Pryor Creek or Pryor is a city in and county seat of Mayes County, Oklahoma, United States.  The population was 8,659 at the 2000 census and 9,539 in the 2010 census.

Originally named Coo-Y-Yah, Cherokee for "place of the huckleberries", it was renamed Pryor Creek in 1887 which was the name of the local railroad station, which in turn was named for the nearby creek. Due to confusion in distinguishing handwritten mailing addresses to Pryor Creek and Pond Creek, the U.S. Postal Service name for the city was shortened to Pryor, and both names are in common usage.

History

In the early 1800s, treaties with the Cherokee, Osage, and Choctaw gave the tribes allotments in Indian Territory in the region that would become Oklahoma. Captain Nathaniel Hale Pryor, who was married to an Osage woman and served as an agent to the Osage people, was among those settling northeastern Oklahoma. He established a trading post on Grand River, shortly before the Union Mission was established 5 miles southeast of present-day Chouteau in 1820.

Pryor Creek is along the path of the Texas Road cattle trail, and the later Jefferson Highway of the early National Trail System, both roughly along the route of U.S. Route 69 through Oklahoma today.

In 1870, the Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad started construction in the Cherokee Nation along the Kansas border, laying tracks to Texas. By June 1871, the railroad reached present-day Pryor Creek.

A post office was eventually established naming the town Coo-y-yah, Indian Territory. Coo-y-yah is Cherokee for "place of the huckleberries".  On April 23, 1887, Coo-y-yah was changed to Pryor Creek, but the "Creek" was dropped by the post office on January 26, 1909. The official name of the city government is still Pryor Creek despite a proposition put before voters in 1963 to change the name officially to Pryor.

On April 27, 1942, a tornado swept along Pryor's main street from the western edge of the business district to the eastern edge of the city, destroying nearly every building and causing extensive damage to the residential section. The storm killed 52 people, according to the U.S. Weather Bureau, but The Associated Press set the total at 60 two days after the storm. More than 400 were injured in the storm that caused damage estimated at US$3 million.

The F4 tornado struck about 5 p.m. (17:00) local time, an hour and a half after one hit near Talala, Oklahoma, and mowed a path about  long, killing three and injuring 12. Talala, which was not hit, is about  northwest of Pryor Creek. Governor Leon C. Phillips put the area under martial law, but because the Oklahoma National Guard had been activated for service during World War II, he sent state troopers to rescue victims, maintain order and prevent looting.

The Pryor tornado ranks as the fifth deadliest in Oklahoma history behind tornadoes at Woodward in 1947, Snyder in 1905, Peggs in 1920, and Antlers in 1945. The May 3, 1999, tornado at Midwest City caused more damage but fewer deaths.

In 1951, voters approved the present city charter of a mayor-council government system, which provided for the election of a mayor, clerk, treasurer, police chief and eight councilors. The charter also established a cemetery, park, library board, and a municipal utility board, which oversees operations of the city-owned gas, water, electric and sewer systems.

Geography
Pryor is located in northeast Oklahoma at the intersection of U.S. Route 69 and Oklahoma State Highway 20. The stream known as Pryor Creek flows past the west and south sides of the city.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 6.5 square miles (16.9 km), of which 6.5 square miles (16.8 km) is land and 0.04 square mile (0.1 km) (0.31%) is water.

Demographics

As of the 2010 census Pryor Creek had a population of 9,539. The racial and ethnic composition of the population was 72.3% white, 0.7% African American, 16.9% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 1.9% reporting some other race and 7.7% reporting two or more races. Hispanic or Latino Americans were 4.9% of the population.

As of the census of 2000, there were 8,659 people, 3,567 households, and 2,343 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 3,887 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 77.91% White, 0.29% African American, 14.12% Native American, 0.62% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.97% from other races, and 6.06% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino were 2.78% of the population.

There were 3,567 households, out of which 30.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.1% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.3% were non-families. 30.9% of households were made up of individuals, and 16.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.95.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.1% under the age of 18, 9.5% from 18 to 24, 25.7% from 25 to 44, 19.9% from 45 to 64, and 18.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $29,424, and the median income for a family was $37,115. Males had a median income of $33,547 versus $20,737 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,887. About 10.8% of families and 13.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.9% of those under age 18 and 6.4% of those age 65 or over.

Government
The mayor is elected citywide for a four-year term. The city is divided into four wards which each elect two councilmen to two-year terms. A city treasurer, city clerk and police are also elected citywide to two-year terms.
The current mayor is Zach Doyle,  elected in 2023.

Education
Pryor Creek Public Schools includes one early childhood center, three primary schools, one junior high school, one senior high school, a performing arts auditorium and a basketball arena.

Pryor is the location of the administrative office and one of the four campuses of Northeast Tech, a vocational and technical school.  The Pryor campus has approximately 400 students.

Rogers State University has a branch campus in Pryor. The Rogers State University Pryor campus is the only university serving the Pryor and Mayes County area, and on average more than 350 students attend the campus each semester.

Pryor Creek is also home to Pryor Beauty College.

The Thunderbird Youth Academy, funded by the Federal Government and operated by the Oklahoma National Guard, is a twenty-two-week  program to help high school dropouts restructure their lives. It is open to men and women who are Oklahoma residents, 16 to 18 years old, and is free to the participants. It is held at the site of the former Whitaker State Orphans Home.

Economy

MidAmerica Industrial Park is located about  south of Pryor.  It houses more than 80 companies, including Fortune 500 leaders such as Google, DuPont and Nordam.  The facility includes its own airfield, the MidAmerica Industrial Park Airport, featuring a 5,000 foot runway refurbished in 2016.

In May 2007 Google announced its plans to build a large Internet data center at the Mid-America Industrial Park. The $600 million facility is now open and employs around 400 people. It is currently Google's second largest data center in the world. Google shut the worksite down in 2008 because of the status of the United States economy and work on its overseas projects and affairs, then restarted the project in October 2010 and opened at the end of September 2011.

In February 2018, Google announced a $600 million expansion to their data center in Pryor. The investment was to build a new four-story data center, which brought Pryor to be Google's second largest data center in their operations. This brings their total investment in the Pryor community to $2.5 billion.

On June 17, 2021, electric vehicle manufacturer, Canoo, announced plans to build its first electric vehicle factory in a 400-acre site in the MidAmerica Industrial Park in Pryor.

According to the Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, manufacturing employs about 40 percent of the city's workforce. It is the seventh largest manufacturing center in the state. The main industries that it serves are: machinery, metals, electronics and transportation equipment.

Places and events
Pryor is host to Rocklahoma, an annual music festival located  north of town.

The Coo-Y-Yah Museum is housed in the old Katy Railroad Depot, operated by the Mayes County Historical Society, and contains various Native American and pioneer exhibits.

Pryor was a shooting site for Season 3 of the FX comedy series Reservation Dogs from filmmaker Sterlin Harjo.

Parks and recreation
Area recreational facilities include Pryor Creek Recreation Center, a state-of-the-art fitness venue in a 21,000-square-foot facility housing an indoor pool, a fully equipped gym and more.  Pryor's five city parks include 24-acre Whitaker Park, which includes an outdoor pool, a fishing pond, and sport facilities; Centennial Park, which has a walking trail and fitness course; and, Earl Ward Park, home to the Pryor Creek Golf Club, an 18-hole, par 72 municipal golf course.  Pryor is cradled among Lake Hudson (to the east), Lake Oologah (to the northwest), and Fort Gibson Lake (to the south).

Notable people
 Preston Bynum (1939-2018), Arkansas politician and businessman
 Joseph J. Clark (1893-1971), born in Pryor, Admiral in U.S. Navy during WWII.
 "Indian" Bob Johnson, professional baseball player
 Roy Johnson, professional baseball player
 Chad Kimsey, professional baseball player
 J. H. Langley, Associate Justice of Oklahoma Supreme Court
 Cliff Mapes, professional baseball player
 Mayes McLain, professional football player and pro-wrestler
 Christi Passmore, racing driver
 Clyde Van Sickle, professional football player
 Hank Wyse, professional baseball player

References

External links

 City of Pryor Creek
 History of Pryor Creek

Cities in Mayes County, Oklahoma
Cities in Oklahoma
County seats in Oklahoma
1820 establishments in Indian Territory
Populated places established in 1820

Pryor Creek, Oklahoma


Supergiants are among the most massive and most luminous stars. Supergiant stars occupy the top region of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram with absolute visual magnitudes between about −3 and −8. The temperature range of supergiant stars spans from about 3,400 K to over 20,000 K.

Definition
The title supergiant, as applied to a star, does not have a single concrete definition. The term giant star was first coined by Hertzsprung when it became apparent that the majority of stars fell into two distinct regions of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram.  One region contained larger and more luminous stars of spectral types A to M and received the name giant.  Subsequently, as they lacked any measurable parallax, it became apparent that some of these stars were significantly larger and more luminous than the bulk, and the term super-giant arose, quickly adopted as supergiant.

Spectral luminosity class

Supergiant stars can be identified on the basis of their spectra, with distinctive lines sensitive to high luminosity and low surface gravity. In 1897,   Antonia C. Maury had divided stars based on the widths of their spectral lines, with her class "c" identifying stars with the narrowest lines.  Although it was not known at the time, these were the most luminous stars.  In 1943, Morgan and Keenan formalised the definition of spectral luminosity classes, with class I referring to supergiant stars.  The same system of MK luminosity classes is still used today, with refinements based on the increased resolution of modern spectra.  Supergiants occur in every spectral class from young blue class O supergiants to highly evolved red class M supergiants.  Because they are enlarged compared to main-sequence and giant stars of the same spectral type, they have lower surface gravities, and changes can be observed in their line profiles.  Supergiants are also evolved stars with higher levels of heavy elements than main-sequence stars.  This is the basis of the MK luminosity system which assigns stars to luminosity classes purely from observing their spectra.

In addition to the line changes due to low surface gravity and fusion products, the most luminous stars have high mass-loss rates and resulting clouds of expelled circumstellar materials which can produce emission lines, P Cygni profiles, or forbidden lines.  The MK system assigns stars to luminosity classes: Ib for supergiants; Ia for luminous supergiants; and 0 (zero) or Ia+ for hypergiants.  In reality there is much more of a continuum than well defined bands for these classifications, and classifications such as Iab are used for intermediate luminosity supergiants.  Supergiant spectra are frequently annotated to indicate spectral peculiarities, for example B2 Iae or F5 Ipec.

Evolutionary supergiants
Supergiants can also be defined as a specific phase in the evolutionary history of certain stars. Stars with initial masses above  quickly and smoothly initiate helium core fusion after they have exhausted their hydrogen, and continue fusing heavier elements after helium exhaustion until they develop an iron core, at which point the core collapses to produce a Type II supernova.  Once these massive stars leave the main sequence, their atmospheres inflate, and they are described as supergiants.  Stars initially under  will never form an iron core and in evolutionary terms do not become supergiants, although they can reach luminosities thousands of times the sun's. They cannot fuse carbon and heavier elements after the helium is exhausted, so they eventually just lose their outer layers, leaving the core of a white dwarf.  The phase where these stars have both hydrogen and helium burning shells is referred to as the asymptotic giant branch (AGB), as stars gradually become more and more luminous class M stars.  Stars of  may fuse sufficient carbon on the AGB to produce an oxygen-neon core and an electron-capture supernova, but astrophysicists categorise these as super-AGB stars rather than supergiants.

Categorisation of evolved stars
There are several categories of evolved stars that are not supergiants in evolutionary terms but may show supergiant spectral features or have luminosities comparable to supergiants.

Asymptotic-giant-branch (AGB) and post-AGB stars are highly evolved lower-mass red giants with luminosities that can be comparable to more massive red supergiants, but because of their low mass, being in a different stage of development (helium shell burning), and their lives ending in a different way (planetary nebula and white dwarf rather than supernova), astrophysicists prefer to keep them separate.  The dividing line becomes blurred at around  (or as high as  in some models) where stars start to undergo limited fusion of elements heavier than helium. Specialists studying these stars often refer to them as super AGB stars, since they have many properties in common with AGB such as thermal pulsing. Others describe them as low-mass supergiants since they start to burn elements heavier than helium and can explode as supernovae.  Many post-AGB stars receive spectral types with supergiant luminosity classes.  For example, RV Tauri has an Ia (bright supergiant) luminosity class despite being less massive than the sun.  Some AGB stars also receive a supergiant luminosity class, most notably W Virginis variables such as W Virginis itself, stars that are executing a blue loop triggered by thermal pulsing.  A very small number of Mira variables and other late AGB stars have supergiant luminosity classes, for example α Herculis.

Classical Cepheid variables typically have supergiant luminosity classes, although only the most luminous and massive will actually go on to develop an iron core.  The majority of them are intermediate mass stars fusing helium in their cores and will eventually transition to the asymptotic giant branch.  δ Cephei itself is an example with a luminosity of  and a mass of .

Wolf–Rayet stars are also high-mass luminous evolved stars, hotter than most supergiants and smaller, visually less bright but often more luminous because of their high temperatures. They have spectra dominated by helium and other heavier elements, usually showing little or no hydrogen, which is a clue to their nature as stars even more evolved than supergiants. Just as the AGB stars occur in almost the same region of the HR diagram as red supergiants, Wolf–Rayet stars can occur in the same region of the HR diagram as the hottest blue supergiants and main-sequence stars.

The most massive and luminous main-sequence stars are almost indistinguishable from the supergiants they quickly evolve into.  They have almost identical temperatures and very similar luminosities, and only the most detailed analyses can distinguish the spectral features that show they have evolved away from the narrow early O-type main-sequence to the nearby area of early O-type supergiants. Such early O-type supergiants share many features with WNLh Wolf–Rayet stars and are sometimes designated as slash stars, intermediates between the two types.

Luminous blue variables (LBVs) stars occur in the same region of the HR diagram as blue supergiants but are generally classified separately.  They are evolved, expanded, massive, and luminous stars, often hypergiants, but they have very specific spectral variability, which defies the assignment of a standard spectral type.  LBVs observed only at a particular time or over a period of time when they are stable, may simply be designated as hot supergiants or as candidate LBVs due to their luminosity.

Hypergiants are frequently treated as a different category of star from supergiants, although in all important respects they are just a more luminous category of supergiant.  They are evolved, expanded, massive and luminous stars like supergiants, but at the most massive and luminous extreme, and with particular additional properties of undergoing high mass-loss due to their extreme luminosities and instability.  Generally only the more evolved supergiants show hypergiant properties, since their instability increases after high mass-loss and some increase in luminosity.

Some B[e] stars are supergiants although other B[e] stars are clearly not.  Some researchers distinguish the B[e] objects as separate from supergiants, while researchers prefer to define massive evolved B[e] stars as a subgroup of supergiants.  The latter has become more common with the understanding that the B[e] phenomenon arises separately in a number of distinct types of stars, including some that are clearly just a phase in the life of supergiants.

Properties

Supergiants have masses from 8 to 12 times the Sun () upwards, and luminosities from about 1,000 to over a million times the Sun (). They vary greatly in radius, usually from 30 to 500, or even in excess of 1,000 solar radii (). They are massive enough to begin helium-core burning gently before the core becomes degenerate, without a flash and without the strong dredge-ups that lower-mass stars experience. They go on to successively ignite heavier elements, usually all the way to iron. Also because of their high masses, they are destined to explode as supernovae.

The Stefan–Boltzmann law dictates that the relatively cool surfaces of red supergiants radiate much less energy per unit area than those of blue supergiants; thus, for a given luminosity, red supergiants are larger than their blue counterparts. Radiation pressure limits the largest cool supergiants to around 1,500  and the most massive hot supergiants to around a million  (Mbol around −10). Stars near and occasionally beyond these limits become unstable, pulsate, and experience rapid mass loss.

Surface gravity
The supergiant luminosity class is assigned on the basis of spectral features that are largely a measure of surface gravity, although such stars are also affected by other properties such as microturbulence.  Supergiants typically have surface gravities of around log(g) 2.0 cgs and lower, although bright giants (luminosity class II) have statistically very similar surface gravities to normal Ib supergiants.  Cool luminous supergiants have lower surface gravities, with the most luminous (and unstable) stars having log(g) around zero.  Hotter supergiants, even the most luminous, have surface gravities around one, due to their higher masses and smaller radii.

Temperature
There are supergiant stars at all of the main spectral classes and across the whole range of temperatures from mid-M class stars at around 3,400 K to the hottest O class stars over 40,000 K.  Supergiants are generally not found cooler than mid-M class.  This is expected theoretically since they would be catastrophically unstable; however, there are potential exceptions among extreme stars such as VX Sagittarii.

Although supergiants exist in every class from O to M, the majority are spectral type B, more than at all other spectral classes combined.  A much smaller grouping consists of very low-luminosity G-type supergiants, intermediate mass stars burning helium in their cores before reaching the asymptotic giant branch.  A distinct grouping is made up of high-luminosity supergiants at early B (B0-2) and very late O (O9.5), more common even than main sequence stars of those spectral types.

The relative numbers of blue, yellow, and red supergiants is an indicator of the speed of stellar evolution and is used as a powerful test of models of the evolution of massive stars.

Luminosity
The supergiants lie more or less on a horizontal band occupying the entire upper portion of the HR diagram, but there are some variations at different spectral types.  These variations are due partly to different methods for assigning luminosity classes at different spectral types, and partly to actual physical differences in the stars.

The bolometric luminosity of a star reflects its total output of electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths.  For very hot and very cool stars, the bolometric luminosity is dramatically higher than the visual luminosity, sometimes several magnitudes or a factor of five or more.  This bolometric correction is approximately one magnitude for mid B, late K, and early M stars, increasing to three magnitudes (a factor of 15) for O and mid M stars.

All supergiants are larger and more luminous than main sequence stars of the same temperature.  This means that hot supergiants lie on a relatively narrow band above bright main sequence stars.  A B0 main sequence star has an absolute magnitude of about −5, meaning that all B0 supergiants are significantly brighter than absolute magnitude −5. Bolometric luminosities for even the faintest blue supergiants are tens of thousands of times the sun (). The brightest can be  and are often unstable such as α Cygni variables and luminous blue variables.

The very hottest supergiants with early O spectral types occur in an extremely narrow range of luminosities above the highly luminous early O main sequence and giant stars.  They are not classified separately into normal (Ib) and luminous (Ia) supergiants, although they commonly have other spectral type modifiers such as "f" for nitrogen and helium emission (e.g. O2 If for HD 93129A).

Yellow supergiants can be considerably fainter than absolute magnitude −5, with some examples around −2 (e.g. 14 Persei).  With bolometric corrections around zero, they may only be a few hundred times the luminosity of the sun. These are not massive stars, though; instead, they are stars of intermediate mass that have particularly low surface gravities, often due to instability such as Cepheid pulsations.  These intermediate mass stars' being classified as supergiants during a relatively long-lasting phase of their evolution account for the large number of low luminosity yellow supergiants.  The most luminous yellow stars, the yellow hypergiants, are amongst the visually brightest stars, with absolute magnitudes around −9, although still less than .

There is a strong upper limit to the luminosity of red supergiants at around . Stars that would be brighter than this shed their outer layers so rapidly that they remain hot supergiants after they leave the main sequence. The majority of red supergiants were  main sequence stars and now have luminosities below , and there are very few bright supergiant (Ia) M class stars. The least luminous stars classified as red supergiants are some of the brightest AGB and post-AGB stars, highly expanded and unstable low mass stars such as the RV Tauri variables. The majority of AGB stars are given giant or bright giant luminosity classes, but particularly unstable stars such as W Virginis variables may be given a supergiant classification (e.g. W Virginis itself). The faintest red supergiants are around absolute magnitude −3.

Variability

While most supergiants such as Alpha Cygni variables, semiregular variables, and irregular variables show some degree of photometric variability, certain types of variables amongst the supergiants are well defined. The instability strip crosses the region of supergiants, and specifically many yellow supergiants are Classical Cepheid variables.  The same region of instability extends to include the even more luminous yellow hypergiants, an extremely rare and short-lived class of luminous supergiant.  Many R Coronae Borealis variables, although not all, are yellow supergiants, but this variability is due to their unusual chemical composition rather than a physical instability.

Further types of variable stars such as RV Tauri variables and PV Telescopii variables are often described as supergiants. RV Tau stars are frequently assigned spectral types with a supergiant luminosity class on account of their low surface gravity, and they are amongst the most luminous of the AGB and post-AGB stars, having masses similar to the sun; likewise, the even rarer PV Tel variables are often classified as supergiants, but have lower luminosities than supergiants and peculiar B[e] spectra extremely deficient in hydrogen. Possibly they are also post-AGB objects or "born-again" AGB stars.

The LBVs are variable with multiple semi-regular periods and less predictable eruptions and giant outbursts. They are usually supergiants or hypergiants, occasionally with Wolf-Rayet spectra—extremely luminous, massive, evolved stars with expanded outer layers, but they are so distinctive and unusual that they are often treated as a separate category without being referred to as supergiants or given a supergiant spectral type. Often their spectral type will be given just as "LBV" because they have peculiar and highly variable spectral features, with temperatures varying from about 8,000 K in outburst up to 20,000 K or more when "quiescent."

Chemical abundances
The abundance of various elements at the surface of supergiants is different from less luminous stars. Supergiants are evolved stars and may have undergone convection of fusion products to the surface.

Cool supergiants show enhanced helium and nitrogen at the surface due to convection of these fusion products to the surface during the main sequence of very massive stars, to dredge-ups during shell burning, and to the loss of the outer layers of the star. Helium is formed in the core and shell by fusion of hydrogen and nitrogen which accumulates relative to carbon and oxygen during CNO cycle fusion. At the same time, carbon and oxygen abundances are reduced. Red supergiants can be distinguished from luminous but less massive AGB stars by unusual chemicals at the surface, enhancement of carbon from deep third dredge-ups, as well as carbon-13, lithium and s-process elements.  Late-phase AGB stars can become highly oxygen-enriched, producing OH masers.

Hotter supergiants show differing levels of nitrogen enrichment. This may be due to different levels of mixing on the main sequence due to rotation or because some blue supergiants are newly evolved from the main sequence while others have previously been through a red supergiant phase. Post-red supergiant stars have a generally higher level of nitrogen relative to carbon due to convection of CNO-processed material to the surface and the complete loss of the outer layers. Surface enhancement of helium is also stronger in post-red supergiants, representing more than a third of the atmosphere.

Evolution

O type main-sequence stars and the most massive of the B type blue-white stars become supergiants. Due to their extreme masses, they have short lifespans, between 30 million years and a few hundred thousand years. They are mainly observed in young galactic structures such as open clusters, the arms of spiral galaxies, and in irregular galaxies. They are less abundant in spiral galaxy bulges and are rarely observed in elliptical galaxies, or globular clusters, which are composed mainly of old stars.

Supergiants develop when massive main-sequence stars run out of hydrogen in their cores, at which point they start to expand, just like lower-mass stars. Unlike lower-mass stars, however, they begin to fuse helium in the core smoothly and not long after exhausting their hydrogen. This means that they do not increase their luminosity as dramatically as lower-mass stars, and they progress nearly horizontally across the HR diagram to become red supergiants. Also unlike lower-mass stars, red supergiants are massive enough to fuse elements heavier than helium, so they do not puff off their atmospheres as planetary nebulae after a period of hydrogen and helium shell burning; instead, they continue to burn heavier elements in their cores until they collapse. They cannot lose enough mass to form a white dwarf, so they will leave behind a neutron star or black hole remnant, usually after a core collapse supernova explosion.

Stars more massive than about  cannot expand into a red supergiant. Because they burn too quickly and lose their outer layers too quickly, they reach the blue supergiant stage, or perhaps yellow hypergiant, before returning to become hotter stars.  The most massive stars, above about , hardly move at all from their position as O main-sequence stars. These convect so efficiently that they mix hydrogen from the surface right down to the core. They continue to fuse hydrogen until it is almost entirely depleted throughout the star, then rapidly evolve through a series of stages of similarly hot and luminous stars: supergiants, slash stars, WNh-, WN-, and possibly WC- or WO-type stars. They are expected to explode as supernovae, but it is not clear how far they evolve before this happens. The existence of these supergiants still burning hydrogen in their cores may necessitate a slightly more complex definition of supergiant: a massive star with increased size and luminosity due to fusion products building up, but still with some hydrogen remaining.

The first stars in the universe are thought to have been considerably brighter and more massive than the stars in the modern universe. Part of the theorized population III of stars, their existence is necessary to explain observations of elements other than hydrogen and helium in quasars. Possibly larger and more luminous than any supergiant known today, their structure was quite different, with reduced convection and less mass loss. Their very short lives are likely to have ended in violent photodisintegration or pair instability supernovae.

Supernova progenitors

Most type II supernova progenitors are thought to be red supergiants, while the less common type Ib/c supernovae are produced by hotter Wolf–Rayet stars that have completely lost more of their hydrogen atmosphere. Almost by definition, supergiants are destined to end their lives violently. Stars large enough to start fusing elements heavier than helium do not seem to have any way to lose enough mass to avoid catastrophic core collapse, although some may collapse, almost without trace, into their own central black holes.

The simple "onion" models showing red supergiants inevitably developing to an iron core and then exploding have been shown, however, to be too simplistic. The progenitor for the unusual type II Supernova 1987A was a blue supergiant, thought to have already passed through the red supergiant phase of its life, and this is now known to be far from an exceptional situation. Much research is now focused on how blue supergiants can explode as a supernova and when red supergiants can survive to become hotter supergiants again.

Well known examples
Supergiants are rare and short-lived stars, but their high luminosity means that there are many naked-eye examples, including some of the brightest stars in the sky. Rigel, the brightest star in the constellation Orion is a typical blue-white supergiant; Deneb is the brightest star in Cygnus, another blue supergiant; Delta Cephei is the famous prototype Cepheid variable, a yellow supergiant; and Antares and UY Scuti are red supergiants.  μ Cephei is one of the reddest stars visible to the naked eye and one of the largest in the galaxy.  Rho Cassiopeiae, a variable, yellow hypergiant, is one of the most luminous naked-eye stars. Betelgeuse is a red supergiant that may have been a yellow supergiant in antiquity and the second brightest star in the constellation Orion.

See also
List of stars with resolved images
Planetary nebula

References

External links

 http://alobel.freeshell.org/rcas.html
 http://www.solstation.com/x-objects/rho-cas.htm

Star types

Stellar phenomena

Supergiant


Gheos is a tile-laying board game designed by René Wiersma. Graphic design and illustration was supplied by Joshua Cappel, and box cover art was painted by Allan Bednar. The game was published in 2006 by Z-Man Games.

Gameplay
In Gheos the players assume the role of gods who shape the earth and populate it with people. By playing triangular cardboard tiles, which depict various configurations of water and land, players form seas and continents. These continents may become inhabited by civilizations. Players try to gain followers in these civilizations, and by using one of their three scoring tokens at opportune moments players score points, the score depending on the various symbols depicted on the continents as well as on the number of followers per civilization. Placing tiles may result in civilizations migrating to a different continent, or it may start a war between different civilizations.

After a number of Epoch tiles have been drawn the game ends and, after a final scoring round, the player with the most points is declared the winner.

History
Before being published an early prototype of the game won a board game contest hosted by the Board Game Designers' Forum. The Gheos prototype also reached the final round of the Hippodice boardgame contest in 2005. The published version of the game received a Mensa Select Award in 2007.

Reviews
Pyramid

References

External links
 Z-Man games' Gheos product page

Board games introduced in 2006
Board games with a modular board
Mensa Select winners
Z-Man Games games

Gheos


Ella Loraine Dorsey (pen name, E. L. Dorsey; March 2, 1853 – November 4, 1935) was an American author, journalist, and translator. She contributed articles to magazines and wrote many stories, among them Midshipman Bob, Jet, the War Mule, The Taming of Polly, The Children of Avalon, The Jose Maria, The Two Tramps, Saxty's Angel, Pickle and Pepper, The End of the White Man's Trail, and Pocahontas.

She entered journalistic work in 1871, and for ten years was a special correspondent and special writer on Washington, D.C. newspapers, subsequently serving in a similar capacity for newspapers in Chicago, Boston and Cincinnati. In 1886, she specialized in the writing of Catholic juvenile fiction. She was one of the indexers and Russian translators in the Scientific Library of the United States Department of the Interior, and during the Spanish–American War, was a volunteer assistant in the Hospital Corps of the Daughters of the American Revolution, serving on the executive staff and handling all correspondence relating to Roman Catholic Sisters who served as contract nurses in the United States, Cuba and Puerto Rico. Dorsey was a member of the advisory board of Trinity College. She was also a member and officer of the Daughters of the American Revolution, Colonial Dames, and other patriotic societies.

Early life and education
Ella Loraine (sometimes spelled Lorraine) Dorsey was born in Washington, D.C., March 2, 1853. She was the youngest child of Lorenzo Dorsey, a Baltimore judge, and Anna Hanson Dorsey, the pioneer of Catholic light literature in America. Born a few years before the breaking out of the Civil War, her early childhood was spent amid border life. The entire family on both sides were in the Confederacy, with the exception of her father and her only brother, who died on the ramparts of "Fort Hell", where he had dashed up with the colors, caught from the color-bearer, and stood cheering his comrades to the charge. Dorsey represents old and illustrious families of Maryland, counting among her family and connections two signers of the Declaration of Independence, eight signers of the Act of the Maryland Convention of 26th July, 1776, two Presidents, seven Governors, thirty-six commissioned officers in the Continental Army, and a number of the heroes of the Maryland Line, who died on the field at the Battle of Long Island, Battle of Harlem Heights, and Fort Washington.

She was educated at Madam C. B. Burr's French and English School and the Georgetown Academy of the Visitation.

Career
Dorsey began her literary career as a journalist and was for several years the "Vanity Fair" of the Washington Critic, leaving that paper to take a special correspondence on the Chicago Tribune. John Boyle O'Reilly and the Rev. D. E. Hudson, editor of the Ave Maria, urged her into magazine work. Her first three stories appeared almost simultaneously, "The Knickerbocker Ghost" and "The Tsar's Horses" in the Catholic World and "Back from the Frozen Pole" in Harper's Magazine. "The Tsar's Horses" traveled round the world, its last reproduction being in New Zealand. It was attributed at first, because of its accuracy of detail, to Archibald Forbes, the war correspondent. Dorsey's specialty was boys' stories. Midshipman Bob went through two editions in the United States and England in its first year, and was since translated into Italian. Scarcely second to it in popularity was Saxty's Angel and The Two Tramps, while two poems printed in the Cosmopolitan were received with marked favor. For many years, she served as special correspondent for Washington, Chicago, Boston, and Cincinnati papers. She worked as an indexer and Russian translator for Scientific Library, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C.

Dorsey was the author of "Three Months with Small wood's Immortals", a sketch written for and read before the Washington branch of that society. Other sketches included, "Women in the Patent Office," "Women in the Pension Office," and "Women in the Land Office" which were prepared by her for the Chautauquan. They attracted much attention and secured wide recognition for the ladies who toiled at their department desks. In addition to a large number of contributions to the press and many periodicals, she was the author of the following books: Midshipman Bob, Jet, the War Mule, The Taming of Polly, The Children of Avalon, The Jose Maria, The Two Tramps, Saxty's Angel, Pickle and Pepper, The End of the White Man's Trail, and Pocahontas.

Personal life
She was a member of the advisory and auxiliary boards of Trinity College, and in 1900, 1903 and 1907 traveled in the interest of the institution, securing substantial amounts for its endowment. She was a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution (later serving on the Continental Hall Committee), Colonial Dames of Maryland, Georgetown Academy of the Visitation Alumnae Association, Auxiliary Board of Providence Hospital, Pocahontas Memorial Association, Association for Roman Catholic Indian Education, and an honorary member of the Association of Spanish War Nurses. She penned the article on the Georgetown Visitation Convent for the Catholic Encyclopedia.

Dorsey made her home on Washington Heights. She died November 4, 1935, in Washington, D. C., and is buried at Mount Olivet Cemetery, in that city.

Selected works
 Midshipman Bob, 1886
 Smallwood's Immortals: A Historical Abstract, 189?
 Jet, the War-Mule: And Other Stories for Boys and Girls, 1894
 Taming of Polly, 1897
 Pickle and Pepper, 1898
 Pocahontas, 1906
 The Forbidden Dance. (Da-hopi-ke)., 1908
 A Biographical Sketch of James Maccubbin Lingan, One of the Original Proprietors, 1910
 Revolutionary Pension Records Aid in Americanization, 1913
 Our First Naval Constructor, 1928

References

Attribution

External links

1853 births
1935 deaths
19th-century American women writers
20th-century American women writers
19th-century American journalists
20th-century American non-fiction writers
Writers from Washington, D.C.
19th-century American translators
English–Russian translators
Daughters of the American Revolution people
Trinity Washington University people
Georgetown Visitation Preparatory School alumni
Catholics from Washington, D.C.
American women non-fiction writers
Contributors to the Catholic Encyclopedia
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from A Woman of the Century
Burials at Mount Olivet Cemetery (Washington, D.C.)
19th-century American women journalists

Ella Loraine Dorsey


Dress Your Family in Corduroy and Denim is a 2004 collection of 22 autobiographical essays by American humorist David Sedaris. The essays address the author's upbringing in Raleigh, North Carolina, his relationships with family members, and his work and life in New York City and France.

Essays
 "Us and Them" - childhood memories of a family "who don't believe in TV"
 "Let It Snow" - the day when Sedaris's mother locked her children out in the snow
 "The Ship Shape" - childhood memories of the second home that his father never bought
 "Full House" - a childhood game of strip poker gives the young Sedaris a touching moment
 "Consider the Stars" - reflecting on the cool kid at school
 "Monie Changes Everything" - Sedaris' rich aunt
 "The Change in Me" - the 13-year-old Sedaris wants to act like a hippie
 "Hejira" - Sedaris' father kicks him out of his house due to his homosexuality
 "Slumus Lordicus" - Sedaris' father's experiences as a landlord of a section 8 apartment complex in the early 80s.
 "The Girl Next Door" - Sedaris' relationship with a girl from a troubled family
 "Blood Work" - a case of mistaken identity while cleaning houses
 "The End of the Affair" - Sedaris and Hugh's different reactions to a love story
 "Repeat After Me" - Sedaris' visit to his sister Lisa, and his family's feelings about being the subject of his essays
 "Six to Eight Black Men" - thoughts about the traditional Dutch Christmas story, among other cultural oddities
 "Rooster at the Hitchin' Post" - Sedaris' younger brother is born and gets married
 "Possession" - searching for a new apartment, and Anne Frank's house
 "Put a Lid on It" - a visit to Sedaris' sister Tiffany's home, and their relationship
 "A Can of Worms" - Sedaris's mind wanders as he, Hugh, and a friend eat at a diner
 "Chicken in the Henhouse" - prejudiced attitudes towards homosexuals in America
 "Who's the Chef?" - bickering between two people in a long-term relationship
 "Baby Einstein" - the arrival of his brother's first baby
 "Nuit of the Living Dead" - a late night encounter at home in rural France

Title origin

At a public appearance in Cleveland, Ohio on October 12, 2010, Sedaris explained when he was under a deadline for a title and was getting desperate, his boyfriend Hugh had a dream in which he saw someone reading a book entitled, in French, Dress Your Family in Corduroy and Denim. Sedaris then knew that he had his title, even though it had nothing to do with the contents of his book.

Audiobook
The book was released on audio CD, with Sedaris reading, from Time Warner Audiobooks.

2004 non-fiction books
Works by David Sedaris
Lambda Literary Award-winning works
Little, Brown and Company books
Books with cover art by Chip Kidd
American essay collections

Dress Your Family in Corduroy and Denim


In ancient Greece, the drachma (, ; pl. drachmae or drachmas) was an ancient currency unit issued by many city-states during a period of ten centuries, from the Archaic period throughout the Classical period, the Hellenistic period up to the Roman period under Greek Imperial Coinage. The ancient drachma originated in the Greece around the 6th century BC. The coin, usually made of silver or sometimes gold had its origins in a bartering system that referred to a drachma as a handful of wooden spits or arrows.  The drachma was unique to each city state that minted them, and were sometimes circulated all over the Mediterranean. The coinage of Athens was considered to be the strongest and became the most popular.

Origins
The name drachma is derived from the verb  (, "(I) grasp"). It is believed that the same word with the meaning of "handful" or "handle" is found in Linear B tablets of the Mycenean Pylos. Initially a drachma was a fistful (a "grasp") of six oboloí or obeloí (metal sticks, literally "spits") originally used for roasting lamb. With anthropological evidence it is believed that the oboloi were used as a form of early currency, beginning around 1100 BC and being a form of "bullion": bronze, copper, or iron ingots denominated by weight in a developed barter system. The earliest of these obeloi were found In Palaepahos, Cyprus in a Geometric grave. Anthropological evidence suggests that obeloi were used in burials of warrior elite or in the grave's of people with high social status. A hoard of over 150 rod-shaped obeloi was uncovered at Heraion of Argos in Peloponnese. Six of them are displayed at the Numismatic Museum of Athens. Despite earlier evidence of poorly preserved specimen, the obeloi discovered at Argos were the first found completely intact.

The drachma was the standard unit of silver coinage at most ancient Greek mints, and the name obol was used to describe a coin that was one-sixth of a drachma. The notion that drachma derived from the word for fistful was recorded by Herakleides of Pontos (387–312 BC) who was informed by the priests of Heraion that Pheidon, king of Argos, dedicated rod-shaped obeloi to Heraion. Similar information about Pheidon's obeloi was also recorded at the Parian Chronicle.

Characteristics
Ancient Greek coins normally had distinctive names in daily use. The Athenian tetradrachm was called owl, the Aeginetic stater was called chelone, the Corinthian stater was called hippos (horse) and so on. Each city would mint its own and have them stamped with recognizable symbols of the city, known as badge in numismatics, along with suitable inscriptions, and they would often be referred to either by the name of the city or of the image depicted. The exact exchange value of each was determined by the quantity and quality of the metal, which reflected on the reputation of each mint. Coins were most often made of silver, and very rarely gold.

Geographic spread
Among the Greek cities that used the drachma were: Abdera, Abydos, Alexandria, Aetna, Antioch, Athens, Chios, Cyzicus, Corinth, Ephesus, Eretria, Gela, Catana, Kos, Maronia, Naxos, Pella, Pergamum, Rhegion, Salamis, Smyrni, Sparta, Syracuse, Tarsus, Thasos, Tenedos, Troy and more. Most coins only circulated within the region they were created in, and there was no universal standard. However, more than half the known Greek city-states do not have evidence of minting coins.

Fractions and multiples of the drachma were minted by many states, most notably in Ptolemaic Egypt, which minted large coins in gold, silver and bronze.

Notable Ptolemaic coins included the gold pentadrachm and octadrachm, and silver tetradrachm, decadrachm and pentakaidecadrachm. This was especially noteworthy as it would not be until the introduction of the Guldengroschen in 1486 that coins of substantial size (particularly in silver) would be minted in significant quantities.

After Alexander's conquests, the name drachma was used in many of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the Middle East, including the Ptolemaic kingdom in Alexandria and the Parthian Empire based in what is modern-day Iran. The Arabic unit of currency known as dirham (), known from pre-Islamic times and afterwards, inherited its name from the drachma or didrachm (, 2 drachmae); the dirham is still the name of the official currencies of Morocco and the United Arab Emirates. The Armenian dram () also derives its name from the drachma.

Athenian coinage
The 5th century BC Athenian tetradrachm ("four drachmae") coin featured the helmeted profile bust of Athena on the obverse (front) and an owl on the reverse (back). In daily use they were called  glaukes (owls), hence the proverb , 'an owl to Athens', referring to something that was in plentiful supply, like 'coals to Newcastle'. The reverse is featured on the national side of the modern Greek 1 euro coin.

The tetradrachm ("four drachmae") coin was perhaps the most widely used coin in the Greek world prior to the time of Alexander the Great (along with the Corinthian stater). Athenian coinage was especially attractive due to the purity of the silver used to create each coin. At the time, to gain legitimacy over a large geographic spread, city states relied on the intrinsic value of their coins and the promise that "its minting authority would redeem it". Athens demonstrated both. Athenian coinage was one of the few coins accepted internationally. The popularity of Athen's coinage can be contributed to numerous laws restricting local traders to exclusive use of Athenian coinage abroad. The only specific coinage mentioned in Herodotus is the drachma of Athens.

Evidence for the usage of silver coinage can be found in multiple sections of Herodotus. In 6.21 the tensions between the Athenians and Miletus result in a discussion of equal return and exchange involving coins. In Herodotus 8.93 a prize of ten thousand drachmae is offered in exchange for a prisoner.

The valuable silver used in Athenian coins was gathered from Athens's Laurium Mines in Attica, which were subject to large-scale use and exploitation beginning in the 6th century BCE.  Mining was strictly overseen by the Athenian state. In Herodotus 7.144 there is specific discussion of the wealth that Athens gathered from these mines. He states, "The revenues from the mines at Laurium has brought great wealth into the Athenian's treasury."

Uses of Coins in Ancient Greece
The primary function of the first coinage is highly debated by scholars. Historian Sitta von Reden states that, "The great number of possible explanations, none of which are {sic} wholly satisfactory, has made scholars abandon the question of the primary function of the first coinages." But there is some anthropological evidence for different uses of coins over time in Ancient Greece.

Most historians find consensus in the use of coinage to facilitate trade. Such use of coinage is attested to in such primary sources as Herodotus 1.94.; he says that the Lydians were the first to mint coins and use them "for retail."

Since trade was state controlled, trade and political factors are highly interlocked. Ancient coinage also had religious use. Obeloi were often used in dedications at shrines and temples. Anthropological evidence of this can be found at the Apollo sanctuary at Delphi, the Apollo temple at Halieis, and the sanctuary of Hera and Zeus at Olympia. Though debated, historians believe that the use of these items in a religious context is significant. Additionally, "penalties, tithes and other dues were inflicted on both priests and worshippers" and were extracted through bullion weight or coinage.

Many historians believe that coins were used as a tool for empire building, as a Greek City state could enforce its power and establish political order through managing its coins.

There is also historic speculation that coins were manufactured and used as a form of civic pride. Thomas R. Martin says that the use of coinage in ancient Greece, could be loosely compared to the use of flags in the modern world. Martin says that coins thus functioned "as symbols of sovereign identity"

Coinage was used for rewards at athletic games, which were an integral part of Greek life. Victors of games were often given prizes with monetary value, such as bronze and silver containers, tripods, and coins.

In daily life, coins were used for such social transactions as marriage and transfer of land, although far less is known about these exchanges.  Anthropological evidence shows that marriages were events in which coins would be exchanged from one party to another. Other items received in dowry exchanges were appraised by their monetary value, measured in coins. Dowries were usually paid for in cash. For a wealthy Athenian family this could include between "500 dr and 2 talents."

Value

Weight Value
Drachmae were minted on different weight standards at different Greek mints. The standard that came to be most commonly used was the Athenian or Attic standard, which weighed a little over 4.3 grams.

Modern value and comparison
In the heyday of ancient Greece (the fifth and fourth centuries) the daily wage for a skilled worker or a hoplite was one drachma, and for a heliast (juror) half a drachma since 425 BC. Before the Peloponnesian War (beginning in 431), which caused significant inflation, a laborer might earn one-third of a drachma per day.

Modern commentators derived from Xenophon that half a drachma per day (360 days per year) would provide "a comfortable subsistence" for "the poor citizens" (for the head of a household in 355 BC). Earlier in 422 BC, we also see in Aristophanes (Wasps, line 300–302) that the daily half-drachma of a juror is just enough for the daily subsistence of a family of three.

It is difficult to estimate comparative exchange rates with modern currencies because the range of products produced by economies of centuries gone by were different from today. Purchasing power parity (PPP) calculations are very difficult.

An 1885 paper by William Goodwin estimated that, ignoring purchasing power, the weight of silver that had been in a Solonic talent was at that time worth approximately 877 United States dollars, making a drachma worth $0.14 in 1885 . However, he said that "these comparisons of the Attic talent with a fluctuating commodity like silver at the present day are, of course, highly unsatisfactory"; using an alternate method accounting for average bullion prices over some decades, he arrived at $1,000 for a talent, which means that based solely on bullion value, a drachma would have been worth $0.16 in 1885 .

But, bullion equivalent calculations do not provide a complete picture of a currency's value. Using a
labor-equivalent calculation, a silver drachma (or denarius), which constituted a day's wage for a manual laborer, would be worth approximately the same in modern currency. The United States federal minimum wage's maximum purchasing power was in 1968, when it was $1.60 , meaning an 8-hour shift paid $12.80  Meanwhile, average yearly wages in the United States in 2022 were $77,463 , meaning a day's wages would be $322.76 .

Taking into account economic statistics around the world, a broader range of estimates is possible. According to the UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe), gross average monthly wages in 2020 ranged from $7,712.7 USD (Switzerland) to $265.10 USD (Uzbekistan); this yields a range between $385.63  and $13.26 .

Food and clothing were expensive from a modern perspective. A gallon of olive oil cost three drachmae, while cloaks could range anywhere between five and twenty drachmae.

For the Roman successors of the drachma, see Roman provincial coins.

Denominations of ancient Greek drachma
The weight of the silver drachma was approximately 4.3 grams or 0.15 ounces, although weights varied significantly from one city-state to another. It was divided into six obols of 0.72 grams, which were subdivided into four tetartemoria of 0.18 grams, one of the smallest coins ever struck, approximately 5–7 mm in diameter.

Historic currency divisions

12 chalkoi = 1 obolus
6 oboloi = 1 drachma
70 drachmae = 1 mina (or mna), later 100 drachmae = 1 mina
60 minae = 1 Athenian Talent (Athenian standard)

Minae and talents were never actually minted: they represented weight measures used for commodities (e.g. grain) as well as metals like silver or gold.

In culture
 Jesus instructs Peter to pay a didrachma Jerusalem temple tax in their own behalf, .
William Shakespeare mentions the drachma in his play Julius Caesar, in Mark Antony's famous "Friends, Romans, Countrymen" speech.

The coin appears in 21st century video games and fantasy novels:
 Drachma is the currency used in the video game Spy Fox in "Dry Cereal" (2008), set in the fictional Greek island of Acidophilus.
 The golden drachma is the main unit of currency in Rick Riordan's Percy Jackson & the Olympians fantasy adventure novel series. It also is featured in its spinoff The Heroes of Olympus, which includes the Roman denarius.
 The drachma is used in the video game Assassin's Creed Origins, set in Ptolemaic Egypt; players may purchase weapons, outfits and mounts with it. It is also used in the subsequent game Assassin's Creed Odyssey, set in Ancient Greece.

See also
 Denarius
 Dirham
 Economic history of Greece and the Greek world
 Seleucid coinage

Notes

References

Coins of ancient Greece
Economic history of Greece
Currencies of Greece

Ancient drachma


, is a Japanese impressionist of the comedic performing arts from Toyooka, Hyōgo. She is best known for her impersonation of Hikaru Utada. Her professional activities are currently managed by Jinsei Pro.

Prior to her career as an Impressionist, she was a hairstylist.  She initially came to Tokyo to gain a position as a stylist at a renowned hair salon. Miracle has been noted to have a sheep phobia.

On January 23, 2008, Miracle Hikaru released "Miracle (1)," a hip-hop album in the mimicry style of Hikaru Utada. It has 8 tracks, distributed by King Records.

She has been featuring at various TV shows as humorist.

Works

Films
 2015: Galaxy Turnpike

Television
 2005 -: Kōhaku Uta Gassen
 FNS 26-jikan terebi kokumin-tekina omoshiro-sa! Shijō saidai! ! Manatsu no kuizu matsuri 26-jikan buttōshi supesharu (Fuji TV)
 Nakai Masahiro no burakkubaraeti (NTV)
 Toribianoizumi 〜 subarashiki muda chishiki 〜 (Fuji TV)
 Chi-chin puipui (Mainichihōsō) `kyō no dare?' No kōnā Kayō sapuraizu (NTV)
 Kayō sapuraizu (NTV)
 Monomaneōzaketteisen (Fuji TV)
 2011: Run for Money Tōsō-Chū (Fuji TV)
 2013: Hikaru ☆

Radio
 Miracle Hikaru no Mono Mane Paradise (FM Jungle)
 OH! MY RADIO with Hirai Ken (J-WAVE TOKYO FM)
 Shall Wee Talk (FM Jungle)

Web
 2007: Round and round Miracle (GyaO Jockey Internet TV)
 2007: Round and round Miracle Ring (GyaO Jockey Internet TV)

Stage
 2010: "Yoko" role at 7th performance of CM "TIME II"

Discography
 2008: Miracle 1

Idol DVD
 2010: It'Miracle
 2010: MIRACLE BODY
 2011: SWINUTION
 2011: Miracle Juice

Impression repertoire
Hikaru Utada
Anpanman
Mari Hamada
Ayumi Hamasaki
Paako Hayashiya
Mika Nakashima
Shizuka Kudō
Seiko Matsuda
Yumi Matsutoya
Aya Matsūra
Chisato Moritaka
Tomoko Nakajima (of Othello)
Yukie Nakama
Masami Nagasawa
Moe Oshikiri
Keiko Toda
Juri Ueno
You

References

External links
Jinsei Pro page
Blog
Blog at Ameblo
Avilla Profile

1980 births
Living people
Actors from Hyōgo Prefecture
Musicians from Hyōgo Prefecture
Japanese impressionists (entertainers)

Miracle Hikaru


Percy John Johnson (28 January 1933 – 4 December 2021) was an Australian rules footballer and coach, who played 13 state matches for Western Australia and 228 games in the Western Australian National Football League (WANFL). He is a member of the West Australian Football Hall of Fame.

Biography
Johnson was raised in the Goldfields, and learnt football at Aquinas College under Jerry Dolan where he was used at centre-half back or as a forward. In 1951, he joined East Fremantle, where he became a ruckman due to a large number of quality defenders at the club. Johnson debuted for Western Australia against Victoria in 1955. In 1957, he won the WANFL premiership with East Fremantle.

In 1959, Johnson became captain-coach of Swan Districts, but after the club failed to progress – falling from six wins in 1958 to five – he fell out of favour with the committee and was replaced by Charlie Doig. He played a total of 21 games in his sole season for the Swans before moving to Claremont in 1960, where he was the club's leading goalscorer for the year. He returned to East Fremantle for one last season in 1962, his final game being the grand final loss to Swans.

After football, Johnson became a respected television critic, working for Channel 7 on their World of Football show, where he had his own slot "Percys Point of View". He was appointed senior coach at South Fremantle, somewhat out of the blue in 1977, after doing some junior coaching. The following season, he accepted a two-year contract to coach West Perth, being sacked during his second season after the Cardinals had their worst losing run since their WANFL record streak in 1938 and 1939. In recent years he has been ruck coach at Fremantle and Swan Districts and has been involved in WAFL or AFL football for more than 60 years.

In 2010, he was inducted into the West Australian Football Hall of Fame.

Johnson died at the age of 88 on 4 December 2021 after a 12 month cancer battle.

References

1933 births
2021 deaths
Australian rules footballers from Western Australia
South Fremantle Football Club coaches
West Perth Football Club coaches
Swan Districts Football Club players
Swan Districts Football Club coaches
East Fremantle Football Club players
Claremont Football Club players
West Australian Football Hall of Fame inductees
People educated at Aquinas College, Perth

Percy Johnson


Ruben Cruz (July 14, 1950 – January 22, 2020) was a Puerto Rican professional wrestler, better known by his ring name Hercules Ayala. He competed in Canadian and international wrestling promotions including the eastern Canadian Grand Prix Wrestling, the Calgary-based Stampede Wrestling, New Japan Pro-Wrestling in Japan and World Wrestling Council in Puerto Rico.

Professional wrestling career
Born in Bayamón, Puerto Rico, Ayala was a fan of professional wrestling and admired Huracan Castillo. During the early-1970s, he traveled to the United States several months after his mother had left to live with her daughter and her grandchildren in Boston, Massachusetts. While living in Boston, Cruz met former National Wrestling Alliance wrestler Angelo Savoldi working out at a local gym. After undergoing training with Savoldi, he was able to compete for the then World Wide Wrestling Federation for a brief time.

In December 1976, Ayala and tag team partner Victor Jovica won the NWA North American Tag Team Championship (Puerto Rico/WWC version) from Heigo Hamaguchi and Gordon Nelson. In 1977, Cruz met Bret Hart and the Dynamite Kid in Germany, and they introduced him to Stu Hart. Cruz worked in Canada for eight years. In Hart's Stampede Wrestling, Cruz held the Stampede International Tag Team Championship with Jim Neidhart. In addition to Stampede, he wrestled for Lutte Internationale. In January 1987, he defeated David Shultz for the Canadian International Heavyweight Championship, but lost it to Abdullah the Butcher approximately one month later.

After returning to Puerto Rico, he began working for the Capital Sports Promotion (later renamed to World Wrestling Council). He feuded with Killer Tim Brooks, Kevin Sullivan and Hercules Hernandez. In March 1985, he defeated Randy Savage to win the WWC North American Heavyweight Championship. He also wrestled Ric Flair for the NWA title. In the summer of 1987 Ayala suggested to the WWC office that he turn heel after years working as a babyface. He feuded with Carlos Colon over the WWC Universal Heavyweight Title and hired Chicky Starr as his manager. His feud with Carlos Colon reached its peak when Ayala attacked Nancy Coates, Carlos Colon's wife, at a WWC banquet award ceremony. On January 6, 1989, he lost a loser leaves town match to Colon and disappeared from the territory.

In 1992, he worked as booker in Puerto Rico for the American Wrestling Federation, where he reunited with manager Chicky Starr and was the AWF champion until he lost the championship to Huracán Castillo Jr.

Between 1995 and 1996, he made some appearances at the World Wrestling Council and feuded against Bronco l.

In 2011, Hercules Ayala returned to the World Wrestling Council and dedicated the 2011 WWC Anniversary Card to him.

He was also inducted to the Prairie Wrestling Alliance Hall of Fame.

Personal life
Cruz met his wife Susan while he was wrestling in Canada. They had two children together, and Cruz had a son from a previous relationship as well as two daughters. After retiring from professional wrestling, Cruz settled in St. Albert, Alberta, and worked for a fencing company. He is the godfather to fellow wrestler Ángel Acevedo's daughter. He died on January 22, 2020.

Championships and accomplishments
Americas Wrestling Federation
AWF World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
AWF World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Invader IV
Big Time Wrestling
NWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ali Mustafa
 Canadian Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2012
European Wrestling Union
World Super Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Lutte Internationale
Canadian International Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Stampede Wrestling
Stampede International Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Jim Neidhart
World Wrestling Council
WWC Caribbean Heavyweight Championship (3 times)
WWC North American Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
WWC North American Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with  Victor Jovica
WWC Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship (5 times)
WWC World Junior Heavyweight Championship (3 times)
WWC World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with King Tonga
WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship (3 times)

References

External links

1950 births
2020 deaths
Sportspeople from Bayamón, Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican male professional wrestlers
Professional wrestling executives
Puerto Rican emigrants to Canada
Businesspeople from Alberta
Professional wrestlers from Alberta
Sportspeople from St. Albert, Alberta
Stampede Wrestling alumni
20th-century professional wrestlers
21st-century professional wrestlers
WWC Universal Heavyweight Champions
WWC Puerto Rico Champions
Stampede Wrestling International Tag Team Champions
NWA World Tag Team Champions (Texas version)

Hercules Ayala


The Maihar Gharana or Maihar-Senia Gharana is a gharana or school of  classical music, a style of Indian classical music originating in the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. The school was formed by Allaudin Khan in the princely state of Maihar, now in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, and hence the name. Allauddin Khan learnt music from Vina player Wazir Khan, an exponent of the Senia gharana. The Maihar gharana is therefore sometimes referred to as the Maihar-Senia gharana.

It is one of the most prominent gharanas of the 20th century; much of the fame of Hindustani classical music in the west stems from this gharana.  Prominent musicians belonging to the Maihar gharana include prominent sitar players Ravi Shankar, Nikhil Banerjee, Allauddin Khan's son sarod player Ali Akbar Khan, daughter Annapurna Devi and grandsons Aashish Khan, Dhyanesh Khan, Pranesh Khan, Rajesh Ali khan, Alam Khan, Manik Khan and Shiraz Ali Khan.

Other prominent musicians with links to this gharana include the sarod player Bahadur Khan, Sharan Rani, Vasant Rai, Kamlesh Moitra, Kamal Mallick, Rajesh Chandra Moitra, Rajeev Taranath, Tejendra Narayan Majumdar,  Debanjan Bhattacharjee, Pratik Srivastava, Soumava Bhusan Chakraborty, Shamim Ahmed, Gourab Deb, Damodar Lal Kabra, Apratim Majumdar, Vikash Maharaj, Jyotin Bhattacharya, Abhisek Lahiri, Vishal Maharaj, B.N.Choudhury,and Basant Kabra, violinist V. G. Jog, Sishir kona Dhor Chowdhury, Indradip Ghosh, Souvik Chakrabortty, guitarists Brij Bhushan Kabra, Vishwa Mohan Bhatt and his nephew Krishna Bhatt, Manju Nandan Mehta, flautists Pannalal Ghosh, Hariprasad Chaurasia, Nityanand Haldipur, Rupak Kulkarni, Rakesh Chaurasia, Milind Date, Vivek Sonar and Ronu Majumdar, and sitar players Chandrakant Sardeshmukh, Kartick Kumar and his son Niladri Kumar, Kushal Das, Jaya Biswas, Abhishek Maharaj, Bhaskar Chandavarkar, Indraneel Bhattacharya

Musicians belonging to the gharana adhere to a dhrupad aesthetic in their approach to playing the alap and jor portions in a raga. Variations in tempo are used to demarcate sections while playing the jor, with a short rhythmic figure indicating closure of a section. Therefore, rhythmic figures within the jor assume structural importance. Alap-jor is followed by a khayal style vilambit gat with taan improvisations, and the performance ends with a jhala.

References

External links
 Maihar gharana at The Times of India

Instrumental gharanas
Satna

Maihar gharana


Thomas Crook Sullivan (November 14, 1833 – March 11, 1908) was a brigadier general in the United States Army.

Sullivan was born at Montgomery County, Ohio, the son of Samuel Sullivan, the proprietor of Sullivan's Tavern, the brother of Ohio 2nd Dist Appellate Judge Theodore Sullivan, and the nephew of future Major General George Crook via older sister Maria Crook Sullivan. He graduated from West Point in 1856, ranking twelfth in a class of forty-nine. His first assignment was as a second lieutenant in the 1st U.S. Artillery Regiment serving on the Texas frontier and during this period was with the expedition against Juan Cortina's Mexican marauders, seeing combat near Fort Brown, Texas. He was later ordered to Washington (D.C.), arriving in the Winter of 1861, and selected as a guard for president-elect Abraham Lincoln during his first inauguration.

He served throughout the American Civil War and was brevetted major and lieutenant colonel on March 13, 1865, for "faithful and meritorious service".

He remained in the army following the war, mainly in supply and subsistence roles until he retired on November 14, 1897, as Commissary General of Subsistence.

He died at the Hotel Chamberlain, Fort Monroe, Virginia, aged seventy-four. The entire garrison of officers and enlisted men turned out and gave honors and services while his remains lay in state at Fortress Monroe chapel. His cremated remains were later buried in Section one of Arlington National Cemetery. He is buried in one of only two mausoleums in Arlington, the other being that of Lieutenant General Nelson Appleton Miles in Section 3.

External links

1833 births
1908 deaths
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
People from Montgomery County, Ohio
People of Ohio in the American Civil War
United States Army generals
United States Military Academy alumni
Union Army officers

Thomas Crook Sullivan


John Bishop (May 3, 1929 – December 20, 2006), was an American playwright and screenwriter who achieved limited success on both Broadway and in Hollywood.

Bishop was born in Mansfield, Ohio. He majored in theatre at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh and began his career as an actor at the Cleveland Play House in Cleveland. Although his stage career led into directing, his first success on Broadway came from writing the play The Trip Back Down, which played for two months at the Longacre Theatre in early 1977. In 1987, he made it back to Broadway by writing and directing The Musical Comedy Murders of 1940, which ran for almost four months, again at the Longacre. During this time, Bishop was also a member of the acclaimed off-Broadway Circle Repertory Company. Mr. Bishop moved west after the dissolution of Circle Repertory Company in 1997 and founded Circle West, which carried on many of the artistic missions of the original Circle Repertory Company. Bishop served as artistic director until his death. Among the plays the company produced was Mr. Bishop's Legacies, a police-detective drama.

After Broadway, Bishop began writing for Hollywood. He wrote the screenplay for The Package, a 1989 action thriller starring Gene Hackman. Although The Package earned poorly at the box office, the film was well regarded by some critics, including Roger Ebert, who gave it three stars out of four. Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a rating of 64% based on  14 reviews.

Bishop also did writing work for Paramount Studios, where he used his knowledge of and interest in male behavior and police procedures to do rewrites for big-budget thrillers such as Clear and Present Danger and Beverly Hills Cop III.

Bishop fathered three children, named Matthew, Michael, and Christopher. Although a resident of Encino, he died at a clinic in Bad Heilbrunn, Germany at the age of 77 and was survived by his wife Lisa.

Film and TV
 Comedy Zone (TV series) 1984
 The Package (written by) 1989
 Sliver (rewrite) 1993
 Drop Zone (screenplay) 1994
 Clear and Present Danger (rewrite) 1994
 Beverly Hills Cop III (rewrite) 1994
 Primal Fear (rewrite) 1996

Theater
 The Trip Back Down
 The Musical Comedy Murders of 1940
 Borderlines
 The Great Grandson of Jedediah Kohler
 The Harvesting
 The Beaver Coat (directed)
 El Salvador (directed)
 Florida Crackers (directed)
 Empty Hearts (written and directed)

References

External links

 John Bishop's obituary in the Los Angeles Times

1929 births
2006 deaths
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
American male screenwriters
People from Mansfield, Ohio
Carnegie Mellon University College of Fine Arts alumni
American male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American screenwriters

John Bishop (screenwriter)


Maurice Clerc (born 1946) is a French classical organist.

Life
Born in Lyon, Clerc studied at the École normale de musique de Paris with Suzanne Chaisemartin, then at the Conservatoire de Paris where he obtained, in 1975, a first prize for organ in Rolande Falcinelli's class. While continuing this path in interpretation with Gaston Litaize, he frequented, for several years, the lessons of musical improvisation by Pierre Cochereau at the International Academy of Nice. He won the improvisation prize at the international competition in Lyon in 1977.

Clerc has given approximately 1000 recitals in more than twenty-three countries, including 24 tours in North America (United States and Canada). Travelling four continents for thirty years, he has performed in prestigious venues including the cathédrale Notre-Dame de Paris, the St. Patrick's Cathedral, the Lübeck Cathedral, the St Mark's Basilica in Venise, the Saint Joseph's Oratory of Montréal, the St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne, the NHK auditorium in Tokyo and the Cultural Center of Hong Kong. In 1987, he was invited to give two of the opening concerts of the Flentrop great organ in the new auditorium in Taipei. In 1999, he went to Seoul for the organists convention. This international career has led him to perform in renowned festivals such as Bruges, Ravenna, Madrid, Morelia, Saint-Eustache, Paris, Milstatt, Frankfurt, Budapest, Luxembourg, New-Zealand, Buenos Aires and Montevideo.

Appointed titular organist of the Saint-Bénigne cathedral of Dijon in 1972, he was for thirty-three years a professor at the  and for twenty years a lecturer at the university.

Clerc has recorded numerous disks devoted to Bach and the German Baroque masters, but considered as one of the specialists in French music of the 19th-20th centuries, he has worked on engraving major works by Franck, Vierne, Dupré, Fleury, Langlais and more recently Cochereau.

References

External links
 Official website
 Discography
 Jean Philippe Rameau: Ouverture des Indes Galantes by Maurice Clerc on YouTube

1946 births
Living people
Musicians from Lyon
French classical organists
French male organists
Cathedral organists
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
École Normale de Musique de Paris alumni
French music educators
21st-century organists
21st-century French male musicians
Male classical organists

Maurice Clerc (organist)


Asma Afsaruddin (born 1958) is an American scholar of Islamic studies and Professor in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures at Indiana University in Bloomington.

Biography

She was an associate professor in Arabic and Islamic studies at the University of Notre Dame, Indiana. She has previously taught at Harvard University and the Johns Hopkins University, from which she received her PhD in 1993. Her fields of specialization include the religious and political thought of Islam, study of the primary Islamic texts (Qur'an and hadith), as well as gender studies.

Afsaruddin has been an editorial board member for the Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, published by Cambridge University Press. She was an editor of the Routledge Encyclopedia of Medieval Islamic Civilization and a consultant for The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2002).

Afsaruddin chairs the Center for the Study of Islam and Democracy board of directors. She also sits on advisory committees for the Muslim World Initiative of the United States Institute of Peace and the human rights organization Karamah.

Awards and honours
In 2015, she was presented the Jayezeh Jahani (World Book Prize) for the best new book in Islamic studies by the Iranian president Hassan Rouhani for her book Striving in the Path of God: Jihad and Martyrdom in Islamic Thought. The book was also a runner-up for the British-Kuwaiti Friendship Society Book Prize in 2014.

Publications
Contemporary Issues in Islam (Edinburgh University Press, 2015)
Striving in the Path of God: Jihad and Martyrdom in Islamic Thought (Oxford University Press, 2013)
The First Muslims: History and Memory (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2008)
Excellence and Precedence: Medieval Islamic Discourse on Legitimate Leadership (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2002)
Hermeneutics and Honor: Negotiation of Female "Public" Space in Islamic/ate Societies (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, 1999)
Culture, and Language in the Near East : Essays in Honor of Georg Krotkoff (Eisenbrauns: Winona Lake, Ind., 1997)

References

External links
Faculty, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, Indiana University, Bloomington: Asma Afsaruddin
Religion Compass Online: Asma Afsaruddin

Living people
Indiana University faculty
American Islamic studies scholars
University of Notre Dame faculty
Harvard University faculty
Johns Hopkins University faculty
Johns Hopkins University alumni
Women scholars of Islam
1958 births
Muslim scholars of Islamic studies

Asma Afsaruddin


is a shōjo manga series by Ayane Ukyō. It was serialized in Shueisha's Margaret manga magazine from 2004 to 2006, and collected in seven bound volumes. The series is published in France by Panini Comics France and in Germany by Egmont Manga.

Story
The Omori are a poor family. Mio Omori's father died when she was young, and her mother has been hospitalized for some time with an unspecified illness. She lives alone with her little brother Hinata, doing a number of part-time jobs to get by. One night, when going home after work, she encounters upon a violent young man who throws money at her, saying he'll 'buy her', after stealing her first kiss.

The next day her mother tells Mio that their landlord, who happens to be among her father's closest friends, has offered her a job as a maid at their mansion. Eager to help the family, he feels that it will be safer at night that way, and her mother agrees to this despite her daughter's opposition. To her horror, Mio finds out that the violent man who stole her kiss is none other than Shoei Jinnai, the son of their landlord and the most popular and high-achieving student at her high school; so much so that he is widely known as 'Prince Jinnai'.

In his own strange way, the Prince starts to treat her as his girlfriend, going so far as to tell Mio he loves her. When they finally start dating, Mio's brother Hinata becomes extremely jealous and tries to interfere with their relationship. When Mio catches them kissing, she runs home, but the next morning their house is demolished on the Prince's order.

Characters
Mio Omori Although poor, naive and often indecisive and emotionally weak, Mio has good intentions and is a very hardworking girl. Mio lives with her brother, Hinata, while their mother is in hospital. Due to an incident in her childhood, in which she was kidnapped in place of Shoei, she lost her memory of her friendship with him. In a meeting many years later, Shoei offers to buy her, claiming she now "belongs to him". She ends up working as a maid in the Jinnai's house and eventually lives in the house as a live in maid to Shoei. She starts to fall in love with Shoei but at one point believes she might be Shoei's half-sister. After learning this she consummates her relationship with Shoei and then runs away to live with Hinata and his pimp. It is later revealed that Hinata is actually Shoie's half-brother and not her. Through other trials Mio and Shoei rekindle their relationship. Mio eventually moves with her family into the mountains. Shoei transfers to her new school.
Shoei (Prince) Jinnai Shoei is Mio's closest childhood friend and the scion of a very wealthy family, although Mio initially doesn't recall their past together. His father is the Omori family's landlord. He is popular, athletic, intelligent and handsome, adored by many girls in school, popular among both ladies and gentlemen. He is deeply in love with Mio. He blushes every time Mio takes off his glasses because when they were children she would take off his glasses then kiss him. He manipulates events so that Mio is first forced to work in his home as a maid, then to live there. Spoiled and extremely wealthy, he lacks in compassion, consideration and empathy towards others. Mio later takes it upon herself to re-educate him to be a better person. Later they become a couple.
Hinata (Hina) Omori Mio's little brother, though not by blood. He is in fact the illegitimate son of Mr. Jinnai and is the Prince's half-brother. It is not clear how he found out or how long he has known about his origins, but it is known that he has been in love with his "sister" for some time. On many occasions, Hinata has demonstrated a cruel streak and manipulative personality: he wants Mio and is  willing to use tricks and lies to separate her from the Prince. Unknown to Mio, he has been working as a male escort (prostitute). After running away from home, Hinata moved in with his pimp, before moving into the Jinnai house.
Mr. Tomoe Hina's pimp. Hina moves in with him after running away. Later, Mio moves in with him too after he offers her a job and tells her that Hina is staying with him. Mio does not know Mr. Tomoe is Hina's pimp. He also seems to know a lot about Hina and Mio's family issues with the Jinnais, showing Hinata where to find his birth mother. He is later hired by Hayato to follow and lead Mio and Shoei to different locations. He is later betrayed by Hayato and arrested for prostitution.
Hayato Prince's oniwaban (spy) is nineteen years old. Since his real job serves little purpose most of the time, he acts as the gardener for Jinnai house. He listens to Mio's problems, and seems to know more than he lets on. Its later revealed that Hayato is the son of the man that kidnapped Mio when she was younger. He has been working at the Jinnai's family home only to get revenge over the Jinnai family because his father committed suicide after kidnapping Mio and getting caught. He ends up kidnapping Mio to lure in Shoei but lets Shoei and Mio go.
Asako Mio's mother. She is very sickly and stays in the hospital. Shoei has a close relationship with her, because she was his wet nurse (mother figure) when he was a child. There is some evidence of their closeness in that she calls him by his given name and he frequently visits her at the hospital. She often says or requests things from the Jinnai family without asking her children, and currently owes the Jinnai family a debt of over one-billion yen. Later in the manga she recovers from her illness and is able to move back home. She then plans to move to get Mio away from the Jinnai family because she wanted to protect Mio. She condones Mio and Shoei relationship later when she realizes how much Shoei loves Mio and won't let her go. She, Mio, and Hinata still move away to the mountains.
Mr. Jinnai Shoei's father and Hinata's biological father. Mr. Jinnai is usually very carefree and extremely gentle, so much so that Mio says she can not refuse even his most unusual requests. However, he has been shown to become very serious and even frightening in times of stress. Afterwards, he reverts to his usual character. At some point in the past, he and Mio's father were very close friends, and Mr. Jinnai wishes to keep caring for Mio and her family because of it.
Jun-chan A friend of Mio's from school. She doesn't know about Mio's relation with Prince.

Volumes

Reception
Reviewing the first volume, a reviewer for Manga News regarded the "strong point" of the manga to be its depiction of poverty in Japan.  The reviewer found the brutality of the scenes between Mio and Jinnai to be confronting.  AnimeLand regarded the first volume's story as 'sordid', disliking the non-consensual relationship that Mio is in, but noting that the author is popular with Japanese girls, "who do not seem affronted by the scenes of domination by horny males".  Faustine Lillaz, writing for Planète BD, "gained the impression of a modernized Cinderella", but found the actions of the male characters to be "very caricatured".  Lillaz found that the art was good, but that it "lacked originality".  In a short review for volume four, the reviewer for AnimeLand described the manga as "morally violent", and found the fifth volume "repetitive". They found the "reversal of roles" in the final volume to give a "rather amusing" new dimension to the work. The reviewer for Manga News found the gardener a "dynamic" character.

References

External links

Shōjo manga
Drama anime and manga
Romance anime and manga
2004 manga

Yokujō Climax


Garin Tzabar () is a program that facilitates service in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) and provides a support system for Israelis and Diaspora Jews who do not have parents in Israel. Soldiers who do not have at least one parent living in Israel are called "Lone Soldiers".  The Garin Tzabar members are Jewish young adults (ages 18-24, 23 for women) and sons and daughters of Israelis living abroad, who wish to make Israel their home and serve a meaningful service in the IDF as Lone Soldiers. Upon their Aliyah, the group is adopted by an Israel community (Kibbutz or the Absorption Center in Raanana) and live there for three months during which they study Hebrew and navigate the necessary bureaucratic and military processes that are required before their imminent draft. Upon enlistment, participants are required to remain on their respective Kibbutz for at least a year. In addition to Garin Tzabar staff, soldiers and educators from the IDF and teachers from the Ministry of Education assist with the transition.

It is affiliated with the Hebrew Scouts Movement in Israel.

Etymology

In Hebrew, Garin means "core" or "seed". Aside from its literal use, the word is also used in Israel to refer to a group of people who moved to Israel together. The Hebrew word Tzabar, translated in English as sabra, is used in Israel to mean a native-born Israeli Jew.

History
Garin Tzabar was founded in 1991 and is run by Tzofim Tzabar Olami, a non-profit organization, with the support of the Ministry of Aliyah and Immigrant Absorption, and Nefesh B'Nefesh.

The program is largely funded by Israel's Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, but  also receives money from the Jewish Agency for Israel, Ministry of Education (Israel), Ministry of Defense (Israel) and private donors. There are over 400 lone soldiers that are supported by Garin Tzabar every year, and come from all over the world including the United States, Canada, Russia, France, Australia, England, Nigeria, Thailand, Finland, Sweden, Switzerland, Germany, Poland, Spain, Brazil, Italy, Greece, Argentina and several other locations. Each lone soldier belongs to a group (Garin) of approximately 20 soldiers who live together at a kibbutz and experience their military service together as a social unit of mutual support and camaraderie. It is the largest IDF immigrant program in Israel, partnered with the Israel Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, with more than 2,500 soldiers since inception.

Program
The Preparation Process

In this initial stage, the group meets for preparation seminars, which are built to provide a reflective and selective environment. Different aspects pertaining to the move to Israel are discussed and reflected upon, including study of the cultural, political and social characteristics of Israel and a thorough introduction to the IDF and its social role in Israeli society. Each individual is encouraged to undergo a personal maturing process that will be needed to move to Israel and joining the IDF.

Pre-Ulpan

(Mandatory to those with a low level of Hebrew, available in the summer session only)

A month and a half of extensive Hebrew Ulpan studies in the Garin Tzabar Village in Ra'anana. The participants come from all around the world, and are accompanied by social counselors. In the afternoons, there are social activities and volunteering.

The Absorption Process in Israel

Upon arrival in Israel, members of each Garin are placed on a hosting kibbutz.  The first three months prior to basic training include:
 Teaching of the Hebrew language (under Ulpan)
 Pre-draft logistics such as a physical exam, mental-psychological fitness testing, and an interview with the IDF
 Acclimation to History of Israel geography, and culture.
 Trips throughout Israel
 Adoption of host families
Military Service in the IDF

Upon joining the army, each Garin member follows their individual path within the IDF. The Garin continues to exist as a support system and members meet in the Garin over the weekends and on time off from the army. The Garin staff, both from the adoptive community and the Israel Scouts, continues to work with the Garin members throughout their army service. Additional seminars and programs are designed and implemented to maintain the framework of the Garin.

Alumni

Each Garin Tzabar member who finishes their army service joins our extensive alumni network, with over 2,500 members.  The main goals of the alumni network are: social and professional networking, personal development and cooperation with current Garin Tzabar members.

Kibbutzim
Garin Tzabar has held groups of lone soldiers (Garinim) in over 30 Kibbutzim throughout Israel, and two Garin Villages (Ra'anana and Ibim).  The current Kibbutzim with Garin's (groups) of lone soldiers include Ein Tzurim, Kibbutz Yehiam, Nir Oz, Ein HaShlosha, Alumim, Lahav, Kissufim, Afikim, Nir Yitzhak, Moledet, Nir Etzion, Magen, Sde Boker, Dvir, Beit Rimon, Lavi, Ginegar, Hanita, Beit Zera, Ein Dor, Neve Eitan, Maoz Haim, Kvutzat Yavne, Be'erot Yitzhak, Kvutzat Kinneret, Geva, Regba, Sha'ar HaGolan, and Sa'ad.

See also
Mahal
Sar-El

References

External links
Garin Tzabar Website: http://www.garintzabar.org/, http://www.israelscouts.org/garin-tzabar
Jpost, December 2016: http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/100-lone-soldiers-in-Garin-Tzabar-program-begin-their-IDF-service-476823
Yididot Aharonot, September 2016: http://www.yediot.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-4860473,00.html
Times of Israel, June 2016: http://blogs.timesofisrael.com/lone-soldiers-and-the-tribe/
Walla, August 2015: http://news.walla.co.il/item/2882859
Ynet, June 2015: http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4668841,00.html
The Jewish Journal, June 2008: http://www.jewishjournal.com/graduation/article/outstanding_seniors_class_of_2008_20080604/
Cleveland Jewish News, May 2008: http://www.clevelandjewishnews.com/articles/2008/05/30/news/local/graduate0530.txt
The Jewish Exponent, February 2008: http://www.jewishexponent.com/article/15267/
Yediot Ahronot, August 2006: http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3293328,00.html

Israel Defense Forces
Scouting and Guiding in Israel

Garin Tzabar


In universal algebra, an abstract algebra A is called simple if and only if it has no nontrivial congruence relations, or equivalently, if every homomorphism with domain  A  is either injective or constant.

As congruences on rings are characterized by their ideals, this notion is a straightforward generalization of the notion from ring theory: a ring is simple in the sense that it has no nontrivial ideals if and only if it is simple in the sense of universal algebra. The same remark applies with respect to groups and normal subgroups; hence the universal notion is also a generalization of a simple group (it is a matter of convention whether a one-element algebra should be or should not be considered simple, hence only in this special case the notions might not match).

A theorem by Roberto Magari in 1969 asserts that every  variety contains a simple algebra.

See also

 simple group
 simple ring
 central simple algebra

References

Algebras
Ring theory

Simple algebra (universal algebra)