The Mining industry of Ghana accounts for 5%  of the country's GDP and minerals make up 37% of total exports. Gold contributes over 90% of the total mineral exports. Thus, the main focus of Ghana's mining and minerals development industry remains focused on gold. Ghana is Africa's largest gold producer, producing 80.5 t in 2008. Ghana is also a major producer of bauxite, manganese and diamonds. Ghana has 20 large-scale mining companies producing gold, diamonds, bauxite and manganese; over 300 registered small scale mining groups; and 90 mine support service companies.Other mineral commodities produced in the country are natural gas, petroleum, salt, and silver.

Artisanal and small-scale mining accounted for 43% of Ghana's total gold production in 2018, ensuing in high revenue rates and foreign exchange for government. Despite the fact that this natural resource is a gift to the nation, the way it is being used renders it offensive. Despite the government of Ghana's numerous rules and laws intended to stop small-scale mining operations, the industry thrives. In order to control small-scale mining operations and advance sustainable development, laws such as the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, the Community Mining Program, and the Minerals and Mining Act, 2006 (Act 703) have been put in place. Miners continue to operate with impunity, producing extensive environmental degradation, disputes amongst communities, and problems with security officials, among other negative effects, despite the years-long efforts of several governments.

Economic impact
Export earnings from minerals averaged 35%, and the sector is one of the largest contributors to Government revenues through the payment of mineral royalties, employee income taxes, and corporate taxes. In 2005, gold production accounted for about 95% of total mining export proceeds.

The extractive mining industry of Ghana is expected to generate an annual revenue of GH₵75.7 billion (US$35 billion) in 2014 and other than industrial minerals and exports from South Ghana such as diamonds, bauxite, and manganese, Ashanti Region also has deposits of barites; basalts; clays; dolomites; feldspars; granites; gravels; gypsums; iron ores; kaolins; laterites; limestones; magnesites; marbles; micas; phosphates; phosphorus; rocks; salts; sands; sandstones; slates; and talcs that are yet to be fully exploited and the Parliament of Ghana has no plans to nationalize Ghana's entire mining industry.

Government policies and programs
Relevant institutions include:
 Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources – overall responsibility for the mining industry
 Minerals Commission – recommends mineral policy; the first contact for prospective investors
 Geological Survey Department – geological studies including map production and maintenance of geological record
 Mines Department – health and safety inspections and maintenance of mining records
 Lands Commission – legal records of licences and legal examination of new applications
 Chamber of Mines – association of representatives of mining companies
 Environmental Protection Agency – overall responsibility for environmental issues related to mining

The Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources(Ghana) oversees all aspects of Ghana's mineral sector and is responsible for granting mining and exploration licenses. Within the Ministry, the Minerals Commission has responsibility for administering the Mining Act, recommending mineral policy, promoting mineral development, advising the government on mineral matters, and serving as a liaison between industry and the government. The Ghana Geological Survey Department conducts geologic studies. The Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) is the government entity responsible for petroleum exploration and production. The Precious Minerals Marketing Corporation (PMMC) is the government entity responsible for promoting the development of small-scale gold and diamond mining in Ghana and for purchasing the output of such mining, either directly or through licensed buyers. The Mines Department has authority in mine safety matters. All mine accidents and other safety problems also must be reported to the Ghana Chamber of Mines, which is the private association of operating mining companies. The Chamber also provides information on Ghana's mining laws to the public negotiates with the mine labor unions on behalf of its member companies.

The overall legislative framework for the mining sector in Ghana is provided by the Minerals and Mining Act of 2006 (Act 703). Under the Law, mining companies must pay royalties; companies may also pay corporate taxes at standard rates.

Other legislation that affects mining and mineral exploration in Ghana includes the Minerals Commission Law of 1986 (PNDC Law 154); the Small-Scale Gold Mining Law of 1989; the Investment Promotion Act, 1994 (Act 478); the Additional Profits Tax Law, 1985 (PNDC Law 122); the Minerals (Royalties) Regulations, 1987 (LI 1349); the Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1994 (Act 490); and the Environmental Assessment Regulations, 1999, and as amended, 2002. The Petroleum (Exploration and Production) Law, 1984 (PNDC Law 84), sets out the policy framework and describes the role of the Ministry of Mines and Energy, which regulates the industry. The Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC), which is empowered to undertake petroleum exploration and production on behalf of the government, is authorized to enter joint ventures and production-sharing agreements with commercial organizations; GNPC was established under the GNPC Law of 1983 (PNDC Law 64). The regulation of artisanal gold mining is set forth in the Small-Scale Gold Mining Law, 1989 (PNDC Law 218). The Precious Minerals Marketing Corporation Law, 1989 (PNDC Law 219), set up the Precious Minerals Marketing Corporation (PMMC) to promote the development of small-scale gold and diamond mining in Ghana and to purchase the output of such mining, either directly or through licensed buyers.

Updated Mining Policies in Ghana

The Minerals and Mining Act, 2006 (Act 703) (Government of Ghana, 2006): This is a comprehensive policy directive aimed at the regulation of minerals in Ghana, including small-scale mining operations. It outlines the procedures for granting mineral rights, requirements for environmental protection, and guidelines for health and safety.

Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations (Government of Ghana, 1994): In accordance with the Environmental Protection Agency Act 1994 (Act 490), Ghana has implemented regulations requiring all small-scale miners to undertake environmental impact assessments before beginning any mining activity. This is aimed at mitigating negative impacts on ecosystems and human health caused by unregulated or poorly managed mining practices.

The Environmental Assessment Regulations, (LI 1652) (Government of Ghana, 1999) which is a policy shaped to prohibit a person from commencing activities (such as mineral extraction) which have possible adverse environmental and public health impacts without first registering with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and obtaining an environmental permit from the Agency in respect to the undertaking.

Reclamation Bonds: Under Section 47 of the Minerals and Mining Act (Act 703), Small-Scale Miners are required to provide reclamation bonds as a guarantee against possible damage resulting from their activities. This bond ensures that post-closure site rehabilitation can be carried out effectively.

Minerals and Mining Policy 2016 (Government of Ghana, 2016) the Minerals and Mining Policy 2016 emphasizes the need for effective enforcement of laws and regulations governing small-scale mining operations while promoting responsible mining practices. It seeks to formalize informal artisanal miners into legal registered groups whilst simultaneously providing them with technical assistance, equipment supports among others.

Industry structure
While the bulk of Ghana's mining industry is in legally sanctioned mining by large enterprises, small-scale miners - many operating illegally - extract a large percentage of Ghana's resources.

In the gold sector, Gold Fields Limited of South Africa held a 71.1% interest in the Tarkwa and the Damang gold mines in a joint venture with Toronto-based IAMGOLD Corp. (18.9%), and the Government of Ghana (10%) (U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, 2005, p. 41). AngloGold Ashanti Ltd. of South Africa operated the Bibiani and the Iduapriem open pit gold mines and the Obuasi underground gold mine. The Bibiani and the Obuasi mines were 100% owned by AngloGold Ashanti and the Iduapriem mine was 80% owned by AngloGold Ashanti and 20% by the International Finance Corporation (AngloGold Ashanti Ltd., 2006a-c). Golden Star Resources Ltd. held a 90% interest in the Bogoso/Prestea and the Wassa open pit mines and a 90% interest in the idled Prestea underground mine. Newmont Mining Corporation of the United States held a 100% interest in the Ahafo gold property and an 85% interest in the Akyem gold property. Companies exploring for gold in Ghana included Adamus Resources Ltd., African Gold plc, Asante Gold Corporation, Moydow Mines International Inc., Pelangio Mines Inc., Perseus Mining Limited, and Xtra Gold Resources

In the bauxite and alumina sector, Alcoa Inc. of the United States held a 10% interest in Volta Aluminum Company Ltd. (Valco); the remaining equity was owned by the Government. Alcan Aluminum Ltd. of Canada held an 80% interest in Ghana Bauxite Company Ltd.; the Government held the remaining 20% interest.

Commodities

Aluminum, bauxite, and alumina
In January 2005, Alcoa signed a memorandum of understanding with the government to develop an integrated aluminum industry in Ghana that would include bauxite mining, alumina refining, aluminum production, and rail transportation infrastructure upgrades. The MOU called for the restart of three of the five existing potlines at the idled Valco smelter, which would produce about 120,000 metric tonnes per year (t/yr) of aluminum; the designed capacity of the plant is 200,000 t/yr. The government and Alcoa planned to restart the Valco smelter as soon as an interim power rate agreement is reached with the Volta River Authority. The government (90%) was to be the managing owner of the smelter and Alcoa (10%), through its subsidiary, Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals [a joint venture between Alcoa Inc. (60%) and Alcoa Limited of Australia (40%)] was to supply alumina and serve as the distributor of export sales of aluminum. The government had acquired Kaiser Aluminum Corp.'s 90% interest in Valco in 2004. Kaiser closed the Valco plant in 2003 after struggling with fluctuating operating levels for several years and dealing with restricted power allocations from the Volta River Authority.

Canada-based Alcan Inc. and the United States' Alcoa Inc. were the two companies that mined bauxite and alumina. During 2006, Alcoa continued to study the possibility of developing an integrated aluminum industry in Ghana that would include bauxite mining, alumina refining, aluminum production, and rail transportation infrastructure upgrades. Alcan, on the other hand, signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the government for the creation of a joint venture to explore the feasibility of developing a bauxite mine and a 1.5–2.0 million metric tonnes per year (Mt/yr) alumina refinery in Ghana.

Gold
While the bulk of Ghana's gold mining is in legally sanctioned mining by large enterprises, 35% of Ghana's gold is extracted by small-scale miners, most operating illegally.

More than 21% of gold production in the early 1990s came from underground mines in western and Ashanti Region, with the remainder coming from river beds in Ashanti Region and Central Region. During the early 1990s, AGC (Ghana's largest gold producer) saw its overall share of the domestic gold market decline from 80% to 60% as other operators entered the industry.

In 1992 Ghana's gold production surpassed 1 million fine ounces, up from 327,000 fine ounces in 1987. In March 1994, the Ghanaian government announced that it would sell half of its 55% stake in AGC for an estimated US$250 million, which would then be spent on development projects. The authorities also plan to use some of the capital from the stock sale to promote local business and to boost national reserves. The minister of mines and energy dispelled fears that the stock sale would result in foreign ownership of the country's gold mines by saying that the government would have final say in all major stock acquisitions.

In the gold sector, Red Back Mining Inc. of Canada, [through its subsidiary Chirano Gold Mines Ltd. (CGML)] operated the Chirano gold mine; AngloGold Ashanti Ltd. of South Africa operated the Bibiani, the Iduapriem, and the Obuasi gold mines; Golden Star Resources Ltd. of Canada operated the Bogoso/Prestea, the Prestea Underground, and the Wassa gold mines; Gold Fields Ltd. of South Africa operated the Damang gold mine; and Denver-based Newmont Mining Corp. held interest in the Ahafo and the Akyem gold properties.

In October 2005, Red Back Mining. of Canada [through its subsidiary Chirano Gold Mines Limited (CGML)] commissioned a new mine in Ghana. The mine, known as the Chirano gold mine, was an open pit operation located about 21 kilometers (km) to the south of AngloGold Ashanti's Bibiani gold mine in western Ghana. The Chirano gold mine produced 941 kilograms (kg) (reported as 30,247 troy ounces) in 2005 and was 100% owned by Red Back; the government had the option to exercise its right to back into a 10% ownership in CGML. Chirano was scheduled to produce an average of about 3,800 kg (reported as 123,000 troy ounces) per year during a period of 8½ years. The designed capacity of the processing plant was 2.1 million metric tons per year (Mt/yr). A revised resource and reserve estimate for the Chirano Mine was underway in 2005. The economic potential of the Akwaaba deposit, a high-grade deposit within the Chirano mining concession, was being evaluated in 2005, and a resource estimate of the deposit was scheduled for completion in October 2006.

In 2005 gold production at the Bibiani Mine came from the processing of ore from the mine's remaining pits, stockpiled ore, and tailings. Satellite pits were depleted in December 2005, and AngloGold Ashanti expected stockpiled ore to be depleted by January 2006. Beginning in February, the mill was to process only old tailings. The Bibiani Mine, which had operated between 1903 and 1968 as an underground mine, was reopened in 1998 as an open pit mine with a carbon-in-leach (CIL) plant. The mine included old tailings dumps, which were reclaimed in December 2004. These tailings were expected to yield about 3.9 million metric tons (Mt) of ore at an estimated recovery grade of 0.60 gram per metric ton (g/t) gold during a period of 18 months. The company was studying the viability of restarting production from its main pit to a depth of about 60 meters below the current pit floor. Underground exploration was suspended in July 2005 and the underground mine continued to be on care-and-maintenance status. Gold production was expected to decrease to 1 1,700 kg in 2006 from 3,580 kg (reported as 11 115,000 troy ounces) in 2005.

Gold production at the Iduapriem open pit mine increased to 6,380 kg in 2005 (reported as 205,000 troy ounces) from 4,570 kg in 2004 owing to an increase in throughput at the processing plant. AngloGold Ashanti held an 80% interest in the Iduapriem Mine; the remaining 20% was held by the International Finance Corporation. The company also held a 90% interest in the Teberebie Mine, which is adjacent to the Iduapriem Mine; the government held the remaining 10% interest.

In 2005, gold production at the Obuasi underground mine was hindered by a breakdown at the main processing plant during the first quarter of 2005 and the failure of a primary crusher during the third quarter; production, however, increased to 12,200 kg (reported as 391,000 troy ounces) from 7,930 kg in 2004 mostly owing to the start of mining from the Kubi surface oxide deposit. In terms of growth prospects, the company planned to develop the deep-level ore deposits at Obuasi known as the Obuasi Deeps, which were expected to extend the project's mine life to 2040. The development of Obuasi Deeps will require an initial investment of $44 million during the next 4 years to conduct further exploration and feasibility studies. The total capital expenditure for the development of the Obuasi Deeps was estimated to be about $570 million. AngloGold Ashanti held a 100% interest in the Obuasi Mine.

The Wassa open pit gold mine produced 2,149 kg of gold in 2005. The mine, which is located about 150 km west of Accra, was owned by Golden Star (90%) and the government (10%). The mine had been in operation as an open pit heap-leach mine in the 1990s but was closed in 2001. Golden Star acquired the mine in 2002 after determining that conventional CIL processing was economically feasible. Plant feed in 2005 was a mixture of newly mined ore from the Wassa pit blended with material from the heap-leach pads left by the previous operation. Golden Star's planned to increase production at Wassa to about 3,700 kg (reported as 120,000 troy ounces) in 2006 and to produce about 4,000 kg (reported as 130,000 troy ounces) in 2007 as higher-grade ores are reached at deeper levels. As of December 31, 2005, total probable mineral reserves at Wassa were reported to be 21.9 Mt at a grade of 1.34 g/t gold.

In addition to the Wassa Mine, Golden Star operated the Bogoso/Prestea open pit mine, which is located about 300 km west of Accra. Bogoso/Prestea produced 4,103 kg of gold in 2005. Golden Star held a 90% interest in the property, and the government of Ghana held the remaining 10%. About 75% of the remaining ore reserve at Bogoso/Prestea is sulfide. Because this type of ore cannot be processed using the company's existing CIL plant, the company decided in June 2005 to build a new 3.5-Mt/yr processing plant which will use biooxidation to treat the remaining sulfide ore. The new processing plant was scheduled to be completed in late 2006.

The Prestea Underground gold mine, which is also 90% owned by Golden Star, remained idle during the year. Prestea Underground was closed in early 2002 owing to low gold prices. During 2005, a total of 8,096 meters of underground exploration drilling was completed at the mine; drilling was to continue in 2006. Golden Star planned to complete a prefeasibility study by the end of 2006 to evaluate the economic potential of restarting production at Prestea Underground. As of December 31, 2005, inferred mineral resources at the mine were estimated to be 6.1 Mt at an average grade of 8.1 g/t.

In 2005, N Newmont announced the company was advancing the Ahafo and the Akyem gold properties to production. The Ahafo property, which is located about 300 km northwest of Accra between the towns of Kenyase and Ntotoroso, was expected to begin production during the second half of 2006. Production of gold was expected to be about 17,100 kilograms per year (kg/yr) (reported as 550,000 troy ounces), with a mine life estimated to be more than 20 years. The company was awaiting the issuance of a mining license for the development of the Akyem property, which is located in Ghana's eastern region, about 130 km northwest of Accra between the towns of New Abirem and Ntronang. Newmont expected to begin production at Akyem in 2008 and to produce about 15,500 kg/yr of gold (reported as 500,000 troy ounces).

About 19.6 Mt of ore was processed at Tarkwa in 2005 from which 21,051 kg of gold was produced (Gold Fields Limited, 2006§). In November 2005, a new semiautogenous grinding (SAG) mill and CIL plant were commissioned at the Tarkwa Mine. The Tarkwa Mine, which is located in southwestern Ghana about 300 km west of Accra, consists of several open pit operations, one CIL plant, and two heap-leach facilities. Some underground mining had been conducted in the past, but underground operations ended in 1999. As of June 30, 2005, proven and probable reserves at Tarkwa were estimated to be about 417,000 kg of gold (reported as 13.4 million troy ounces) and to last until 2025 at current production rates.

The Damang Mine, which is located in the Wassa West District in southwestern Ghana about 360 km west of Accra and 30 km northeast of Tarkwa Mine, consists of an open pit operation, a SAG mill, and a CIL plant. The mine processed about 5.2 Mt of ore in 2005 and produced about 7,700 kg of gold. Owing to the depletion of the high-grade ore in the main Damang pit, an exploration program to seek for alternative ore sources was launched during the year. The exploration program resulted in the establishment of the Amoanda, the Rex, and the Tomento pits, and the extension of an old pit at Kwesie-Lima. Gold Fields and its partners reported that production from the new pits was to be processed along with stockpiles of lower grade ore. Mining of the Tomento pit began in July 2005 and mining of the Amoanda pit began during the fourth quarter of 2005; production from the Rex pit was scheduled to begin in 2007. As of June 30, 2005, proven and probable reserves at Damang were estimated to be about 40,000 kg of gold (reported as 1.3 million troy ounces) and were projected to last until 2010 at current production rates.

Manganese
Of the 1.6 million metric tons (Mt) of manganese ore produced in 2006, about 52%, or 832,000 t, was shipped to Ukraine; 37%, or 584,000 t, was shipped to China; and the remaining 184,000 t was shipped to Norway. Manganese carbonate ore exported from Ghana has traditionally been used in China as raw material in the production of silicomanganese. Less than 100,000 metric tons per year (t/yr) of this ore material was used to produce electrolytic manganese metal in China, but China's demand for manganese metal was projected to increase to 300,000 t in 2007. China's other supplier of manganese ore was Mexico. Privat Group of Ukraine, which also used manganese ore from Ghana, imported about 832,000 t in 2006. Privat Group acquired the right to manage Ghana Manganese Co. and, as its first order of business, indicated that it intended to amend all existing manganese contracts.

Ghana is one of the world's leading exporters of manganese; however, only 279,000 tons were produced in 1992, compared with the all-time high of 638,000 tons in 1974–75. Ghana has reserves exceeding 60 million tons, and considerable rehabilitation of the sector took place in the 1980s. Ghana National Manganese Corporation's mine and the surrounding infrastructure were repaired, helping to raise production from a low of 159,000 tons in 1983 to 284,000 tons in 1989 and 247,000 tons in 1990. The corporation earned US$20 million from its exports in 1991, up from US$11.6 million in 1989 and US$14.2 million in 1990. Approximately US$85 million was also invested by private investors at the newly explored Kwesikrom deposit. contact Golden Eagle limited the main manganese mining company in 2010,

Diamond
Diamond was recovered by artisanal miners from alluvial and in situ diamond deposits near A Akwatia in the Birim Valley. The only formal commercial production came from a diamond placer mine in Akwatia, which was operated by Government-owned Ghana Consolidated Diamonds Ltd. (GCD).

At least one company, Paramount Mining Corporation Ltd., explored for diamond at two properties in Ghana in 2006. In February 2006, the company entered into a joint-venture agreement with Leo Shield Exploration Ghana Ltd. to earn interest in the Osenase project, which covers an area of 330 square kilometers (km²) located about 25 kilometers (km) south of the Akwatia Diamond Project. Field work began in March 2006. A number of pits were dug in both alluvial and hard rock deposits. A total of 83 diamonds, which together weighed more than  and the largest of which was , were recovered from the gravel of alluvial deposits. The project area also contained gold and columbite-tantalite minerals in the alluvial material. The other property, which was known as Ochinso, covers an area of 37 km² within the Birim Diamond Field of southern Ghana. Paramount, through a farm-in arrangement with Aurion Resources Ltd. of Ghana, would be entitled to acquire 85% of the equity interest in the concession. At least 72 diamonds and 325 small gold grains from 20 small test pits were recovered from the property in 2006. The pits were situated in a number of different river systems throughout the Ochinso project area. Most of the diamonds recovered were reportedly of commercial size ranging between 1 and 2 millimeters (mm), with an average stone size of .

The government also is trying to expand Ghana's diamond-mining industry, which has produced primarily industrial grade gems from alluvial gravels since the 1920s. More than  of proven and probable reserves are located about seventy miles northwest of Accra. The main producer is the state-owned Ghana Consolidated Diamonds (GCD), which operates in the Birim River Basin. In the 1960s, the company mined  of diamonds a year, but annual production in 1991 amounted to only . This downturn resulted from technical problems and GCD's weak financial position. Production from all mines came to  in 1991 and to  in 1992.

Diamond production was recovered by artisanal miners from alluvial and in situ diamond deposits near Akwatia in the Birim Valley. The only formal commercial production came from a diamond placer mine in Akwatia, which was operated by Government-owned Ghana Consolidated Diamonds Ltd. (GCD).

According to a 2004 report by Partnership Africa Canada and Global Witness Publishing Inc., prior to the creation of the PMMC in 1989, as much as 70% of Ghana's diamond was smuggled out of the country. Following the creation of PMMC, diamond was initially shipped to a PMMC office in Antwerp, Belgium, for sale; currently, an open market has been established in Ghana in which registered buyers can operate from offices within the country and in which licensed diamond traders are allowed to operate. All buyers (exclusively Ghanaian nationals) must transfer U.S. dollars through the Central Bank in advance for the purchase of diamond. Only about 200 of the 1,000 registered buyers were thought to be active during 2004. Purchased diamond was kept under lock in the custody of the PMMC and subject to inspection before being exported. According to the report, Ghana was fully implementing the Kimberley Process but the country lacked the resources to monitor and control illicit diamond mining and buying, especially from the artisanal mining areas. In Akwatia, for example, an informal diamond market existed where no paperwork was required to buy or sell diamond; this market was known locally as the "Belgian market". The report also indicated the possibility of diamond being smuggled from Côte d'Ivoire, especially following the sanctions on diamond exports imposed on this country in 2004 (Partnership Africa Canada and Global Witness Publishing Inc., 2004, p. 3–5).

It was reported that while annual diamond production from GCD continued to decline, diamond production from artisanal miners was increasing and that there was a possibility for the privatization of GCD. Foreign companies (not identified) were said to be interested in the Akwatia alluvial diamond field in the upper Birim River catchment area.

Cement
The Building and Road Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research of Ghana was conducting laboratory tests to evaluate the possibility of producing pozzolana cement from bauxite mining waste (known as red mud or clay). The two companies that produced cement in Ghana, Ghana Cement Works Ltd. and Diamond Cement Ghana Limited used imported clinker, gypsum, and limestone for the manufacturing of cement. About 2 Mt of clinker was imported in 2003 for the production of Portland cement.

Petroleum
Petroleum exploration activities have been conducted in Ghana since the late nineteenth century; and commercially sustainable deposits of petroleum or natural gas was discovered in 2008 by Kosmos. The total crude oil found is estimated to be about 6.5 million barrels. Production started in early 2010 in the Jubilee Field and as at 21 April 2011, Kosmos alone has lifted 1.9 million barrels from the Jubilee Field. The Saltpond oilfield, which produced a total of 294,430 barrels when it reopened in 2002 to its closing in 2004. Gas flared at Saltpond averaged 2 million cubic feet per day. The Tema Oil Refinery refined all the crude petroleum imported into the country, with the exception of consignments going to the Takoradi thermal powerplant.

At least two companies were exploring for petroleum in the country in 2006. These included Dallas-based Kosmos Energy LLC, which was conducting exploration offshore at West Cape Three Points Block, and Vanco Energy Co. of the United States, which explored for petroleum at the Cape Three Points Deepwater Block (CTPD) in the Tano-Ivorian Basin.

Dallas-based Kosmos Energy LLC held an 86.5% working interest in the West Cape Three Points (WCTP) Block in the Gulf of Guinea's Tano Basin. In 2005, the company conducted a 1,075-km2 three-dimensional (3-D) survey to evaluate the potential of the block. The WCTP Block is located about 8 km from the Ghanaian coastline and 95 km southwest of the city of Takoradi. The remaining interest in WCTP was held by GNPC (10%) and E.O. Group of Ghana (3.5%).

Final environmental impact assessment permits were granted in Benin, Ghana, and Togo for the West African Gas Pipeline (WAGP) between March and April 2005. The West Gas Pipeline Company Limited (WAGPCo) was granted a license to construct the pipeline in April, and the first shipload of about 8,000 pipes was delivered to the Tema Port in May. In September, Chevron Corporation, the WAGP project manager, announced that WAGPCo had begun the installation of the 569 km main offshore segment of the pipeline. The WAGP was expected to be operational by December 2006 and to deliver gas to powerplants and industries in Benin, Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo.

Vanco Energy Company explored for petroleum at the Cape Three Points Deepwater Block (CTPD), which is located in the Tano-Ivorian Basin. The company had signed an exploration agreement with the Government in 2002 at which time it conducted a two-dimensional (2-D) seismic program to evaluate the block. In 2005, the company carried out a 1,500-km2 3-D seismic program to further define the structural and stratigraphic prospects in the block. The first well in the CTPD Block was planned for 2007.

Environmental impact

The Ghanaian Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was the Government entity responsible for the formulation of policies on all aspects of the environment. The agency's functions included acting in liaison and cooperating with other Government agencies; collaborating with foreign and international agencies, as necessary; conducting investigations into environmental issues; coordinating the activities of bodies concerned with the technical aspects of the environment for the purpose of controlling the generation, treatment, storage, transportation, and disposal of industrial waste; ensuring compliance with environmental impact assessment procedures; issuing environmental permits and pollution abatement notices; making recommendations to the Government for the protection of the environment; prescribing standards and guidelines related to the pollution of air, water, and land; protecting and improving the quality of the environment; and securing the control and prevention of discharge waste into the environment among several other functions.

In 2005, the Center for Public Interest Law and the Center for Environmental Law, two Accra-based nongovernmental organizations, sued Bonte Gold Mines Ltd. (an 85% owned subsidiary of Akrokeri-Ashanti Gold Mines Inc. of Canada), Ghana's Minerals Commission, and the EPA for the reclamation of the environment after the cessation of Bonte's gold mining operations along the Jeni River. Bonte closed its operations at Bonteso in the Ashanti region in March 2004, citing problems concerning low-grade ore, equipment unavailability, and a default of its financial obligations during 2003. The company allegedly did not follow the due process for mine decommissioning, such as by failing to post bonds to the EPA for the reclamation of lands, failing to notify workers of its intention to liquidate, not paying up-to-date wages to workers, and leaving a debt of about $18 million owed to various state institutions and private companies. The EPA and the Minerals Commission were accused of failing to ensure Bonte's compliance to operate in a sustainable manner.

Ghana's Obuasi region is known to host arsenopyritic goldbearing ore bodies. According to company reports, during the 1990s, an arsenic precipitation plant was installed at the Pompora Treatment Plant for the commercial recovery of arsenic from the roaster flue gases. At the time, the recovered arsenic trioxide was sold to Europe for commercial applications. As the market for arsenic declined, the treatment plant was shut down in 2000 and about 10,000 metric tons (t) of arsenic was stockpiled in bags at Obuasi. After the introduction of the Biox treatment process, the arsenic trioxide was converted to arsenic pentoxide and deposited in tailings dams. AngloGold Ashanti Ltd. (the company that was formed through the merger of Ashanti Goldfields Ltd. and AngloGold Ltd.) reported that inadequate storage of the stockpiled bags allegedly caused arsenic contamination to the Pompora stream. The problem was identified during the company's due diligence study prior to the merger. AngloGold Ashanti constructed a lined storage dam at the old heap leach site. The company planned to move the arsenic to a new facility where it will be stored and gradually disposed of by blending it into the Biox process circuit where it will be chemically stabilized and deposited as a component of the tailings residue in the new Sansu Tailings Storage Facility. The company estimates that it will take about 6 years to dispose of the arsenic.

Illegal mining has had an extensive impact on Ghana's environment. 60% of Ghana's water bodies are polluted by illegal artisanal gold mining, as well as industrial waste, household disposals and farming.

History
Ghana has produced and exported gold for centuries. In precolonial times, present-day Ghana was one source of the gold that reached Europe via trans-Saharan trade routes. In the fifteenth century, Portuguese sailors tried to locate and to control gold mining from the coast but soon turned to more easily obtained slaves for the Atlantic slave trade. Most gold mining before the mid-nineteenth century was alluvial, wherein miners recovered gold from streams. Modern gold mining that plumbs the rich ore deposits below the Earth's surface began about 1860, when a Fante man of mixed-race by name Thomas Hughes, imported heavy machinery to begin mining in the western areas of present-day Ghana. His machinery was however sabotaged and could not start. Actual mining began  in the late 1870s to early 1880s. The richest deposit, the Obuasi mine, was discovered by two Fante men by name Joseph Ellis and Joseph Biney who were later joined by another Fante man Joseph Brown. They sold the rights to the deposit cheaply to E A Cade because of British government's duplicitous behaviour.  E.A. Cade, the founder of Ashanti Goldfields Corporation (AGC). Since the beginning of the twentieth century, modern mining in the Gold Coast has been pursued as a large-scale venture, necessitating significant capital investment from European investors.

Under British colonial rule, the government controlled gold mining to protect the profits of European companies. The colonial government also restricted possession of gold as well as of mercury, essential in recovering gold from the ore in which it is embedded. Following independence, foreign control of the sector was tempered by increasing government involvement under the Nkrumah regime; however, production began to decline in the late 1960s and did not recover for almost twenty years. In the mid-1960s, many mines began to hit poorer gold reefs. Despite the floating of the international gold price in the late 1960s, few investors were willing to invest, and the government failed to provide the capital necessary to expand production into new reefs. Of the two major gold mining enterprises, neither the State Gold Mining Corporation nor AGC (40% controlled by the government) expanded or even maintained production.

Under the ERP, the mining sector was targeted as a potential source of foreign exchange, and since 1984, the government has successfully encouraged the rejuvenation of gold mining. To offer incentives to the mining industry, the Minerals and Mining Law was passed in 1986. Among its provisions were generous capital allowances and reduced income taxes. The corporate tax rate was set at 45%, and mining companies could write off 75% of capital investment against taxes in the first year and 50% of the remainder thereafter. The government permitted companies to use offshore bank accounts for service of loans, dividend payments, and expatriate staff remuneration.

Ghana's mineral sector had started to recover by the early 1990s after its severe decline throughout the 1970s. One indicator of the scale of decline was that by 1987, only four gold mines were operating in Ghana, compared with eighty in 1938. Throughout the 1970s, the output of gold, as well as bauxite, manganese, and diamonds, fell steadily. Foreign exchange shortages inhibited mine maintenance, new exploration, and development investment. The overvalued cedi and spiraling inflation exacerbated mining companies' problems, as did smuggling and the deteriorating infrastructure. Energy supplies failed to meet the industry's growing needs; foreign exchange shortages constrained oil imports, and domestically generated hydroelectricity was unable to make up the shortfall.

After 1983, however, the government implemented a series of measures to enhance the sector's appeal. In 1986 new mining legislation for the gold and diamond sectors replaced the previous complex and obsolete regulations, and a generous incentives system was established that allowed for external foreign exchange retention accounts, capital allowances, and a flexible royalties payment system. Since then the sector has benefited from a wave of fresh investment totaling US$540 million since 1986, and by the early 1990s mining was the country's second highest foreign exchange earner.

Under legislation passed after 1983, the government liberalized and regularized the mining industry. For the first time, the government made small claim-holding feasible, with the result that individual miners sold increasing amounts of gold and diamonds to the state-operated Precious Minerals Marketing Company. In 1990 the company bought  of diamonds and 20,000 ounces of gold and earned a total of US$20.4 million through sales, 70% of it from diamond sales and 30% from gold bought from smallscale operators. Diamond output totaled  in 1991 and  in 1992, while gold production amounted to 843,000 fine ounces in 1991 and 1,004,000 fine ounces in 1992. Furthermore, the government succeeded in attracting significant foreign investment into the sector and, by early 1991, had signed over sixty mining licenses granting prospecting rights to international companies. To forestall domestic criticism of large-scale foreign control of the sector, the government announced in mid-1991 the establishment of a state-controlled holding company to buy shares in mines on behalf of private, that is, foreign, investors.

In the early 1990s, the government announced plans to privatize its diamond-mining operations and to expand production. At Accra's invitation, De Beers of South Africa agreed to undertake an eighteen-month feasibility study to determine the extent of the Birim River Basin diamond reserves. The survey was to cost US$1 million. A De Beers subsidiary will be the operator and manager of GCD, while Lazare Kaplan International, a New York-based diamond polishing and trading company, will produce and market the diamonds.

In 1989 the government established the Precious Minerals Marketing Corporation (PMMC) to purchase minerals from small producers in an effort to stem diamond smuggling. Estimates suggested that as much as 70% of Ghana's diamonds were being smuggled out of the country in the mid-1980s. In its first sixteen months of operation, the PMMC bought  of diamonds and 20,365 ounces of gold and sold  of diamonds worth US$8 million. The corporation also earned ¢130 million in 1991 on its jewelry operations, up 48% from the previous year, and it planned to establish joint marketing ventures with foreign firms to boost sales abroad. Nevertheless, because of new complaints over raw gem sales, the government in March 1992 ordered an investigation into the operations of the state agency and suspended its managing director.

Accidents
In April 2013, at least 17 people were killed while mining illegally at a disused gold mine in Ghana's central region. The ground reportedly caved in on the miners as they searched for gold deposits, and authorities were unclear as to how many miners originally went in. Sixteen bodies were excavated, with one man dying in hospital from his injuries.

See also
 Geology of Ghana
 Economy of Ghana

References

External links
 Mining Journal special publication – Ghana, March 2010

Industry in Ghana
Mining in Ghana
Ghana

Mining industry of Ghana


Power Stroke, also known as Powerstroke or PowerStroke, is the name used by a family of diesel engines for trucks produced by Ford Motor Company and Navistar International (until 2010) for Ford products since 1994. Along with its use in the Ford F-Series (including the Ford Super Duty trucks), applications include the Ford E-Series, Ford Excursion, and Ford LCF commercial truck. The name was also used for a diesel engine used in South American production of the Ford Ranger.

From 1994, the Power Stroke engine family existed as a re-branding of engines produced by Navistar International, sharing engines with its medium-duty truck lines. Since the 2011 introduction of the 6.7 L Power Stroke V8, Ford has designed and produced its own diesel engines. During its production, the Power Stroke engine range has been marketed against large-block V8 (and V10) gasoline engines along with the General Motors Duramax V8 and the Dodge Cummins B-Series inline-six.

Engine family list

7.3 Power Stroke

The first engine to bear the Power Stroke name, the 7.3 L Power Stroke V8 is the Ford version of the Navistar T444E turbo-diesel V8. Introduced in 1994 as the replacement for the 7.3 L IDI V8, the Power Stroke/T444E is a completely new design, with only its bore and stroke dimensions common with its predecessor (resulting in its identical  displacement). In line with the IDI diesel, the Power Stroke was offered in three-quarter-ton and larger versions of the Ford F-Series and Econoline product ranges.

The Power Stroke is an electronically controlled, direct injection engine with a  bore and stroke creating a displacement of . It has a 17.5:1 compression ratio, and a dry weight of approximately . This engine produces up to  and  of torque in automatic transmission trucks from the last years of production, and  and  of torque in manual transmission trucks. The oil pan holds  while the top end (due to the HPOP) holds an additional , making for a total of  of oil contained within the engine.

The 1994.5 to 1996/97 DI Power Stroke has "single shot" HEUI (hydraulically actuated electronic unit injection) fuel injectors which were AA code injectors unless from California where as they received AB code injectors. It ran a high pressure oil pump (HPOP) to create the necessary oil pressure to fire the fuel injectors. This generation of Power Stroke utilizes an HPOP with a 15° swash plate angle. The 1995-1997 trucks use a two-stage cam-driven fuel pump, whereas the 1999-2003 trucks use a frame rail mounted electric fuel pump. The 1999–2003 trucks also had a deadhead fuel system and a "long lead" injector in cyl. number 8 due to lower fuel pressures with the deadhead design (AE code injector). The California trucks from 1996 and 1997 have a  split-shot fuel injectors; other trucks did not get split-shot injectors until 1999. Single-shot injectors only inject one charge of fuel per cycle, whereas the split-shot injector releases a preliminary light load before the main charge to initiate combustion in a more damped manner. This "pre-injection" helps reduce the sharp combustion 'knock' as well as lower NOx emissions by creating a more complete burn.

1994.5–1997 engines utilize a single turbocharger, non-wastegated, with a turbine housing size of 1.15 A/R. For 1999, an air-to-air intercooler was added to cool the charged air from the turbo for increased air density. With the new cooler, denser air would increase the horsepower potential of the engine, while also reducing exhaust gas temperatures (EGT). The turbine housing was changed to a .84 A/R and a wastegate was added halfway through the 1999 model year. The 1999 engine also received  injectors, up from  in the early model engine. With the larger injectors, the HPOP capability was increased by utilizing a 17° swash plate angle to meet the requirements of the new, higher flowing injectors.

The engine used forged connecting rods until powdered metal rods were introduced for early 2002 models. Serial numbers can be seen with the aid of a borescope to confirm the changeover between the 2001 and 2002 model years. These new connecting rods sufficed in an unmodified engine, but would become a potentially catastrophic failure point if aftermarket tuning pushed the engine above .  Early models did not use any form of exhaust aftertreatment, such as a catalytic converter, as emissions were not enforced on diesel motors; however, by mid-year 2002, Ford began installing catalytic converters as part of the OEM exhaust as part of the Tier 1–3 standards.

Common issues

Despite being regarded as one of the most reliable diesel engines ever put in a light-duty truck, the engine had its own issues. A common failure point was the camshaft position sensor (CPS). The failure of this sensor would cause a no-start condition or a stall while running. The easiest way to diagnose a failed CPS is through movement of the tachometer when cranking. If the tachometer does not move, the CPS is most likely bad. The fuel filter/water separator also tends to be a minor failure point across the trucks. The aluminum filter housing can crack, causing fuel leaks. The heating element contained in the filter housing also can short out, blowing a fuse and causing a no start condition. The turbocharger up-pipes are a large failure point, with the pipes leaking from many different points but mainly from the joints. Leaking of the up-pipes causes the engine to lose boost and cause exhaust gas temperatures to increase. The EBPV exhaust back-pressure valve (EBPV) was also prone to failure; it could close when cold and get stuck on causing a jet engine like noise coming from the exhaust.

Most of the issues that came out of these motors were due to poor electrical connections. The UVCH (under valve cover harness) was prone to losing contact with either glow plugs or injectors which caused rough starts or a misfire depending on the year. 1994–1997 engines have two connectors going into each bank, whereas 1999–2003 engines had one connector going into each bank; troubleshooting the harness was easier for the 1994–1997 engines.

The 7.3 L DI Power Stroke was in production until the first quarter of model year 2003, when it was replaced by the 6.0 L because of its inability to meet California noise regulations, not the commonly believed emissions standards. Nearly 2 million 7.3 L DI Power Stroke engines were produced in International's Indianapolis plant.

The 7.3 L DI Power Stroke engine is commonly referred to as one of the best engines that International produced.

6.0 Power Stroke

The  Power Stroke was replaced by the  beginning in the second quarter of the 2003 model year. The 6.0L Power Stroke, was used in Ford Super Duty trucks until the 2007 model year but lasted until 2009 in the Ford Econoline vans (model year 2010) and in the Ford Excursion SUVs until after the 2005 models when Ford discontinued Excursion production. The engine has a  bore and stroke creating a displacement of . It utilizes a variable-geometry turbocharger and intercooler, producing  and  torque with an 18.0:1 compression ratio, with fuel cutoff at 4,200 rpm. Many 6.0 L Power Stroke engines experienced problems.

Key specifications
 Fuel injection system: Split-shot HEUI (hydraulically actuated electronically controlled unit injectors)
 Valve train: OHV 4-valves per cylinder, 32 valves total (16 intake valves, 16 exhaust valves)
 Turbo configuration: Single; variable vane geometry (VGT)

Common issues
 / – The sources of the main issues with the 6.0L were the in-block oil cooler, and the EGR cooler materials. The oil cooler is located in the valley of the engine block, underneath the cartridge oil filter set up. The sealed outer portion of the oil cooler is submerged in engine oil, with coolant flowing through the center passages. Over time, the coolant side of oil cooler would plug up with sediment. This would reduce the flow of coolant through the oil cooler and cause higher oil temperatures.  This sediment would also reduce the flow of coolant through the EGR cooler resulting in premature failure due to thermal expansion fatiguing the heat exchanging core.  The early EGR coolers (2003-2004.5) were also susceptible to premature failure.

 – With the use of split-shot HEUI fuel injectors, high-pressure oil is required to pressurize the fuel injectors. The main high-pressure oil (HPO) system components are the high-pressure oil pump (HPOP), HPO manifolds, stand pipes, and branch tube. The HPOP is located in the engine valley at the rear of the engine block. Early build years (2003.5–04.5) are well known for premature HPOP failure. This is due to the poor quality materials used in manufacturing. The HPOP is pressurized by a rotating gear, meshed with a rear camshaft gear. The early model HPOP gears were known to be weak, and develop stress cracks in the teeth resulting in gear failure, thus causing a no start issue for the engine. Early models also had the ICP sensor located on the HPOP cover. The high amount of heat in this location, combined with the exposure to debris in the oil was known to cause ICP sensor failure also resulting in a no-start condition. This issue was addressed by Ford with the late-2004 engine update, bringing a new HPOP design, along with relocation of the ICP sensor to the passenger-side valve cover. The newly designed pump is not known for frequent failure, however a new issue arose with the update. In the late model engines, Ford also redesigned the HPO stand pipes and dummy plugs in the HPO manifold, using poor-quality O-rings. These O-rings were prone to failure causing a HPO leak, and eventually a no-start condition. Ford addressed this concern with updated Viton O-ring washers fixing the issue. With the new HPO system design also came a snap-to-connect (STC) fitting. Some models had the issue of the STC fitting's prongs breaking, causing the fitting to lose its sealing property and again, a no-start condition for the engine. Another frequent (but not always catastrophic) issue with the HPO system is the injection pressure regulator (IPR) screen. The IPR screen is located in the engine valley with the oil cooler. The material used was susceptible to failure and neglecting to replace the screen during an oil cooler replacement could lead to the debris being sent through the HPOP causing complete failure. If the HPOP does not fail, another common failure point is the IPR that, if contaminated by debris, will not be able to seal completely and will then "bleed off" oil pressure causing a no-start condition.

 – Ford/International used four Torque to Yield (TTY) cylinder head bolts per cylinder for the 6.0 and 6.4. TTY bolts offer some of the most precise clamping force available but can be problematic. In certain situations—such as the failure of the oil cooler or EGR cooler, or high boost/load levels brought on by performance upgrades—TTY bolts can be stretched beyond their torque mark by increased cylinder pressures (commonly from coolant being introduced into the cylinder). This has never been addressed by Ford because other malfunctions or abuse must occur to stretch the bolts. Some in the aftermarket will replace the factory bolts with head studs in an attempt to protect the head gaskets from future failure. If this is done without addressing the underlying issue, the head gaskets may fail again bringing along a cracked or warped cylinder head. In contrast, the 7.3 and 6.7 have six head bolts per cylinder while the 6.0, 6.4/VT365, and IDI 7.3 only have four.

Electrical and fuel
Numerous PCM recalibrations, attempts to "detune" the engine, fuel injector stiction (caused by lack of maintenance and proper oil changes), along with several other drivebility and quality control problems, have plagued the 6.0. The FICM (fuel injection control module) has been a problem, where low voltage in the vehicle's electrical system due to failing batteries or a low-output alternator can cause damage to the FICM. In addition, the placement of the FICM on top of the engine subjects it to varying and extreme temperatures and vibrations causing solder joints and components to fail in early build models; mostly in the power supply itself. The FICM multiplies the voltage in the fuel injector circuit from 12 to 48–50 volts to fire the injectors. Low voltage can eventually cause damage to the fuel injectors.

Lawsuits and litigation
Many owners who purchased their trucks equipped with 6.0L Power Stroke engine new have received class-action lawsuit payments. Some owners have opted out of the class action lawsuit and went straight to a fraud case: one example is Charles Margeson of California, who was awarded $214,537.34 plus legal fees ($72,564.04 was for repayment of his 2006 F-350). Margeson, along with 5 other owners who opted out of the class action lawsuits, have been awarded over US$10 million.

6.4 Power Stroke

The 6.4L Power Stroke was introduced for the 2008 Ford Super Duty (F-250 through F-550), and was the first engine introduced to the light truck market that utilized dual turbochargers directly from the factory. Additionally, this was the first Power Stroke to use a diesel particulate filter (DPF) to reduce particulate matter emissions from the exhaust. The new DPF and active regeneration system greatly hindered fuel economy and the engine was ultimately retired after 2010 and replaced by the 6.7L Power Stroke. While warranty claims began to show a level of unreliability similar to the previous 6.0L Power Stroke, the 6.4L Power Stroke has proved to be capable of handling elevated boost levels needed to generate high horsepower and torque.

The engine has a  bore and stroke, resulting in a total calculated displacement of . Despite having to meet emission regulations, the engine was able to increase horsepower ratings to  and torque to  at the flywheel. Horsepower and torque are achieved at 3,000 rpm and 2,000 rpm respectively. It also features a compound VGT turbo system. Air enters the low-pressure turbo (the larger of the two) and is fed into the high-pressure turbo (the smaller of the two), then is directed into the engine or intercooler. This system is designed to result in reduced turbo lag when accelerating from a stop. The series-turbo system is set up to provide a better throttle response while in motion to give a power flow more like a naturally aspirated engine. The 6.4 L also has a DPF and dual EGR coolers which are capable of reducing exhaust gas temps by up to 1,000 degrees before they reach the EGR valve and mix with the intake charge. The DPF traps soot and particulates from the exhaust and virtually eliminates the black smoke that most diesel engines expel upon acceleration. The engine computer is programmed to periodically inject extra fuel in the exhaust stroke of the engine (which is called a DPF Regen or regeneration) to burn off soot that accumulates in the DPF. This engine is designed to only run on ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel which has no more than 15 ppm sulfur content; using regular diesel fuel results in emission equipment malfunctions and violates manufacturer warranties.

The 6.4L has had one recall (safety product recall 07S49 was released on March 23, 2007) that addresses the potential for flames to come from the tailpipe of the truck. This problem arises from the DPF which is part of the diesel after-treatment system. A PCM recalibration was released to eliminate the possibility of excessive exhaust temperatures combined with certain rare conditions resulting from what is becoming known as a "thermal event".

Key specifications
 Fuel injection system: High pressure common rail
 Valve train: OHV 4-valve
 Compound VGT turbo
 DPF
 Advanced multi-shot piezoelectric fuel injection control

Common issues
 Piston ring failures in #7 and #8 cylinders due to regeneration process. During regeneration, fuel is injected during the exhaust stroke in order to increase the exhaust temperature for DPF cleaning.  This exposes the piston rings to excessive heat which eventually causes the piston rings to lose tension, causing low to no compression (compression skip) and excessive blow-by.
 Rocker arm tips impacting (especially on lower geared trucks) due to higher pressure on valve-train (that was not upgraded from the 6.0 liter engine design) after .
 Turbocharger bearing seal failures (which in turn allows engine lubricating oil to leak past the bearing seal) due to regeneration process pushing high exhaust temperatures through the turbocharger. This condition will precipitate premature clogging of the DPF, which then causes the engine to stay in regeneration mode. If this condition is not corrected quickly, the leaking seal will eventually allow all the engine oil to be pumped out of the engine through the exhaust, causing complete engine failure due to lack of lubrication.
 Higher incidents of cavitation erosion of the front cover due to the larger water pump impeller speed, causing coolant to leak into engine oil.
 EGR cooler failures allowing engine coolant to flow back into #8 cylinder while engine is shut off, which causes the cylinder to hydro-lock and possibly bend the piston connecting rod as well as other damage to engine when it is subsequently started.
 Cylinder head valve guides do not have bronze sleeves, which allows for excessive wear and oil leakage around the valves.
 Connecting rods do not have bronze bushings where the piston wrist pin goes thru the connecting rod. This also allows for excessive wear and noise on higher-mileage vehicles.
 If aftermarket tuning is installed that introduces too much advanced fuel injection timing, cracking of the cylinder heads can result due to excessive combustion temperatures.
 Very high cost of service and repair parts compared to other versions of the Power Stroke.
 Siemens K16 High Pressure Fuel Pump had a problem of self destruction in the 6.4L Power Stroke. When the pump destroyed itself, shrapnel would almost always be sent to all eight injectors, basically rendering them just as useless as the destroyed pump. On occasion, an injector may become stuck open and burn a piston crown, resulting in more repair work.
Cracking pistons were a problem and usually started on the thin edge of the fuel bowl on the pistons. It occurred more frequently in high-mileage engines, and if left untreated for too long, more engine damage could occur.

6.7 Power Stroke
The 6.7L Power Stroke debuted in the 2011 Ford Super Duty (F-250 through F-550) trucks, replacing the 6.4L Power Stroke. The first Power Stroke engine to be developed and manufactured by Ford, it was designed in conjunction with AVL of Austria. During its development, Ford engineers codenamed this engine "Scorpion" because of the exhaust manifold and turbocharger being mounted in the engine's "valley."  It features a compacted graphite iron (CGI) block for greater strength and reduced weight, reverse flow aluminum cylinder heads (the exhaust ports are located in the lifter valley) with dual water jackets, six head bolts per cylinder, and  high-pressure common rail Bosch fuel system. The system delivers up to five injection events per cylinder per cycle using eight-hole piezo injectors spraying fuel into the piston bowl. This engine also supports B20 biodiesel, allowing fueling options of up to 20 percent biodiesel and 80 percent petroleum diesel. Garrett's single-sequential turbocharger features an industry-first double-sided compressor wheel mounted on a single shaft. The engine block is cast by Tupy, which also does the initial machining. The connecting rods are made by Mahle.

Emissions controls include exhaust gas recirculation, Denoxtronic-based selective catalytic reduction (SCR) from Bosch, and a DPF. Output was originally  and . but shortly after production started, Ford announced that it made an update to the engine. The new engine control software makes the engine capable of  at 2,800 rpm and  at 1,600 rpm while achieving better fuel economy and without any physical changes to the engine. The 2015 engines are rated at  and .  Ford claimed the bump in horsepower is from a new turbocharger, new injector nozzles, and exhaust improvements. For 2017, the torque had risen to  at 1800 rpm, while horsepower remained the same. To compete with the Duramax and Cummins engines from GM and Ram, Ford increased output for the 2018 model year to  . Previously, the Duramax motor had a  gain over the Power Stroke in 2017, and the Cummins engine for 2018 would have had a  torque gain over the Power Stroke if the Power Stroke's output hadn't been increased for 2018. The engine is also available for Blue Bird Vision school buses. As of 2020, the Power Stroke's output was increased to 475 hp at 2600 rpm and 1050 lb-ft at 1600 rpm, becoming the best-in-class diesel in horsepower. A high-output variant was introduced for the 2023 model year, producing  and  of torque.

Common issues

 Turbocharger Failures. Turbocharger failures were common on 2011 and 2012 model year 6.7L Power Stroke equipped pickups because of weak ceramic ball bearings in the Honeywell DualBoost turbo. The issue was resolved by using steel ball bearings. Turbo failures are characterized by loud screeching sounds and smoke from the tailpipe.
 Defective Radiators. Early 2011 model year pickups with the 6.7L Power Stroke often experienced radiator leaks. Defects in radiators manufactured before September 2010 were the likely cause. Later model years had fewer reported issues, but leaks can still occur over time.
 NOx Sensor Failures. The 2011 model year engines had frequent failures of NOx sensors, resulting in reduced engine power. Ford addressed the issue through the Custom Satisfaction Program 12B33, which replaced faulty sensors and upgraded the emission control strategy. The program expired in April 2013.
 EGT Sensor on "Ambulance Package" Chassis Cab Trucks. Certain 2011 and 2012 F-350 through F-550 trucks with the "Ambulance Package" had faulty EGT sensors. Failures could cause vehicle shutdown while driving or difficulty restarting. Ford issued a recall (recall 13S10) to replace the sensors, primarily in emergency vehicles. Similar incidents occurred in pickup models but were less widespread.
 Dropping Glow Plugs and Catastrophic Engine Failure. Some early production 6.7L Power Stroke engines experienced glow plug tip breakage, leading to catastrophic engine failure. This issue was limited and not a significant concern in later production engines, mainly occurring in specific chassis cab models. Ford would have taken action if widespread issues were detected.
 CP4 Failure. Much less common (but not uncommon) was the failure of the CP4 pump which would lead to catastrophic engine failure. Due to the use of low lubricity fuels, susceptibility to internal wear, and potential of air bubbles formation in the housing, accelerated wear could occur, causing metal shavings to enter the fuel system and damaging components such as the fuel rails, high-pressure lines, injectors, overflow valve, and return lines.

Key specifications
 Diesel particulate filter
 Valve train: OHV 4-valve
 Turbo configuration: GT32 SST single sequential turbocharger; single  turbine and dual-sided compressor
 Fuel injection system: High-pressure common rail, Bosch CP4 injection pump, piezoelectric injectors

2015–2016

3.2 Power Stroke

The 3.2L Power Stroke is an inline-five engine that debuted in the U.S.-spec Transit for model year 2015. The engine is a modified version of the Ford Duratorq 3.2L diesel engine that has been adapted to meet emissions in the United States. To aid in economy, emissions, and reduce NVH, it has a high-pressure common-rail fuel injection system and piezo injectors that can spray up to five different injections per compression event. It has a water-cooled EGR system to reduce the temperature of the exhaust gas before being recirculated through the intake. A unique feature to the emissions system is that the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) and the DPF have been combined into one singular unit as opposed to the traditional two separate units. Exhaust treatment continues with SCR which is done by the injection of diesel exhaust fluid in the exhaust to reduce NOx. The engine features a variable-geometry turbo which allows for intake airflow tuning on the fly to increase power and fuel economy. The engine also features a variable-flow oil pump to avoid wasting mechanical energy pumping excessive amounts of oil. It has cast aluminum, low-friction pistons with oil squirters to keep them cool during heavy-load conditions, a die-cast aluminum cam carrier to stiffen up the valvetrain and reduce NVH, and to increase low-end durability, the crankshaft is cast iron and the connecting rods are forged. The block itself is an extra rigid, gray cast iron with a closed deck. The power figures for the 3.2L Power Stroke are  at 3,000 rpm and  at 1,500–2,750 rpm. The Euro Duratorq 3.2 makes  and  of torque.

Key specifications
Fuel injection system: High-pressure common-rail
Valvetrain: DOHC 4-valve
Turbo configuration: Single variable-geometry turbo
Combined diesel particulate filter and diesel oxidation catalyst
Urea-injected selective catalytic reduction

3.0 Power Stroke

The 3.0L Power Stroke turbo-diesel V6, codenamed "Lion," was introduced in the 2018 Ford F-150 to compete with the Ram 1500 EcoDiesel V6. The engine has a bore and stroke of 84 × 90 mm with a compression ratio of 16.0:1, and generates  at 3,250 rpm and  of torque at 1,750 rpm, paired with a Ford–GM 10-speed automatic transmission. It provided a towing capacity of up to  when properly equipped. EPA-estimated fuel economy ratings ranged from  highway,  city, and  combined, depending on drivetrain and model year. It continued to be offered until the 2021 model year in North America. The 3.0L Power Stroke was assembled in Dagenham, England.

Applications
The Power Stroke engine has been used in the following applications.

Ford Econoline E-350 and E-450 (full-size vans)
 1995–2003 7.3 L
 2004–2010 6.0 L

Ford Excursion (full-size sport utility vehicles)
 2000–2003 7.3 L
 2003.5–2005 6.0 L

Ford F-Series (full-size pickup trucks)
 Mid-1994 – Mid-2003 7.3 L
 Mid-2003 – 2007 6.0 L
 2008–2010 6.4 L
 2011–present 6.7 L
 2018–2021 3.0 L (F-150 only)

Ford F-Series (F-650 and F-750 medium duty trucks)
 2016–present 6.7 L

LCF (low cab forward)
 2005–2010 4.5 L

Ford Transit
 2015–2019 3.2 L

Other engines with the Power Stroke name
In South American models, the 2001–2012 Ford Ranger used a Power Stroke engine in their diesel versions. A 2.8L diesel engine was developed by Navistar/International from an inline-four Land Rover Defender diesel 2.5L engine, with  (waste gate) or  (VNT). A 3.0L displacement version, with common-rail fuel injection, four-valve-per-cylinder heads, and  (wastegate turbo), is the electronic version of the Power Stroke. It has only the block and connecting rods in common with 2.8L Power Stroke.
The 4.5L Power Stroke was a V6 Power Stroke with the same turbo design as a 6.4L. The geometry of the engines is the same as the 6.0L minus two cylinders. The 4.5L and 6.0L share some of the same engine parts. The 4.5L came stock with  and  of torque.

See also
 Ford engines
 Ford Modular engine

References

External links
 Powerstroke Diesel home page
 Navistar International
 Power Stroke Diesel Specs

Power Stroke
Navistar engines
Diesel engines by model
Straight-five engines
V6 engines
V8 engines

Ford Power Stroke engine


Sports nutrition is the study and practice of nutrition and diet with regards to improving anyone's athletic performance. Nutrition is an important part of many sports training regimens, being popular in strength sports (such as weightlifting and bodybuilding) and endurance sports (e.g. cycling, running, swimming, rowing). Sports nutrition focuses its studies on the type, as well as the quantity of fluids and food taken by an athlete. In addition, it deals with the consumption of nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, supplements and organic substances that include carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

Factors influencing nutritional requirements
Differing conditions and objectives suggest the need for athletes to ensure that their sports nutritional approach is appropriate for their situation. Factors that may affect an athlete's nutritional needs include type of activity (aerobic vs. anaerobic), gender, weight, height, body mass index, workout or activity stage (pre-workout, intro-workout, recovery), and time of day (e.g. some nutrients are utilized by the body more effectively during sleep than while awake). Most culprits that get in the way of performance are fatigue, injury and soreness. A proper diet will reduce these disturbances in performance. The key to a proper diet is to get a variety of food, and to consume all the macro-nutrients, vitamins, and minerals needed. According to Eblere's article (2008), it is ideal to choose raw foods, for example unprocessed foods such as oranges instead of orange juice. Eating foods that are natural means the athlete is getting the most nutritional value out of the food. When foods are processed, the nutritional value is normally reduced.

Gender
There are obvious physical differences between male and female anatomy, while physiology is the same for the most part, how they metabolize nutrients will vary. Men have less total body fat but tend to carry most of their fat in the adipose tissue of their abdominal region. Adipose tissue is indirectly mediated by androgen receptors in muscle. On the other hand, women have more total body fat that is carried in the subcutaneous layer of their hip region. Women metabolize glucose by direct and indirect control of expression of enzymes.

Anaerobic exercise

During anaerobic exercise, the process of glycolysis breaks down the sugars from carbohydrates for energy without the use of oxygen. This type of exercise occurs in physical activity such as power sprints, strength resistances and quick explosive movement where the muscles are being used for power and speed, with short-time energy use. After this type of exercise, there is a need to refill glycogen storage sites in the body (the long simple sugar chains in the body that store energy), although they are not likely fully depleted.

To compensate for this glycogen reduction, athletes will often take in large amounts of carbohydrates, immediately following their exercise. Typically, high-glycemic-index carbohydrates are preferred for their ability to rapidly raise blood glucose levels. For the purpose of protein synthesis, protein or individual amino acids are ingested as well. Branched-chain amino acids are important since they are most responsible for the synthesis of protein. According to Lemon et al. (1995) female endurance runners have the hardest time getting enough protein in their diet. Endurance athletes in general need more protein in their diet than the sedentary person. Research has shown that endurance athletes are recommended to have 1.2 to 1.4 g of protein per kg of body weight in order to repair damaged tissue. If the athlete consumes too few calories for the body's needs, lean tissue will be broken down for energy and repair. Protein deficiency can cause many problems such as early and extreme fatigue, particularly long recovery, and poor wound healing. Complete proteins such as meat, eggs, and soy provide the athlete with all essential amino acids for synthesizing new tissues. However, vegetarian and vegan athletes frequently combine legumes with a whole grain to provide the body with a complete protein across the day's food intake. A popular combination being rice and beans.

Spada's research on endurance sports nutrition (2000) and where the types of carbohydrates come from will be explained. He advises for carbohydrates to be unprocessed and/or whole grains for optimal performance while training. These carbohydrates offer the most fuel, nutritional value, and satiety. Fruits and vegetables contribute important carbohydrate foundation for an athlete's diet. They provide vitamins and minerals that are lost through exercise and later needed to be replenished. Both fruits and vegetables improve healing, aid in recovery, and reduce risks of cancer, high blood pressure, and constipation. Vegetables offer a little more nutritional value than fruits for the amount of calories, therefore an athlete should strive to eat more vegetables than fruits. Dark-colored vegetables usually have more nutritional value than pale colored ones. A general rule is the darker the color the more nutrient dense it is. Like all foods, it is very important to have a variety. To get the most nutritional value out of fruits and vegetables it is important to eat them in their natural, unprocessed form without added nutrients or sugar.

Often in the continuation of this anaerobic exercise, the product from this metabolic mechanism builds up in what is called lactic acid fermentation. Lactate is produced more quickly than it is being removed and it serves to regenerate NAD+ cells on where it's needed. During intense exercise when oxygen is not being used, a high amount of ATP is produced and pH levels fall causing acidosis or more specifically lactic acidosis. Lactic acid build up can be treated by staying well-hydrated throughout and especially after the workout, having an efficient cool down routine and good post-workout stretching.

Intense activity can cause significant and permanent damage to bodily tissues. In order to repair, vitamin E and other antioxidants are needed to protect muscle damage. Oxidation damage and muscle tissue breakdown happens during endurance running so athletes need to eat foods high in protein in order to repair these muscle tissues. It is important for female endurance runners to consume proper nutrients in their diet that will repair, fuel, and minimize fatigue and injury. To keep a female runner's body performing at its best, the ten nutrients need to be included in their diets.

Aerobic Exercise
Aerobic exercise is also known as cardio because it is a form of cardiovascular conditioning. This includes exercises such as running, cycling, swimming and rowing. Athletes involved in aerobic exercise are typically looking to increase their endurance. These athletes are training their slow twitch muscle fibers to be better at taking in oxygen and getting it to their muscles. This is done by two mechanisms, glycolysis and aerobic respiration. Anaerobic glycolysis is also referred to as the "short term energy system", and is mostly used for high-intensity training, such as sprinting, and any sports which require quick bursts of speed. Slow twitch muscles are smaller in diameter and are slow to contract. These fibers don't store much glycogen, instead they use lipids and amino acids to generate energy. With a high concentration of myoglobin that stores oxygen, the slow twitch muscle fibers have plenty of oxygen to function properly. These factors help make slow twitch muscle fibers fatigue resistant so athletes can have endurance in their sport. There are many options for supplements that athletes can take to assist with endurance like glycerol and guarana.

Supplements
Dietary supplements contain one or more dietary ingredients (including vitamins; minerals; amino acids; herbs or other botanicals; and other substances) or their constituents is intended to be taken by mouth as a pill, capsule, tablet, or liquid. Athletes may choose to consider taking dietary supplements to assist in improving their athletic performance. There are many other supplements out there that include performance enhancing supplements (steroids, blood doping, creatine, human growth hormone), energy supplements (caffeine), and supplements that aid in recovery (protein, BCAAs).

Energy supplements
Athletes sometimes turn to energy supplements to increase their ability to exercise more often. Common supplements to increase an athlete's energy include: Caffeine, Guarana, Vitamin B12, and Asian ginseng. Guarana is another supplement that athletes take to enhance their athletic ability, it is frequently used for weight loss and as an energy supplement.

Caffeine, a common energy supplement, can be found in many different forms such as pills, tablets or capsules, and can also be found in common foods, such as coffee and tea. A 2009 study from the University of Texas reports that caffeinated energy drinks increase sporting performance. They found that after drinking an energy drink, 83% of participants improved their physical activity parameters by an average of 4.7%. This was attributed to the effects of caffeine, sucrose and Vitamin B in the drink - however scientific consensus does not support the efficacy of using Vitamin B as a performance enhancer. To explain the performance improvement the writers report an increase in blood levels of epinephrine, norepinephrine and beta-Endorphin. The adenosine receptor antagonism of caffeine accounts for the first two, while the latter is accounted for by the Neurobiological effects of physical exercise.

Caffeine has been around since the 1900s and became popularly used in the 1970s when its power of masking fatigue became highly recognized. Similarly, the caffeine found in energy drinks and coffee shows an increased reaction performance and feelings of energy, focus and alertness in quickness and reaction anaerobic power tests. In other words, consuming an energy drink or any drink with caffeine increases short time/rapid exercise performance (like short full-speed sprints and heavy power weight lifting). Caffeine is chemically similar to adenosine, a type of sugar that helps in the regulation of important body processes, including the firing of neurotransmitters. Caffeine takes the place of adenosine in your brain, attaching itself to the same neural receptors affected by adenosine, and causing your neurons to fire more rapidly, hence caffeine's stimulating effects.

Carbohydrates are also a very common form of energy supplements, as all sugars are carbohydrates. Products like Gatorade and Powerade are formulated with simple sugars such as sucrose and dextrose. Carbohydrates are necessary as they maintain blood glucose levels and restore muscle glycogen levels.

Recovery supplements
Common supplements to help athletes recover from exercising include protein and amino acid supplements. The main use for athletes to take dietary proteins are enhance muscle repair and growth. The intake of protein is a part of the nutrient requirements for the normal athlete and is an important component of exercise training. In addition, it aids in performance and recovery. A 2018 meta-review recommended that individuals may take up to 1.6 mg/kg/day of protein and "it may be prudent to recommend ~2.2 g protein/kg/d for those seeking to maximise resistance training-induced gains in FFM.". FFM is an abbreviation for fat free mass. Dietary protein intake for well-trained athletes should occur before, during and after physical activity as it is advantageous in gaining muscle mass and strength. In healthy individuals with good kidney function there is no evidence that consuming a high protein diet has any deleterious effects. A bountiful protein diet must be paired with a healthy, well-rounded meal plan and regular resistance exercise. Characteristics of this particular diet include the type of exercise, intensity, duration and carbohydrate values of diet.

Post-exercise nutrition is an important factor in a nutrition plan for athletes as it pertains to the recovery of the body. Traditionally, sports drinks such as Gatorade and Powerade, are consumed during and after exercise because they effectively rehydrate the body by refueling the body with carbohydrates, minerals and electrolytes. Electrolytes regulate the body's nerve and muscle function, blood pH, blood pressure, and the rebuilding of damaged tissue. These types of drink are commonly made of the carbohydrates glucose and sucrose in water and has been seen to improve the football players' performance.

A substitute for sports drinks is milk, which contains many electrolytes, carbohydrates, and other elements that help to make it a more effective post-exercise beverage than traditional sports drinks. It is true that milk helps replace fluids and electrolytes lost after the athlete has worked out. A recovery drink is supposed to replenish the sugar lost, and help recover the muscles to be able to workout at full intensity by the next time they workout.  When compared to plain water or sports drinks, research supported by the Dairy and Nutrition Council suggests that chocolate milk is more effective at replacing fluids lost through sweat and maintaining normal body fluid levels. Athletes drinking chocolate milk following exercise-induced dehydration had fluid levels about 2 percent higher (on initial body mass) than those using other post-exercise recovery beverages. These results allowed for prolonged performance, especially in repeated bouts of exercise or training.

Performance-enhancing substances

In the extreme case of performance-enhancing substances, athletes, particularly bodybuilders may choose to use illegal substances such as anabolic steroids. These compounds which are related to the hormone testosterone, can quickly build mass and strength, but have many adverse effects such as high blood pressure and negative gender specific effects. Blood doping, another illegal ergogenic, was discovered in the 1940s when it was used by World War II pilots. Blood doping also known as blood transfusions, increases oxygen delivery to exercising tissues and has been demonstrated to improve performance in endurance sports, such as long-distance cycling. Blood doping is banned by International Olympic Committee and other International Sport Authorities and Federations.

The supplement creatine may be helpful for well-trained athletes to increase exercise performance and strength in relation with their dietary regimen.

Other popular studies done on supplements include androstenedione, chromium, and ephedra. The findings show that there are no substantial benefits from the extra intake of these supplements, yet higher health risks and costs.

See also
 :Category:Dietary supplements
 Energy bar
 Protein (nutrient)
 Sports drink
 Multivitamin
 Ninja diet
 Bodybuilding
 Bodybuilding supplements
 High-protein diet
 Nutritionist

References

External links

The International Society of Sports Nutrition
Journal of Sports Nutrition
Tips to good hydration during physical activity
Nutrition for Athletes of all ages, contains many good links.

Sports nutrition

Sports nutrition


Crest Nicholson is a British housebuilding company based in Weybridge, Surrey. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index.

History

1963-2000
The company was founded by Bryan Skinner in 1963 as Crest Homes and floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1968. One of the characteristics that differentiated Crest from most other housebuilders of the time was "not to hold large stocks of land".

Crest's first diversification was in 1969 when it bought En-Tout-Cas, the leading name in tennis court construction. More significant was the 1971 acquisition of Tony Pidgley's earth moving business. Pidgley teamed up with Jim Farrer, a board member and originally the estate agent who had provided Skinner with his first land. These two ran Crest's housing until 1975 when they left to form Berkeley Homes.

In 1972, a new holding company, Crest Securities, was formed to facilitate further diversification.  At the end of that year, Crest bought Camper & Nicholsons, the leading yacht maker, hence the change of name to Crest Nicholson. More unrelated acquisitions followed in the form of Lamson Engineering (1975), the spectacle makers Crofton (1979) and Greenwood Electronics (1983). Crest also bought the west-country construction firm of CH Pearce in 1985.

Bryan Skinner retired through ill health in 1983 and, gradually, much of the earlier strategy was reversed. Non-housing businesses were sold in the late 1980s and in the housing division Crest began to follow a policy of acquiring a long land bank.

2000-present
In 2007, the company was taken private after it accepted a £715 million offer from a consortium led by HBOS and Sir Tom Hunter, the Scottish entrepreneur. The company was re-listed on the London Stock Exchange in February 2013.

In 2010, subsidiary company Crest Nicholson (Londinium) Ltd. was party to a high court and Court of Appeal case which addressed the difference between the court's role in construing the terms of a contract which two parties had agreed, and its role in assessing whether an offer capable of acceptance had been made, and if so, whether it had been accepted.

In 2018, it was reported that the chief executive of Crest Nicholson had stepped down as the company reported growing profits. Stephen Stone who had been the boss of the housebuilder for 12 years became executive chairman and Patrick Bergin took his place.

In June 2018, it was reported that the company would be pulling back from London as a cost-cutting measure. It will close its central London office and will be less likely to buy land in London.

As a result of the company's lower profits, in January 2019, Crest Nicholson put a £400 million housing development in Hove on hold. The company's chief executive, Patrick Bergin, told The Times that "It would be imprudent of us to make a commitment on a scheme of that type when we've got limited visibility on future pricing."

In September 2019, the company appointed Peter Truscott as their new chief executive, adopting a new strategy to reduce overhead costs and reposition its margins.

In January 2020, Truscott said the company had over-concentrated on building off-site manufacturing capabilities, and would now focus on improving on-site operational efficiency and on introducing group-wide construction specifications to cut material buying costs. Poor financial performance was blamed on political uncertainty and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and led to the company consulting on 130 redundancies from its 966-strong workforce.

In June 2023, Crest Nicholson was found liable for the actions of a site manager who an employment tribunal said had raped a colleague after a work Christmas party.

References

External links
Official site

Housebuilding companies of the United Kingdom
Companies based in Surrey
Construction and civil engineering companies established in 1963
Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange
1963 establishments in England

Crest Nicholson


Andrew Jackson Faulk (November 26, 1814 – September 4, 1898) was an American politician. He served as the third Governor of Dakota Territory.

Early life
Faulk was born at Milford, Pike County, Pennsylvania, the son of John Faulk and his wife Margaret Heiner, a descendant of General Daniel Brodhead. Faulk moved with his family to Kittanning, Pennsylvania, where he was educated. He learned the printing trade and later edited the Armstrong County Democrat. He studied law and became involved with the Democratic party. Faulk served as county treasurer and then joined the Pennsylvania militia. Because of the slave issue, Faulk left the Democratic party to support John C. Frémont in 1856 and Abraham Lincoln in 1860.

Career
Faulk was appointed chief clerk at the Yankton Agency in 1861 and worked for Dr. Walter A. Burleigh(son-in-law to A.J. Faulk). After the Santee uprising in 1862, he and his daughters returned to Pennsylvania. Dakota Territory Governor, Newton Edmunds assisted the investigation by a congressional committee of Walter Burleigh's corrupt behavior on the Yankton Reservation from 1861 to 1864; and, Burleigh responded by presenting charges against Governor Edmunds to President Andrew Johnson. Burleigh recommended that Edmunds be replaced by Andrew J. Faulk. In August 1866, President Johnson dismissed Newton Edmunds and appointed Faulk as Governor of Dakota Territory.  After arriving at Yankton, Dakota Territory on September 3, 1866, Faulk relieved Edmunds of his duties and served as the interim Governor until officially assuming the office on March 16, 1867.

Because of reports of pine timber and mineral wealth in the Black Hills, Faulk wanted to exclude that area from any future Indian reservation and to open it to white settlement. General William T. Sherman said that whites had no right to enter and occupy the Black Hills; since, the Indians had not ceded the area.  In 1868, a group of entrepreneurs planned to invade the Black Hills without military protection. Officially, Governor Faulk said that he did not sanction this invasion; while, his rhetoric actually encouraged it.  Because of his efforts to open the Black Hills to white settlement, Faulk was popular with entrepreneurs and adventurers in Dakota Territory.

On May 10, 1869, President Ulysses S. Grant removed Faulk as governor and replaced him with John A. Burbank. Faulk remained in the Dakota Territory and went on to fill a vacancy in the mayor's office in Yankton in 1869 before becoming clerk of the United States District Court for Dakota Territory in 1873.  When Governor Nehemiah Ordway attempted to remove the Dakota Territory capital from Yankton, Faulk worked to have Ordway dismissed. On April 19, 1877, Faulk participated in the meeting to adopt a statehood resolution; and in 1883, he attended the constitutional convention.

Death
Faulk continued to reside in Yankton, South Dakota, until the time of his death. He died on September 4, 1898, in Yankton, South Dakota.

Legacy
Andrew Jackson Faulk is the namesake of Faulkton, South Dakota, and Faulk County, South Dakota.

References

External links

 Andrew Jackson Faulk Letters and Speeches at the Newberry Library
 Andrew Jackson Faulk Collection of Photographs of the Dakota Territory and Yankton, Santee, and Teton Sioux at the Newberry Library
 The Political Graveyard
 State Historical Society of North Dakota
 Andrew Jackson Faulk Papers. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

1814 births
1898 deaths
19th-century American politicians
Governors of Dakota Territory
Mayors of places in South Dakota
People from Kittanning, Pennsylvania
People from Milford, Pennsylvania
People from Yankton, South Dakota
Pennsylvania Democrats
Pennsylvania Republicans
South Dakota Republicans

Andrew Jackson Faulk


USS Shenandoah (AD-26) was one of ten planned destroyer tenders built at the tail end of World War II (orders for four of the ships were cancelled due to the cessation of hostilities). The lead ship in her class, she was the third United States naval vessel named for the Shenandoah River which runs through Virginia and West Virginia.

The third Shenandoah was laid down on 16 September 1944 by Todd Pacific Shipyards, Inc. of Tacoma, Washington, launched on 29 March 1945, sponsored by Mrs. Daniel Hunt, and commissioned on 13 August 1945.

Service history
Shenandoah completed her fitting out in December and sailed to the East Coast via the Panama Canal, where she reported for duty with Destroyer Force, United States Atlantic Fleet in January 1946. Until June 1947 she tended destroyers in various east coast ports, primarily at Norfolk, Virginia, her home port. The tender deployed on her first tour of duty with the 6th Fleet from June through August 1947. In the next 20 years, she was assigned 13 more tours in the Mediterranean Sea. In 1958, she was awarded the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal service in Lebanon.

Shenandoahs most publicized tour of duty was in 1964. She won international acclaim for her heroic rescue of the crew of the Dutch merchant ship Doris. The freighter broke loose from her moorings during the height of a storm and became impaled upon the rocks of Molo San Vincenzo in Naples outer harbor. A line was run to the freighter by the crew of the Shenandoah, and all aboard were rescued minutes before Doris rolled over and sank. The destroyer tender also won recognition in 1965 for her repairs to the bow of the aircraft carrier  which had collided with a destroyer during maneuvers.

Shenandoah was awarded the Battle Efficiency Pennant for her competence in destroyer tending in 1952 and 1956 and the Meritorious Unit Commendation in 1970. She was awarded the Engineering "E" in 1958 and 1965, and the Supply "E" in 1962, 1963, and 1967. Shenandoah was again deployed with the 6th Fleet in 1968, 1970, and 1973. She returned to her home port on 15 December 1973 and into July 1974 was tending ships on the East Coast.

Shenandoah was decommissioned at Naval Station Norfolk, and simultaneously struck from the Naval Register on 1 April 1980. Transferred to the Maritime Administration for disposal, she was sold, 1 March 1982.

References

Shenandoah-class destroyer tenders
1945 ships
Tenders of the United States Navy
Destroyer tenders of the United States

USS Shenandoah (AD-26)


Steinkjer Skiklubb is a Norwegian skiing club from Steinkjer.

It was founded on 22 December 1885 under the name Indtrøndelagens SF. The name was changed to Steinkjer SK on 19 November 1892. World-level ski jumper Anders Bardal is a member of the club. Other members include ski jumper Ole Marius Ingvaldsen, and cross-country skiers Morten Brørs, Liv Miriam Nordtømme, Kent Ove Clausen, and Arnstein Finstad.

Local rival teams are Henning SL and Skogn IL.

References
Official site

Sports clubs and teams in Norway
Sports clubs and teams established in 1885
Sport in Trøndelag
Steinkjer
Ski jumping clubs in Norway

Steinkjer SK


The Nansemond River is a  tributary of the James River in Virginia in the United States. Virginian colonists named the river for the Nansemond tribe of Native Americans, who had long inhabited the area. They continue as a federally recognized tribe in Virginia.

The river begins at the outlet of Lake Meade north of downtown Suffolk, which had historically marked the northern boundary of the city. The Nansemond River Light once signaled the river's confluence with the James.

The Nansemond River Bridge, once a toll bridge and part of U.S. Route 17, crosses the river near its mouth. Two other bridges cross the river, one from downtown Suffolk and one on Route 58.

The Nansemond National Wildlife Refuge is located along the river.

See also
List of rivers of Virginia

References

Tributaries of the James River
Rivers of Virginia
Rivers of Suffolk, Virginia

Nansemond River


Riddlewood is a residential housing development in Middletown Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania, United States, a suburb of Philadelphia. The name comes from famous racehorse owner Samuel D. Riddle, who owned the property before it was developed in the 1950s. The names of the streets in Riddlewood are named after Sam Riddle's horses as follows: Man o' War, War Admiral, War Trophy, Rampart East, Rampart West, Anamosa, and Soldier Song.

There is also a Riddlewood Drive and a Palmer's Lane. The land for Riddlewood was purchased from the estate of Sam Riddle by the Arters Brothers. They, along with architect George Hay, developed the  site. There are three types of houses in the neighborhood, ranch, split-level, and a few Cape Cods. Riddlewood is as much a sought after neighborhood today as it was 50 years ago. Sam Riddle regained some notoriety in recent years because of his mention in the popular film and book Seabiscuit.

References

Unincorporated communities in Delaware County, Pennsylvania
Unincorporated communities in Pennsylvania

Riddlewood, Pennsylvania