Roberta Brooke Astor (née Russell; March 30, 1902 – August 13, 2007) was an American philanthropist, socialite, and writer. She served as the chairwoman of the Vincent Astor Foundation, established by her third husband, Vincent Astor, who was a member of the Astor family. Brooke Astor was the author of two novels and two volumes of personal memoirs.

Early life

Roberta Brooke Russell was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, the only child of John Henry Russell Jr., the 16th Commandant of the Marine Corps, and Mabel Cecile Hornby Howard. Her paternal grandfather John Henry Russell Sr. was a rear admiral in the U.S. Navy. She was named for her maternal grandmother (Roberta) and was known as Bobby to close friends and family.

Due to her father's career she spent much of her childhood abroad living in China, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and other places. She briefly attended The Madeira School in 1919, but graduated from the Holton-Arms School. As a child she kept diaries, letters and drawings from her travels, which were published in an illustrated edition of her memoir "Patchwork Child: Early Memories" in 1993.

Marriages

John Dryden Kuser
She married her first husband, John Dryden Kuser (1897–1964), shortly after her 17th birthday, on April 26, 1919, in Washington, D.C. "I certainly wouldn't advise getting married that young to anyone," she said later in life. "At the age of sixteen, you're not jelled yet. The first thing you look at, you fall in love with."

John was the son of the financier and conservationist Anthony Rudolph Kuser and Susie Fairfield Drydan. Susie's father was U.S. Senator John Fairfield Dryden. John Kuser later became a New Jersey Republican councilman, assemblyman, and state senator. They also lived in Bernardsville, New Jersey.

Brooke described her tumultuous first marriage as the "worst years of [her] life", which was punctuated by her husband's alleged physical abuse, alcoholism and adultery.  According to Frances Kiernan's 2007 biography of Astor, when Brooke was six months pregnant with the couple's only child, her husband broke her jaw during a marital fight. "I learned about terrible manners from the family of my first husband," she told The New York Times. "They didn't know how to treat people". A year after the marriage, according to a published account of the divorce proceedings, John "began to embarrass her in social activities" and "told her that he no longer loved her and that their marriage was a failure".

Brooke and John had one son, Anthony Dryden "Tony" Kuser, May 30, 1924. She filed for divorce February 15, 1930, in Reno, Nevada. It was finalized later that year.

Charles Henry Marshall
Her second husband, whom she married in 1932, was Charles Henry "Buddy" Marshall (1891–1952), the only son of Charles Henry Marshall. Buddy was the senior partner of the investment firm Butler, Herrick & Marshall, a brother-in-law of the mercantile heir Marshall Field III, and a descendant of James Lenox, the founder of the Lenox Library.

Astor later wrote that the marriage was "a great love match."

She had two stepchildren by the marriage, Peter Marshall and Helen Huntington Marshall. Helen's first marriage was to composer Ernest Schelling and her second to cellist János Scholz.

In 1942, Brooke's then-18-year-old son Tony changed his name to Anthony Dryden Marshall out of admiration for his stepfather. Buddy's financial fortunes turned in the mid-1940s when Brooke went to work as a features editor at House & Garden magazine for eight years. She also briefly worked for Ruby Ross Wood, a prominent New York interior decorator who, with her associate Billy Baldwin, decorated the Marshalls' apartment at 1 Gracie Square in New York City.

William Vincent Astor
In October 1953, 11 months after Charles Marshall's death, she married her third and final husband, William Vincent Astor, the chairman of the board of Newsweek magazine and the last rich American member of the famous Astor family. Vincent was the son of RMS Titanic victim John Jacob "Jack" Astor IV and socialite Ava Lowle Willing. He had been married and divorced twice before, had no children and was known to have a difficult personality.

"He had a dreadful childhood and as a result had moments of deep melancholy," Brooke recalled. "But I think I made him happy. That's what I set out to do. I'd literally dance with the dogs, sing and play the piano, and I would make him laugh, something no one had ever done before. Because of his money, Vincent was very suspicious of people. That's what I tried to cure him of."

Not wanting to die alone, Astor agreed to divorce his second wife Mary Benedict "Minnie" Cushing only after she had found him a replacement spouse. Minnie had first suggested Janet Newbold Rhinelander-Stewart who turned down Astor's proposal with startling candor stating "I don't even like you." Minnie then suggested the recently widowed Brooke. Few people believed that the Astor-Marshall union was anything more than a financial transaction. According to Brooke's friend Louis Auchincloss "she married Vincent for the money," adding "I wouldn't respect her if she hadn't. Only a twisted person would have married him for love."

During her brief marriage to Vincent, whom she called "Captain," Brooke participated in his real-estate and hotel empire and his philanthropic endeavors. Between 1954 and 1958, she redecorated one of his properties, the Hotel St. Regis, which had been built by his father. Vincent died leaving all his money to Brooke. His younger half-brother socialite John Jacob "Jakey" Astor VI was left with nothing since Vincent's hatred for Jakey's mother Madeleine (Jack's second wife and widow) led him to believe he was not even a biological Astor. Vincent had nothing but contempt for him. Jakey felt cheated and resentfully stated Vincent "had the legal, not the moral right to keep all the money." He was certain that Vincent was "mentally incompetent" when signing his last will in June 1958 due to alcoholism, though Brooke insisted otherwise. While Vincent was hospitalized, Brooke would often bring him liquor. Jakey accused her of using the liquor to influence the will in her favor. Jakey ended up settling for $250,000. The rest of the money remained with the Vincent Astor foundation and Brooke. Before Vincent's death, Brooke once privately admitted to her daughter-in-law Elizabeth Cynthia "Liz" Cryan: "I don't think I can stand being married to him anymore. I don't think I can take it. He never wants to go anywhere — he's so antisocial."

Though she received several proposals after Astor's death, she chose not to remarry. In a 1980 interview, she stated: "I'd have to marry a man of a suitable age and somebody who was a somebody and that's not easy. Frankly, I think I'm unmarriageable now." She also said, "I'm too used to having things my way. But I still enjoy a flirt now and then."

Philanthropy
Though she was appointed a member of the board of the Astor Foundation soon after her marriage, upon Vincent Astor's death in 1959, she took charge of all the philanthropies to which he left his fortune. She served as a Trustee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art and chaired the Visiting Committee of the Metropolitan's Department of Far Eastern Art; she is credited with the idea for a Chinese garden courtyard, the Astor Court, in the Metropolitan. In addition, Astor served as a member of the Metropolitan Museum of Art's 100th Anniversary Committee and hosted the Metropolitan's Centennial Ball. She was also a benefactress to the New York Zoological Society for which Astor the baby Asian elephant was named in her honor.

Despite liquidating the Vincent Astor Foundation in 1997, she continued to be active in charities and in New York's social life. The New York Public Library was always one of Astor's favorite charities as was The Animal Medical Center. In 1988 she was awarded the National Medal of Arts. She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1992. As a result of her charity work, Astor was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1998. Her life's motto summed up her prodigious generosity: "Money is like manure; it's not worth a thing unless it's spread around."

Among numerous other organizations, she was involved with Lighthouse for the Blind, the Maternity Center Association, the Astor Home for emotionally disturbed children, the International Rescue Committee, the Fresh Air Fund, and the Women's Auxiliary Board of the Society of New York Hospital.

Elder abuse controversy

The New York Daily News ran a cover story on July 26, 2006, describing the family feud between Brooke's son Tony and his son Philip Cryan Marshall regarding Brooke's welfare. The story detailed how her grandson, a historic preservationist and professor at Roger Williams University, had filed a lawsuit seeking the removal of his father as the socialite's guardian and the appointment of Annette de la Renta, the wife of designer Oscar de la Renta, instead.

According to accounts published in The New York Times and the Daily News, Astor was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease and suffered from anemia, among other ailments. The lawsuit alleged that Marshall had not provided for his elderly mother and instead had allowed her to live in squalor and reduced necessary medication and doctor's visits while enriching himself with income from her estate. Philip Marshall further charged that his father sold his grandmother's favorite Childe Hassam painting in 2002 without her knowledge and with no record as to the whereabouts of the funds received from the sale.  In addition to Annette de la Renta, Henry Kissinger and David Rockefeller provided affidavits supporting Philip Marshall's requests for a change in guardianship.

The day the story appeared, New York Supreme Court Justice John Stackhouse sealed the documents pertaining to the lawsuit and granted an order appointing Annette de la Renta guardian and JPMorgan Chase & Co. to be in charge of Brooke's finances. Several news organizations including the Associated Press and The New York Times sued to have the records of the Astor case unsealed in the public interest; their request was granted September 1, 2006. Astor was moved to Lenox Hill Hospital where an unidentified nurse called her appearance "deplorable" according to the Daily News. Brooke's son Tony unsuccessfully attempted to have his mother transferred to another hospital.

Brooke was released from Lenox Hill Hospital July 29, 2006, and moved to Holly Hill, her  estate in the village of Briarcliff Manor, New York, where she died August 13, 2007.

Meryl Gordon's book Mrs. Astor Regrets: The Hidden Betrayals of a Family Beyond Reproach (2008) makes use of diaries kept by the nurses who cared for Brooke during the last years of her life. The diaries were compiled over the four years Astor received care and detail the elder abuse that she reportedly received from her son.

Philip C. Marshall was a tenured professor and director of historic preservation at Roger Williams University until 2017 when he left to dedicate his efforts full-time to elder justice as the founder of Beyond Brooke.

Estate tampering
The New York Times reported on August 1, 2006, that Anthony Marshall was accused by Alice Perdue, an employee in his mother's business office, of diverting nearly $1 million from his ailing mother's personal checking accounts into theatrical productions. Marshall through a spokesman said that his mother knew of the investments and approved of them. Perdue countered that Marshall had advised her never to send to his mother any documents of a financial nature because "she didn't understand it."

The claims made by Philip Marshall regarding his father's handling of the estate prompted interest in the matter. The New York District Attorney indicted Anthony Marshall and attorney Francis X. Morrissey Jr. in November 2007. The charges stemmed from the district attorney's office and subsequent grand jury investigation into the mishandling of Astor's money and a questionable signature on the third amendment to her 2002 will which was made in March 2004. That amendment called for Astor's real estate to be sold and the proceeds added to her residuary estate. An earlier amendment, also made in 2004, which designated Marshall as the executor of his mother's estate and left him the entirety of the residuary estate, was also under investigation.

The trial of Anthony Marshall and Morrissey started in March 2009 with jury selection. In October 2009, after deliberations that stretched over 12 days and were reportedly marked by bitter disagreements that left one female juror claiming to feel personally threatened by another juror, the jury convicted Anthony Marshall (then age 85) of 14 of the 16 counts against him, including one of two charges of grand larceny, the most serious charge, for giving himself a retroactive $1 million payment for assisting with his mother's finances. The jury acquitted Anthony Marshall on the other first-degree larceny count (for his sale for $10 million of a painting by Childe Hassam owned by Astor, in which Marshall took a $2 million commission), and also acquitted him of falsifying business records. The same jury convicted Morrissey of forgery, conspiracy, and fraud.

In December 2009, Marshall and Morrisey were both sentenced to 1–3 years in prison. Philip C. Marshall, Astor's grandson, said that now that his father has been convicted in the Brooke Astor will case, he expects the will to be contested by various charities. Anthony Marshall died in 2014.

On November 30, 2011, Sotheby's announced plans for an April 19, 2012, auction of jewelry as well as fine and decorative arts from her Park Avenue apartment and Holly Hill, her Westchester estate.

Death and interment

Brooke died August 13, 2007, aged 105 from pneumonia at her home in Briarcliff Manor, New York. A funeral service was held at Saint Thomas Church (Manhattan) on August 17. Among the guests were Henry Kissinger, Oscar de la Renta, Whoopi Goldberg, Jessye Norman and Michael Bloomberg. She is interred in the Sleepy Hollow Cemetery next to Vincent. The epitaph on her gravestone chosen by her reads: "I had a wonderful life."

One of Astor's death notices in The New York Times, a paid notice from The Rockefeller University, ended with these lines:

{{blockquote|And if you should survive to 105,
Look at all you'll derive out of being alive.
Then here is the best part,
You'll have a head start,
If you are among the very young at heart.|from "Young at Heart" by Johnny Richards and Carolyn Leigh}}

Among the organizations who lamented Brooke's death are The Animal Medical Center of New York, Brooklyn Stained Glass Conservation Center, Carnegie Hall, the Citizens' Committee for New York City, Historic Hudson Valley, The Juilliard School, Lenox Hill Neighborhood House, Library of America, Lotos Club, Merchant's House Museum, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Morris-Juemel Mansion Museum, New York Botanical Garden, New York Landmarks Conservancy, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York Public Library, New York Regional Association of Grantmakers, New York University, Pierpont Morgan Library, Rockefeller University, Wildlife Conservation Society, New York Zoological Society and WNET-TV.

Written works

In media

Brooke Astor is portrayed as the heroine Jane Merle in the romantic comedy Night and Silence: Who is Here? by British novelist Pamela Hansford Johnson.

In an episode of the American comedy 30 Rock, Liz Lemon compliments Angie Jordan's ring, which Lemon states is "ghetto fabulous". Jordan retorts, "This belonged to Brooke Astor".

In an episode of Gossip Girl, Blair Waldorf asks, "when did little Jenny Humphrey become the next Brooke Astor?"

Astor's biography was adapted into the musical Brooke Astor's Last Affair'', with book and lyrics by Rachael Migler and music by Eric Grunin. The play premiered at the 2019 Chicago Musical Theatre Festival.

See also

Astor family

References

External links

 Detailed description of donations by the Vincent Astor Foundation
 Description of Mrs. Astor's 14-room duplex at Rosario Candela's 778 Park Avenue including the oft-photographed Albert Hadley library. Sales offering as of June 2009 and NYTimes Article 6FEB09
 Steve Fishman, "Mrs. Astor's Baby: The Fight for A Mother's Love, And Money", New York Magazine, November 12, 2007
Lifetime Honors – National Medal of Arts

1902 births
2007 deaths
American centenarians
20th-century American memoirists
American women memoirists
20th-century American novelists
American women novelists
Philanthropists from New York (state)
Brooke
Deaths from pneumonia in New York (state)
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Livingston family
People from Bernardsville, New Jersey
People from Portsmouth, New Hampshire
Presidential Citizens Medal recipients
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
United States National Medal of Arts recipients
Novelists from New Hampshire
Novelists from New Jersey
Writers from New York City
Burials at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery
New York (state) Republicans
People from Briarcliff Manor, New York
20th-century American women writers
Madeira School alumni
People from Northeast Harbor, Maine
Novelists from New York (state)
Women centenarians
Socialites from New York City

Brooke Astor


Maona of Chios and Phocaea (; 1346–1566) was a maona formed to exact taxes for the Republic of Genoa from the island of Chios and port of Phocaea. Genoa sold the rights to their taxes to the maona, which raised funds from its investors to buy galleys and eventually re-conquer Chios and Phocaea.

History

The Genoese authorities of Chios and their Greek subjects (who constituted the majority of island's population - 80%) were subjects of the Republic of Genoa. Initially, many of the Mahona associates and therefore members of the island's administration were citizens as well as inhabitants of Genoa. The members of the company for more than two centuries were entitled to the revenues deriving from the natural or economic resources of the island. In return they had to pay an annual tribute to Genoa.

After two years, the original shareholders that lived in Genoa sold their shares to some colonists that already lived in Chios or to some Genoese citizens that migrated to the island. These new members constituted the New Mahona that was also subsequently became known as the Mahona (or Maona) of the Giustiniani. Since the Republic was unable to redeem the island from the Giustiniani, Chios remained in their possession till its final fall to the Turks. In the mean-time the Mahonesi had to pay tributes to Genoa, at the beginning to the Byzantine emperor John V Palaiologos in 1363 and finally to the Turks.

The republic engaged to secure these citizens against all loss, and pledged a portion of the annual revenues of the state pay the interest on their advances. Each subscriber had paid down 400 Genoese livres; twenty-six galleys had been equipped by the commons and three by the nobles. Once the conquest of Chios was successfully achieved, the ship-owners then returned to Genoa and advanced the sum of 250,000 lire to cover the expenses of the campaign. After long deliberations, an agreement was concluded on 26 February 1347 between the Commune and the group of its creditors represented by the Genoese admiral Simone Vignoso. This association took the name of Maona of Chios. The debt owed to the ship-owners was repaid in shares, or "luoghi", to an amount of 203,000 Genoese lire.

This was less than the commanders of the ships demanded, but nonetheless they got property and the administration of Chios and Phocaea, in addition to the revenues provided by the "luoghi". The more-or-less forced benevolence of the ship-owners made up for the deficiencies of the state, which was then obliged to hand over public revenues to them to meet its obligations.

The Genoaee family of Giustiniani, with their Maona, governed Chios, appointing a commissioner and commanding 52 military Genuates (tribes from around Genoa) in the island: during these years (1346-1566), the trade revived and the island enjoyed huge prosperity.

The Mahona of Chios ended its activities in 1566 when the Turks invaded and occupied the island. Admiral Piyale Pasha annexed it to the Ottoman Empire. His sultan had a good pretext for putting an end to the government of the Giustiniani, for the island served as a place of refuge for fugitive slaves and the refreshment of Christian corsairs.

References

External links
"Origins of the Joint-Stock Company"
"Genoeses — Maona"

1346 establishments in Europe
1566 disestablishments in Europe
States and territories established in 1346
States and territories disestablished in 1566
14th century in the Republic of Genoa
Medieval Chios
Republic of Genoa

Maona of Chios and Phocaea


José Jesús Basulto León (born August 8, 1940) is a former CIA-trained Cuban political dissident and the leader of the nonprofit Cuban exile organization Brothers to the Rescue.

Career
Since the Cuban Revolution, Basulto participated in various activities intended to subvert or overthrow the Cuban government. After the revolution, he was trained by the CIA in intelligence, communications, explosives, sabotage and subversion in Panama, Guatemala, and the United States. He was later placed back into Cuba, posing as a physics student at the University of Santiago to help prepare the ground for the Bay of Pigs Invasion.

In 1961, under CIA sponsorship, Basulto infiltrated Cuba for a commando operation intended to sabotage an alleged missile site, a mission which was ultimately aborted. In August 1962 he was involved in an expedition of the Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil which took a boat to Cuba and fired a 20 mm cannon at a hotel, though nobody was killed in the incident.

In the 1980s Basulto flew medical supplies to the Nicaraguan Contras.

After the Cuban government shot down the Brothers to the Rescue planes, Basulto sought to have criminal and civil charges pressed over the matter. He was awarded a $1.7 million judgement in January 2005. On May 24 of that same year, Basulto announced a one million dollar reward for information leading to the indictment of Raúl Castro on drug charges or charges related to the shooting of the Hermanos planes. ""It would throw a wrench in the machinery", Basulto said of a possible indictment.

Aviator and leader of Brothers to the Rescue

Brothers to the Rescue formed in 1991 and describes itself as a humanitarian organization aiming to assist and rescue raft refugees emigrating from Cuba and to "support the efforts of the Cuban people to free themselves from dictatorship through the use of active nonviolence".

The Cuban government, on the other hand, accuses them of involvement in terrorist acts. In the course of many flights throughout the early 1990s, the group's planes made repeated incursions into Cuban territory. While these were widely considered airspace violations, Brothers to the Rescue believes that these were acts of legitimate resistance against the government. In 1996, ignoring a final warning by Cuba, two Brothers to the Rescue planes were shot down by the Cuban Air Force, leading to international condemnation.

Notes
 Information from the 2001 Cuban spy trial, referred in The Miami Herald, March 13, 2001.
 See, for example, Granma International, December 13, 2005.

References

External links
NBC Nightly News Video on his help with Cuban hurricane relief

1940 births
Living people
People from Santiago de Cuba
Exiles of the Cuban Revolution in the United States
Opposition to Fidel Castro
Cuban emigrants to the United States

José Basulto


The Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive or Karelian offensive was a strategic operation by the Soviet Leningrad and Karelian Fronts against Finland on the Karelian Isthmus and East Karelia fronts of the Continuation War, on the Eastern Front of World War II. The Soviet forces captured East Karelia and Vyborg/Viipuri. After that, however, the fighting reached a stalemate.

The operations of the strategic offensive can be divided into the following offensives:
 Viipuri (10–20 June) by the Leningrad Front
 Virojoki-Lappeenranta (21 June – 15 July) by the Leningrad Front
 Koivisto landing (20–25 June) by the Baltic Fleet
 Svir–Petrozavodsk (21 June – 9 August) by the Karelian Front
 Tuloksa landing (23–27 June) by the Soviet Ladoga Flotilla

Background
In January 1944, Soviet forces raised the Siege of Leningrad and drove the German Army Group North back to the Narva-Lake Ilmen-Pskov line. Finland had conducted peace negotiations intermittently during 1943–1944 with the Western Allies and the USSR, but no agreement had been reached. Finland asked for peace conditions again in February, but the Finnish Parliament (Eduskunta) considered the terms received impossible to fulfill. After Finland had rejected these peace conditions, and Germany halted the Soviet advance, the Stavka (Main Command of the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union) started to prepare for an offensive to force Finland's exit from the war.

The plan
In order to destroy the Finnish Army and to push Finland out of the war, the Stavka decided to conduct the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive. The strategy called for a two-pronged offensive, one from Leningrad via Viborg to the Kymi river, and the second across the Svir River through Petrozavodsk and Sortavala past the 1940 border, preparing for an advance deep into Finland. The plan called for the Finnish army to be destroyed on the Karelian Isthmus, and the remains blocked against the western shore of Lake Ladoga between the two assaults and Lake Saimaa.

The main strategic objectives of the offensive were to push Finnish forces away from the north of Leningrad, to drive Finland out of the war, and to create better conditions for a major offensive to the south against Germany.

The Finnish army had been preparing defensive fortifications since 1940, and three lines of defence on the Karelian Isthmus. The first two were the "Main line", which was constructed along the frontline of 1941, and the VT-line (Vammelsuu-Taipale) running 20 km behind the main line. These lines were reinforced with numerous concrete fortifications, but the work was still ongoing. The third line, the VKT-line (Viipuri-Kuparsaari-Taipale) was still on the drawing board and the construction of the fortifications began in late May 1944 at the Viborg sector of the line. At the northern bank of the Svir River () the Finnish army had prepared a defence in depth area which was fortified with strong-points with concrete pillboxes, barbed wire, obstacles and trenches. After the Winter War, the Salpa Line was built behind the 1940 border with concrete bunkers in front of the Kymi river.

To overcome these obstacles, the Stavka assigned 11 divisions and 9 tank and assault gun regiments to the Leningrad Front. That meant that there were 19 divisions, 2 division strength fortified regions, 2 tank brigades, 14 tank and assault gun regiments at the Isthmus, all of which included over 220 artillery and rocket launcher batteries (almost 3,000 guns/launchers). Around 1,500 planes from the 13th Air Army and the Baltic Fleet naval aviation also contributed to the operation which included surface and naval infantry units of the Baltic Fleet.

To the east of Karelia, the Stavka planned to use 9 divisions, 2 sapper brigades, 2 tank brigades and 3 assault gun regiments, raising the whole strength to 16 divisions, 2 fortified regions, 5 separate rifle brigades, 2 tank brigades, 3 assault gun regiments and 3 tank battalions. They were supported by Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega naval flotillas and the 7th Air Army.

Vyborg offensive
At the Karelian Isthmus front there were on average 120 Red Army artillery pieces for every kilometer of frontline, with up to 220 artillery pieces per kilometer on the breakthrough sector at Valkeasaari. In addition to heavy coastal artillery of the Leningrad area and the guns of the capital ships of the Baltic Fleet (Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya, , ) Stavka had also assigned heavy siege artillery (280 to 305 mm) in support of the attack.

On June 9, a day before the main Soviet offensive, the 1,600-strong 13th Air Army conducted a major aerial assault. At the same time, artillery units of the Leningrad Front and the Baltic Fleet shelled Finnish positions for 10 hours. The Finnish Army was in a well-fortified position, but the Soviet air attacks surprised the defending Finnish army and undermined its resistance causing many Finnish units to retreat and suffer from thousands of desertions.

Valkeasaari

On June 10, the Soviet 21st Army spearheaded by 30th Guards Corps opened the offensive on the Valkeasaari sector which was defended by 1st Infantry Regiment of Finnish 10th Division. During the day, the Soviet units captured frontline trenches and destroyed fortifications, shattering the first Finnish defense line at the breakthrough sector.

Kuuterselkä

On June 13, the Soviet 21st Army's offensive reached the partially completed VT-line. The defensive position was breached at Kuuterselkä by June 15. Though the line was breached the Finnish resistance managed to delay further Soviet advances.

Siiranmäki

Simultaneous to Kuuterselkä the Soviet 23rd Army attempted to break through at a perceived weak point in the Finnish VT-line at Siiranmäki. Siiranmäki was the first place where Finnish troops were able to use Panzerfausts and Panzerschrecks imported from Germany. Though Finnish troops managed to contain the Soviet breakthrough at Siiranmäki it was not enough to keep the VT-line as Kuuterselkä had already been breached. Soviet 98th Infantry Corps fighting in Siiranmäki against Finnish 7th Regiment announced to have lost during period of June 13 to June 16: 3 784 soldiers including 887 killed in action based on their own report. Red Army and especially Guard units took heavy losses in Siiranmäki-Kuuterselkä with 20,000 KIA, MIA or WIA.

Viborg
The Finnish army attempted to buy time by engaging in delaying actions during its retreat so that additional forces from East Karelia would be able to reach the front, and the VKT-line could be prepared for combat. However, on June 19 forces of the first Leningrad Front had reached Viborg, and the first phase of the offensive was completed by the capture of the city on June 20, when the defending Finnish 20th Infantry Brigade fled in panic. Though Leningrad Front had managed to capture Viborg within the time table set by Stavka they had been unable to prevent retreating Finnish units from regrouping and fortifying on the VKT-line. Unlike many battles on the Eastern Front in the Karelian Isthmus the Red Army was unable to trap any large Finnish units – not even a single battalion. Finnish forces had managed to retreat. At the same time more and more Finnish reserves were arriving at the VKT-defense line, where terrain was much more favorable for defenders than for the armored Red Army units. The Soviet 21st Army also faced logistics issues after its fast 120 km advance to west.

Virojoki–Lappeenranta offensive
Mannerheim had asked for German help, and on June 17 Gefechtsverband Kuhlmey arrived in Finland, followed on June 21 by the 303rd Assault Gun Brigade (at half strength) and the 122nd Infantry Division. Also, new German anti-tank weapons, Panzerfausts and Panzerschrecks, were issued to Finnish army troops. Late on June 21, German foreign minister von Ribbentrop arrived to Finland in an attempt to extract political concessions from the military help.

On June 21, Stavka ordered continued attacks on the Imatra–Lappeenranta–Virojoki defence line, on the Salpa Line sector of the front. Another group would attack northwards to Käkisalmi (now Priozersk, Russia) and surround the Finns defending the eastern VKT-line while preparations would be made for an advance towards Kotka, Kouvola and the Kymi river.

On June 21 the Finnish government asked for Soviet peace terms. The response arrived on the next day and it demanded Finnish capitulation before any conditions could be presented. This created confusion in the Finnish government, where Ryti and Tanner were willing to repeat the inquiry about the conditions, while others opposed the capitulation. During the meeting Marshal Mannerheim was called, and he stated that the Soviet demand constituted an unconditional surrender. When Paasikivi's negotiation trip to Moscow in March 1944, which was initiated by the Soviet ambassador in Stockholm, but turned out to be a Soviet dictation of terms, was remembered, the government decided to interpret the Soviet response as a demand for unconditional surrender. It seemed that after Finnish unwillingness to accept the Soviet proposals in April 1944, owing to excessive reparation demands, Finland was to be offered only unconditional surrender. This was in line with Churchill's statement that as an Axis belligerent, Finland's surrender must be unconditional. The Soviet authorities denied this interpretation in an article published in Pravda on July 2, 1944, Furthermore, it is also known that at June 26 Stalin even told American ambassador Harriman that US diplomats could try to clarify to the Finns that he did not intend to take over the country. An unsigned draft document called "The Terms for Finnish Unconditional Surrender" was found in October 1993 in the Russian Foreign Ministry archive, which led some historians to conclude that unconditional surrender was indeed the Soviet goal. According to Baryshnikov this and similar drafts for the other countries the USSR was at war with existed since 1943, and they were replaced by new ones in the summer of 1944.

With Finnish army reinforcements, there were 268,000 Finnish army troops with 2,350 guns (of which 1,030 field artillery, 393 heavy mortars), 110 tanks/assault guns and 250 planes facing the two Red Army Fronts; 40% of the men and guns, and all the tanks were on the Isthmus. In total, the Red Army had a 1.7:1 advantage in men, 5.2:1 advantage in guns, and 6–7:1 advantage in planes and tanks against the Finnish army. However Finnish forces with 14 infantry divisions (a' 13,200), one armour division (9,200), 5 infantry brigades (a' 6,700), one cavalry regiment (4,300), 7 independent front border jaeger battalions, coastal defence forces and HQ/Corps artillery units even with full strength had less than 230,000 men. Less than 40 Finnish tanks and assault guns were modern (StuG III, T-34, KV-1) and less than 60 aircraft too (Bf 109 dayfighter and Ju 88 medium bomber). With these figures Red Army material advantage was about 1:20 at mid June 1944 (armour and aircraft).

The offensive continued on June 25, when the Red Army breached the VKT-line at Tali, between the Viborg Bay and the Vuoksi river. On June 26 the Finnish president Ryti gave the guarantee to Ribbentrop that Finland would fight to the end alongside Germany. When it became evident that a breakthrough was not possible at Ihantala, the Leningrad Front attempted to double envelope the defenders with the twin assaults at the Viborg Bay and Vuosalmi. However, the Finnish army was able to hold its positions on these sectors of the front. On July 12 Stavka ordered Leningrad front to release offensive elements from the Finnish front, and on July 15, the Red Army troops were ordered to assume a defensive posture, and offensive elements (mostly armor) were transferred to the German front for use in Narva offensive and Operation Bagration.

The Soviet troops tried to penetrate deep west after the Battle of Ihantala: in Äyräpää until July 18 and in Karelian Front even in early August. All offensives continued until very end – when there was no chance of a final decisive breakthrough. There hardly were any "limited objectives" on the Karelian Isthmus and Karelia. In the official history of the Great Patriotic War, failed offensives usually disappeared from memory as happened with the Vyborg–Petrozavodosk offensive. After Vyborg, the plan was to reach the Kymi river.

Koivisto landing operation
After the Soviet offensive on the Karelian Isthmus pushed north past Koivisto, the Finnish forces defending the Koivisto Islands (or in Russian : the Beryozovye Islands) became isolated. After the Soviet 21st Army failed to attack the islands, the Leningrad front ordered the Soviet Baltic Fleet to capture the islands. The initial Soviet landing was contained but the Finnish Navy soon evacuated the defending forces. This movement was largely unopposed. Although the eagerness of the commanders to evacuate preserved the defending forces, the loss of the islands proved costly because the Soviet Baltic Fleet gained a safe route to Vyborg Bay.

Tienhaara

After capturing Viborg the lead elements of the Soviet 21st Army attempted to push forward along the main road leading north from Viborg but strong artillery support, narrow area of operations, and very favorable terrain made it possible for the Finnish 61st Infantry Regiment to hold the Soviet advance forcing the Soviet 21st Army to attempt to find a more suitable location for breaching the Finnish VKT-line.

Tali–Ihantala

After Soviet 21st Army easily cleared the defending Finnish troops from Viborg on June 20, the Soviet forces attempted to press on the offensive, but met stubborn Finnish resistance at Tali and were forced to stop. After bringing fresh troops to the front the 21st Army managed to push Finnish lines to Ihantala but failed to create any breakthroughs. The battle fought over the area is considered to be the largest battle in the history of the Nordic countries.

The Soviet 23rd Army joined the offensive by attempting to break through the Finnish lines between Tali and Vuoksi towards Noskua but the repeated Soviet attacks were halted by the highly efficient Finnish artillery. In the end, the battle of Tali–Ihantala was a defensive strategic victory for the Finnish army. It blocked the possibility for the Soviet army to break through to the Finnish heartland and the road to Helsinki. Soviet military losses peaked on 28 June when Leningrad Front reported that it had lost during that single day over 5,000 soldiers including 1,800 killed in action, over 25% more than on 14 June when they reported losing almost 4,000 (including nearly 700 killed in action). The Finnish artillery caused a high proportion of these losses, concentrating deadly firepower with 250 artillery pieces sending 2,000 shells to one small target area the size of just 6 hectares in one minute. Red Army units saw no chances to penetrate through this fire power. The terrain favored the defenders forcing Soviet armor units into narrow death traps. Finnish radio intelligence intercepted many Red Army signals, giving data for effective artillery and air power counterattacks.

Viborg Bay

After the initial efforts of the 21st Army in Tali–Ihantala did not produce a breakthrough, the Leningrad Front ordered the 59th Army to capture the islands dominating the Viborg Bay and perform an amphibious landing on the opposing shore. Though the landings on the islands were ultimately successful, the attempted crossing failed.

Vuosalmi

As the 21st Army was unable to advance, the Soviet 23rd Army attempted a crossing in the Vuosalmi region of the Vuoksi waterway. Though Soviet forces successfully pushed Finnish troops from Äyräpää ridge dominating the crossing and managed to create a strong bridgehead on the opposing side, the defending Finnish troops were able to contain it.

Svir–Petrozavodsk offensive
The Soviet Union's Karelian Front attacked in the Olonets sector of White Karelia on June 20. Weakened Finnish forces proved unable to stop the offensive which reached Olonets on June 25 and on June 29 took Petrozavodsk, one of the main goals of the operation. The long advance and the delaying tactics of the Finnish forces sapped the Soviet strength and the main push of the 7th Army stopped at the Finnish U-line. The Soviet 7th Army and the 32nd Army tried to go around the U-line attacking further to the north but failed to break through the defending Finnish units in battles fought in the wilderness of Karelia. The last attempt to resume the offensive was made further north by two divisions of the Soviet 32nd Army which were defeated by counterattacking Finns in the Battle of Ilomantsi.

Svir
The Finnish Army had previously withdrawn most of its forces from the southern shore of the Svir River, so when the Red Army offensive started on 21 June, it did not achieve the desired surprise. The Karelian Front's Soviet 7th Army – 37th Guards, 4th and 99th Corps – crossed the river using amphibious vehicles on the following day and secured a bridgehead 8 km deep and 16 km wide. After securing the crossing the Soviet forces continued to chase the withdrawing Finns towards the defenses of the 'PSS'-line.

Tuloksa landing operation
On June 23, 70th naval infantry brigade attacked and captured a beachhead behind the Finnish lines and also beyond the 'PSS'-line between the Viteleenjoki and Tuuloksenjoki rivers, severing the main road and railroad connections along the shore of Lake Ladoga. As Finns had previously moved most of the coastal defenses to the Karelian Isthmus the Soviet landing met only skeleton defense. Finnish attempts to drive the Soviets into the Ladoga proved unsuccessful but it had pushed the defending Soviets to the difficult position as ammunition and supplies started running low. Situation in the beachhead was improved when the 3rd Naval Infantry Brigade started its landings on the evening of June 24. Bad weather hampered the efforts the brigade was finally unloaded on the June 26 and it was able to link up with the advancing 7th Army.

Landing caused some trouble for the defending Finns as it cut the railroad line running along the coast of lake Ladoga. Cutting of the road was of less consequence as Finns had already previously constructed new parallel roads further inland in fear of landing. However the heavy traffic of the withdrawing forces totally ruined the new road forcing some of the equipment to be abandoned. Though the Finns managed to withdraw to the new defensive line the advancing Soviet units broke through the new line at Vitele already on June 28 forcing the Finns to continue delaying the advancing Soviets while withdrawing towards the 'U'-line. For the Red Army the Svir–Petrozavodsk offensive cost losses of at least 45,000 soldiers while Finnish losses were 11,000. The Soviets themselves estimated having captured 933 Finnish artillery pieces and 18,000 rounds of ammunition however many of the guns had been spiked.

Nietjärvi

The Finnish Army retreated further, delaying the Karelian Front's advance, allowing for the U-line, running northwards from Pitkäranta to Loimola and Kivijärvi, to be reinforced. The first Karelian Front 7th Army's units reached the U-line on July 10, but were fatigued following the long offensive and failed to breach the defence line. Soviet attempts to break through the U-line at Nietjärvi ended with clear Soviet failure on July 17 when a Finnish counterattack regained the lost positions on the U-line causing severe losses to the Soviet 114th Division. Once the attempts to gain breakthrough into the Finnish U-line had failed Red Army attempted to go around the line by flanking it through the frontier north of the line. As Finns countered the flanking maneuvers the fighting extended far into the frontier in a makeshift extension of the U-line however Soviet 7th Army managed neither to flank the extending Finnish line nor to break through it. Soviet losses in Nietjärvi were 7,000 KIA, MIA and WIA while Finnish forces lost 1,200 soldiers.

Ilomantsi

North of the U-line the Soviet 32nd Army which consisted of 176th, 289th, 313th and 368th Rifle Divisions advanced after capturing Petrozavodsk towards small Finnish town of Ilomantsi while being delayed by defending Finnish 21st Brigade. Lack of suitable roads and the slow progress of 7th Army forced 32nd Army to move 313th and 368th Rifle Divisions to support 7th Army's offensive but they were blocked by the Finnish 1st Division. The Soviet attack towards Ilomantsi with the remaining 2 divisions (176th and 289th) was initially successful, and the divisions reached the border of 1940 on July 21, (the only Soviet units which did so in the offensive), but in the ensuing battle the divisions were surrounded and forced to escape the encirclement suffering heavy losses (est. 7,000-8,000 KIA, MIA, WIA if including losses of last week of July in Ilomantsi area ) and being forced to leave their artillery and other heavy equipment behind.

Aftermath
The offensive succeeded in reclaiming East Karelia and driving the Finnish army to the northern side of Viborg Bay and the Vuoksi River. It also reopened the original route of the Murman Railway and the White Sea Canal to the Karelian Front forces. However, the offensive failed to breach the VKT-line and reach the Kymi River as ordered by the Stavka. In fact by the end of summer 1944 the Finnish armed forces were stronger and better equipped than ever before.

Despite the losses suffered, the Finnish army managed to avoid encirclement of battalion-size units and benefited from supplies delivered by Germany.

Based on documents found after 1991 in Russia the most important point of the plan - the destruction of Finnish forces in Karelian Isthmus in a determined time and reaching a certain line (Kotka) - had failed. Despite that, the psychological effect of the offensive on the Finnish leadership should not be underestimated. Even though the Finns had stopped the offensive at the Karelian Isthmus after 100 km and the Battle of Ilomantsi had shown that the Finnish army was still a viable fighting force, it was estimated that should the Soviet offensive continue at its full strength, the Finnish army would be able to last for three months at most. For Finland the overall situation required peace especially when Germans had not much chance to keep Finns on their side longer. At the same time western allies had already made their crucial breakthrough in Normandy and were driving fast to the east.

During the height of the offensive in June 1944, the Finns asked for negotiations and the Soviets responded with a demand for surrender, which in Finland was interpreted as an ambiguous demand for unconditional surrender and rejected. After the fighting had reached a stalemate in August 1944, another attempt to seek peace was made by Finland. In September 1944 the Soviets offered peace terms that were roughly the same as in April 1944, though some of the demands, which had been seen by the Finns as impossible to concede to, were reduced. The $600 million war reparations were halved and the time to pay them off was extended. This was probably in part brought about by international pressure exerted on the Soviets, especially by the U.S. and Britain. However, after the ceasefire the Soviets demanded that payments be based on 1938 prices which nearly doubled the actual amount to be paid, and so the Finns complained that the Soviets only pretended to lower the reparations.

Despite not achieving all of the goals set by the Stavka, the offensive forced Finland from the war and to accept Soviet peace terms, or at least was an important factor leading to the ceasefire negotiations that were resumed a month after the offensive had ended.

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading
 Ilya Moshansky: Sturm Karelskogo Vala. Vyborgsko-Petrozavodskaja strategicheskaja nastupatelnaja operazija 10 ijuna – 9 avgusta 1944 goda., "Vojennaja Letopis", BTV-MN, Moscow, 2005.

Conflicts in 1944
1944 in Finland
Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War
Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II
Battles and operations of the Continuation War
Military operations of World War II involving Germany
Finland in World War II
June 1944 events
July 1944 events
August 1944 events
Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic

Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive


Eragon (stylized in all lowercase) is a 2006 action fantasy film directed by Stefen Fangmeier (in his directorial debut) and written by Peter Buchman, loosely based on Christopher Paolini's 2002 novel of the same name. It stars Ed Speleers in the title role as well as Jeremy Irons, Sienna Guillory, Robert Carlyle, Djimon Hounsou, Garrett Hedlund, Joss Stone, and John Malkovich, with Rachel Weisz as the voice of Saphira the dragon. The film also marked the film debuts for Speleers and Stone.

Principal photography took place at the Mafilm Fót Studios in Hungary, starting on August 1, 2005. Visual effects and animation were by Industrial Light & Magic and Weta Digital. Eragon was released worldwide between December 13, 2006 and December 15, 2006 by 20th Century Fox. It received widespread negative reviews from critics and book fans, who criticized its acting, screenplay, visuals and unfaithfulness to the source material, though its CGI and the performances of Speleers and Irons were praised by a few critics. It was the 10th worst reviewed film of 2006 on Rotten Tomatoes, but the 31st highest-grossing film of 2006 in the US. The film was released for home entertainment on March 20, 2007. Originally, Eragon was supposed to be the first in a franchise based on Paolini's Inheritance Cycle book series with Fangmeirer shooting both Eldest and Brisingr back-to-back. However, following the poor critical reception of Eragon on its release, and its box-office performance, all the planned sequels were cancelled.

Plot

Arya, the elf princess of Ellesméra, flees with a strange stone, pursued by Durza, a dark sorcerer under King Galbatorix. Durza corners Arya, and she uses magic to teleport the stone away moments before she is captured.

Eragon, a poor farm boy living in the country of Alagaësia with his uncle Garrow and cousin Roran, is hunting for deer when he witnesses the stone appearing. Hoping to trade it for food, Eragon brings the stone home but realizes that it is actually an egg when a blue dragon hatches from it. As he touches the dragon, a magical and mysterious mark appears on his palm. Several people are shown reacting to this incident, including Arya, an old storyteller, Brom, and Galbatorix himself.

Eragon shelters and feeds the dragon, and he teaches her to fly as she gradually grows to full size. She speaks to him through their thoughts and calls herself Saphira. When they are out, Durza's monstrous minions, the Ra'zac, arrive at the village to look for the dragon and the rider, killing Eragon's uncle in the process. Blaming Saphira for his uncle's death, Eragon sends her away. Brom shows up, takes Eragon away from the village, warns him of Saphira's importance, and urges him to call her back. Eragon calls Saphira with his thoughts, and she comes back, forgiving him for what he previously said.

Brom is leading the group to the Varden, rebel freedom fighters opposing Galbatorix. On the way, Brom fills Eragon in on the knowledge of dragon riders, Galbatorix, Durza, and the Ra'zac. He also trains Eragon in sword-fighting. In a small village, Eragon meets a fortune-telling witch named Angela, who tells him of a girl awaiting his help and of his dangerous path ahead. When Brom and Eragon are attacked by Galbatorix's servants, the Urgals, Eragon attempts to mimic Brom and wipes out the whole group with a magic attack of blue fire, before falling unconscious from the strain. Saphira saves him. Brom teaches Eragon to control his magic and bond his powers with Saphira. After flying for the first time, Eragon and Saphira help Brom kill the Ra'zac, and Brom reveals he was once a rider, his dragon killed by Morzan, a rogue rider allied with Galbatorix.

Durza sets a trap for Eragon, using Arya as bait. Hearing her telepathic calls, Eragon finds her, but is ambushed by Durza. Eragon is outmatched, and Brom arrives to help him, though he gets mortally wounded in the process. In a fit of rage, Eragon vengefully shoots an arrow into Durza's head, causing him to disappear. Eragon soon learned from Brom that he didn't kill Durza, because he didn't pierce his heart. The trio escapes, and Brom dies of his wounds while flying on Saphira. They held a small funeral for Brom, however, Sephira, unable to produce fire, breathed ice onto Brom's pyre, incasing him in the ice. Eragon takes possession of Brom's sword, Zar'roc, which previously belonged to Morzan.

Eragon confronts a hooded figure that has been following them. That figure reveals himself to be Murtagh, and guides them to the Varden. Once there, Murtagh is imprisoned by the Varden for being Morzan's son. Soon after, Durza and his men surround the rebel camp. Eragon, Saphira, Arya, and the Varden prepare for battle and fight off Galbatorix's forces. Murtagh frees himself during the battle and assists the Varden, saving the Dwarf King Hrothgar and proving his trustworthiness. Eragon and Saphira duel in the skies with Durza who rides his own beast. They eventually kill him, but Saphira is heavily injured. Eragon uses magic to heal her and once again passes out from the strain.

The following morning, Eragon awakes with Murtagh at his side. He fears Saphira may be dead but finds her fully healed. They catch up with Arya, who is on her way to Ellesméra to lead the elves in the coming war against Galbatorix. She calls Eragon "The great Shadeslayer," and they part ways, promising that they will meet again.

Meanwhile, in his castle, Galbatorix, furious, slashes at his hanging map of Alagaësia, revealing his immense pitch black dragon, Shruikan.

Cast

 Ed Speleers as Eragon, a farmboy who found a mysterious stone and became a dragon rider
 Jeremy Irons as Brom, an elderly vagrant who was once a dragon rider
 Sienna Guillory as Arya, the elven princess of Ellesméra who stole the dragon stone from Galbatorix
 Robert Carlyle as Durza, a powerful shade leading Galbatorix's army
 Djimon Hounsou as Ajihad, resistance leader of the Varden
 Garrett Hedlund as Murtagh, a roguish archer who was the son of the traitor, Morzan
 Joss Stone as Angela, a witch who reads Eragon's fortune
 John Malkovich as Galbatorix, the tyrannical king of Alagaësia and the traitor to the dragon riders
 Rachel Weisz as the voice of Saphira, Eragon's mount and dragon
 Alun Armstrong as Garrow, Eragon's uncle
 Chris Egan as Roran, Eragon's cousin
 Gary Lewis as Hrothgar
 Richard Rifkin as Horst
 Steve Speirs as Sloan
 Caroline Chikezie as Nasuada
 Matt Devere as Tall Soldier

Production

Development
Plans to create a film based on Christopher Paolini's best-selling novel were first announced in February 2004. 20th Century Fox purchased the rights to Eragon. Screenwriter Peter Buchman, whose credits included Jurassic Park III, wrote the screenplay. Buchman, a fan of fantasy and science fiction literature and films, says he was "blown away" by the author's precociousness, his mastery of plot lines and characters, and his ability to create several completely imaginary worlds.

Casting

Speleers was selected for the title role after a worldwide casting search. "Ed came in [to the casting session], and we just looked at each other and said, "That's Eragon, that's the guy from the book," said director Stefen Fangmeier: "I got a strong sense of Ed's sparkle, of his life. It's the kind of thing where you just know he's destined to become a movie star. Speleers won the role as he was trying to learn his lines for a school production of Hamlet. Others considered for the role included Alex Pettyfer but since production took place in central Europe and Pettyfer is afraid of flying, he declined the role.

On July 15, 2005, in an official press release from 20th Century Fox, it was confirmed that Speleers had signed on to the project. Over the following months, Jeremy Irons, John Malkovich, Chris Egan, and Djimon Hounsou were all confirmed as joining the Eragon cast. Paolini, author of the original novel, had expressed his wishes to be featured in a cameo role in the film — specifically, as a warrior who is beheaded in the battle of Farthen Dûr. However, he was unable because of his European book tour.

Jeremy Irons, who welcomed the opportunity to reintroduce himself to younger audiences, took on the role although Dungeons & Dragons (a previous fantasy film he had acted in) had flopped, and he said that he thought that Eragon "had been better managed" than that film.

Filming

In August 2005, Fox began filming Eragon at various locations throughout Hungary and Slovakia, including:
 Pilisborosjenő, Budapest Metropolitan Area, Hungary
 Budapest, Hungary
 Ság-hegy, Hungary
 Celldömölk, Hungary
 High Tatras, Slovakia

Filming ended a month later in September, beginning the film's post-production stage, with Industrial Light and Magic creating the film's CGI.

The decision was made later on in production to add feathers to the standard bat-like wings of the dragon Saphira. The studio had been inspired by the Angel's wings in X-Men: The Last Stand. Jean Bolte, lead viewpaint artist for ILM on the film, calls them "skethers" (half-feathers, half-scales) and was inspired by the scales of the pangolin. It was eventually decided that Saphira's colors scheme should be subdued rather than vibrant to be more realistic.

Music

The score for the film was composed by Patrick Doyle. Avril Lavigne recorded the film's theme song, "Keep Holding On", which was featured in the credits and on the soundtrack. The track was released as a single in 2006 and peaked at number 17 on the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. It was later included on her 2007 album The Best Damn Thing.

Track listing
 "Eragon"
 "Roran Leaves"
 "Saphira's First Flight"
 "Ra'zac"
 "Burning Farm"
 "Fortune Teller"
 "If You Were Flying"
 "Brom's Story"
 "Durza"
 "Passing the Flame"
 "Battle for Varden"
 "Together"
 "Saphira Returns"
 "Legend of Eragon"
 "Keep Holding On" – Avril Lavigne
 "Once in Every Lifetime" – Jem

Distribution

Video game

The video game based on the motion picture was developed by Stormfront Studios and Amaze Entertainment and was released in November 2006.

Home media
Eragon was released DVD and Blu-ray in the US on March 20, 2007. It debuted at number 1 on the national DVD sales charts and at number 3 on the DVD rental charts. It grossed more than US$35.2 million in rentals. It was released on DVD in Europe on April 16, 2007 and in Australia on April 18, 2007.

Reception

Critical response

On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, Eragon holds an approval rating of 16% based on 126 reviews, with an average rating of 4.08/10. The consensus reads "Eragon is a fantasy epic that lacks any magic, brought down to earth by unconvincing world-building and a litany of stars who seem bemused by the material." At Metacritic, the film holds a score of 38 out of 100 based on 29 reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "B" on scale of A+ to F. The Seattle Times described the film as "technically accomplished, but fairly lifeless and at times a bit silly". The Hollywood Reporter said the world of Eragon was "without much texture or depth." The story was labeled "derivative" by The Washington Post, and "generic" by the Las Vegas Weekly. Newsday stressed this point further, asserting that only "nine-year-olds with no knowledge whatsoever of any of the six Star Wars movies would find the film original."

The acting was called "lame" by the Washington Post, plus "stilted" and "lifeless" by the Orlando Weekly. The dialogue was also criticized, with MSNBC labelling it "silly"; the Las Vegas Weekly called it "wooden". Positive reviews described the film as "fun" and "the stuff boys' fantasies are made of." The CGI work was called "imaginative" and Saphira was called a "magnificent creation." Christopher Paolini stated he enjoyed the film, particularly praising the performances of Jeremy Irons and Ed Speleers.

Box office
Eragon grossed approximately $75 million in the US and $173.9 million elsewhere, grossing $249 million worldwide. Director Stefen Fangmeier believes that Fox was "modestly happy with the worldwide box office."

Eragon was in release for 17 weeks in the US, opening on December 15, 2006 and closing on April 8, 2007. It opened in 3020 theaters, earning $8.7 million on opening day and $23.2 million across opening weekend, ranked 2nd behind The Pursuit of Happyness. Eragon's second weekend US box office dropped by almost 70%, possibly due to the opening of Night at the Museum, another family film from 20th Century Fox, the 41st biggest second weekend drop since this statistic was kept. Eragon's $75 million total US gross was the 31st highest for 2006.

The film earned $150 million in its opening weekend across 76 overseas markets, making it the number one film worldwide. This was attributed to the sheer scope of Eragons global launch as the film ranked number 1 in fewer than half of the overseas territories it was released in. The foreign box office competition for the film's opening week was "soft;" had Eragon been released one year earlier, it would have been placed fourth. Eragons UK opening was "a disappointment," in Australia it was "solid if unimpressive," but its most impressive market was France, where the film earned more than $21 million. The film's $249 million total worldwide gross was the 16th highest for 2006.
Eragon grossed $86,995,160 on DVD from March 20, 2007 – May 13, 2007.

Accolades
 Saturn Awards (2007)
 Nominated: Best Fantasy Film
 Nominated: Best Performance by a Younger Actor - Edward Speleers
 CDG Award (Costume Designers Guild) (2007)
 Nominated: Excellence in Costume Design for Film (Fantasy) - Kym Barrett

Reboot
Around 2021, 15 years after the film's premiere, fans of the book series tweeted #EragonRemake in an effort to get Disney, the intellectual rights holders following their acquisition of 21st Century Fox, to revamp the book series into a possible television show for Disney+. Within hours, the hashtag began to trend with fans pushing for a proper adaptation. When Paolini found out about this movement, he encouraged the fans to keep at it and even joined it himself.

On July 25, 2022, Variety reported that a live action television series adaptation of Eragon was in early development for Disney+, with Paolini serving as a co-writer on the series, and with Bert Salke executive producing.

References

External links

2006 films
2000s fantasy action films
American fantasy action films
American coming-of-age films
American fantasy films
British coming-of-age films
British fantasy films
20th Century Fox films
Davis Entertainment films
Dune Entertainment films
20th Century Studios franchises
American children's fantasy films
American fantasy adventure films
Films about dragons
Films based on American novels
Films based on fantasy novels
Films produced by John Davis
Films scored by Patrick Doyle
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
Films shot in British Columbia
Films shot in Budapest
Films shot in Hungary
Films shot in Slovakia
High fantasy films
The Inheritance Cycle
Sword and sorcery films
Films with screenplays by Peter Buchman
2006 directorial debut films
Films produced by Wyck Godfrey
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
2000s British films

Eragon (film)


Rio Grande County is a county located in the U.S. state of Colorado. As of the 2020 census, the population was 11,539. The county seat is Del Norte. The county is named for the Rio Grande (Spanish language for "Big River"), which flows through the county.

Description
The gateway to the San Juan Mountains, Rio Grande County is one of the highlights of the San Luis Valley. The county covers  ranging from approximately  on valley floor to several  peaks. There are three municipalities within the county, Monte Vista, Del Norte, and South Fork and all have been historically developed along the rail line that follows the Rio Grande.

Monte Vista is the county's largest community situated on the valley floor. "Monte", as locals call it, is the center of the agricultural aspect of the county. There are numerous festivals, events, and clubs that take place in and around Monte Vista, and the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge is a stop for migratory Sand Hill Cranes every year.
Del Norte is a quaint town with a focus on its historic past; it is the county seat, home to the Rio Grande County Museum, and maintains a historic façade in its main street.

The newest town in Rio Grande County is South Fork. South Fork is surrounded by the Rio Grande National Forest and other public lands and has easy access to Wolf Creek Ski Area. Developed as a logging center it has become a gem of the Valley with a booming housing market, world-class 18-hole golf course, and the distinction of being the "Gateway to the Silver Thread" scenic byway.

Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which  is land and  (0.04%) is water.

Adjacent counties
Saguache County - north
Alamosa County - east
Conejos County - south
Archuleta County - southwest
Mineral County - west

Major highways
  U.S. Highway 160
  U.S. Highway 285
  State Highway 15
  State Highway 112
  State Highway 149
  State Highway 368
  State Highway 370

National protected areas
Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge
Rio Grande National Forest

Trails and byways
Continental Divide National Scenic Trail
Old Spanish National Historic Trail
Silver Thread Scenic Byway

Demographics

At the 2000 census there were 12,413 people, 4,701 households, and 3,417 families living in the county. The population density was . There were 6,003 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 73.93% White, 0.35% Black or African American, 1.26% Native American, 0.23% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 21.45% from other races, and 2.76% from two or more races. 41.67% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
Of the 4,701 households 35.10% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.80% were married couples living together, 11.20% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.30% were non-families. 24.10% of households were one person and 10.30% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.08.

The age distribution was 28.10% under the age of 18, 8.00% from 18 to 24, 25.30% from 25 to 44, 23.90% from 45 to 64, and 14.70% 65 or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 97.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.40 males.

The median household income was $31,836 and the median family income was $36,809. Males had a median income of $30,432 versus $23,005 for females. The per capita income for the county was $15,650. About 11.30% of families and 14.50% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.40% of those under age 18 and 11.20% of those age 65 or over.

Politics

Communities

City
Monte Vista

Towns
Center
Del Norte
South Fork

Census-designated places
Alpine
Gerrard

Unincorporated
Homelake

See also

Bibliography of Colorado
Geography of Colorado
History of Colorado
National Register of Historic Places listings in Rio Grande County, Colorado
Index of Colorado-related articles
List of Colorado-related lists
List of counties in Colorado
Outline of Colorado

References

External links
Rio Grande County Government website
Colorado County Evolution by Don Stanwyck
Colorado Historical Society

Colorado counties
1874 establishments in Colorado Territory
San Luis Valley of Colorado
Populated places established in 1874

Rio Grande County, Colorado


1,3-Benzodioxolylbutanamine (also known as 3,4-methylenedioxybutanphenamine, MDB, BDB, J, and 3,4-methylenedioxy-α-ethylphenethylamine) is an entactogenic drug of the phenethylamine chemical class. It is the α-ethyl analog of MDPEA and MDA and the methylenedioxy analogue of α-ethylphenethylamine.

BDB was first synthesized by Alexander Shulgin. In his book PiHKAL, the dosage range is listed as 150–230 mg and the duration is listed as 4–8 hours. BDB produces entactogenic, MDMA-like effects. Although pleasant and euphoric, BDB is also fairly sedating and some users feel that the lack of stimulant effect makes it less enjoyable than other similar drugs. Additional side effects associated with BDB include nystagmus and dizziness. Very little data exists about the pharmacological properties, metabolism, and toxicity of BDB.

Animal studies and anecdotal reports show that BDB is a slightly more potent serotonin releasing agent than its methylated sister compound methylbenzodioxylbutanamine (MBDB; "Eden", "Methyl-J"). However, it is more commonly known as a metabolite of the N-alkylated analogues MBDB and ethylbenzodioxylbutanamine (EBDB; "Ethyl-J") which have appeared in methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; "Ecstasy", "Adam", "Empathy", "Molly", "E", "X", "XTC") tablets. Although BDB itself has not been reported as being sold as "Ecstasy", urine analysis of "Ecstasy" users suggest that this drug may have appeared as a street drug, although it is unclear whether the positive urine test for BDB resulted from consumption of BDB itself or merely as a metabolite of MBDB.

Legal status
1,3-Benzodioxolylbutanamine is illegal in Germany (Anlage I)

See also
 1-(4-Methylphenyl)-2-aminobutane

References

Psychedelic phenethylamines
Benzodioxoles
Serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine releasing agents
Entactogens and empathogens

1,3-Benzodioxolylbutanamine


{{Infobox ethnic group
|group     = AmboneseMoluccans
|native_name = Orang Ambon
|image     =
|caption   = Ambonese women performing a dance on Queen's Day, 1921.
|poptime   =
|popplace  =
|languages = Ambonese Malay, Indonesian (in Indonesia), Dutch (in Netherlands)
|religions =  Christianity (Protestantism-Reformed Church, Roman Catholicism), Islam (Sunni Islam)
|related   = Melanesians, Polynesians, Moluccans, Malagasy people
}}

The Ambonese, also known as Moluccans', are an Indonesian ethnic group of mixed Austronesian and Melanesian origin. They are majority Christians followed by Muslims. The Ambonese are from Ambon Island in Maluku, an island group east of Sulawesi and north of Timor in Indonesia. They also live on the southwest of Seram Island; which is part of the Moluccas, Java, New Guinea; on the West Papua side and other regions of Indonesia. Additionally, there are about 35,000 Ambonese people living in the Netherlands. By the end of the 20th century, there were 258,331 (2007 census) Ambonese people living in Ambon, Maluku.

 Language

The predominant language of the island is Ambonese Malay, also called Ambonese. It developed as the trade language of central Maluku, and is spoken elsewhere in Maluku as a second language. Bilingualism in Indonesian is high around Ambon City. They are an ethnic mixture of Austronesians and the Melanesians.

 Religion

The Ambonese ethnicity is split of Christian (Reformed Christianity and Roman Catholicism) and Muslim (Sunni Islam), while indigenous customs such as tattooing have largely disappeared. According to Mikhail Anatolievich Chlenov, relationship between the adherents of both faiths here have traditionally been neighborly peaceful, based on the union of the communities' pela; which in the Ambonese language means "friend". However, he also mentions that clashes between Ambonese people and other non-indigenous ethnic groups occurs on religious grounds. Mounted tension then resulted in the 1998 inter-religious conflict in Ambon, of which until today the number of victims have turned into thousands of people. In the situation of an almost civil war, people were forced to move to refugee camps across the capital of the island, Ambon, Maluku, with lines dividing its Muslim and Christian sections were made. The problem is not completely resolved, and the religious issue is still acute, as indeed, in other parts of Indonesia.

 History

Ambon belonged to the so-called colonial ethnic group. They were formed in the 16th to 18th century as a result of the mixing of the indigenous population of Ambon Island and West Seram Regency, the human trade of the Hitu people, and with the immigrants from both other parts of Indonesia and Europeans. In the 15th to 16th century, the largest center of spice trade was established under the rule of the Sultanate of Ternate, and its capture then became the goal of the foreign colonialists, who at the beginning of the 16th century were the Portuguese colonials, and at the beginning of the 17th century the Dutch colonials.

The Ambonese people resisted the Dutch colonization until the beginning of the 19th century. However, their resistance did not help in preventing the Dutch conquering the Indonesian Archipelago and suppressing uprisings of local ethnic groups against the colonialists. Due to its far-sighted policy, the Ambonese people have achieved a privileged position in Indonesia since the mid-19th century. Many of them were Europeanized, adopted Christianity, the wealthy townspeople were legally equated with the ruling colonizers, and they were involved in state and military services. For such loyalty, the Ambonese authorities were nicknamed "black Dutch".

During the Indonesian National Revolution war for the Independence of Indonesia in 1945–1949, large groups of Ambonese people, especially members of the colonial army, emigrated to the Netherlands and New Guinea.

 Economy

At present, the Ambonese people are considered one of the most developed peoples of Indonesia, belong to the class of local intellectuals. Mostly engaged in the production for sale of spices such as carnation and nutmeg, as well as sago as a food source. Since the 17th century, they were producers of nutmeg; which led to the conquest of the Dutch colonial in Ambon Island and its surrounding region in 1605 as an attempt to monopolized the nutmeg trade, and finally the Amboyna massacre. Developed fishery, agriculture, horticulture and small trades are also means of earning a living. Ambonese craftsmen work in various industries such as pottery, blacksmithing, weapons making, shipbuilding, carving on tortoiseshell shell and mother of pearl, making ornamental crafts from buds of carnation, weaving boxes and mats from strips of palm leaves. Traditionally, they serve in the army and the administrative sector.

 Social structure

The Ambonese people live in traditional rural communities, called Negri and headed by a starosta called raja. Communities are divided into territorial-related groups called soa, which, in turn, unites the patrilineal clans that are called mata ruma. Marriages are concluded only within confessional groups. For the Ambonese people, they have been traditionally characterized by patrilocal marriage settlement. Relations between members of the community are regulated by traditional norms of behavior called adat, coming from the customs of the ancestors. Today the adat largely regulates matter on family, hereditary, land law, as well as on elections for leadership positions.

 Culture and lifestyle

A typical Ambonese village consists of about 1,500 people who live in houses made of materials from woven sago leaves or plastered bamboo, wood, coral stones, on stone foundations; they cultivate surrounding hillsides. Traditional rural settlements of Ambonese people are located on the shore and have a linear layout. Houses are built on stilts.

 Clothing
Men adopted modern European style clothing, and only on special occasions they would wear short jackets and black trousers. Women also wear thin blouses or small-patterned sarongs with black color for the older women and the younger women wear bright colored cotton dresses up to knee-length.

 Food
The basis of the diet of Ambonese people is a porridge of sago starch, vegetables, taro, cassava, and fish. The inhabitants of the Ambon Island also have access to imported rice.

 Music
The Ambonese people have rich musical folklore, many of which have absorbed many European musical elements, for example, the Ambonese quadrille (katreji) and the songs of the lagoon, accompanied by a violin and with a lap steel guitar. As of traditional musical instruments such as the 12 gongs, drums, bamboo flute (efluit), xylophone (tatabuhan kayu'') and Aeolian harp are included.

References

Ethnic groups in Indonesia
Melanesian people

Ambonese


Video game journalism is a branch of journalism that covers the reporting and discussion of video games. Usually, it covers the revealing of new games, the preview of new games, and the reviewing of new games. Recently, there has been a large growth in new online gaming websites and blogs.

History of print based gaming magazines

The first video gaming magazine that is still in publication is the industry-oriented (made for people who make video games) Play Meter magazine. The first consumer (made for players of video games, not the people who make them) magazine specializing in video gaming was the U.K. magazine Computer and Video Gaming. It began in November, 1981. Two weeks later the first U.S. magazine, Electronic Games Magazine, was started. The oldest consumer gaming magazine still sold today is Computer Gaming World.

History of web based gaming magazines

The first regularly published web based magazine was either Game Zero Magazine (went online in November 1994) or Intelligent Gamer Online (individual issues were downloadable in 1993  but the site was not online until April 1995). Right now, online gaming magazines and websites have many advantages over print-based magazines. New information on future releases can be placed on online publications immediately, but the publishers have to wait until the next issue to put new information in print based magazines.

Ethics

There have been many criticisms of the ethical standards of the video game journalism industry.

Conflicts of Interest
Reviews from a publication that receives advertising money from a game developer or attends a large 'press day' party are usually considered to be suspicious. Reviews by 'official' console magazines, such as Nintendo Power, Official Playstation Magazine, or Official Xbox Magazine, are considered to be biased toward games on their own console, and toward first-party games. One industry and marketing magazine, MCV, has been accused of requiring developers to pay protection money for positive coverage. Developers often do not give exclusive material or advertising money to magazines that do not give good reviews to their games or follow other wishes.

Time Spent on the Game
Getting a complete sense of a game can take far more than one playthrough. Many games, such as RPGs and strategy games, can take hundreds of hours to play. However, journalists often do not have much time to finish their reviews. In March 2006, a case where a reviewer only spent three hours on a game with around 50 hours of gameplay was publicized.

Reviewing Unfinished Games
There have been several instances of reviewers reviewing a game when they only had access to a beta version of a game. An unfinished version of Grand Theft Auto 4 was given a 10/10 by the Official Xbox 360 Magazine.

Lack of Familiarity with a genre or Lack of Skill
Reviewers often review games in genres that they are unfamiliar with. Often, games are uncompleted due to the short amount of time that a reviewer has to complete a review. A famous case of lack of gaming skill was when Dan Amrich gave Space Giraffe a 2/10 in the Official Xbox Magazine despite receiving a very low score in the game and not getting any achievements.

GameDaily's Chris Buffa Wrote a series of articles in July and August 2006.

These articles criticize the present state of video game journalism and offer suggestions for improvement:

New Games Journalism

New Games Journalism is a term that was first used in 2004 by journalist Kieron Gillen. In New Games Journalism, personal experiences with a game, other personal experiences, and references to other types of media are used to explore the design, play, and culture of a game. This type of journalism focuses more on the subjective experience of an individual playing a game rather that an objectively reviewing the gameplay of a game. New games journalism has been criticized for wasting the reader's time with useless information, and for giving the reader a bad review of the mechanics, play control, and A.I. of a game.

Notable Publications

Consumer

Print
Edge
Famitsu
Game Informer
Nintendo Power
Official PlayStation Magazine
Official Xbox Magazine
Play
PC Gamer

Online
1UP
IGN
Gamespot
Gamespy
Eurogamer
Gametrailers
Joystiq
Kotaku
Gamefaqs
Beyond 3D
Insert Credit
Actionbutton.net
Insomnia.ac

Specialist
SHMUPS!
SRK
RPGamer

Trade publications

Print - Game Developer Magazine
Online - Gamasutra The largest games trade magazine (circ 35 000), and its associated website. A focus on North America.
Online - NeoGAF
Print/Online - MCV UK trade publication (circ 10 000). Usually, it is published weekly.
Online - GamesIndustry.biz Popular trade website for Europe.

References

Journalism

Video game journalism


The Export Administration Regulations (EAR) are a set of United States export guidelines and prohibitions. They are administered by the Bureau of Industry and Security which regulates the export restrictions of sensitive goods. The EAR apply to scenarios where something is exported from the US, re-exported from a foreign country, or transferred from one person to another in a foreign country. The EAR apply to physical objects (also called commodities) as well as intellectual property such as software.

Classification

Commerce Control List
The Commerce Control List (CCL) identifies the items regulated by the Commerce Department's Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS). This includes export control and export and re-export of commercial and dual use items not subject to International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) or other federal regulations. Dual use items are those with both commercial and military or security applications. Each item listed on the CCL is assigned an alphanumeric Export Control Classification Number (ECCN), such as 3A001, that describes it and indicates its licensing requirements. The CCL is divided into ten categories, and each category is subdivided into five product groups.

EAR99
The EAR99 designation covers the majority of items that fall under the regulations but are not listed in the CCL. These items are generally low-technology consumer goods not requiring a license, with some exceptions such as items sent to an embargoed country or an end-user of concern.

Definitions

Export
With a few exceptions, the EAR define export as:

 A shipment or transmission out of the US, including sending or taking an item out of the US in any manner.
 Releasing or transferring technology or source code (but not object code) to a foreign person in the US, which the EAR consider an export to the foreign person's most recent country of citizenship or residency.
 The transfer of registration, control, or ownership of spacecraft by US personnel.
 A spacecraft subject to the EAR that is not eligible for an exception (i.e. spacecraft that provide space-based logistics, assembly or servicing of any spacecraft) to a person in or a national of any other country; or
 Any other spacecraft subject to the EAR to a person in or a national of a country subject to a US arms embargo (group D:5).

Technology
The EAR define technology as information necessary for the development, production, use, operation, installation, maintenance, repair, overhaul, or refurbishing (or other terms specified in ECCNs on the CCL that cover technology) of an item.

Technology may be tangible or intangible, and includes written or oral communications, blueprints, drawings, photographs, plans, diagrams, models, formulas, tables, engineering designs and specifications, computer-aided design files, manuals or documentation, and electronic media or information revealed through visual inspection.

Ten general prohibitions
The EAR include a list of ten general prohibitions, which are summarized as follows:

General prohibition 1
Items subject to the EAR cannot be exported nor can items of US-origin be re-exported to another country without a license or exception, if the items are controlled for a reason indicated by its ECCN, and export to the country requires a license, based on its country group.

General prohibition 2
A person cannot, without a license or exception, export or re-export foreign-made commodities, software, or technology that incorporates controlled US-origin commodities, software, or technology if the items require a license and incorporate or are combined with more than a minimal amount of controlled US content, as defined in Title 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations (15 CFR) section 734.4.

General prohibition 3
This prohibition applies to certain items that are produced outside of the US and that are the direct product of US technology or software, or they are developed from a plant that is the direct product of US technology or software.

A person may not, without a license or exception, re-export any item that meets the direct product test to a destination in the national security country group (D:1), designated terrorist supporting countries (E:1), or Cuba (E:2). Additionally, foreign-made military commodities that meet the direct product test cannot, without a license or exception, be re-exported or exported from abroad to a country in group D:1, the chemical and biological group (D:3), the missile technology group (D:4), D:5, E:1, or E:2.

General prohibition 4
Actions cannot be taken that are prohibited by a denial order issued under 15 CFR section 766. Denial orders prohibit many actions in addition to direct exports by the person denied export privileges, including some transfers within a single country, either in the US or abroad, by other people. Any such person is responsible for ensuring that transactions which involve a person who is denied export privileges do not violate the order. Orders denying export privileges are legally binding documents that are published in the Federal Register. The BIS maintains a list of people denied export privileges and can, on an exceptional basis, authorize activity otherwise prohibited by a denial order.

General prohibition 5
Items subject to the EAR cannot be exported or re-exported without a license to an end-user or end-use prohibited by 15 CFR section 744.

General prohibition 6
Items subject to the EAR cannot be exported or re-exported to Cuba, North Korea, Russia (with respect to Russian oil and gas industries), Crimea, Iran, or Syria without a license or exception.

General prohibition 7
US persons cannot perform certain activities related to nuclear explosive devices, missiles, chemical or biological weapons, or semiconductor equipment.

General prohibition 8
Exported or re-exported items cannot pass through any of the following countries without a license:

 Armenia
 Azerbaijan
 Belarus
 Cambodia
 Cuba
 Georgia
 Kazakhstan
 Kyrgyzstan
 Laos
 Mongolia
 North Korea
 Russia
 Tajikistan
 Turkmenistan
 Ukraine
 Uzbekistan
 Vietnam

General prohibition 9
The terms or conditions of a license, exception, or order issued under the EAR cannot be violated.

General prohibition 10
Items exported in a way that violates the EAR cannot be serviced. A license or exception that has been suspended or revoked cannot be relied upon.

Scope

General applicability
Besides exceptions, the EAR apply to the following categories:

 All items in the US, including in a US Foreign Trade Zone or moving in transit through the US from one foreign country to another
 All US-origin items
 Foreign-made commodities that contain controlled US-origin commodities or are bundled with controlled US-origin software, foreign-made software that is combined with controlled US-origin software, and foreign-made technology that is combined with controlled US-origin technology in certain quantities
 Certain foreign-made direct products of US origin technology or software
 Certain commodities produced by a plant located outside the US that is a direct product of US-origin technology or software

Exceptions
The EAR do not apply to the following:

 Items that are exclusively controlled for export or re-export by the following departments and agencies of the US Government which regulate exports or re-exports for national security or foreign policy purposes:
 The Department of State: the ITAR administered by the Directorate of Defense Trade Controls relate to defense articles and defense services on the US Munitions List and section 38 of the Arms Export Control Act
 The Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC)
 The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), which controls the export and re-export of commodities related to nuclear reactor vessels, per the Atomic Energy Act of 1954
 The Department of Energy (DOE), which controls the export and re-export of technology related to the production of special nuclear materials, per the Atomic Energy Act of 1954
 The Patent and Trademark Office (PTO), which controls the export of unclassified technology in the form patent applications or amendments, modifications, supplements, or divisions of patents. The BIS has delegated authority under the Export Administration Act to the PTO.
 The Department of Defense (DoD) and Department of State Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program: items that are sold, leased, or loaned by the DoD to a foreign country or international organization under the FMS program are subject to the Arms Export Control Act instead of the EAR.
 Prerecorded phonograph records that include the content of printed books, pamphlets, and other publications.
 Information and software that are published as described in 15 CFR section 734.7, arise or result from fundamental research, are released by instruction in a course or laboratory of an academic institution, appear in patents or published patent applications, unless covered by an invention secrecy order or other exception, are non-proprietary system descriptions, or are telemetry data.

Export regulations into China
Since 2018, Congress and the executive branch have revisedthrough legislation, regulation, and licensing practicesthe export control system that regulates dual-use exports. Much of the reform has focused on controlling emerging and foundational technologies, strengthening other technology controls and licensing practices, engaging multilaterally to ensure US controls are effective, and considering the impact of controls on the economy, including the foreign availability of US products subject to control. Export control covers the whole territory of the People's Republic of China, including Hong Kong and Macau.

See also
 International Traffic in Arms Regulations
 Denied trade screening
 United States sanctions
 Export Control Act

Notes

References

External links
 Export Control Classification Number – US Department of Commerce
 Lists of Parties of Concern – US Department of Commerce

United States Department of Commerce
Military technology
Identifiers
Export and import control

Export Administration Regulations


Jess Osuna (May 28, 1928 – April 2, 2011) was an American character actor whose credits included Three Days of the Condor and My Old Man.

Osuna had a successful film, television and stage career, including the films A New Leaf, Three Days of the Condor, All the President's Men, Taps and Kramer vs. Kramer, and the television shows Columbo, Kojak, NYPD and Hawk.

He had extensive theatre credits as well, and his Broadway credits include Happy Birthday Wanda June, Edison Theatre, 1970–1971, An Almost Perfect Person, The Belasco Theatre, 1977–1978, and The Goodbye People by Herb Gardner, at The Ethel Barrymore Theatre, 1968. He also starred in the Berkshire Theatre Festival's 1968 premiere production of A Cry of Players as Gilbert. He was first a student, then an instructor and performer at HB Studios in Greenwich Village, New York City. He studied with both Herbert Berghoff and Uta Hagen and eventually taught his own classes. For the last 7 years or so of his life he studied with Austin Pendleton, at HB, and performed with the HB Ensemble. Perhaps his favorite role was the title role in Hamlet which he played with the HB Ensemble. He rode his bicycle to appointments, classes and performances all over the city well into his 80s. Osuna died at his home in Greenwich Village, Manhattan, on April 2, 2011, at the age of 82. He was predeceased by his wife, Mary Anne. He is survived by his daughter Tracy and his grandson, Sean, as well as many nieces and nephews. Osuna was buried at Calvary Cemetery in Woodside, Queens.

Filmography

References

External links

1928 births
2011 deaths
American male film actors
American male television actors
Actors from Greenwich Village
Burials at Calvary Cemetery (Queens)

Jess Osuna


Dayton is an unincorporated community located in Howard County, Maryland, United States.

Dayton is located southwest of Baltimore and north of Washington, D.C., between Clarksville and Glenelg.

History
A postal office operated in the community from 21 July 1864 to present with brief stops in service during the American Civil War. By 1878, the town expanded to three general stores and a wheelwright shop. One of the former is Maloney's General Store, built shortly after the Civil War, which served as a stagecoach stop and was later owned by Royal Harp III, Thomas Isaacs, Mr White, and the Grant family.

The Dayton single-room school house was located along Green Bridge Road. After a fire in the single-room schoolhouse for colored children, a new brown tile two-room school was built at the crossroads of Ten Oaks, Green Bridge and Howard roads, and the colored children moved to the old white school. The two-room school is now on property owned by RLO Contractors.

Modern Dayton
Dayton is in the 21036 zip code area and belongs to the 410 area code. Local landmarks are the Crossroads Pub (Floyd's Crossroads Pub since 2014) famed for their Maryland blue crabs and once owned by the Harp family (Harp's Pub), who also owned Harp's grocery store, the Post Office, Hobbs Service Station, and a large wooden rabbit (severely damaged and removed in the mid-2010s), which was decorated for major holidays. The post office is still operating today.

Dayton is also the home to the annual Dayton Daze Parade that began in honor of Lenny Hobbs. The Hobbs Family gas station was prominent in the crossroads community.

Although rural, Dayton is a high-income area, with a median household income of $196,494 in 2013, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.

The 21036 zip code is the wealthiest in the Baltimore metropolitan area as of 2013, with an average family net worth of $1.85 million, and is listed as a "super" zip code. The median home value was $750,000 in 2013, with an average home size of 4,923 square feet.

In 2014, a zoning case to move a large industrial mulching operation operated by a Sandy Spring Bank executive and RLO president from Trinity Church in Elkridge to agricultural preservation land in Dayton prompted a large citizen reaction.

References

Year of establishment missing
Unincorporated communities in Howard County, Maryland
Unincorporated communities in Maryland

Dayton, Maryland