References

Bibliography

, chapter 40

External links

Buildings and structures in Evros (regional unit)
Byzantine fortifications in Greece
Didymoteicho

Didymoteicho Fortress


FS Class 113 was a class of 0-4-2 steam locomotives of the Ferrovie dello Stato (FS), inherited from older railway companies on the nationalization of Italian railways in 1905. They were built by Gio. Ansaldo & C. between 1854 and 1869.

History
Some of the locomotives were from Strade Ferrate dello Stato Piemontese (SFSP). The first 8 locomotives were built between 1854 and 1855 and among them was the famous Sampierdarena, the first entirely Italian construction of Giovanni Ansaldo's locomotive factory. A group of 4 units, built in 1857, came from the Ferrovia Alessandria–Stradella, (private under concession). While another 18 units had been built for the Società per le strade ferrate dell'Alta Italia (SFAI). In 1865 they all passed to the SFAI, which had absorbed all the various local companies and the former Piedmontese state railways.

A further 10 units were built, between 1863 and 1869, for the Victor Emmanuel Railway, later the Società per le Strade Ferrate Calabro-Sicule (SFCS) for use on the Calabrian-Sicilian lines and they were numbered SFCS 1-10. The first three, named Archimede, Diodoro and Novelli, inaugurated the Palermo - Bagheria line, the first railway section on the island of Sicily, on 28 April 1863.

In 1885 all 40 passed to the Rete Mediterranea (RM), which numbered them RM 2733-2773. In 1905, the Ferrovie dello Stato registered only 25 units and assigned them to Class 113, with numbers from 1131 to 1155. However, these were obsolete machines which were soon withdrawn and scrapped. They are not included in the FS list of locomotives and railcars at 30 June 1914.

References

0-4-2 locomotives
113
Gio. Ansaldo & C. locomotives
Railway locomotives introduced in 1854
Standard gauge locomotives of Italy
Rete Mediterranea steam locomotives
Passenger locomotives

FS Class 113


Nuclear missiles are missiles (rockets or cruise missiles that hit something in order to destroy it) with atomic bombs.

In the time of the Cold War the USA and the Soviet Union were enemies and thought the other side was going to attack them. To dissuade the other side from attacking, both sides built many nuclear missiles to ensure Mutual assured destruction. This meant a country that attacked would be destroyed.  Treaties were made to reduce the numbers of missiles to make everyone safer.

Missiles
Nuclear weapons

Nuclear missile


Composite video is an analog video format that typically carries a 525 or 625 line signal on a single channel, unlike the higher-quality S-Video (two channels) and the even higher-quality component video (three or more channels).

A yellow RCA connector is typically used for composite video, with the audio being carried on separate additional L/R RCA connectors. In professional settings, or on devices that are too small for an RCA connector, such as a digital camera, other types of connectors can be used.

Composite video is also known by the initials CVBS for Composite Video Baseband Signal or Color, Video, Blanking and Sync, or is simply referred to as SD video for the standard-definition television signal it conveys.

There are three dominant variants of composite video signals, corresponding to the analog color system used (NTSC, PAL, and SECAM), but purely monochrome signals can also be used.

Signal components

A composite video signal combines, on one wire, the video information required to recreate a color picture, as well as line and frame synchronization pulses. The color video signal is a linear combination of the luminance () of the picture and a modulated subcarrier which carries the chrominance or color information (), a combination of hue and saturation. Details of the combining process vary between the NTSC, PAL and SECAM systems.

The frequency spectrum of the modulated color signal overlaps that of the baseband signal, and separation relies on the fact that frequency components of the baseband signal tend to be near harmonics of the horizontal scanning rate, while the color carrier is selected to be an odd multiple of half the horizontal scanning rate; this produces a modulated color signal that consists mainly of harmonic frequencies that fall between the harmonics in the baseband luma signal, rather than both being in separate continuous frequency bands alongside each other in the frequency domain. The signals may be separated using a comb filter. In other words, the combination of luma and chrominance is indeed a frequency-division technique, but it is much more complex than typical frequency-division multiplexing systems like the one used to multiplex analog radio stations on both the AM and FM bands.

A gated and filtered signal derived from the color subcarrier, called the burst or colorburst, is added to the horizontal blanking interval of each line (excluding lines in the vertical sync interval) as a synchronizing signal and amplitude reference for the chrominance signals. In NTSC composite video, the burst signal is inverted in phase (180° out of phase) from the reference subcarrier. In PAL, the phase of the color subcarrier alternates on successive lines. In SECAM, no colorburst is used since phase information is irrelevant.

Composite artifacts

The combining of component signals to form the composite signal does the same, causing a checkerboard video artifact known as dot crawl. Dot crawl is a defect that results from crosstalk due to the intermodulation of the chrominance and luminance components of the signal. This is usually seen when chrominance is transmitted with high bandwidth, and its spectrum reaches into the band of the luminance frequencies. Comb filters are commonly used to separate signals and eliminate these artifacts from composite sources. S-Video and component video avoid this problem as they maintain the component signals separately.

Recording
Most home analog video equipment record a signal in (roughly) composite format: LaserDiscs store a true composite signal, while consumer videotape formats (including VHS and Betamax) and commercial and industrial tape formats (including U-matic) use modified composite signals (generally known as color-under). The professional D-2 videocassette format digitally records and reproduces composite video signals using PCM encoding of the analog signal on the magnetic tape.

Extensions
A number of so-called extensions to the visible TV image can be transmitted using composite video. Since TV screens hide the vertical blanking interval of a composite video signal, these take advantage of the unseen parts of the signal. Examples of extensions include teletext, closed captioning, information regarding the show title, a set of reference colors that allows TV sets to automatically correct NTSC hue maladjustments, widescreen signaling (WSS) for switching between 4:3 and 16:9 display formats, etc.

Connectors and cable

In home applications, the composite video signal is typically connected using an RCA connector, normally yellow. It is often accompanied with red and white connectors for right and left audio channels respectively. BNC connectors and higher quality coaxial cable are often used in professional television studios and post-production applications. BNC connectors were also used for composite video connections on early home VCRs, often accompanied by either RCA connector or a 5-pin DIN connector for audio. The BNC connector, in turn, post dated the PL-259 connector featured on first-generation VCRs.

Video cables are 75 ohm impedance, low in capacitance. Typical values run from 52 pF/m for an HDPE-foamed dielectric precision video cable to 69 pF/m for a solid PE dielectric cable.

Modulators

Some devices output composite video, such as Videocassette recorders (VCR), video game consoles, and home computers. This may then be converted to RF with an RF modulator that generates the proper carrier (often for channel 3 or 4 in North America, channel 36 in Europe). Sometimes this modulator is built into the product (such as video game consoles, VCRs, or the Atari, Commodore 64, or TRS-80 CoCo home-computers), is an external unit powered by the computer (TI-99/4A), or with an independent power supply.

Because of the digital television transition most television sets no longer have analog television tuners and cannot accept a signal from an analog modulator. However, composite video has an established market for both devices that convert it to channel 3/4 outputs, as well as devices that convert standards like VGA to composite, therefore it has offered opportunities to repurpose older composite monitors for newer devices.

Demodulation loss
The process of modulating RF with the original video signal, and then demodulating the original signal again in the TV, introduces losses including added noise or interference. For these reasons, it is best to use composite connections instead of RF connections if possible. Some video equipment and modern televisions have only RF input.

See also
 List of video connectors
 NTSC color encoding
 PAL color encoding

Notes

References

External links
 Maxim - Apr 8, 2002 - Video Basics Tutorial covering CVBS format structure.

Analog video connectors
Television technology
Repurposing

Composite video


Earl Francis Lloyd (April 3, 1928 – February 26, 2015) was an American professional basketball player and coach. He was the first African American player to play a game in the National Basketball Association (NBA).

An All–American player at West Virginia State University, Lloyd helped lead West Virginia State to an undefeated season in 1948. As a professional, Lloyd helped lead the Syracuse Nationals to the 1955 NBA Championship. Lloyd was inducted into the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame in 2003.

Early life
Earl Lloyd was born in Alexandria, Virginia, on April 3, 1928, to Theodore Lloyd, Sr. and Daisy Lloyd. His father worked in the coal industry and his mother was a stay-at-home mom. Being a high school standout, Lloyd was named to the All-South Atlantic Conference three times and the All-State Virginia Interscholastic Conference twice. Lloyd did attend a segregated school, but gives gratitude to his family and educators for helping him through the tough times and his success after school.

Lloyd was a 1946 graduate of Parker–Grey High School, where he played for Coach Louis Randolph Johnson. He received a scholarship to play basketball at West Virginia State University, home of the Yellow Jackets. In school he was nicknamed "Moon Fixer" because of his size and was known as a defensive specialist.

College career
Lloyd led West Virginia State to two Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association (CIAA) Conference and Tournament Championships in 1948 and 1949. He was named All–Conference three times (1948–50) and was All-American twice, as named by the Pittsburgh Courier (1949–50). As a senior, he averaged 14 points and 8 rebounds per game, while leading West Virginia State to a second–place finish in the CIAA Conference and Tournament Championship. In 1947–48, West Virginia State was the only undefeated team in the United States, with a 30–0 record. Lloyd graduated from WVSU with his B.S. degree in physical education in 1950.

Harlem Career
Prior to being drafted in the ninth round of the 1950 NBA Draft, Lloyd starred in the lineup of the Harlem Globetrotters. With Harlem, Lloyd led the team to two wins over the reigning Minneapolis Lakers; this proved his talents beyond his race. Except for racial segregation, he was one of the finest artists of his time. Lloyd's talents were recognized amongst other black teammates, the two being Chuck Cooper and Nathaniel "Sweetwater" Clifton. All three were drafted out of their careers with the Globetrotters, giving the team credit for the broken barriers of integration in the NBA. Each of these three men would go on to be drafted by the NBA, Clifton in 1947, Cooper in 1950, and Lloyd in 1950, the 100th overall pick.

NBA career
Lloyd was drafted in the 9th round with pick #100 by the Washington Capitols in the 1950 NBA draft. Nicknamed "The Big Cat", Lloyd was one of three black players to enter the NBA at the same time. It was because of the order in which the team's season openers fell that Lloyd was the first to actually play in a game in the NBA, scoring six points on Halloween night. The date was October 31, 1950, one day ahead of Chuck Cooper of the Boston Celtics and four days before Nat "Sweetwater" Clifton of the New York Knicks.

Lloyd played in over 560 games in nine seasons. The 6-foot-5, 225-pound forward played in only seven games for the Washington Capitols before the team folded on January 9, 1951. He was then drafted into the U.S. Army at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. While fulfilling his military duty, the Syracuse Nationals picked him up on waivers. Lloyd served time fighting in the Korean War before coming back to basketball in 1952. In the 1953–54 season, Lloyd led the NBA in both personal fouls and disqualifications.

In 1954-1955, Lloyd  averaged career highs of 10.2 points and 7.7 rebounds for Syracuse, which beat the Fort Wayne Pistons 4 games to 3 to win the 1955 NBA Championship. Lloyd and Jim Tucker became the first African–Americans to play on an NBA championship team. Lloyd spent six seasons with Syracuse and two with the Detroit Pistons before retiring in 1961.

Regarding the racism black players faced in the early years of the NBA, Lloyd recalled being refused service multiple times and an incident where a fan in Indiana spit on him. He even went as far as to detail a time in which he was told to "go back" to Africa, and a plethora of times racial slurs were used towards him. However, Lloyd persevered and said that these instances only pushed him and made him play harder. Saying he didn't encounter racial animosity from teammates or opposing players, Lloyd said of fans' antics, "My philosophy was: If they weren't calling you names, you weren't doing nothing. If they're calling you names, you were hurting them."

"In 1950, basketball was like a babe in the woods; it didn't enjoy the notoriety that baseball enjoyed," Lloyd once said. "I don't think my situation was anything like Jackie Robinson's-a guy who played in a hostile environment, where some of his teammates didn't want him around. In basketball, folks were used to seeing integrated college teams. There was a different mentality."

"He's an unsung star. Anybody can score. Lloyd was an excellent defensive player. That was No. 1 on my roster," said his Syracuse Coach Al Cervi.

In his NBA career with the Washington Capitols (1950–1951), Syracuse Nationals (1952–1958) and Detroit Pistons (1958–1960), Earl averaged 8.4 points, 6.4 rebounds and 1.4 assists in 560 games over nine seasons.

Coaching and scouting career
According to Detroit News sportswriter Jerry Green, in 1965 Detroit Pistons General Manager Don Wattrick wanted to hire Lloyd as the team's head coach. Dave DeBusschere was instead named Pistons player–coach. Lloyd was the first African–American assistant coach and was named head coach for the 1971–72 season, making him the third African–American head coach, after John McLendon and Bill Russell. A 2–5 start to the following campaign resulted in Lloyd being relieved of his duties and replaced by assistant coach Ray Scott on October 28, 1972. He had an overall record of 22–55 with the Pistons.

Lloyd worked for the Pistons as a scout for five seasons. Lloyd is credited with helping draft Bailey Howell and discovering Willis Reed, Earl Monroe, Ray Scott and Wally Jones.

Personal life
After his basketball career, Lloyd worked during the 1970s and 1980s as a job placement administrator for the Detroit public school system. During this time, Lloyd also ran programs for underprivileged children teaching job skills.

Lloyd served as Community Relations Director for the Bing Group, a Detroit manufacturing company in the 1990s.

Approached by a young African–American player who said he was indebted to Lloyd for opening the doors for future generations of black players,  Lloyd replied that he owed him absolutely nothing.

"You cannot understand what an honor this is," Lloyd said in 2007 about the court at T. C. Williams High School being named in his honor. "There's no better honor than being validated by people who know you best. I will always, always treasure this."

Lloyd and his wife, Charlita, had three sons and four grandchildren. Lloyd resided in Fairfield Glade, Tennessee, just outside Crossville, Tennessee, until his death on February 26, 2015.

Honors

 In 1993, Lloyd was inducted into the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame.
 Lloyd was inducted into the Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association (CIAA) Hall of Fame in 1998.
 The state of Virginia, proclaimed on February 9, 2001, as "Earl Lloyd Day" by action of Virginia's Governor.
 In 2003, Lloyd was inducted to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame as a contributor.
 Lloyd was named to the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics Silver and Golden Anniversary Teams.
 The newly constructed basketball court at T. C. Williams High School in Lloyd's home town of Alexandria, Virginia, was named in his honor in 2007. Lloyd attended Parker-Gray High School, as Alexandria's schools were racially-segregated at the time. T.C. Williams—the subject of the motion picture Remember the Titans—was created as a combined, desegregated school two decades later.
 In November 2009, Moonfixer: The Basketball Journey of Earl Lloyd, was released. Lloyd wrote this biography with Syracuse area writer, Sean Kirst.
 In 2012, Lloyd was inducted into the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame.
 In 2014, a statue of Earl Lloyd was unveiled at West Virginia State University in the Walker Convocation Center. That same year, the "Earl Lloyd Classic" began, hosted at West Virginia State.
 In 2015 Lloyd, along with fellow basketball player Alonzo Mourning, was one of eight Virginians honored in the Library of Virginia's "Strong Men & Women in Virginia History" because of his contributions to the sport of basketball.
  In 2018, the road running in front of the Walker Convocation Center at West Virginia State University was renamed "Earl Lloyd Way."
  In 2022, the 200 block of Madison Street in the city of Syracuse was named "Earl Lloyd Way."

NBA career statistics

Regular season

Playoffs

Head coaching record

|-
|align="left"|Detroit
| align="left"|
| 70 || 20 || 50 ||  ||align="center"|6th in Midwest || – || – || – ||
| align="center"|Missed Playoffs
|-
|align="left"|Detroit
| align="left"|
| 7 || 2 || 5 ||  ||align="center"|(fired) || – || – || – ||
| align="center"|—
|- class="sortbottom"
| align="left"|Career
| || 77 || 22 || 55 ||  || || – || – || – ||  ||

See also

Race and ethnicity in the NBA
List of African-American firsts

References

Further reading

External links

BasketballReference.com: Earl Lloyd (as coach)
BasketballReference.com: Earl Lloyd (as player)
Earl Lloyd's oral history video excerpts at The National Visionary Leadership Project
Biography of Earl Lloyd at the Library of Virginia's Strong Men & Women in Virginia History page

1928 births
2015 deaths
African-American basketball coaches
African-American basketball players
American men's basketball players
Basketball coaches from Virginia
Basketball players from Alexandria, Virginia
Detroit Pistons head coaches
Detroit Pistons players
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
People from Crossville, Tennessee
Small forwards
Syracuse Nationals players
United States Army soldiers
Washington Capitols draft picks
Washington Capitols players
West Virginia State Yellow Jackets men's basketball players
20th-century African-American sportspeople
21st-century African-American people

Earl Lloyd


Aaron Banks (1928 – May 2, 2013) was a martial artist born in Bronx, New York. He brought Chinese Kung Fu, Korean Moo Duk Kwan, Japanese and Okinawan Goju-Ryu karate, judo and boxing under the same roof in his New York Karate Academy. During his life, he promoted 352 karate tournaments, conducted more than 1,000 demonstrations, and organized over 250 martial arts shows. His karate influence can be seen through his karate school which he operated for 30 years and the 200,000 or more students he taught. Aaron Banks also brought martial arts to the public with his "Oriental World of Self-Defense" shows that played in Madison Square Garden for over 20 years via ABC-Wide World of Sports, NBC Sports world, CBS sports, and HBO  sports, where millions of viewers watched.

Personal life

Aaron Banks was born in 1928, a year before the Great Depression in Bronx, New York. His mother was a nurse who consistently gambled. His father was an editor of sports writing for the failed New York newspaper Morning Journal. Banks was married twice. His first wife was a secretary who left him after his drug use and his short stint in the hospital due to pneumonia. Banks said that she was constantly nagging him to settle down. Banks' second wife was a show girl, but the marriage quickly dissolved again due to the difference in salary. Banks earned around $40 a week and his wife $1000 a week. It was shortly after this that he was employed at the record store where an infamous incident changed his life. He died May 2, 2013.  Banks had a dream to become an actor, which was not fulfilled to his liking.

Early career

At the age of 19, Aaron Banks decided his job was to be an actor. He charged in and managed to get the part of a gangster in the movie Greenwich Village Story and the Broadway play Two by Saroyan. When he failed to achieve any star roles, Banks decided to start with a singing career. He studied under the tutelage of Alan Greene along with Harry Belafonte. When Banks failed to make it big-time, he moved on to his third career as a director of plays. He started his first studio and held auditions. One of his memories was of a girl singing. "She's terrible", he commented, not knowing that this girl was Barbra Streisand. He also ran through many small jobs such as salad-maker, dishwasher, short-order cook, and theater usher. Finally his string of jobs ended when he tried to be a salesman at a Colony record shop. His simple and short statement on the incident that changed his life was, "I had a fight and lost." While the original argument was trivial, Banks exploded and while he was obviously the smaller opponent, he fought ferociously. In the end, it took six policemen to drag him away from the fight.
Banks then studied karate under John Slocum. After 10 lessons, his drug and alcohol use ceased. He trained under multiple teachers and learned many different techniques. Within four years, Banks earned his black belt in Goju Ryu.

Filmography

Oriental World of Self Defense

In an attempt to bring knowledge of martial arts to America, Aaron Banks started the successful Oriental World of Self Defense. This television show was unprecedented and brought the martial arts to public attention. The show toured the world playing in packed houses. Near its peak, the show sold out twice in one day at the 20,000 seat arena in Madison Square Garden. Banks' first show premiered in 1966 and featured many of the best martial artist on the East Coast. The show sold out the Town Hall's 1700 seats in Manhattan, New York.

Though there was public suspicion, Bank's show grew until he believed that it was time to approach Madison Square Garden. When Banks met with the vice president of Madison Square in 1972, Banks was so confident he let the Garden have a signed bond guaranteeing them a certain amount of money. In fact, he volunteered to sign anything they wanted. Starting with the Felt Forum, Banks quickly graduated to the main arena within 2 years. Many new artists gained notoriety through Aaron Banks such as Chuck Norris who achieved some of his first major exposure in the Oriental World of Self Defense's competitions held monthly. Lou Neglia, a Karate Hall Famer and name fighter of the year in 1984,{ admits to owing much of his success to Banks due his start fighting in the Oriental World of Self Defense and the World Karate Championships. At age 82, Banks still puts on scaled-down versions of his show, which play to significantly smaller crowds at a local theater in New York.

Small Film Parts

Notable events

This list present 10 events that were important to the memory of Aaron Banks and essential for the movement of the martial arts.
Earned a black belt in 1962. His span of arts included:
Shotokan karate taught by John Slocum
Moo Duk Kwan by Richard Chun
Goju-ryu by Peter Urban and Gonnohye Yamamoto
Southern Praying Mantis Kung-Fu
Tai Chi Chuan
Organized karate demonstration in 1963. It was held in the 41st Street Theater. It was the start of many karate presentations.
Launching the Oriental World of Self-Defense in 1966.
The venue was the Town Hall in New York City. It presented different martial artist of jujitsu, aikido, kung fu, taekwondo, aikido etc. Many Americans learned of the various arts besides karate and judo.
Organizing the East Coast vs. West Coast Team Competition in 1967.
 Hosted in Manhattan Center, the West Coast Team consisted of Steve Sanders, Jerry Taylor, Joe Lewis, and Chuck Norris. Banks' East Coast Team consisted of Thomas Carroll, Joe Hayes, Louis Delgado, and Kazuyoshi Tanaka.
 3,800 spectators showed up and the West Coasters won the competition.
Held the First Professional Karate Championship in 1968.
Joe Lewis defeated Vic Moore in the heavyweight category
Mike Stone beat Bob Tiani in the light-heavyweight category
Chuck Norris defeated Louis Delgado in the middleweight categories
Banks predicted Norris would become famous when he picked himself up after Delgado almost knocked Norris out with illegal contact.
Skipper Mullis beat Kazuyoshi Tanaka in the lightweight championship
In a show that had Norris, Lewis, Stone, and LaPuppet fighting against a group of Asian fighters, the Americans won 4 out of 6 fights.
 Began his tournament-a-month competition in 1969. It ran the Sunnyside Gardens Arena in Queens, once a month for three years.
This tournament included George Cofield, Joe Hess, Moses Powell, Frank Ruiz, Thomas LaPuppet, J.T. Will, Jerry Piddington, Nick Cerio and Joe Lewis.
 Toured the US in 1973. Banks hosted the Oriental World on the road and toured 25 US states before moving to Europe. He entertained cities such as Birmingham, Liverpool, and Manchester. He then appeared in Royal Albert Hall which was also watched by the Queen of the United Kingdom.
 The Oriental World attracted 19,000 spectators in 1974. The show, which moved to Madison Square Garden in 1972, attracted 4,000 people the first year it was held. Two years later, the viewers numbered 20,000.
 He shattered 58 boards in 60 seconds in 1982 on the Mike Douglas Show.
 Held The World Professional Martial Arts Organization Hall of Fame Banquet in Madison Square Garden on January 17, 2010.

References

1928 births
2013 deaths
American martial artists
Sportspeople from the Bronx

Aaron Banks (martial artist)


Ciaccio's glands or Wolfring's glands are small tubular accessory lacrimal glands (glandulae lacrimales accessoriae) found in the lacrimal caruncle of the eyelid. These accessory lacrimal glands are located in the upper border of the tarsus, approximately in the middle between the extremities of the tarsal glands. Sometimes they are situated slightly above the tarsus. There are usually 2 to 5 of these glands in the upper eyelid, and their function is to produce tears which are secreted onto the surface of the conjunctiva.

They are named after Italian anatomist Giuseppe Vincenzo Ciaccio (1824–1901), who described these glands in 1874. They are sometimes called "Wolfring's glands" after Polish ophthalmologist Emilj von Wolfring (1832-1906), who described them during the same time period as did Ciaccio.

Another type of accessory lacrimal gland are "Krause's glands", which are smaller, more numerous than "Ciaccio's glands" and are found along the superior and inferior fornices of the conjunctival sac.

References

Further reading
 Lacrimal Gland Histology
 Definition from MedicineWord.com

Human eye anatomy
Glands
Anatomy named for one who described it

Ciaccio's glands


Kylo Ren is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise. He first appeared as the main antagonist of Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015), in which he is portrayed by Adam Driver. Driver reprised his role in the sequel films Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017) and Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker (2019), with the character also appearing in Star Wars Resistance (2018–2020), The Lego Star Wars Holiday Special (2020) and Lego Star Wars: Terrifying Tales (2021).

Kylo Ren is the chosen name of Ben Solo, the son of original Star Wars trilogy characters Han Solo and Princess Leia Organa. Though initially trained as a Jedi by his uncle Luke Skywalker, Ben was seduced to the dark side of the Force by Supreme Leader Snoke, and aspires to be as powerful as his grandfather, the Sith Lord Darth Vader / Anakin Skywalker.  Throughout the sequel trilogy, Kylo Ren serves as the master of the Knights of Ren, a warlord of the First Order, and both an adversary of and romantic interest for Rey. After he kills Snoke and usurps his position as Supreme Leader, Ren discovers that he shares a connection with Rey called a 'Force dyad' and is eventually redeemed like his grandfather when he sacrifices himself to help Rey defeat the revived Emperor Palpatine.

In addition to appearing in the films and television series, Kylo Ren has also appeared in related media and merchandising. Driver's performance has received acclaim from critics and fans. For his performance in The Force Awakens, Driver won the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor, making him the first Star Wars actor since Alec Guinness to win the award. Driver received a second nomination in the same category for his performance in The Rise of Skywalker.

Concept and creation
Abrams requested that the character's mask be designed to be memorable to a child. As late as March 2014, the film's main antagonist was only known to the production team as "Jedi Killer", and had gone through numerous unapproved design attempts, one of which was reused for Captain Phasma. The same month, Glyn Dillon's design for the character's costume was finally approved. According to Abrams, "the design was meant to be a nod to the Vader mask," and concept designer Doug Chiang says that the character "takes on [the] persona of [Vader] to haunt Luke." According to The Force Awakens costume designer Michael Kaplan,

Driver's casting in the film in an unnamed role was first announced on April 29, 2014. Kylo Ren was first seen from behind, but still not named, in the 88-second The Force Awakens teaser trailer released by Lucasfilm on November 28, 2014, wielding a jagged red lightsaber with a crossguard. The name Kylo Ren, as well as the character's design, was revealed by Entertainment Weekly in a Lucasfilm-designed Topps-style trading card mock-up on December 11, 2014; a character named "Kybo Ren" was previously featured in the 1985 animated series Star Wars: Droids. A May 2015 Vanity Fair photo shoot by Annie Leibovitz confirmed that Driver would be portraying Kylo.

According to other cast members, Driver is a method actor, which meant that he sometimes stayed in character on set as Ren and left his mask on between scenes. Driver explained that his goal was "to forget you're in Star Wars and treat it like any other job that's filled with moments and problems," because from the perspective of the characters living within the film's universe, "Darth Vader is real."

Character
Abrams told Empire in August 2015, "Kylo Ren is not a Sith. He works under Supreme Leader Snoke, who is a powerful figure on the dark side of the Force." Abrams had previously stated that the character "came to the name Kylo Ren when he joined a group called the Knights of Ren." Robbie Collin of The Telegraph described Ren as "a hot-headed, radicalised dark side jihadi, whose red lightsaber splutters and crackles as violently as his temper". Abrams noted, "The lightsaber is something that he built himself, and is as dangerous and as fierce and as ragged as the character." The Telegraph also explains that Ren's wild and erratic temper and "angsty" instability make him dangerous. Melissa Leon of The Daily Beast describes Ren's use of the Force as "formidable", citing his ability to stop a blaster shot mid-air, immobilize victims and probe their minds against their will.

Kasdan told Entertainment Weekly in August 2015, "I've written four Star Wars movies now, and there's never been a character quite like the one that Adam plays. I think you're going to see something that's brand new to the saga," noting that the character is "full of emotion". Abrams explained, "I think that what makes Ren so unique is that he isn't as fully formed as when we meet a character such as Darth Vader ... He is not your prototypical mustache-twirling bad guy. He is a little bit more complex than that." Driver said in December 2015 that, despite the visual similarities to Darth Vader, Ren is "unlike any villain the franchise has seen". He explained:

Driver claimed that he was privy to several details of Kylo Ren's backstory during the making of the films. According to Lev Grossman, who interviewed the actor in the lead-up to The Rise of Skywalker, Driver reported that "both Han Solo and Leia were way too self-absorbed and into this idea of themselves as heroes to really be attentive parents in the way a young and tender Kylo Ren really needed." The backstory of how Ben Solo became Kylo Ren was elaborated upon in a prequel graphic novel titled The Rise of Kylo Ren (written by Charles Soule and illustrated by Will Sliney), which was published and released by Marvel Comics from December 18, 2019 to March 11, 2020.

Certain aspects of Kylo Ren's overall arc across the three films of the Sequel Trilogy were also known to Driver from the start of production on the first film. He claimed that he "had one piece of information of where it was all going...and things were building towards that." He later clarified:

When asked by IGN in December 2017 if he believed Kylo Ren was capable of redemption, The Last Jedi writer/director Rian Johnson replied, "Yeah... Are you kidding? Vader was worse than Kylo ever was, I think, and Vader got redeemed." Citing the complexity of the character, Johnson articulated, "I don't see the point of trying to get behind his mask and learn more about him if all we're going to learn is 'Yeah, he's just an evil bad guy that needs to be killed.'" The Rise of Skywalker co-writer Chris Terrio also supported this position through comparing Kylo with Darth Vader. According to Terrio, "Vader was complicit in genocide and cruelty and depravity. Yet there is this inherent optimism in Star Wars that the light in you is never truly gone. That you can still redeem yourself right up until the last minute – which, in Vader's case, was literally true... Leia never really gave up hope that Kylo could be redeemed, and she knew that Rey was probably the way that it would happen." Abrams further elaborated on this point:

The Rise of Skywalker revealed that Kylo Ren and Rey were two halves of a "dyad" in the Force, which Terrio alternatively described as "sort of soulmate[s] in the Force"  and "twins of fate, twins of destiny." Their relationship was also described as a romance by both J.J. Abrams and Rian Johnson, with Abrams explaining that, during the production of The Force Awakens, he perceived them having as much as a "brother-sister thing" as a "romantic thing" because of their spiritual connection in the Force, while Johnson explains the intimacy developed between the two characters in The Last Jedi because of their interactions during the Force connections. Johnson also explains about Kylo Ren's appeal for Rey to join him during The Last Jedi comparing it with the love confession in the film Notting Hill:

Appearances

The Force Awakens (2015)

Kylo Ren first appears in The Force Awakens as a warlord of the First Order, a tyrannical regime that has risen from the remains of the Galactic Empire. After arriving at Jakku to retrieve a map containing the coordinates where Luke Skywalker (Mark Hamill) is to be found, Ren kills an old priest named Lor San Tekka (Max von Sydow), and captures Resistance pilot Poe Dameron (Oscar Isaac), who has also been sent to recover the map by General Princess Leia Organa (Carrie Fisher). Ren soon learns that the pilot had entrusted his astromech droid, BB-8, with the map. Poe flees with the help of rogue stormtrooper Finn (John Boyega), who later finds BB-8, and the scavenger Rey (Daisy Ridley). Finn, Rey, and BB-8 escape Jakku in the Millennium Falcon, and are soon intercepted by the ship's former owner, Han Solo (Harrison Ford), and his co-pilot Chewbacca (Peter Mayhew).

It is revealed that Ren is the son of Han and Leia, originally named Ben, and was once one of Luke's Jedi pupils. He was corrupted to the dark side of the Force by the First Order's Supreme Leader Snoke (Andy Serkis), and helped destroy Luke's new Jedi Academy. However, Ren still feels the pull of the light side of the Force and seeks the strength to overcome it from his grandfather Darth Vader, whose burnt helmet is in Ren's possession. Arriving at Maz Kanata's (Lupita Nyong'o) castle on Takodana, Ren captures Rey, who he senses has seen the map. While interrogating her, he realizes that she is strong with the Force, though unaware of it. Rey finds herself able to resist his powers and experience Ren's emotions, and confronts him over his fear that he will never be as powerful as his grandfather. She later uses the "Jedi mind trick" to compel her stormtrooper guard to let her escape. Han arrives at the First Order's planet-converted superweapon, Starkiller Base, as part of the Resistance's plan to destroy it.

After Han plants explosives to destroy the base, he confronts Ren calling him by his real name, Ben and implores him to abandon the dark side, warning him that Snoke will kill him once he has control of the galaxy. Ren tells Han he feels conflicted, and asks his father for help, which Han promises to give; Ren ignites his lightsaber, impaling and killing Han. An angry Chewbacca fires at Ren, wounding him. As Finn and Rey leave the damaged base, Ren pursues and confronts them. Finn fights Ren with Luke Skywalker's lightsaber, but Ren overpowers and severely wounds him. Rey then takes up the lightsaber and, using the Force, begins to overcome Ren, striking him on the face with the lightsaber. Before the duel is finished, they are separated by a seismic fissure created by the collapsing base. Rey and the others escape as Snoke orders General Hux (Domnhall Gleeson) to evacuate the base and bring Ren to him to complete his training.

The Last Jedi (2017)

Ren's inner conflict continues into The Last Jedi, particularly through his conversations with Rey, with whom he connects through the Force. Rey learns from Luke why Ben Solo turned to the dark side: Luke had seen a vision of the destruction Ben would cause and was briefly tempted to kill him in his sleep; when Ben awoke to see Luke with his lightsaber drawn, he turned on his uncle and apparently destroyed the Jedi Temple. Rey believes that there is still good in Ren, and resolves to bring him back to the light side.

Meanwhile, Ren is reproached by Snoke for his failure to defeat Rey, and Ren tries to prove himself by leading an attack on a lead Resistance starship. He hesitates to destroy it after sensing his mother's presence, but his wingmen destroy the ship's bridge, almost killing Leia. Upon Rey's arrival, Ren captures her and brings her to Snoke, who tortures her for Luke's location before ordering Ren to kill her. Instead of complying, Ren uses the Force to ignite Luke's lightsaber at Snoke's side and cut him in half, and subsequently slays Snoke's royal guard with Rey's assistance. After the guards are slain, Ren reveals to Rey his goal to create a new order in the galaxy, separate from the legacies created by Snoke and Luke, and beseeches Rey to join him. He gets her to acknowledge that her parents abandoned her, and tells her that despite her being a nobody that comes from nowhere, he truly cares about her. Rey hesitates and then refuses to join him, realizing that Ren will not turn back to the light side; the two briefly struggle over Luke's lightsaber with the Force, resulting in the weapon breaking in half and knocking both warriors unconscious.

After Rey escapes, Ren frames her for Snoke's assassination, uses the Force to choke Hux until he acknowledges Ren as the new Supreme Leader of the First Order, and orders his forces to attack the Resistance base on Crait. When Luke appears during the attack, Ren orders his men to fire on him, to no effect; Luke remains standing, revealing that he is only present as a Force projection, serving as a distraction to allow the Resistance to escape from the First Order. After Luke vanishes, the First Order storms the base, but the Resistance has already evacuated. Ren shares a final look with Rey through the Force before Rey slams the door to the Millennium Falcon and escapes with the Resistance.

The Rise of Skywalker (2019)

In The Rise of Skywalker, Ren has been ruling as the Supreme Leader of the First Order for a year. In the film's beginning, Ren searches for a Sith wayfinder on the planet Mustafar with an army of stormtroopers to lead him to the Sith planet Exegol, with the hopes of killing the resurrected Emperor Palpatine (Ian McDiarmid) as a show of his power. When Ren finds the wayfinder and arrives on Exegol, Palpatine reveals that he has been manipulating Ren and the First Order, having created Snoke as a means of turning Ren to the dark side. Palpatine unveils the Final Order, a massive armada of Xyston-class Star Destroyers built by the Sith Eternal. Palpatine offers the armada to Ren in a bid to form a new Sith Empire with Ren as Emperor on the condition that he kill Rey.

Ren searches the galaxy for Rey and continues corresponding with her through the Force to discern her location. Rey has been searching for a second wayfinder; Ren tries to stop her from finding it. Eventually, Ren informs Rey that she is Palpatine's granddaughter, and furthermore, they are a dyad in the Force with extremely powerful potential when joined together. He urges her once more to take his hand and to overthrow Palpatine together. Rey refuses, but Ren is unwilling to kill her and follows her to Kef Bir, the location of the second wayfinder. Meeting her on the wreckage of the second Death Star, Ren destroys the second wayfinder and duels her. The duel ends with Rey impaling Ren, who had been distracted by his dying mother, Leia, reaching out to him through the Force. A guilt-ridden Rey (also sensing Leia's death) uses the Force to heal Ren and leaves aboard his ship, after telling him that she wanted to take Ben Solo's hand, but not Kylo Ren's. Alone on the wreckage, Ren converses with a memory of his father, Han Solo; he tosses away his lightsaber, renouncing his role as Supreme Leader and reclaiming his old identity of Ben Solo.

Ben rushes to help Rey defeat Palpatine on Exegol. Rey senses his presence and uses their Force connection to give him Luke's lightsaber, which Ben uses to defeat the Knights of Ren. Palpatine then senses Rey and Ben's connection as a dyad in the Force, and absorbs their energy to restore his full power, before casting Ben into an abyss. However, Rey manages to defeat and kill Palpatine before dying from the effort. Ben climbs out of the abyss and finds Rey's inert body. Ben transfers his life essence into her, successfully resuscitating her but sacrificing his own life in the process. They both share a kiss before Ben dies in Rey's arms. His body fades away simultaneously as his mother's body becomes one with the Force at the Resistance base.

The Lego Star Wars Holiday Special (2020)

In The Lego Star Wars Holiday Special, Rey begins to train Finn as a Jedi while mourning Ben's demise. On the Life Day after his demise, Rey uses a blue-green crystal key from the Jedi Temple on Kordoku to open a portal to the World Between Worlds, a dimension that exists outside of time and space, and travel through time to witness the training methods of Jedi Masters past on the Life Days of different years. After being followed through time by Darth Vader (from shortly before his death during the events of Return of the Jedi), Rey loses the key to him, who delivers it to his time's Palpatine. Intruigued by the concept of knowing his future, Palpatine travels thirty years into his future with Vader to the Life Day between the events of The Last Jedi and The Rise of Skywalker, meeting Supreme Leader Kylo Ren on his ship. Attributing the duo's presence to a "Life Day miracle", Ren eagerly introduces himself to Vader as his grandson, before informing Palpatine of his apparent death at Vader's hand and his own rise as Supreme Leader of the First Order. Unaware of his own subsequent resurrection, Palpatine decides to recruit Ren as his new apprentice, bringing him to his throne room onboard the second Death Star in the past with the intent of having him kill Vader and his time's Luke Skywalker after sending the former to retrieve the latter.

Upon travelling through time to Palpatine's throne room alongside BB-8 and a pre-A New Hope-era Luke in order to retrieve the key, Rey is shocked by Ren's presence, who immediately engages her in a lightsaber duel upon recognising the younger Luke. After being distracted by the arrival of Vader and his time's Luke, Rey throws him into Vader, before enlisting Luke's help to fight the pair; as Ren fights Luke, expressing his hatred for him, Luke expresses puzzlement as to who Ren is. Avoiding Palpatine's Force lightning, Rey is intercepted by Ren; to Rey's and Palpatine's surprise, Ren deactivates his lightsaber and invites her again to rule the galaxy alongside him, as BB-8 steals back the key from Palpatine. A saddened Rey looks at Ren, and addressing him as Ben, uses the key to send him back to his ship in his time, where Ren destroys his room in anger.

Comics

Age of Resistance (2019)
Kylo Ren appears in the Marvel Comics miniseries Age of Resistance, part of the Age of Star Wars maxi-series composed of one-shot issues focusing on various characters from each trilogy in the Skywalker saga. All of his appearances are set prior to The Force Awakens. In his own self-titled issue, Kylo Ren #1, Ren leads a First Order battalion to victory, succeeding in conquering a planet that Darth Vader had failed to bring under the Empire's control in the past.

In Finn #1, Finn briefly encounters Kylo Ren during the former's time as a sanitation worker on Starkiller Base. In General Hux #1, Ren and General Hux are stranded together on a hostile planet and are forced to put their mutual enmity aside in order to survive. Supreme Leader Snoke #1 showcases Ren's training under Snoke, who subjects Ren to various physical and mental torments in order to foster his anger and strength in the dark side of the Force. Snoke takes Ren to Dagobah, where his uncle Luke Skywalker was trained by Yoda decades before. Entering the cave where Luke once faced a spectral image of Darth Vader, Ren is confronted by similar visions of Luke, Han and Leia. While Ren vanquishes the vision of Luke, he finds himself unable to fully banish the image of his parents, who plead with him to return to the light.

The Rise of Kylo Ren (2019–2020)

Marvel Comics' The Rise of Kylo Ren depicts how Ben Solo fell to the dark side. As a child, he is trained as a Jedi by Luke Skywalker alongside fellow students Voe, Hennix, and Tai. Voe grows jealous of Ben for his superior Force capability and Luke's perceived favoritism. On a mission to the planet Elphrona to investigate an ancient Jedi outpost with Luke and Lor San Tekka, Ben telepathically communicates with Snoke. Upon arriving on the planet, the trio encounters a group of Force-wielding mercenaries known as the Knights of Ren (after their leader). After Ren agrees to retreat, he unmasks and, placing his mask on the ground, offers Ben an open invitation to the group's ranks if he ever desires in the future.

Several years later, Luke apparently tries to kill Ben in his sleep. Ben fights back and is terrified when a bolt of lightning strikes the Jedi Temple, destroying it. Later that night, Voe, Hennix, Tai return from off-planet to find Ben before the burning Temple. Ben confesses his belief that he has killed Luke, and states that he intends to leave the planet. Believing Ben to be responsible for the Temple's destruction, Voe attacks Ben, leading to Hennix being injured in the melee. Ben leaves the planet on a nearby shuttle, with the trio in close pursuit. Ben goes to meet Snoke, who is scarred from a previous encounter with Luke. Snoke encourages Ben to seek out the Knights of Ren. Traveling to the outpost on Elphrona, Ben retrieves Ren's mask and puts it on, putting the pair in communication. After mentioning Snoke, Ren invites Ben to meet the Knights on Vanrak. Before he can leave, he is confronted by his fellow Padawans.

Ben defends himself from Voe's attacks, and uses the Force to catch her after she falls off of a building. Hennix, believing Ben to have killed her, throws his lightsaber at Ben; in deflecting it, Hennix is bisected. Leaving, Ben collapses the bedrock around Voe and Tai and leaves the planet. Later, Ben meets with Ren and his Knights, who informs him that he will need to provide a "good death" for membership. Providing him with a black outfit, the group proceeds to the mine moon of Mimban, where Ben assists the Knights in stealing an artifact. The Knights subsequently execute a group of locals, horrifying Ben. Suddenly, Voe and Tai arrive, having followed Ben through the Force. Voe attacks the Knights of Ren, while Tai reasons with Ben over his decision to leave. Witnessing this, Ren snaps Tai's neck, killing him, and telling Ben that Snoke was wrong about him. Enraged, Ben duels Ren. Meanwhile, Rey senses Ben from across the galaxy without knowing why; Leia senses Ben's fall, and Palpatine manipulates events from afar, having apparently destroyed the Jedi Temple as well. Then, Ben impales Ren, providing him the "good death" he asked for.

Ben proceeds to kill Voe with Ren's lightsaber, then turns to find the Knights of Ren kneeling before him. Later, Ben bleeds his blue Kyber crystal, cracking it in the process, and forges himself a crossguard lightsaber as the voice of Snoke asks him what his new name is.

Other works
Kylo Ren is a point of view character in the 2015, 2017, and 2019 novelizations of the Star Wars sequel trilogy by Alan Dean Foster, Jason Fry, and Rae Carson.

Kylo is a playable character in the 2015 The Force Awakens add-on to the Disney Infinity 3.0 video game, with an Infinity character figurine available separately. He is also a character in the strategy video game Star Wars: Force Arena.

Hasbro has released a  Kylo Ren action figure, and a  figure in their Black Series line. He is also featured in the Lego Star Wars playsets Kylo Ren's Command Shuttle (2015) and Battle on Takodana (2016), as well as a Lego Buildable Figure. The Lego version of Kylo also appears in the 2016 short form animated series Lego Star Wars: The Resistance Rises, and as a playable character in Lego Star Wars: The Force Awakens.

In January 2016, Driver reprised the role for a Star Wars/Undercover Boss sketch on Saturday Night Live, with Kylo Ren disguising himself as a radar technician named "Matt" to determine what the Starkiller Base employees really think of him. Driver again reprised the role in January 2020 for a follow-up Saturday Night Live sketch titled "Undercover Boss: Where Are They Now?" in which Kylo goes undercover as "Randy," an entry-level intern on a star destroyer.

In the 2017 Chuck Wendig novel Star Wars: Aftermath: Empire's End, Ben Solo is stated as having been born on the planet Chandrila on the same day as a peace treaty is signed between the remnants of the Empire and the New Galactic Republic (about a year after Return of the Jedi, or 29 years before The Force Awakens). Kylo Ren is also mentioned in the 2017 novel Star Wars: Phasma, which takes place before The Force Awakens.

Kylo appears in Star Wars Battlefront II, voiced by Matthew Wood and Roger Craig Smith, masked and unmasked respectively. In the game, Kylo interrogates Del Meeko about Lor San Tekka's location (who possess the map to Luke Skywalker) using his Force abilities. When Del finally relents and reveals the map and Lor San Tekka's location, Kylo leaves him for Hask, Del's former comrade in Inferno Squad.

Kylo Ren (voiced once again by Matthew Wood) also appears in the Star Wars: Resistance series finale episode "The Escape", where he kills Agent Tierny for failing to destroy the Colossus Resistance. Kylo Ren is also one of the numerous voices heard in the fourth and final season of Star Wars: Rebels in the episode "A World Between Worlds", with an excerpt of Driver's dialogue from The Force Awakens being used.

Kylo Ren appears as a walk-around character within Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge at Disneyland and Disney's Hollywood Studios. The character appears during Star Tours – The Adventures Continue and Star Wars: Rise of the Resistance, with the latter featuring the character in audio-animatronic form with Driver providing the voice.

On November 28, 2019, Ichikawa Ebizō XI starred as Kairennosuke in , a kabuki production that re-enacted key events of Kylo Ren in The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi.

Reception

The character and Driver's portrayal have received critical acclaim; Driver won the 2016 Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal. In January 2018, Kylo was voted seventh greatest movie villain of all time by the readers of Empire.
Many reviewers commended Ren's conflicted nature and depth, as well as his costume design, and noted there were many places the character could be taken in future installments. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised the character and the actor alike, saying, "He is gorgeously cruel, spiteful and capricious – and unlike the Vader of old, he is given to petulant temper tantrums, with his lightsaber drawn." Terri Schwartz of IGN also called Driver's performance "spectacular", noting that "his performance adds great depth to a character who could have come off as one-dimensional, and the implications of his arc leave a viewer with plenty to think about after they leave the theater." Collin wrote, "To describe Kylo Ren as this film's Vader would be accurate in a sense ... But it would also be to undersell the deep ingenuity with which this astonishing character has been crafted by Abrams, Kasdan and Arndt, and also the wells of emotional tumult Driver invests in him." Comparing the character to the one-note Vader of the 1977 film, Melissa Leon calls Ren "a living battleground between darkness and light, making him a far more resonant and familiar portrayal of that struggle than we've ever seen in Star Wars ... [which] makes him a far more interesting villain." Abrams told Entertainment Weekly, "it was a great joy to work with Adam Driver on this role, because he threw himself into it in a deep and remarkable way." Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter noted, "Ren is given a pronounced inferiority complex, a clever bad guy twist that could be taken to interesting places both in the writing and performance." Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote, "The bald-faced attempt to clone Vader, one of the greatest badasses in film history, is clankingly obvious, but Driver, masked and unmasked, gives him hypnotic and haunting contours." Kyle Buchanan of Vulture.com was underwhelmed by the reveal of Driver under the mask. Leon, however, argued:

Some viewers noted that Ren's character arc shares similarities with that of the Star Wars Expanded Universe character Jacen Solo, the son of Han Solo and Princess Leia who threatens the galaxy as a fallen Jedi. Additionally, critics have noted a resemblance between Ren's character design and that of Revan, the protagonist of Knights of the Old Republic.

Relationships

Family tree

Mentorship tree

References
Footnotes

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links

 Kylo Ren on IMDb

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Kylo Ren


Puyo Puyo is the puzzle tile-matching video game series created by Compile. Seven year later, Sega was owned the Puyo Puyo franchises, with games being developed by Sonic Team. Puyo Puyo series was created as an spin-off series from Madō Monogatari (Sorcery Saga), the series of first-person dungeon crawler role-playing games published by Compile, where the Puyo Puyo characters originated.

History

Compile games

The first Puyo Puyo games was developed by Compile in 1991 for MSX2 and Family Computer Disk System, the latter release by Takuma Shoten as a pack-in for their Famimaga magazine. The game features the 1990 role-playing video game Madō Monogatari 1-2-3, it also developed by Compile. Including "Endless" mode where the player attempts to amass huge score, "Mission" mode, where the player is given a pre-configured board to satisfy conditions, and two-player competitive mode.

Later, Compile and Sega was colaborated to created an arcade version of Puyo Puyo. It was released in October 1992 for Sega's System C2 hardware. The game was ported to Sega Mega Drive, and becoming a best-selling video game.

The game followed by its sequel Puyo Puyo 2 in September 1994, also released in Sega's System C2 hardware. Puyo Puyo 2 adds the ability to counter the opponent's chain, additionally, it changes the single-player gauntlet from a linear structure to a roulette -based that requires player to pass sertain score thresholds to advance . Like the original game, Puyo Puyo 2 has released on many platfoms. Except PlayStation 2, for the compilations of Sega Ages 3500 line.

The final game was developed by Compile, Puyo Puyo DA! a dancing game released in 1997 for PlayStation.

List of games

Main series
 Puyo Puyo (1991)
 Nazo Puyo (1993)
 Nazo Puyo 2 (1993)
 Nazo Puyo: Arle no Roux (1994)
 Puyo Puyo 2 (1994)
 Super Nazo Puyo: Rulue no Roux (1995)
 Super Nazo Puyo 2: Nazo no Tetsuwan Hanjouki (1996)
 Puyo Puyo Sun (1996)
 Waku Waku Puyo Puyo Dungeon (1998)
 Puyo Puyo Gaiden: Puyo Wars (1998)
 Puyo Puyo ~n (1999)
 Puyo Puyo DA! (1999)
 Arie no Bouken: Mahō no Jewel (2000)
 Puyo Puyo BOX (2000)
 Puyo Pop (2001)
 Puyo Pop Fever (2003)
 Puyo Puyo DX (2004)
 Puyo Puyo Fever 2 (2005)
 Puyo Puyo 15th Anniversary (2006)
  Puyo Puyo 7 (2009)
  Puyo Puyo 20th Anniversary (2011)
 Puyopuyo!! Quest (2013)
 Puyopuyo!! Quest Arcade (2014)
 Puyo Puyo Tetris (2014)
 Puiyo Puyo Chronicle (2016)
 Puyo Puyo Champions (2018)
 Puyo Puyo Tetris 2 (2020)

Reskinned versions
 Dr. Robotnik's Mean Bean Machine (1993)
 Kirby's Avalanche (1995)

Other websites
 Official series websites
 Puyo Puyo series at MobyGames

Video game series

Puyo Puyo