FIFA has licensed FIFA World Cup video games since 1986, of which only a few were received positively by the critics, but given the popularity of the competition, they all did positively on the market, and the license is one of the most sought-after. Originally in the hands of U.S. Gold, Electronic Arts acquired it in 1997 and is the current holder.

World Cup Carnival (Mexico '86)

World Cup Carnival, was released by U.S. Gold, for the Commodore 64, the ZX Spectrum and the Amstrad CPC. While the license was acquired with time to spare, internal problems plagued the project's development. As the 1986 FIFA World Cup was coming closer, U.S. Gold decided to acquire the rights of an older game, World Cup Football by Artic, re-fit it with the properly licensed items, and market it as a new title. However, this late effort was received with cynicism from all in the video game industry: gamers, retailers and reviewers alike.

World Cup Soccer: Italia '90

Virgin Mastertronic released the official home computer game of the 1990 World Cup for Amiga, Amstrad CPC, Atari ST, Commodore 64, IBM PC compatibles, and ZX Spectrum. Like the 1986 game, this was actually a reworked existing game (World Trophy Soccer). The game is presented in a bird's-eye view but when the player gets near the goal, it switches to a 3D view of the penalty area and the player must try to score before a defender arrives on screen. The player can only choose to play as England, Belgium, Italy or Spain. The teams do not have the correct coloured strips and the tournament is not the same as the actual World Cup.

Virgin also released official console games in Europe as World Cup Italia '90 for the Mega Drive and Master System consoles. The Mega Drive version is a port of World Championship Soccer. The Master System version was another game, also released as Super Futebol II in Brazil.

A number of unofficial games were also released including Italy 1990 by previous license holders U.S. Gold.

World Cup USA '94

This game from U.S. Gold was ported to most active platforms of the day: DOS, Amiga, Genesis / Mega Drive, Sega CD, Master System, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy, and Game Gear. The Sega CD version includes a CD soundtrack including two songs by the Scorpions and FMV views of 3D renders of the stadiums used in the competition.

World Cup 98 (France)

For the first time in a football game, accurate national team kits were introduced complete with kit manufacturer logos and official merchandise. The game built on the previously released FIFA: Road to World Cup 98 engine, although it features some minor gameplay improvements such as in-game strategy changes and more tactically accurate player positioning. As in the FIFA series, World Cup 98 features a song in the menu: "Tubthumping", by Chumbawamba. The game also features voice-overs by Des Lynam and Gary Lineker in the team schedules. The World Cup classic mode is also an interesting feature, with classic black and white sepia-toned graphics and commentary by Kenneth Wolstenholme creating the feeling of watching an old World Cup game. The playable teams also included several nations that did not qualify for the finals, but were considered too important to exclude. It was released for Windows, PlayStation, Nintendo 64 and Game Boy.

Jikkyō World Soccer: World Cup France 98

In Japan, Konami was granted the FIFA World Cup licence to produce the Nintendo 64 video game Jikkyō World Soccer: World Cup France 98.  It was developed by Konami's Osaka based team, KCEO, and was only released in Japan.  This was released in the rest of the world as International Superstar Soccer '98, without the official FIFA World Cup licence, branding or real player names.

World Soccer Jikkyō Winning Eleven 3: World Cup France '98

In Japan, Konami was granted the FIFA World Cup licence to produce the PlayStation video game World Soccer Jikkyō Winning Eleven 3: World Cup France '98.  It was developed by Konami's Tokyo based team, KCET, and was only released in Japan.  This was released in the rest of the world as International Superstar Soccer Pro '98, without the official FIFA World Cup licence, branding or real player names.

World Cup '98 France: Road to Win
In Japan, Sega was granted the FIFA World Cup licence to produce the Saturn video game World Cup '98 France: Road to Win.

2002 FIFA World Cup (Korea/Japan)

An amalgamation between the game engines of FIFA Football 2002 and FIFA Football 2003, the game still incorporates the power bar for shots and crosses but with a steeper learning curve and higher chances of being penalized by the match referee. The national team kits are accurate along with player likeness and the stadia of the 2002 FIFA World Cup. Unlike the previous games in the FIFA series, the game had an original soundtrack performed by the Vancouver Symphony Orchestra.

It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, GameCube, and Xbox. The game was a launch title for GameCube in Europe.

2006 FIFA World Cup (Germany)

Created by EA Sports and was released during the last two weeks of April 2006. This game features not only the World Cup finals themselves, but the six regional qualification rounds. There are 127 national teams. You can also create a player and put in your favorite team. There are minor improvements in the game play over FIFA 06. The Global Challenge Mode includes 40 challenges based upon classic matches of the World Cup or qualification matches. Penalty Shoot-Out mode offers a more realistic experience.

2010 FIFA World Cup (South Africa)

The included teams were confirmed by Electronic Arts on 17 February 2010. The game contains 199 of the 204 national teams that took part in the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification process. Electronic Arts stated that they have included every team that FIFA have permitted them to use, with some others not being allowed for "various reasons". The five teams that were in the draw for World Cup qualifying but are not included in the game are African teams Central African Republic, Eritrea, and São Tomé and Príncipe, and Asian teams Bhutan and Guam. All five withdrew from the qualifying stage before it began. Additionally, the game does not feature Brunei, Laos, Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines who did not participate in World Cup qualifying.

The game includes all 10 venues used at the 2010 FIFA World Cup, as well as stadiums from each qualifying region and a range of "generic" stadiums.

2014 FIFA World Cup (Brazil)

The game contains all of the 203 national teams that took part in the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification process. The national teams of Bhutan, Brunei, Guam, Mauritania and South Sudan, all of which did not participate in World Cup qualifying, and Mauritius, that withdrew before playing any match, are not featured in the game.

The game includes all 12 venues used at the 2014 FIFA World Cup, as well as stadiums from each qualifying region and a range of "generic" stadiums.

There's also an EA-licensed collectible card game for Android and iOS: 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil World-class Soccer. The game is released in Japan and mainland China only.

FIFA 18 DLC (Russia)

On 30 April 2018, EA announced a free expansion for FIFA 18 based on the 2018 FIFA World Cup, featuring all 32 participating teams (and the ones already featured in FIFA 18) and all 12 stadiums used at the 2018 FIFA World Cup. There is no regional qualifying rounds that lead up to the World Cup to be feature on this DLC like there was for the previous three World Cup games. This update was released on 29 May on PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Windows and Nintendo Switch, with an update to mobile devices later, on 6 June. Coins transfer over from the actual Ultimate Team game and there is no transfer market, meaning all players have to be obtained from packs.

FIFA 23 DLC (Qatar)

FIFA 23 features both men's and women's World Cup game modes, replicating the 2022 FIFA World Cup and the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup. Once again this expansion does not feature a World Cup qualification mode that leads to the actual World Cup itself and only offers the tournament with the participating teams just like the previous 2018 DLC edition. Unlike the previous World Cup games, this mode doesn't include all tournament stadiums, as it includes only two out of eight stadiums.

FIFA Women's World Cup video games
Mia Hamm Soccer 64 was the first major standalone women's football video game, while FIFA 16 was the first of the FIFA series to include women's national teams. The FIFA 19 downloadable update allowed users to play only the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup Final, and FIFA 23 featured both women's club football and the Women's World Cup tournament mode for the first time in the FIFA series, replicating the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup and becoming EA Sports' most expansive FIFA Women's World Cup update to date. In September 2023, EA Sports FC 24 was released with the introduction of female players in Ultimate Team.

See also

UEFA European Championship video games
UEFA Champions League video games

References

External links
MobyGames links for:
Italy 1990 (US Gold), World Cup Italia 90 (Sega)World Cup USA '94World Cup 982002 FIFA World Cup''

Electronic Arts franchises
World Cup
Association football video games
Works about the FIFA World Cup
Video game franchises introduced in 1986

FIFA World Cup video games


The Buddha was born into a noble family in Lumbini in 563 BCE as per historical events and 624 BCE according to Buddhist tradition. He was called Siddhartha Gautama in his childhood. His father was king Śuddhodana, leader of the Shakya clan in what was the growing state of Kosala, and his mother was queen Maya. According to Buddhist legends, the baby exhibited the marks of a great man. A prophecy indicated that, if the child stayed at home, he was destined to become a world ruler. If the child left home, however, he would become a universal spiritual leader. To make sure the boy would be a great king and world ruler, his father isolated him in his palace and he was raised by his mother's younger sister, Mahapajapati Gotami, after his mother died just seven days after childbirth.

Separated from the world, he later married Yaśodharā (Yaśodharā was the daughter of King Suppabuddha and Amita), and together they had one child: a son named Rāhula. Both Yashodhara and Rāhula later became disciples of Buddha.

Suddhodana

Much of the information on Suddhodana comes from Buddhist legend and scripture. He is believed to be a leader of the Shakya clan, who lived within the state of Kosala, on the northern border of Ancient India. Although in Buddhist literature he is said to be a hereditary monarch, he is now believed to have been an elected head of a tribal confederacy. Suddhodana's father was King Sinahana mother was Queen Kachchana. Suddhodana married two Princesses from koliya kingdom. He was the only king who had more than one queen of his clan. Queen Maya was the eldest daughter of Koliya king Anjana and Prajapati Gotami was the youngest daughter. Siddhartha was the son born to Queen Maya, who later became Buddha. Prajapati Gotami had a daughter Sundari Nanda and a son Nanda with Suddhodana. According to Theravada texts Sundari Nanda was the eldest among his three children. While Siddhartha was the second born and Nanda was the youngest of the family.

Suddhodana was said to be greatly troubled by the departure of his son and is reported in Buddhist scriptures to have sent 10,000 messengers to plead with Gautama to return. After the Buddha preached the dharma to the messengers, they were all ordained into the sangha. Later, a friend of Suddhodana named Kaludayi invited the Buddha to return, at the request of Suddhodana. The Buddha also preached the dharma to him and Kaludayi was later ordained as a monk.

After this request from his father Gautama Buddha returned to his father's kingdom where he preached dharma to him. Gautama later returned again to his father's kingdom to see his father's death. Suddhodana became an arahant.

Maya

Maya was the mother of the Buddha and was from the Koliyan clan. Maya was born in Devadaha. She was married to her cousin King Suddhodana, who ruled in the kingdom of Kapilavastu.

In Buddhist texts, a white elephant was said to have entered her side during a dream. When she awoke she found that she was pregnant. As it was traditional to give birth in the homeland of the father, Queen Maya journeyed to Devadaha. However, she was forced to give birth en route, in the Lumbini grove. It is said that the Devas presided over the birth and that two streams, one cool and one hot, flowed down from the heavens.

Maya died seven days after the birth of her son, whom she had named Siddhartha or "he who achieves his aim." She is said, in Buddhist scriptures, to have been reborn in Tusita, where her son later visited her, paid respects and taught the dharma to her.

Yaśodharā
Princess Yaśodharā was the wife of Siddhartha who later became Gautama Buddha.She was the daughter of Koliya king Suppabuddha and Queen Amitha.

Siddhartha and Yaśodharā were first cousins.Yaśodharā's father was the brother of Queen Maya  and Mahapajapati Gotami while Her mother Amitha was the sister of King Suddhodana.
Yaśodharā was married to Siddhartha at the age of sixteen and both of them shared respect and rapport with each other but it is also said they both didn't have much desires toward marital life.It took long time Yaśodharā to conceive a child,a boy named Rahula born on the day Siddhartha left the palace.
Thereafter,since the departure of Siddhartha ,Yaśodharā spent a monastic life in the palace by wearing yellow colour robes and eating very less just as Siddhartha did.
On the day Siddhartha returned Kapilavastu  as Gautama Buddha to see his relatives,Yaśodharā met him after long.
King Suddodana described Buddha about how Yaśodharā did spend her life without Siddhartha.Buddha at that moment told the jathaka of "Sanda kinduruda " (Story of early life of Yaśodharā ) and how she devoted to him with great respect in previous lives.

After five years when Gautam Buddha gave permission of women entering to sangha she too became a bhikkhuni and attained arhat.

Rāhula

Rāhula (Pāli and Sanskrit) was the only firstborn son of Siddhārtha Gautama, and his wife and princess Yaśodharā. He is mentioned in numerous Buddhist texts, from the early period onward. Accounts about Rāhula indicate a mutual impact between Prince Siddhārtha's life and those of his family members. According to the Pāli tradition, Rāhula is born on the day of Prince Siddhārta's renunciation, and is therefore named Rāhula, meaning a fetter on the path to enlightenment. According to the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition, and numerous other later sources, however, Rāhula is only conceived on the day of Prince Siddhārtha, and is born six years later, when Prince Siddhārtha becomes enlightened as the Buddha. This long gestation period is explained by bad karma from previous lives of both Yaśodharā and of Rāhula himself, although more naturalistic reasons are also given. As a result of the late birth, Yaśodharā needs to prove that Rāhula is really Prince Siddhārtha's son, which she eventually does successfully by an act of truth. Historian  has argued that Prince Siddhārtha conceived Rāhula and waited for his birth, to be able to leave the palace with the king and queen's permission, but Orientalist Noël Péri considered it more likely that Rāhula was born after Prince Siddhārtha left his palace.

Between seven and fifteen years after Rāhula is born, the Buddha returns to Kapilavastu, where Yaśodharā has Rāhula ask the Buddha for the throne of the Śākya clan. The Buddha responds by having Rāhula ordain as the first Buddhist novice monk. He teaches the young novice about truth, self-reflection, and not-self, eventually leading to Rāhula's enlightenment. Although early accounts state that Rāhula dies before the Buddha does, later tradition has it that Rāhula is one of the disciples that outlives the Buddha, guarding the Buddha's Dispensation until the rising of the next Buddha. Rāhula is known in Buddhist texts for his eagerness for learning, and was honored by novice monks and nuns throughout Buddhist history. His accounts have led to a perspective in Buddhism of seeing children as hindrances to the spiritual life on the one hand, and as people with potential for enlightenment on the other hand.

Maha Pajapati Gotami

Maha Pajapati Gotami () was the youngest daughter of King Añjana  and Queen Sulakkhana. She was married to King Suddhodana with her elder sister Mahamaya (or Mayadevi). When her sister died after the birth of Siddartha Gautama, she took Siddartha into her care. She also had a daughter and a son respectively, Sundari Nanda and Nanda with King Suddodhana.

After the death of King Suddhodana, Maha Prajapati journeyed to find the Buddha. When she found him, she petitioned the Buddha, through Ananda, to allow women to enter the Sangha as bhikkhuni. After many refusals due to their safety sake, the Buddha finally agreed to allow women to enter the Sangha. Later Maha Pajapati became  Arhat.

Sundari Nanda

Sundari Nanda was the half sister of Buddha.She was the daughter of king Suddhodana and Maha Pajapati Gotami. She was considered to known as Rupa Nanda and Janapada Kalyani, because of her beauty .
She later became a bhikkhuni and became arhat.Also Buddha honored her as foremost among female disciples excellent in jhana.

Nanda

Nanda was the half-brother of the Buddha; the son of King Suddhodana and Maha Prajapati Gautami. Nanda persevered and became an Arahant.

Ananda

Ānanda was the primary attendant of the Buddha and one of his ten principal disciples. Among the Buddha's many disciples, Ānanda stood out for having the best memory. Most of the texts of the early Buddhist Sutta-Piṭaka (Pāli; ) are attributed to his recollection of the Buddha's teachings during the First Buddhist Council. For that reason, he is known as the "Treasurer of the Dhamma", with Dhamma () referring to the Buddha's teaching. In Early Buddhist Texts, Ānanda is the first cousin of the Buddha. Although the texts do not agree on most things about Ānanda's early life, they do agree that Ānanda is ordained as a monk and that Puṇṇa Mantāniputta () becomes his teacher. Twenty years in the Buddha's ministry, Ānanda becomes the attendant of the Buddha, when the Buddha selects him for this job. Ānanda performs his duties with great devotion and care, and acts as an intermediary between the Buddha and the laypeople, as well as the Saṅgha (monastic community). He accompanies the Buddha for the rest of his life, acting not only as an assistant, but also a secretary and a mouthpiece.

Scholars are skeptical about the historicity of many events in Ānanda's life, especially the First Council, and consensus about this has yet to be established. A traditional account can be drawn from early texts, commentaries, and post-canonical chronicles. Ānanda has an important role in establishing the order of bhikkhunis, when he requests the Buddha on behalf of the latter's foster-mother Mahāpajāpati Gotamī () to allow her to be ordained. Ānanda also accompanies the Buddha in the last year of his life, and therefore is witness to many tenets and principles that the Buddha conveys and establishes before his death, including the well-known principle that the Buddhist community should take his teaching and discipline as their refuge, and that the Buddha will not appoint a new leader. The final period of the Buddha's life also shows that Ānanda is still very much attached to the Buddha's person, and he witnesses the Buddha's passing with great sorrow.

Shortly after the Buddha's death, the First Council is convened, and Ānanda manages to attain enlightenment just before the council starts, which is a requirement. He has a historical role during the council as the living memory of the Buddha, reciting many of the Buddha's discourses and checking them for accuracy. During the same council, however, he is chastised by Mahākassapa () and the rest of the Saṅgha for allowing women to be ordained and failing to understand or respect the Buddha at several crucial moments. Ānanda continues to teach until the end of his life, passing on his spiritual heritage to his pupils Sāṇavāsī () and Majjhantika (), among others, who later assume a leading role in the Second and Third Councils. Ānanda dies in 463 BCE, and stūpas (monuments) are erected at the river where he dies.

Ānanda is one of the most loved figures in Buddhism. Ānanda is known for his memory, erudition and compassion, and is often praised by the Buddha for these matters. He functions as a foil to the Buddha, however, in that he still has worldly attachments and is not yet enlightened, as opposed to the Buddha. In the Sanskrit textual traditions, Ānanda is widely considered the patriarch of the Dhamma, who stands in a spiritual lineage, receiving the teaching from Mahākassapa and passing them on to his own pupils. Ānanda has been honored by bhikkhunis since early medieval times for his merits in establishing the nun's order. In recent times, the composer Richard Wagner wrote a draft for a libretto about Ānanda, which was made into the opera Wagner Dream by Jonathan Harvey in 2007.

Devadatta

Devadatta was the Paternal second cousin (or, in some accounts, paternal second cousin) of the Buddha he was small brother of Anand. He was ordained into the sangha along with his brothers and friends and their barber, Upāli, when the Buddha preached to the Shakyas in Kapilavastu.

For a time, Devadatta was highly respected among the sangha. Sariputta is said to have sung the praises of Devadatta in Rajagaha. After some time, Devadatta developed siddhis and his intention is said to have been corrupted. After gaining these siddhis, Devadatta attempted to murder the Buddha on several occasions, commonly thought to be motivated by jealousy of the Buddha's power. He is reported to have rolled a boulder toward the Buddha, injured his foot, and to have incited an elephant to charge at the Buddha and his disciples but was subdued by the Buddha.

Devadatta then attempted to split the sangha into two, with one faction led by himself and the other by the Buddha. However, this attempt failed as all of his converts returned to the Buddha's sangha.

Devadatta was reputedly remorseful toward the Buddha at later stage of his life. He is reported to have walked to the monastery where the Buddha was staying to seek for forgiveness but, as a result of bad deeds, he was swallowed up into the earth and reborn in Avici before he could ask for forgiveness.

See also
 Relics associated with Buddha
 Ten principal disciples
 Rohini (Gautama Buddha's cousin and disciple)

References

Sources

Gautama Buddha
Buddhist families

Family of Gautama Buddha


Sir Edwin Chadwick KCB (24 January 18006 July 1890) was an English social reformer who is noted for his leadership in reforming the Poor Laws in England and instituting major reforms in urban sanitation and public health.  A disciple of Utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham, he was most active between 1832 and 1854; after that he held minor positions, and his views were largely ignored. Chadwick pioneered the use of scientific surveys to identify all phases of a complex social problem, and pioneered the use of systematic long-term inspection programmes to make sure the reforms operated as planned.

Early life
Edwin Chadwick was born on 24 January 1800 at Longsight, Manchester, Lancashire His mother died when he was still a young child, yet to be named. His father, James Chadwick, tutored the scientist John Dalton in music and botany and was considered to be an advanced liberal politician, thus exposing young Edwin to political and social ideas. His grandfather, Andrew Chadwick, had been a close friend of the Methodist theologian John Wesley.

He began his education at a small local school and then at a boarding school in Stockport, where he studied until he was 10. When his family moved to London in 1810, Chadwick continued his education with the help of private tutors, his father and a great deal of self-teaching.

His father remarried in the early 1820s; Edwin's younger half-brother was baseball icon Henry Chadwick, born in 1824.

At 18, Chadwick decided to pursue a career in law and undertook an apprenticeship with a solicitor. In 1823, he enrolled in law school at The Temple in London. On 26 November 1830 he was called to the bar, becoming a barrister.

Called to the bar without independent means, he sought to support himself by literary work such as his work on 'Applied Science and its Place in Democracy', and his essays in the Westminster Review, mainly on different methods of applying scientific knowledge to the practice of government. He became friends with two of the leading philosophers of the day, John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. Bentham engaged him as a literary assistant and left him a large legacy. He also became acquaintanced with Thomas Southwood Smith, Neil Arnott and James Kay-Shuttleworth, all doctors.

From his exposure to social reform and under the influence of his friends, he began to devote his efforts to sanitary reform. In 1832, Chadwick began on his path to make improvements with sanitary and health conditions.

Reformer

In 1832, he was employed by the Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the operation of the Poor Law, and in 1833, he was made a full member of that commission. Chadwick and Nassau William Senior drafted the famous report of 1834, recommending the reform of the old law. Under the 1834 system, individual parishes were formed into Poor Law Unions, and each Poor Law Union was to have a union workhouse. Chadwick favoured a more centralised system of administration than the one adopted, and he felt the Poor Law reform of 1834 should have provided for the management of poor law relief by salaried officers controlled from a central board, with the boards of guardians acting merely as inspectors.

In 1834, he was appointed secretary to the Poor Law commissioners. Unwilling to administer an act of which he was largely the author in any way other than as he thought best, he found it hard to get along with his superiors. The disagreement, among others, contributed to the dissolution of the Poor Law Commission in 1847. His chief contribution to political controversy was his belief in entrusting certain departments of local affairs to trained and selected experts instead of to representatives, elected on the principle of local self-government.

Sanitation
Following a serious outbreak of typhus in 1838, Chadwick convinced the Poor Law Board that an enquiry was required, and this was initially carried out by his doctor friends Arnot and Southwood Smith, assisted by another doctor from Manchester, James Kay Shuttleworth. This was the first time in British history that doctors were employed to look at the conditions which might contribute to ill health in the population. Chadwick sent questionnaires to every Poor Law Union, and talked to surveyors, builders, prison governors, police officers and factory inspectors to obtain additional data about the lives of the poor. He edited the information himself, and prepared it for publication. His Report on The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain, begun in 1839 and published in 1842, was researched and published at his own expense, and became the best-selling publication produced by the Stationery Office to date. A supplementary report was also published in 1843.

He employed John Roe, the surveyor for the district of Holborn and Finsbury who had invented the egg-shaped sewer, to conduct experiments on the most efficient ways to construct drains, the results of which were incorporated into the report, and the summary included eight points, including the absolute necessity of better water supplies and of a drainage system to remove waste, as ways to diminish premature mortality. Evidence given by Dr Dyce Guthrie convinced Chadwick that every house should have a permanent water supply, rather than the intermittent supplies from standpipes that were often provided. The report caught the public imagination, and the government had to set up a Royal Commission on the Health of Towns to consider the issues and recommend legislation. Its chairman was the Duke of Baccleuch, and there were thirteen members, including the engineers Robert Stephenson and William Cubitt. Chadwick acted as secretary in an unofficial capacity, and seems to have dominated the proceedings.

The Commission took evidence from Robert Thom, who had designed a water supply system for Greenock, Thomas Wicksteed, who was the engineer for the East London Waterworks Company, and Thomas Hawksley from the Trent Waterworks, Nottingham. These confirmed his ideas about constant water supplies, and he developed a model which he called the "venous and arterial system." Each house would have a constant water supply, and water-closets would ensure that soil was discharged into egg-shaped sewers, to be carried away and spread on the land as manure, preventing rivers from becoming polluted. Followed the publication of the commission's report, the Health of Towns Association was formed and various city-based branches were created. Chadwick later helped to ensure that the Waterworks Clauses Act 1847 became law, to limit the profits that water supply companies could make to 10 per cent, and requiring them to comply with reasonable demands for water. This included a constant supply of wholesome water for houses, and a supply for cleansing sewers and watering streets.

Chadwick wanted to see his ideas implemented over a wide area, and set about forming a company to supply water to towns, to ensure their drainage and cleansing, and to use the refuse for agricultural production. It was to have the grandiose title "The British, Colonial and Foreign Drainage, Water Supply and Towns Improvement Company", with an initial capital of £1 million, but it was the time of the Railway Mania, and he struggled to raise the finance against such competition. The company when it was eventually registered became the more modest Towns Improvement Company. Railways continued to dominate the money market, and the company was wound up after just three years. Chadwick understood that both water supply and drainage were important, since replacing earth-closets with water closets resulted in cesspools overflowing and making sanitary conditions worse, unless there were sewers to carry the waste away. This led to a rift forming between him and Hawksley, who had initially worked closely with him but who later took on water supply projects which did not include any requirement for drainage.

Public Health Act
Chadwick's report led to the Public Health Act 1848, which was the first instance of the British government taking responsibility for the health of its citizens. It had been introduced by Lord Morpeth in 1847, with the aim or requiring every town to supply water to every house, which they could do by building their own waterworks or by liaising with water companies, and to undertake drainage, sewerage and street paving projects. Most of its grand aims were considerably watered down by the time it became law, but it established a Central Board of Health, whose members were Lord Morpeth, Lord Shaftesbury, and Chadwick. They were later joined by Southwood Smith, who acted as a medical advisor. Districts could pay for a survey from an inspector employed by the Board, and could then proceed without the need to obtain a costly local Act to authorise the work. Chadwick chose all of the inspectors himself, ensuring that they shared his views on glazed sewer pipes, constant water supply and arterial drainage. They worked enthusiastically, ensuring that districts considered comprehensive schemes for water supply, drainage and sewerage.

Ratepayers in a district could request an inspector to attend if ten per cent of them signed a petition. The Board could also hold an enquiry if the death rate of a district exceeded 23 per 1000, but gauged the level of local feeling, and formed a local Board if there was support, and withdrew tactfully if there was opposition. By 1853, they had received requests for inspections from 284 towns, and 13 combined water supply, sewerage and drainage schemes had been completed under the legislation. Relationships with engineers were not always easy, with J. M. Rendel calling Chadwick's ideas "sanitary humbug" and Robert Stephenson stating that he hated the ideas of pipes, rather than brick-built sewers. Even Joseph Bazalgette, who went on to design London's trunk sewer network, spoke out against glazed sewer pipes. As time went by, there was growing opposition to what was seen as central control by the Board. The rift between Chadwick and Hawksley had become open hostility, and Hawksley made serious complaints against Chadwick and one of the Board's inspectors to a Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1853. Opposition from engineers increased, and a "Private Enterprise Society" was formed by Hawksley and James Simpson, with the intent of bringing down the Board. Shaftsbury, Chadwick and Southwood Smith all had to resign in 1854, and the Board did not last for long afterwards. Chadwick lived to see his position vindicated when the Local Government Board was established in 1871, which led to the formation of the Ministry of Health. Since then, it has been widely acknowledged that public health is a matter of government responsibility, working through local authorities.

In 1851, Chadwick made a recommendation that a single authority should take over the nine separate water supply companies that operated in London. Although this idea was rejected by the Government, the Metropolitan Water Supply Act 1852 forced the companies to move the intakes for their water to locations above Teddington weir, to filter water before it was used for domestic supply, to cover filtered water reservoirs, and to ensure that there was a constant water supply to all users by 1857. This was not achieved until 1899, and Chadwick's recommendation for a single authority was eventually implemented in 1902, with the formation of the Metropolitan Water Board.

In 1852, Chadwick conversed with Lewis Llewelyn Dillwyn in relation to the construction of a sewerage system in Swansea.

Chadwick's efforts were acknowledged by at least one health reformer of the day: Erasmus Wilson dedicated his 1854 book Healthy Skin to Chadwick "In admiration of his strenuous and indefatigable labours in the cause of Sanitary Reform".

He  corresponded with Florence Nightingale on methodology. He encouraged her to write up her research into the book Notes on Nursing. He promoted it among well placed intellectuals, making her more visible.

Later life
Chadwick was a commissioner of the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers in London from 1848 to 1849. He was also a commissioner of the General Board of Health from its establishment in 1848 to its abolition in 1854, when he retired on a pension. He occupied the remainder of his life in voluntary contributions to sanitary, health and economic questions.

In January 1884, he was appointed as the first president of the Association of Public Sanitary Inspectors, now the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health. Its head office, in Waterloo, London, is named Chadwick Court, in his honour.

While he is well known for his work with the Poor Law and with sanitation, he also contributed to other areas of public policy. These included tropical hygiene, criminal justice institutions, policy regarding funerals and burials in urban areas, school architecture, utilisation of sewage, military sanitation and the education of paupers. He was involved in investigations into child labour in factories, the organisation of the police force, drunkenness, the treatment of labourers on the railways, the building and maintenance of roads, organisation of the civil service, and various aspects of education. Most of these benefitted from his use of statistical methods to collect and organise data, and of the use of anecdotal evidence to support his conclusions. He was involved in a number of organisations, including the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, the Royal Society of Arts, the Royal Statistical Society, the London Debating Society and the Political Economy Club.

In recognition of his public service, he was knighted in 1889. He served in his post until his death, at 90, in 1890, at East Sheen, Richmond on Thames. He was buried at Mortlake Cemetery.

Chadwick is remembered at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine where his name appears among the names of 23 pioneers of public health and tropical medicine  chosen to be honoured when the School was built in 1929.
He is also commemorated at Heriot Watt University in Edinburgh, Scotland for the engineering building.

According to Priti Joshi in 2004 the evaluation of his career has drastically changed since the 1950s:
The Chadwick that emerges in recent accounts could not be more different from the mid-century Chadwick. The post-war critics saw him as a visionary, an often-embattled crusader for public health whose enemies were formidable but whose vision, extending the liberal and radical tradition, ultimately prevailed. Cultural critics, on the other hand, present a Chadwick who misrepresented (if not outright oppressed) the poor and who was instrumental in developing a massive bureaucracy to police their lives. Thus, while earlier accounts highlighted Chadwick's accomplishments, the progress of public health reforms, and the details of legislative politics, more recent ones draw attention to his representations of the poor, the erasures in his text, and the growing nineteenth-century institutionalization of the poor that the Sanitary Report promotes. Chadwick, in other words, is portrayed as either a pioneer of reform or an avatar of bureaucratic oppression.

Such views are not universally held. Thus Ekelund and Price in their assessment of Chadwick's economic policies in 2012 wrote:
It is no exaggeration to note that Chadwick is an almost singular progenitor of public health in the UK and elsewhere. The one hundredth anniversary of his death (1990) and the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the first Public Health Act (1848) was an occasion of serious and deserved plaudits for him in the United States and abroad. His prowess in sanitation engineering has also been duly noted. These excellent works appropriately feature Chadwick's role as one of the two or three most important policy makers of nineteenth century England.

Works

References
Attribution:

Bibliography

Further reading
 Finer, S.E. The life and times of Sir Edwin Chadwick (1952)  excerpt
 Hamlin, Christopher. Public Health & Social Justice in the Age of Chadwick: Britain, 1800-1854 (1998) excerpt
 Hanley, James. "Edwin Chadwick and the poverty of statistics." Medical history 46.1 (2002): 21+. online
 Joshi, Priti. "Edwin Chadwick's Self-Fashioning: Professionalism, Masculinity, and the Victorian Poor." Victorian Literature and Culture 32.2 (2004): 353–370.
 Lewis, R. A. Edwin Chadwick and the public health movement, 1832–1854 (1952)
 Mandler, Peter. "Chadwick, Sir Edwin (1800–1890)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2008 accessed 25 Oct 2017  doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/5013

External links

  Marjie Bloy, "Edwin Chadwick (1800–1890)", The Victorian Web

 1842 Sanitary Report on the UK Parliament website
 Sir Edwin Chadwick at UCL

1800 births
1890 deaths
Environmental health practitioners
Water supply and sanitation in London
People from Longsight
People in public health
British reformers
British social reformers
Environmental health
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath

Edwin Chadwick


Lower Croan (, meaning lower little hut) is a farmstead in Cornwall, England, UK. It is in the parish of Egloshayle and Croan house (a quarter of a mile) and Croanford (half a mile) are to the east. Croan House is a manor house of two storeys and seven bays which was built in the 1690s for a prosperous attorney.

References

Farms in Cornwall

Lower Croan


Minamoto (源) are actually kingdom surname given by the Emperors of Japan for members of the imperial family who were excluded from the line to become next Emperor and lowered into the ranks of the common lords since 814. The Minamoto was the most powerful clan of all four great clans that dominated Japanese politics during the Heian, Kamakura, Muromachi and Edo periods in Japanese history. The other three were the Fujiwara, the Taira, and the Tachibana.

The Minamoto clan is also called the Genji (源氏, "Minamoto clan"), or sometimes the Genke (源家, "House of Minamoto"), using the On'yomi readings of gen (源) for "Minamoto", while shi or ji (氏) means "clan", and ke (家) is used to read "extended family".

The Taira, their rival were actually Emperor descendant too which make them Cousin to the Minamoto.

History of Japan

Minamoto clan


Tales From The Bully Pulpit is a graphic novel released October 25, 2004. It was written by Benito Cereno, illustrated by Graeme MacDonald, and distributed by Image Comics.  The comic stars Theodore Roosevelt, the ghost of Thomas Edison, and a time machine stolen from H. G. Wells, and has cameos from several historical figures.

Tales From the Bully Pulpit traces Roosevelt (or "Teddy") and Edison's adventure through time into the future, where Teddy discovers that a descendant (and look-alike) of Adolf Hitler has survived, and is planning on creating a new war and a new holocaust on Mars, this time pitting the green-skinned Martians against the blue-skinned Martians.

Teddy's characterization in this comic hearkens back to his rough rider days more than his days as the President of the United States—he is portrayed more as an adventurer than as a statesman.

The comic makes many references to other comics and film—including most notably Back to the Future, Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure, Maus, and Watchmen—and parodies many tropes of science fiction and pulp story-telling.

Tales From the Bully Pulpit, although fast becoming a new cult-favorite, did not have a large initial print run, and has become difficult to find. The cover art, though uncredited, was done by the Eisner Award-nominated Tony Moore.

The sequel Tales From the Bully Pulpit vol 2: Legend of the Black Maria has no confirmed print date, but Benito Cereno has confirmed both its title and eventual existence.

Critical reaction
Publishers Weekly found it entertaining, "exceedingly smart and funny", but criticised the lack of deeper themes that left the comic essentially superficial, Comic Book Resources considered it "delightfully simple in its awesomeness".

See also
Thomas Edison in popular culture

References

External links
 at Newsarama - Describes many of the in-jokes and decodes the obscure references littered throughout the comic

2004 comics debuts
The Time Machine
Steampunk comics
Image Comics graphic novels
Cultural depictions of Thomas Edison
Works about Theodore Roosevelt

Tales from the Bully Pulpit


Timothy Lewis – best known by the stage name Thighpaulsandra – is a Welsh experimental musician and multi-instrumentalist, known mostly for performing on synthesizers and keyboards. He began his career working with Julian Cope in the late 1980s, becoming a member of Cope's touring band. A collaboration with Cope in 1993 followed, forming the experimental duo Queen Elizabeth. In 1997, former Cope guitarist Mike Mooney invited Thighpaulsandra to fill in for the departing Kate Radley on a Spiritualized tour, and he remained with the band until early 2008. In 1998, Lewis also became a member of the experimental band Coil. He has subsequently released several solo albums under the Thighpaulsandra moniker.

Lewis currently performs and records as part of URUK with Massimo Pupillo (of Italian band Zu) and UUUU, a band also featuring Valentina Magaletti and Wire members Graham Lewis and Matthew Simms. He has also been playing with The Charlatans' Tim Burgess since 2020, as part of Burgess' solo backing band. Since 2021 he has been touring with Hawkwind and appears as a performer and co-writer on their 2023 album The Future Never Waits.

Career
Beginning his career in the early 1980s with the hair metal band Temper Temper, he next became the house engineer and studio manager at Loco Studios near Newport. It was here that he first met Julian Cope and, as they bonded over a shared love of krautrock, Thighpaulsandra was invited to contribute synthesizers to Cope's Def American albums Autogeddon, 20 Mothers, Interpreter, and Rite2.

In 1997, he joined the band Spiritualized for a US tour and survived the cuts made to the band shortly thereafter. Thighpaulsandra can be heard on the records Live at the Albert Hall, Let It Come Down, Amazing Grace and Songs in A&E.
Thighpaulsandra also collaborated with Spiritualized's Jason Pierce on the 2008 soundtrack to the Harmony Korine film Mister Lonely.

In 1998 he began working with Coil with Peter Christopherson and John Balance, and performed on Astral Disaster, Musick to Play in the Dark Vol. 1 and Musick to Play in the Dark Vol. 2. Thighpaulsandra was largely responsible for convincing Christopherson and Balance to perform live for the first time in over a decade, first appearing at the Julian Cope curated Cornucopea festival at the Royal Festival Hall in 2000.
Thighpaulsandra is currently working on upcoming Coil re-releases.

His first three solo releases came out via the Coil label, Eskaton. John Balance provided vocals for Thighpaulsandra's first release Some Head EP, and Peter Christopherson designed the artwork for the I, Thighpaulsandra double album and for the following "Double Vulgar" albums.
The artwork for the Double Vulgar album caused some controversy with several printers not willing to reproduce the controversial imagery.
Double Vulgar II was delayed, possibly for the same reason, along with the passing of friend and colleague John Balance in 2004.

Since leaving Spiritualized in 2008 Thighpaulsandra has worked with Elizabeth Fraser on her forthcoming solo album and was part of her group for a series of live shows at the Royal Festival Hall in 2012 as part of the Meltdown Festival.

In September 2013 he joined Wire on their UK and European tours playing keyboards.

After a hiatus from solo work, Thighpaulsandra released The Golden Communion in 2015.

In 2016 and 2017 respectively he began recording and touring with Massimo Pupillo (of Italian band Zu) as Uruk and Valentina Magaletti and Graham Lewis and Matthew Simns as UUUU.
Uruk have released two albums, I Leave A Silver Trail through Blackness in 2017 and Mysterium Coniunctionis in 2018.
UUUU's first release, entitled UUUU is a full-length album released in 2017 and their second, an EP entitled UUUU-EP, was released in 2018.

From 2020 Thighpaulsandra has been playing with Tim Burgess.

Thighpaulsandra is currently working on a new Laniakea album with Daniel O'Sullivan and Massimo Pupillo.

From August 2021 Thighpaulsandra has been playing live with veteran psychedelic rockers Hawkwind, and appears on their latest album The Future Never Waits.

Discography
Some Head EP – (2000)
I, Thighpaulsandra – (2001)
The Michel Publicity Window E.P. – (2001)
Double Vulgar – (2003)
Rape Scene – (2004)
Double Vulgar II – (2005)
Chamber Music – (2005)
The Lepore Extrusion – (2006)
The Clisto E.P. – (2007)
The Golden Communion – (2015)
Practical Electronics With Thighpaulsandra – (2019)
Compilation appearances
"Heaven Lies About Us in Our Infancy" on Brain in the Wire (2002)
"Christ's Teeth" on ...It Just Is (2005)
"Star Malloy" on Not Alone (2006)
"Am Smear Challenger" on Brainwaves (2006)
Remixes
"At the Crossroads Motel" on Cadaverous Condition: Destroying the Night Sky (2008)
"Moses (Thighpaulsandra Remix)" on Elizabeth Fraser: Moses (2009)

with Coil
Astral Disaster (1999)
Musick to Play in the Dark Vol. 1 (1999)
Musick to Play in the Dark Vol. 2 (2000)
Coil Presents Time Machines (2000)
Queens of the Circulating Library (2000)
Constant Shallowness Leads to Evil (2000)
Live One (2003)
Live Two (2003)
Live Four (2003)
Megalithomania! (2003)
The Key to Joy is Disobedience (2003)
Black Antlers (2004)
Selvaggina, Go Back into the Woods (2004)
ANS (2004)
The Ape of Naples (2005)

with Spiritualized
The Abbey Road EP (1998)
Royal Albert Hall October 10 1997 (1998)
Stop Your Crying (2001)
Let It Come Down (2001)
Out of Sight (2001)
Do It All Over Again (2002)
Amazing Grace (2003)
She Kissed Me (2003)
Cheapster (2004)
Songs in A&E (2008)

with Julian Cope
Autogeddon (1994)
Paranormal in the West Country
20 Mothers (1995)
Ambulence
I Come From Another Planet, Baby
Interpreter (1996)
Planetary Sit-In
Propheteering
Odin (1999)
An Audience with Julian Cope
Rite Now (2002)
"Love Peace & Fuck (2001)"

with Queen Elizabeth
Queen Elizabeth
QE2: Elizabeth Vagina
Queen Elizabeth Hall - Live

with The Waterboys
A Rock in the Weary Land (2000)

with Cyclobe
The Visitors
Angry Eelectric Finger Part Two: Paraparaparallelogramattica
Wounded Galaxies Tap at the Window

with Uruk
I Leave A Silver Trail Through Blackness
Mysterium Coniunctionis

with UUUU
UUUU
UUUU-EP

with Daniel O'Sullivan
Folly (O Genesis)

with Tim Burgess
I Love The New Sky (2020)

with Hawkwind
We Are Looking In On You (live album, 2022)
The Future Never Waits (2023)

References

External links
Official Site

Living people
The Waterboys members
British experimental musicians
Welsh keyboardists
1958 births
Coil (band) members
Spiritualized members

Thighpaulsandra


Toyen (born Marie Čermínová; 21 September 1902 – 9 November 1980), was a Czech painter, drafter, and illustrator and a member of the surrealist movement.

In 1923, the artist adopted the professional pseudonym Toyen. The name Toyen has been suggested to be derived from the French word 'citoyen,' meaning citizen, but it has also been proposed to be a play on the Czech expression 'to je on' ('it is he'). Toyen favored this gender-neutral mononym (in Czech the family name is gendered, with women's names ending in "ová") and would speak the language in the masculine singular form. Vítězslav Nezval wrote that Toyen "refused... to use the feminine endings" when speaking in the first person.

Biography
Toyen left the family home at sixteen, and it has been speculated it was due to sympathy towards anarchism.

In the early 1920s, Toyen resided in Smichov with their older sister, Zdena Svobodova, whose husband worked for the railroad. Though the artist presented themself as a lone wolf, family was located nearby and they could visit with their mother whenever they wished, though visits were scarce. In 1940, Toyen and their sister each inherited split custody of their mother's home until Zdena's death in 1945, then the property became divided between Toyen and the widower.

From 1919 to 1920, Toyen attended UMPRUM (Academy of Arts, Architecture and Design) in Prague to study the decorative arts. They worked closely with fellow Surrealist poet and artist Jindřich Štyrský until Štyrský's death.

Toyen joined the Czech avant-garde Devětsil group in 1923 and exhibited with them. The group had strong international connections, especially but not only to French culture. Some of the other members of this very large group included: artist and writer Jindřich Štyrský, future Nobel prizewinning poet Jaroslav Seifert, the constructivist architectural theorist Karel Teige, and the poet František Halas. In the early 1920s Toyen traveled to Paris, and soon returned there with Štyrský to live. While living in Paris, the two founded an artistic alternative to Abstraction and Surrealism, which they dubbed Artificialism. Artificialism was defined by Toyen and Štyrský in a leaflet for an exhibition as "The identification of the painter with the poet," where the artist creates poetry without using language. The two would return to Prague in 1928.

Toyen's sketches, book illustrations, and paintings were frequently erotic. They had an interest in erotic humor, combining themes of both pleasure and pain. Their imagery often featured disembodied female figures as well as parts of male bodies like genitalia. Their book illustrations often featured female faces.

Toyen contributed erotic sketches for Štyrský's Erotická Revue (1930–33). This journal was published on strict subscription terms based on a circulation of 150 copies. Štyrský also published books under the imprint Edice 69, some of which Toyen illustrated. For example, Toyen illustrated the Marquis de Sade's Justine. Also of note, they contributed pieces in Die Frau als Künstlerin, Woman as an Artist, the prestigious 1928 survey of women artists in Western civilization.

Toyen's output of over 500 illustrated books includes, for example, The Purple Land by W. H. Hudson and Charles Vildrac's L'lle rose, both from 1930.

After their associates Vítězslav Nezval and Jindřich Honzl met André Breton in Paris, in March 1934 Toyen and Štyrský joined them in founding the Czech Surrealist Group along with other artists, writers, and the composer Jaroslav Ježek.

Forced underground during the Nazi occupation and Second World War, Toyen sheltered their second artistic partner, Jindřich Heisler, a poet of Jewish descent who had joined the Czech Surrealist Group in 1938. The two permanently relocated to Paris in 1947, before the Communist takeover of Czechoslovakia in 1948, and joined the Parisian Surrealists. In Paris, Toyen worked with André Breton, Benjamin Péret and other surrealists such as Annie Le Brun. Toyen would continue to collaborate with surrealist-affiliated poets and other writers but soon ceased working for commercial publishers in Czechoslovakia.

Exploring sexuality and gender in surrealism

Toyen's artistic identity involved significant attention to gender issues and sexual politics. It has been suggested that this would have been difficult considering the surrealist movement was male-dominated and is often regarded as sexist. However, surrealism began to attract many women in the 1930s and became much more gender-balanced as time went by. Breton in particular admired Toyen and the artist was close to both Breton and his third wife, Elisa.

Toyen was assigned female at birth, but appears to have preferred a less-gendered identification. Some people compare Toyen with "other Surrealist women" (Claude Cahun, Leonora Carrington, and a handful of others). Cahun examined the fluidity of gender roles, which was also true of Toyen. Toyen often dressed in masculine-style clothing and preferred masculine signifiers, choosing a non-conformist position when it came to gender and sexuality, themes heavily mined in Surrealist art. The act of cross-dressing was a tool used by Toyen and woman artists at the time to overcome institutionalized and cultural sexism. By doing so, they embodied the role of the active protagonist, a role reserved traditionally for men. Toyen, along with women of the avant-garde movement such as Natalia Goncharova and Zinaida Gippius called these boundaries to light, then actively transcended them by adopting masculine attributes.

The artist often addressed gender and sexuality in humorous and fantasy-erotic illustrations. Toyen has been theorized by Malynne Sternstein as "hypersexualized."

The surrealists believed that humans are sexual beings, and many surrealists linked sexuality to artistic creativity. Some surrealists deemed sexuality to be central, with genitalia as the center of vitality.

Toyen expressed interest in lesbian sexuality along with many other forms of sexual expression, but it is unknown what the artist's personal sexual activity actually included. Toyen's two major artistic partnerships were with men, but it is not known whether these included sexual contact. According to Huebner, it is best to see Toyen as queer and not attempt to categorize the artist's sexuality or gender.

Toyen has been described as presenting in an "ambiguously gendered" manner due to alternately wearing skirts and more masculine-styled attire. Toyen's contemporaries reported Toyen as walking in an unfeminine way and asserting that they were attracted to women.

Posthumous recognition
Asteroid (4691) Toyen is named in their honor.

References

Further reading

External links
 Biography in Czech and English

1902 births
1980 deaths
Painters from Prague
Czech painters
Czech artists
Czech illustrators
Czech printmakers
Czech feminists
Czechoslovak emigrants to France
French printmakers
Czech surrealist artists
French surrealist artists
Women surrealist artists
Modern printmakers
Czech LGBT artists
20th-century Czech painters
French erotic artists
20th-century printmakers
Burials at Batignolles Cemetery
20th-century Czech LGBT people
Academy of Arts, Architecture and Design in Prague alumni

Toyen


Raimbaut II, Count of Orange (in Latin Raimboldus comes de Oringis) was the elder son of  and of his first wife Gilberte.

Biography
Raimbaut's date of birth is not known (possibly around 1066 in Orange). According to two sources, Albert of Aix and William of Tyre (neither of them eyewitnesses), he joined the First Crusade in the army of Raymond of Saint-Gilles, presumably setting out in 1096; his name is linked with those of Adhemar of Le Puy and Robert II of Flanders, and he is said to have been present at the siege of Antioch in 1098. He remained in Palestine and died there, probably in 1121.

He married a certain Rixende of Apt. No sons survived him. But his daughter, Tiburge, Countess of Orange, in her father's prolonged absence, was being named "countess of Orange" as early as 1115. She married William of Aumelas, second son of William VI of Montpellier; she was still alive in 1136. Their son (Raimbaut's only grandson) was the troubadour Raimbaut of Orange, and he inherited the territories of Aumelas and Orange.

A statue of Raimbaut, count of Orange, was erected in the main square at Orange in 1846.

11th-century births
1121 deaths
People from Orange, Vaucluse
Counts of Orange
Christians of the First Crusade

Raimbaut II, Count of Orange


Ignatius G. Mattingly (1927–2004) was a prominent American linguist and speech scientist. Prior to his academic career, he was an analyst for the National Security Agency from 1955 to 1966.   He was a Lecturer and then Professor of Linguistics at the University of Connecticut from 1966 to 1996 and a researcher at Haskins Laboratories from 1966 until his death in 2004. He is best known for his pioneering work on speech synthesis  and reading and for his theoretical work on the motor theory of speech perception in conjunction with Alvin Liberman . He received his B.A. in English from Yale University in 1947, his M.A. in Linguistics from Harvard University in 1959, and his Ph.D. in English from Yale University in 1968.

Speech Synthesis
Ignatius Mattingly , working with British collaborators, John N. Holmes  and J.N. Shearme , adapted the Haskins Pattern playback rules to write the first computer program for synthesizing continuous speech from a phonetically spelled input. A further step toward a reading machine for the blind combined Mattingly's program with an automatic look-up procedure for converting alphabetic text into strings of phonetic symbols. In the 1960s he also produced the first prosodic synthesis by rule.

Bibliography
 Mattingly, I. G., Liberman, A. M., Syrdal, A. K., & Halwes, T. (1971). Discrimination in speech and nonspeech modes. Cognitive Psychology, 2, 131-157.
 Mattingly, I. G. (1972). Reading, the linguistic process, and linguistic awareness. In J. F. Kavanagh & I. G. Mattingly (Eds.), Language by ear and by eye: The relationships between speech and reading.(pp. 133–147). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
 Mattingly, I. G. (1972). Speech cues and sign stimuli. American Scientist, 60, 327-337.
 Mattingly, Ignatius G. (1974). Speech synthesis for phonetic and phonological models. In Thomas A. Sebeok (Ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics, Volume 12, Mouton, The Hague, pp. 2451–2487.
 Liberman, A. M. & Mattingly, I. G. (1985). The motor theory of speech perception revised. Cognition, 21, 1-36.
 Mattingly, I. G. (1990). The global character of phonetic gestures. Journal of Phonetics, 18, 445-452.
Mattingly, I. G. (1991). Reading and the biological function of linguistic representation. In I. G. Mattingly & M. Studdert-Kennedy (Eds.), Modularity and the Motor Theory of Speech Perception (pp. 339–346). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

References

External links
 Haskins Laboratories Mattingly page
 Klatt Record Audio Examples - first prosodic synthesis by rule by Mattingly
 Smithsonian Speech Synthesis History Project

1927 births
2004 deaths
Linguists from the United States
Speech perception researchers
Dyslexia researchers
Harvard University alumni
Haskins Laboratories scientists
Yale University alumni
University of Connecticut faculty
20th-century linguists

Ignatius Mattingly


Hippobroma longiflora, also called Star of Bethlehem or madamfate, is a flowering plant in the family Campanulaceae. It is the only species in the genus Hippobroma. It is endemic to the West Indies, but has become naturalized across the American tropics and Oceania.

It is notable for its concentrations of two pyridine alkaloids: lobeline and nicotine. The effects of nicotine and lobeline are quite similar, with psychoactive effects at small dosages and with unpleasant effects including vomiting, muscle paralysis, and trembling at higher dosages. For this reason, H. longiflora (and its various synonyms) is often referenced for both its toxicity and its ethnobotanical uses.

When uprooting this weed, it is important to wear gloves: the sap is an irritant which can be absorbed through the skin, and a small amount of sap in the eyes can cause blindness.

References

Lobelioideae
Monotypic Campanulaceae genera
Entheogens
Endemic flora of Jamaica
Flora of Jamaica

Hippobroma


The 1887 Yellow River flood in Qing China began in September 1887 and killed at least 930,000 people. It was the single deadliest flood in China, making it one of the largest disasters in China by death toll.

History
For centuries, the farmers living near the Yellow River in China had built dikes to contain the rivers, which over time flowed higher because, not allowed to flood, they had to deposit their silt on the riverbed. In 1887, this rising river, swollen by days of heavy rain, overcame the dikes on around 28 September, causing a massive flood. Since there is no international unit to measure a flood's strength it is usually classified by the extent of the damage done, depth of the water, and the number of casualties.

The waters of the Yellow River are generally thought to have broken through the dikes in Huayuankou, near the city of Zhengzhou in Henan province. Owing to the low-lying plains near the area, the flood spread very quickly throughout Northern China, covering an estimated , swamping agricultural settlements and commercial centers. After the flood, two million were left homeless. The resulting pandemic and lack of basic essentials claimed as many lives as those lost directly to the flood. It was one of the worst floods in history, though the later 1931 Yangtze-Huai River flood may have killed as many as four million.
The highest estimated death toll is 2,000,000.

See also

List of disasters in China by death toll

List of floods in China
List of natural disasters by death toll

References

External links
Dealing with the Deluge, Flood! (Nova Online)

Yellow River floods
Yellow River Flood, 1887
History of Zhengzhou
Disasters in Henan

1887 Yellow River flood


Eigil Bryld () is a Danish cinematographer. He is famous for his work in such films and TV shows as House of Cards (2013), In Bruges (2008), You Don't Know Jack (2010), Becoming Jane (2007) and Kinky Boots (2005).

Biography
Bryld grew up in Denmark, and as a teenager used to work in a local television station. He earned a degree in film and video production from Gwent College in Wales in 1992, where he studied under photographer David Hurn. He worked in London before moving to New York City. His credits include Wisconsin Death Trip which won him the 2001 BAFTA Award for best factual photography and You Don't Know Jack for which he was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award. He served as the cinematographer for the 2013 Netflix series House of Cards, for which he was awarded the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series.

Bryld is married to Danish author Naja Marie Aidt and they had a son in 2003.

Filmography

Film

Television
TV series

TV movies

References

External links
 Official website

Danish cinematographers
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Eigil Bryld


John Heneage Kelsey (30 March 1867 – 21 October 1945) was an English cricketer. Kelsey was a right-handed batsman. He was born at Tunbridge Wells, Kent, and was educated at Repton School.

Kelsey made a single first-class appearance for Sussex against Worcestershire at the County Ground, Hove, in the 1902 County Championship. Sussex won the toss and elected to bat first, making 399/7 declared, during which Kelsey scored a single run before he was dismissed by George Simpson-Hayward. Worcestershire were then dismissed in their first-innings for 197, with Sussex forcing them to follow-on in their second-innings, with Worcestershire making 240 all out, which left Sussex with a target of 39 for victory. Sussex reached their target in their second-innings without losing any wickets. This was his only major appearance for Sussex.

Outside of cricket, he was a brewer. He died at Wadhurst, Sussex, on 21 October 1945.

References

External links
John Kelsey at ESPNcricinfo
John Kelsey at CricketArchive

1867 births
1945 deaths
Sportspeople from Royal Tunbridge Wells
People educated at Repton School
English cricketers
Sussex cricketers
Cricketers from Kent

John Kelsey (cricketer)


The Educator 64, also known as the PET 64 and Model 4064, was a microcomputer made by Commodore Business Machines in 1983. It was sold to schools as a replacement for aging Commodore PET systems. Schools were reluctant to adopt the Commodore 64 "breadbox" design due to theft or vandalism of the smaller, more exposed components. The 4064 designation followed in line with the PET's 4008, 4016 and 4032 models as a 64 KB 40-column model.

The internals of the Educator 64 were refurbished Commodore 64 motherboards and monochromatic green monitors. The area above the keyboard contained a quick reference card for BASIC 2.0 and Commodore DOS commands. The only differences between the Educator 64 and the other 64 models were the graphics capabilities, the built-in speaker, the sound amplifier with volume control, the 3.5 mm mini-jack for mono sound output to headphones, the internal power supply, and the keyboard which is missing the color abbreviations imprinted on the front edge of the number keys. The Educator 64 retained the ability to display shades of green, while the PET 64 and 4064 were monochrome-only. Though the PET 4008/4016/4032 computers had cases made entirely of metal, only the Educator 64's base was metal—the upper case was made of thick plastic.

The Educator 64 was not sold in great numbers. It suffered from its monochrome display most Commodore 64 software assumed the availability of color. And, by that time, the US education market was firmly in Apple's grasp.

External links
The C64 is Schoolbound
Secret Weapons of Commodore
Commodore EDUCATOR 64 Model 4064

Commodore 8-bit computers

Commodore Educator 64


John Arnott (1871 – 20 February 1942) was a British politician.

Born in Kincardine-on-Forth, Arnott worked as a blacksmith.  He became involved in the trade union movement studied at Ruskin College.  He also became active in the Independent Labour Party and was elected to Leeds City Council.  He led the Labour group on the council from 1917 to 1920, and again from 1922 until 1925.

The ILP was affiliated to the Labour Party, and at the 1918 general election, Arnott stood for it in Leeds West, but was not elected. He then stood in Kingston upon Hull South West repeatedly, losing in 1922, 1923 and 1924.  In 1925, he was chosen as Lord Mayor of Leeds.  He finally won the Hull South West seat at the 1929 general election, and although his candidacy was sponsored by the ILP, he was no longer playing any part in the party, leading him to leave it when it disaffiliated from the Labour Party.

Arnott lost his seat at the 1931 general election, and failed to win it back in 1935.

References

1871 births
1942 deaths
Councillors in Leeds
Independent Labour Party politicians
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Lord Mayors of Leeds
People from Kincardine, Fife
UK MPs 1929–1931

John Arnott (politician)


Muskau Park (, officially: Fürst-Pückler-Park Bad Muskau; ) is a landscape park in the Upper Lusatia region of Germany and Poland. It is the largest and one of the most famous English gardens in Central Europe, stretching along both sides of the German–Polish border on the Lusatian Neisse. The park was laid out from 1815 onwards at the behest of Prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau (1785–1871), centered on his Schloss Muskau residence.

In July 2004, Muskau Park was added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites (as a joint effort between Poland and Germany) because of its 'utopian' design that incorporates both native plants and the nearby town, and its influence on the development of landscape architecture. The park also stands as one of Poland's official Historic Monuments (pomnik historii), as designated on May 1, 2004, and tracked by the National Heritage Board of Poland.

Overview
The park covers  of land in Poland and  in Germany. It extends on both sides of the Neisse, which constitutes the border between the countries. The  buffer zone around the park encompassed the German town Bad Muskau () in the West and Polish Łęknica (Wjeska, former Lugknitz) in the East. While Muskau Castle is situated west of the river, the heart of the park is the partially wooded raised area on the east bank called The Park on Terraces. In 2003, a pedestrian bridge spanning the Neisse was rebuilt to connect both parts. Designed as a painting with plants, the park uses native plants, water features, bridges, and paths to enhance the site's inherent natural beauty.

History
A fortress on the Neisse at Muskau was first mentioned as early as the 13th century under the rule of Margrave Henry III of Meissen. The founder of the adjacent park was Prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau (1785-1871), the author of the influential Remarks on Landscape Gardening and owner of the state country of Muskau from 1811. After prolonged studies in England, in 1815 during the time when the northeastern part of Upper Lusatia fell to Prussia, he laid out the Park. As time went by, he established an international school of landscape management in Bad Muskau and outlined the construction of an extensive landscape park which would envelop the town "in a way not done before on such a grand scale".

The works involved remodelling the Baroque "Old Castle" - actually a former castle gate - and the construction of a Gothic Revival chapel, an English cottage, several bridges, and an orangery designed by Friedrich Ludwig Persius. Pückler reconstructed the medieval fortress as the "New Castle", the compositional centre of the park, with a network of paths radiating from it and a pleasure ground influenced by the ideas of Humphry Repton, whose son John Adey worked at Muskau from 1822 on. The extensions went on until 1845, when Pückler because of his enormous debts was constrained to sell the patrimony. The next year it was acquired by Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, who employed Eduard Petzold, Pückler's disciple and a well-known landscape gardener, to complete his design. Upon his death in 1881, he was succeeded by his daughter Princess Marie, who sold the estates to the Arnim family.

During the Battle of Berlin, both castles were levelled and all four bridges across the Neisse were razed. Count von Arnim-Muskau was dispossessed by the Soviet Military Administration in Germany and since the implementation of the Oder-Neisse line in 1945, the park has been divided by the state border between Poland and Germany, with two thirds of it on the Polish side. Not until the 1960s did the authorities gradually accept the legacy of the "Junker" Prince Pückler. The Old Castle was rebuilt by the East German administration in 1965–1972, while the New Castle and the bridges are still being restored. The Englische Brücke ("English Bridge") across the River Neisse has been repaired and rededicated on 17 October 2011, after having been demolished with explosives in 1945.

After the Revolutions of 1989 the German and Polish administrations joined forces in the redevelopment of the park ensemble. Since Poland entered the Schengen Area in 2007, visitors may freely explore both parts of the park without border checks.

Gallery

References

External links

 Muskauer Park / Park Mużakowski UNESCO Officiel Website

Muskauer Park website

Parks in Germany
Gardens in Saxony
Parks in Poland
Castles in Lubusz Voivodeship
Castles in Saxony
Gardens in Poland
Landmarks in Germany
World Heritage Sites in Poland
World Heritage Sites in Germany
Museums in Saxony
Żary County
Historic house museums in Germany
Parks in Lubusz Voivodeship
Rebuilt buildings and structures in Germany
Bad Muskau
Cultural landscapes of Germany

Muskau Park


Bobby's Kitten (foaled March 30, 2011 in Kentucky) is an American Thoroughbred racehorse who won the 2014 Breeders' Cup Turf Sprint. A dark bay or brown colt sired by Kitten's Joy, and homebred by his owners Kenneth and Sarah Ramsey, he is trained by Chad Brown. In 2013 he won his second race as a two-year-old before going on to win his first graded stakes race, the Grade III Pilgrim Stakes at Belmont Park. Both races were at  miles.   He contested the Breeders' Cup Juvenile Turf that year and finished third.  In his three-year-pld year, he won two minor races with uneven results in graded stakes competition until his come-from-last victory in the 2014 Breeders' Cup Turf Sprint at  furlongs.

Pedigree

References

2011 racehorse births
Racehorses bred in Kentucky
Racehorses trained in the United States
Thoroughbred family 3-h
Breeders' Cup Turf Sprint winners

Bobby's Kitten


Frigyes Ákos Hazslinszky or in German version of his name Friedrich August Hazslinszky von Hazslin (Késmárk Kingdom of Hungary, Austrian Empire, 6 January 1818 – Eperjes, Kingdom of Hungary, Austria-Hungary 16 September 1896) was a Hungarian mycologist and botanist. Upon completing his lyceum studies  in Késmark (today Kežmarok, Slovakia), he studied philosophy, law, theology and chemistry, working concurrently as a teacher. After a stint as teacher in Debrecen and Sárospatak, and further studies in Vienna, he became professor of  physics and mathematic at the Lutheran College in Eperjes (today Prešov) in 1846.

His scientific interests and contributions centered on the then Northern Hungarian – now Slovakian - flora, in particular the one of the Szepesség, Orava and the Tatra Mountains.  Hazslinszky published extensively in botany, pteridology and particularly in mycology. He published the first Hungarian plant identification guide in 1864 as well as over a hundred, mostly mycological papers and monographs, among them the monumental  Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Flora der Karpathen in 9 parts.

He was a full member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

The genus Hazslinszkya was named in his honour by Gustav Wilhelm Körber in 1861.

Some taxa commemorating Hazslinszky
 Sapindus Hazslinszkyi Ett.
 Ficus Hazslinszkyii Ett.
 Cedrella Hazslinszkyi Ung.
 Ranina Hazslinszkyi Reuss;
 Hazslinszkya gibberulosa Körber,
 Peziza Hazslinszkyi Cooke,
 Cryptospora Hazslinszkyi Rehm.
 Agaricus Hazslinszkyi Schulzer

Publications
 Complete bibliography on Worldcat

References

 Z. Radwańska-Paryska, W. H. Paryski: Wielka encyklopedia tatrzańska, Wydawnictwo górskie, Poronin 1995., 403-404.
 Karpatendeutsches biographisches Lexikon. Stuttgart 1988, .
 Baráthová, N. & al. Osobnosti Kežmarku 1206 – 2009. Jadro 2009

External links
 Biography on Cybertruffle
 Biography in Magyar Életrajzi Lexikon
 Biography in Hungarian

1818 births
1896 deaths
People from Kežmarok
Hungarians in Slovakia
19th-century Hungarian botanists
Hungarian mycologists

Frigyes Ákos Hazslinszky


Anti-Igbo sentiment (also known as Igbophobia) encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings towards the Igbo people. The Igbo people make up all of south-eastern Nigeria and a part of south-south Nigeria's geopolitical zones. Igbophobia is observable in critical and hostile behaviour such as political and religious discrimination and violence towards Igbos.

Pre-civil war sentiments
During the early years of Nigeria's colonial independence, the Igbo people increasingly came to be perceived as a disproportionately-favored ethnic group with affluence and multi-regionalistic opportunities due to the employment of the Igbo within colonial Nigeria by the colonial authorities and the prominence of them in the public sector in regions throughout the country. This situation aroused the ire of others toward the Igbo.  Igbo peoples accustomation to traveling all over the country which helped in leading them to success in business and commerce also aroused anti-Igbo sentiments in southern Cameroon and played a part in southern Cameroon joining Cameroon.
This situation was exacerbated by the short-lived government of General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, who abolished the federated regions, because most of the members of his military junta were Igbo; this event led to his assassination in a counter-coup which was primarily led by Northerners. It was followed by the massacre of thousands of Igbo in pogroms which occurred in the Northern region, an event which drove millions of Igbos back to their homeland in Eastern Nigeria; ethnic relations rapidly deteriorated, and a separate republic of Biafra was declared in 1967, leading to the Biafran War.

Anti-Igbo pogrom

The 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom was a series of massacres which were directed at Igbo and other people of southern Nigerian origin who were living in northern Nigeria. The massacres started in May 1966 and they reached a peak after 29 September 1966. During this period, 800,000-850,000 Igbo civilians were murdered throughout northern Nigeria by Hausa–Fulani soldiers and civilians who sought revenge for the 1966 Nigerian coup d'état, which was carried out by six Majors and three Captains of Southern Nigerian extraction, and resulted in the deaths of 11 Nigerian politicians and army officers of Hausa, Fulani, Itsekiri and Yoruba origin. These events led to the Nigerian counter coup and they eventually lead to the secession of the eastern Nigerian region and the declaration of the Republic of Biafra, which ultimately led to the Nigeria-Biafra war. The 1966 massacres of southern Nigerians have been described as a holocaust by some authors and they have variously been described as riots, pogroms or genocide.

The frequent theme of hatred and the lack of trust towards the Igbos by certain Hausa-Fulani and Yoruba people has parts of its origins in the January 1966 coup d'état, led by a majority Igbo military, under the command of officers (Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu and Emmanuel Ifeajuna). The coup killed many prominent Hausa-Fulani and Yoruba leaders, including the Prime Minister, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, the Northern Region Premier, Ahmadu Bello, and the Western Region Premier, Ladoke Akintola. The coup also resulted in the killing of the most senior Hausa-Fulani and Yoruba military leaders, including Brig. Samuel Ademulegun, Brig. Zakariya Maimalari, Col. Ralph Shodeinde, Col. Kur Mohammed, Lt. Col. Abogo Largema, and Lt. Col. James Pam. Though the coup might have orginally been a plan to put Awolowo in power the coup was seen by Hausa-Fulani and Yoruba leaders as an Igbo attempt to take control of Nigeria, and the violence that followed was seen as a justification for the cleansing of the country which would be accomplished when the perceived Igbo influence was eliminated.
The coup also didn't result in the death of prominent Igbo political leaders. The coup was met with widespread anger and resentment, particularly in the north, where it was seen as an Igbo attempt to dominate the country. This anger and resentment led to the violence that followed the coup.

The violence that followed the January 1966 coup led to the outbreak of the Nigerian Civil War in 1967. The war lasted for three years after which the Biafria region was rejoined into the federation. The Hausa-Fulani and Yoruba-led Nigerian governments regained control of the country, but the conflict left a legacy of bitterness and resentment (often either for Nigeria by Igbos or against Igbos by non-Igbos) that continues on to this day.

Nigerian Civil War

The Republic of Biafra was a secessionist state in eastern Nigeria that existed from 30 May 1967 to January 1970. It took its name from the Bight of Biafra, the Atlantic bay to its south. The inhabitants were mostly the Igbo people who led the secession due to economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions among the various peoples of Nigeria. Other ethnic groups that constituted the republic were the Efik, Ibibio, Annang, Ejagham, Eket, Ibeno and the Ijaw, among others.

Anti-Igbo sentiments also proliferated during the Nigerian Civil War with an almost intentional extermination of Igbos during the war. Talks of killing the Igbos were common a Lagos policeman quoted in New York Review on the 21st of December 1967 stating that "The Igbo must be considerably reduced in number". The Nigerian federal government also announced the authorization of identity cards on people who have Igbo origin.
Ethnic profiling was also used in finding out who was Igbo in order for them to be killed. In Lagos for example public and private buses were often stopped and searched with passengers in a queue with the intention of collecting names and ethnic origins of the passengers. Any Igbo or persons suspected of being Igbo found in buses were executed this was the case for the Igbos who were publicly executed in Tinubu Square in June 1968.  Because of the maltreatment and brutality Igbos faced Igbo people had to devise different ways of survival. Igbo women in Lagos for example dropped their double wrapper attire which they often wore and adopted the Yoruba attire (iro and buba). Igbos also stopped having conversations in public in Igbo and Igbos who could speak other languages identified as other ethnic groups to escape death or brutality. During this time businesses that advertised their products on billboards also made sure to take out Igbo-sounding names.  Igbos who found themselves remaining in Nigeria during the war faced torment and brutality from police, soldiers and civilians who were most often neighbors and friends but were often used by the Nigerian government as a token to showcase and prove that Igbos were welcomed in Nigeria. Although Igbos faced hateful sentiments and brutality because of their identity the severity rose and fell depending on how the war was going. The severity also rose at the mere suspicion of military advancements by the Biafrian military. It was during this period that derogatory terms such as "Okoro" became a popular use and Igbos in Lagos were told by certain people of Yoruba origin to leave Lagos and return to Igboland.

Outside Nigeria
On August 2019, a Yoruba secessionist who immigrated to the United Kingdom from Nigeria was arrested by British police for making YouTube videos that contained violent hate speech towards the Igbo people, and in April 2022, he was sent to prison.
In The US, recent tensions between Native Black Americans and Southern Nigerian immigrants have contributed to the stereotyping of African-Americans by Africans who have a general feeling of distaste for them. Igbo Americans tend to concentrate themselves in areas of the United States which are controlled by English Americans,  (the minority which was responsible for the enslavement and oppression of African-Americans), like Northern Virginia and Washington state and they tend to work in fields like the medical field, the military and the prison system, where they generally work alongside conservative Whites. As a result, African-Americans in Northern Virginia generally do not regard Igbos as a brotherly tribe in the way that they have historically looked at every other Black, North African, or Caribbean ethnic group for centuries. This feeling exists in spite of the fact that African-Americans who live in these regions are disproportionately of Southern Nigerian descent and Igbo immigrants, due to a high rate of admixture with White slavers, are often harder to distinguish from African-Americans than other Black ethnic groups.

Anti-Igbo Sentiments today
End SARS movement

The Endsars movement while mainly being a movement to call to end of police brutality in Nigeria was also used as an opportunity by people who showed negative attitudes and feelings against Igbo people to spread anti-Igbo sentiments. After it came out that there were some Igbos amongst the hoodlums that partook in the violence that occurred after the Lekki massacre, coupled with an Inciteful broadcast by Ipob which is a separatist organization strongly associated with Igbos were quickly blamed for the violence that occurred during Endsars. Netizens who spread this theory often did not differentiate between Ipob the organization and Igbo people, as a result, anti-Igbo sentiments were mainly directed at Igbo people. This incident was also cited by people who didn't want Igbo people in governmental positions outside of the southeast during the 2023 Nigerian general/gubernatorial elections.

Anti-Igbo sentiments in Nigerian general and gubernatorial elections

During the lead-up to the gubernatorial elections of the year 2015 the Oba of Lagos stated that if Igbos do not vote for Akinwunmi Ambode will perish in the river within seven days.

The 2019 gubernatorial elections also presented another opportunity for the usage of anti-Igbo sentiment as a campaign strategy, senator Oluremi Tinubu, wife of Asiwaju Bola Ahmed Tinubu said, "We will invoke all the deities of Lagos to chase Igbo people out. Igbos who refuse to learn our language. Igbos who didn't marry Yoruba, we will inherit them." During this same election cycle having an Igbo identity was almost a political suicide, for example Jimi agbaje who had no relations to Igbo people and doesn't speak Igbo was accused of being Igbo and correspondingly anti-Igbo sentiments was used against him during the election cycle. The most prominent word used against him was Jimichukwu which is a name blending of Jimi's name and an Igbo word Chukwu, which is a very common Igbo word often used in Igbo names. This specific word which was used against him meant that he was not a true Yoruba but a foreigner from the east and as such shouldn't be a governor in the west.

Peter Obi's emergence as the Labour party candidate prompted Igbophobic sentiments and hatred against the Igbo people. During his campaign in 2022, there were discriminatory comments made implying that Igbos are trying to take over Nigeria and divide the country in order to create Biafra. Even after his multiple interviews/debates, which was uncommon for very popular presidential candidates in recent times within Nigerian politics, his candidacy was at times dismissed as Igbo people yearning for an Igbo presidency. During this election the singer, Brymo made hateful comments against the Igbo people, at first he insinuated that Igbo people are not ready for the presidency and that Peter Obi should stick to organizing the eastern region from which he hails. A few days after this hateful comment he released another Igbophobic comment while replying to a now-deleted tweet saying "Fuck The Ndi Igbo !! .. To Hell With It!!" this prompted an online petition on change.org to the All Africa Music Awards against his nomination for Song Writer of the Year. He released an apology but then left the same hateful comments on his social media account. These hateful comments by Brymo got a lot of support from ethnic nationalists who were often APC supporters. After the elections months later on the second of August of 2023 Brymo took his apology back in a tweet while replying to another tweet asking to explain the hateful tweet he made during the height of the elections he reiterated saying "Yes .. fuck-'em" considering the hype of the election had died down this time there were no repercussions for this.
Anti-Igbo sentiments during the 2023 Nigerian elections were common from the disenfranchisement of Igbo people during the PVC collections to an alleged bigoted statement against Igbo people in Lagos by the State Resident Electoral Commissioner, Olusegun Agbaje. These sentiments became violent and resulted in blockades and threats against Igbo people from accessing the businesses they owned. The violence stretched into the reoccurring burning and attacks of Igbo businesses in Lagos during elections.
The sentiments peaked during the gubernatorial elections within the state of Lagos. Anti-Igbo sentiments in the 2023 elections reached such an extent that there was a belief that often came from election discourse that marrying an Igbo person would result in a tainted bloodline. Weeks leading up to the 2023 gubernatorial elections a candidate by the name of Gbadebo Rhodes-Vivour who is part Yoruba (from his father's side) and part Igbo (from his mother's side) had anti-Igbo attacks directed at him. His identity came into question and these attacks weren't just personal in terms of the fact that he was part Igbo and had an Igbo wife. These attacks were directed at the broader Igbo ethnicity within Lagos and ethnic nationalists questioned why anybody who is Igbo should become a governor within the western states in Nigeria. A few days before the election there was almost an expectation that Igbos were not supposed to vote for who they wanted like any other people except for APC candidates. A good example of this is the threats made against Igbos 3 days before the election by an APC loyalist and political thug MC Oluomo, he made threats against Igbo People telling Igbos to stay home if they wouldn't vote for APC candidates. He also went on to retort that the Yoruba people should get there first and should be the ones to vote first. This rhetoric got a lot of social media attention with Labour party supporters calling on the Nigerian government to apprehend MC Oluomo while supporters who were APC ethnic nationalists gave it support. After so many pressures put on the Nigerian government the Nigerian police eventually stepped in calling the anti-Igbo rhetoric made by MC Oluomo a mere joke effectively downplaying parts of the threats which helped to spread the anti-Igbo sentiments during the elections. On the day of the election, Igbo people were threatened and beaten in order to prevent them from voting. These attacks weren't just relegated to Igbo people but to anyone presumed to look like an Igbo person. So as a result, Igbo people and anybody presumed to look like an Igbo person were being pointed at both by people who knew them and people who did not know them in order for them to be attacked.

During the presidential elections, the Igbos who successfully got to their polling unit were also threatened right at the polling unit and were told not to vote at all, while during the governorship elections, they were also attacked for speaking the Igbo language.

 Anti-Igbo sentiments in comments, and adverts flooded different social media platforms during this gubernatorial election. These sentiments lasted right into the next day (Sunday) which was also the day Igbos were attacked at Abule ado in Lagos state.

Aftermath of the 2023 elections

The aftermath of the 2023 elections worsened ethnic relations in Nigeria but most importantly it worsened Igbo inter-ethnic relations within the country.

See also
 Radio Nigeria Kaduna

References

Igbo
Igbo society
Discrimination in Nigeria
Racism

Anti-Igbo sentiment


Richard Watson (1781–1833) was a British Methodist theologian, a leading figure of Wesleyan Methodism in the early 19th century.

Biography

Early life and education
Watson was born on 22 February 1781, at Barton-upon-Humber, in Lincolnshire. He was the seventh of eighteen children of Thomas and Ann Watson. His father, a saddler, held Calvinist views, and Richard was brought up in the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion. Reacting against those teachings, he attended a Wesleyan chapel as a boy, and was received there in 1794.

In 1791, Watson entered Lincoln Grammar School. In 1795 he was apprenticed to a joiner at Lincoln.

Career
In 1796, Watson preached his first sermon, andemoved to Newark-on-Trent as assistant to Thomas Cooper, as a Wesleyan preacher. In 1796, he entered the Methodist itinerancy, and was received into full connection as a travelling minister in 1801. Meanwhile, he was stationed at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Castle Donington, and Derby.

In 1801, Watson married Mary Henslow of Castle Donington, daughter of a Methodist New Connexion preacher there. They had two children. In 1803, he withdrew from the Wesleyans, and joined the New Connexion, resenting an unfounded charge of Arianism. In 1805, he became assistant secretary of the New Connexion's conference, and in 1807 he was fully admitted to its ministry and was appointed secretary. He was first stationed at Stockport, then from 1806 at Liverpool, where he engaged in literary work for Thomas Kaye.

In 1807, Watson resigned his ministry. In 1808 he was engaged as editor of the Liverpool Courier by Kaye. In 1812 he then returned to the Wesleyan Connexion, and was reinstated in his former position. In 1812, he was stationed at Wakefield, and at Hull from 1814 to 1816.

In 1813, Watson drew up a plan of a general missionary society, which was accepted by the conference. In 1810 he was removed to London, and made one of the two general secretaries to the Wesleyan Missionary Society from 1821 to 1827. After holding an appointment at Manchester, from 1827 to 29, he returned to London. He was again appointed a resident secretary to the missionary society from 1832 to 1833.

Death
Watson died in London on 8 January 1833. He was buried in the graveyard behind City Road Chapel, London.

Theology
Watson was a strong Methodist, but constantly wrote of the Anglican communion as "the mother of us all". He was deeply attached to the Anglican prayer-book, and was anxious to keep Methodism in friendly relations with the establishment.

Watson was a gifted writer and theologian. In doctrine, is known to be "an orthodox Trinitarian and an Evangelical Arminian".

In 1818 he wrote a reply to Adam Clarke's doctrine of the eternal Sonship of Christ; Watson believed that Clarke's views were unorthodox and, therefore, not faithfully Wesleyan.

From 1823 to 1829 he worked on his Theological Institutes, which remained a systematic theology standard for many years and deservedly ranks among the ablest expositions of the Arminian system. It was the first attempt to systematize John Wesley's theology and, by extension, Methodist doctrine.

His Biblical and Theological Dictionary (1831) is more comprehensive than previous attempts in English. In 1831, he wrote also a well-regarded Life of Rev. John Wesley.

In Britain, Watson was a leading opponent of slavery. He was not, however, for immediate emancipation.

Works

Notes and references

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links

1781 births
1833 deaths
English Christian theologians
English abolitionists
English Methodists
English theologians
Methodist ministers
Methodist theologians
Arminian ministers
Arminian theologians
People from Lincolnshire
Presidents of the Methodist Conference
People educated at Lincoln Grammar School
19th-century Methodist ministers
Systematic theologians
Methodist abolitionists

Richard Watson (Methodist)