Mozilla (stylized as moz://a) is a free software community founded in 1998 by members of Netscape. The Mozilla community uses, develops, publishes and supports Mozilla products, thereby promoting exclusively free software and open standards, with only minor exceptions. The community is supported institutionally by the non-profit Mozilla Foundation and its tax-paying subsidiary, the Mozilla Corporation.

Mozilla's current products include the Firefox web browser, Thunderbird e-mail client (now through a subsidiary), the Bugzilla bug tracking system, the Gecko layout engine, and the Pocket "read-it-later-online" service.

History

On January 23, 1998, Netscape announced that its Netscape Communicator browser software would be free, and that its source code would also be free. One day later, Jamie Zawinski of Netscape registered . The project took its name, "Mozilla", from the original code name of the Netscape Navigator browser—a portmanteau of "Mosaic and Godzilla", and used to coordinate the development of the Mozilla Application Suite, the free software version of Netscape's internet software, Netscape Communicator. Zawinski said he arrived at the name "Mozilla" at a Netscape staff meeting. A small group of Netscape employees were tasked with coordinating the new community.

Mozilla originally aimed to be a technology provider for companies such as Netscape, who would commercialize their free software code. When Netscape's parent company AOL greatly reduced its involvement with Mozilla in July 2003, the Mozilla Foundation was designated the project's legal steward. Soon after, Mozilla deprecated the Mozilla Suite in favor of creating independent applications for each function, primarily the Firefox web browser and the Thunderbird email client, and moved to supply them directly to the public.

Mozilla's activities next expanded, and also experienced product terminations, with Firefox on mobile platforms (primarily Android), a mobile OS called Firefox OS (since cancelled), a web-based identity system called Mozilla Persona (since cancelled) and a marketplace for HTML5 applications.

In a report released in November 2012, Mozilla reported that their revenue for 2011 was $163 million, up 33% from $123 million in 2010. It noted that roughly 85% of their revenue came from their contract with Google.

At the end of 2013, Mozilla announced a deal with Cisco Systems, whereby Firefox would download and use a Cisco-provided binary build of an open-source codec to play the proprietary H.264 video format. As part of the deal, Cisco would pay any patent licensing fees associated with the binaries that it distributed. Mozilla's CTO, Brendan Eich, acknowledged that it was "not a complete solution" and wasn't "perfect". An employee in Mozilla's video formats team, writing unofficially, justified it by the need to maintain their large user base, which would be necessary for future battles for truly free video formats.

In December 2013, Mozilla announced funding for the development of paid games through its Game Creator Challenge. However, even games that would be released under non-free or free software licenses were required to be made with open web technologies and Javascript.

In January 2017 the company rebranded away from its dinosaur symbol in favor of a logo including a "://" character sequence from a URL: "moz://a".

In 2020 Mozilla announced it would cut 25% of its worldwide staff of nearly 1,000 to reduce costs. Firefox has fallen from 30% market share to 4% in 10 years. Despite this, executive pay increased 400%, with Mitchell Baker, Mozilla's top executive, receiving $2.4m in 2018. In December 2020, Mozilla closed its Mountain View office.

Values

Seeking new products and roles while sustaining commitment to Firefox though Firefox's market share has so far dwindled dramatically, Executive Chairwoman and CEO Baker, Chief Product Officer Steve Teixeira and Mozilla Foundation Executive Director Mark Surman told Tech Crunch in November, 2022 that fundamental business models are being rethought, and new roles in the internet as a human institution, that Mozilla's next 25 years' plan was in search of specifying projects for revised detailed purposes. The one actual general vehicle implemented  "has meant the launch of Mozilla Ventures, a $35 million venture fund that the organization plans to use to invest in products and founders who want to build a better, privacy-respecting internet."

Mozilla Manifesto

The Mozilla Manifesto outlines Mozilla's goals and principles. It asserts Mozilla's commitment to the internet, saying: "The open, global internet is the most powerful communication and collaboration resource we have ever seen. It embodies some of our deepest hopes for human progress." It then outlines what Mozilla sees as its place in the development of the internet, stating "The Mozilla project uses a community-based approach to create world-class open source software and to develop new types of collaborative activities". And finally, it lays out their ten principles:
 The internet is an integral part of modern life—a key component in education, communication, collaboration, business, entertainment, and society as a whole.
 The internet is a global public resource that must remain open and accessible.
 The internet must enrich the lives of individual human beings.
 Individuals' security and privacy on the internet are fundamental and must not be treated as optional.
 Individuals must have the ability to shape the internet and their own experiences on it.
 The effectiveness of the internet as a public resource depends upon interoperability (protocols, data formats, content), innovation, and decentralized participation worldwide.
 Free and open source software promotes the development of the internet as a public resource.
 Transparent community-based processes promote participation, accountability, and trust.
 Commercial involvement in the development of the internet brings many benefits; a balance between commercial profit and public benefit is critical.
 Magnifying the public benefit aspects of the internet is an important goal, worthy of time, attention, and commitment.

Pledge
According to the Mozilla Foundation:

Venture Incubation

Mozilla Builders
From March til the end of 2020, Mozilla Builders was "an experimental 'Fix-The-Internet' incubator program" which funded some dozens of projects through 3 subprograms: The Startup Studio,  The MVP Lab and The Open Lab. The site for this program is now archived.

Mozilla Ventures
On November 2, 2022, at the Web Summit in Lisbon, Portugal and simultaneously online, Mozilla announced the early 2023 launch of Mozilla Ventures, a venture capital and product incubation facility out of Mozilla for independent start-ups, seed to Series A which qualify under the ethos of the Mozilla Manifesto, with a starting fund of $35 million. Its founding Managing Partner is Mohamed Nanabhay who told Entrepreneur India the purpose is "to create an ecosystem of entrepreneurs from across the world who are building companies that create a better internet".

Mozilla Foundation President and Executive Director Mark Surman named the first 3 investment recipients in the Mozilla Ventures mode, in discussions before Mozilla Ventures was announced, as Secure AI Labs, Block Party and HeyLogin.

Software

Firefox

Firefox is a family of software products developed by Mozilla, with the Firefox browser as the flagship product.

Firefox browser

The Firefox web browser is available in both desktop and mobile versions. It uses the Gecko layout engine to render web pages, which implements current and anticipated web standards. , Firefox had approximately 10-11% of worldwide usage share of web browsers, making it the 4th most-used web browser.

Firefox began as an experimental branch of the Mozilla codebase by Dave Hyatt, Joe Hewitt and Blake Ross, who believed the commercial requirements of Netscape's sponsorship and developer-driven feature creep compromised the utility of the Mozilla browser. To combat what they saw as the Mozilla Suite's software bloat, they created a stand-alone browser, with which they intended to replace the Mozilla Suite.

Firefox was originally named Phoenix but the name was changed to avoid trademark conflicts with Phoenix Technologies. The initially-announced replacement, Firebird, provoked objections from the Firebird project community. The current name, Firefox, was chosen on February 9, 2004.

It was previously announced that Mozilla would launch a premium version of the Firefox browser by October 2019. The company's CEO, Chris Beard, was quoted by The Next Web: "there is no plan to charge money for things that are now free. So we will roll out a subscription service and offer a premium level." In September, Mozilla revealed their new offering, Firefox Premium Support, at $10 per installation. However, shortly after news broke of the service, Mozilla removed information about it from the website. Computerworld reported that in an email statement, Mozilla claimed "the page outlining that these paid support services for enterprise clients will be available was posted incorrectly."

In October, 2023, Mozilla announced that consumer 'Firefox accounts' were renamed to 'Mozilla accounts', explicitly indicating a desire to bring the Mozilla brand into greater prominence even with the diminution of some Firefox branding: Over the years, Firefox accounts expanded its role beyond being solely an authentication solution for Firefox Sync. It now serves as Mozilla's main authentication and account management service for a wide range of products and services, supporting millions of active account customers globally. As such, the original "Firefox" branding no longer accurately reflects the broad scope of Mozilla's offerings. The renaming is intended to create a more consistent brand experience across all Mozilla surfaces, driving higher awareness of the portfolio of Mozilla products."

Firefox for mobile

Firefox for mobile (codenamed Fennec) is the build of the Mozilla Firefox web browser for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. Initially available on multiple platforms, it is now available in two versions: Firefox for Android and Firefox for iOS. Firefox for Android runs on the Android mobile operating system and uses the same Gecko layout engine as Mozilla Firefox; for example, version 1.0 used the same engine as Firefox 3.6, and the following release, 4.0, shared core code with Firefox 4.0. Firefox for iOS, which runs on the iOS mobile operating system, does not use the Gecko Layout Engine because of Apple's policy that all iOS apps that browse the web must use the built-in iOS WebKit rendering engine. Both version include features like HTML5 support, Firefox Sync, private browsing, web tracking protection, and tabbed browsing, and Firefox for Android also includes support for add-ons.

Firefox Focus

Firefox Focus is a free and open-source privacy-focused mobile browser for Android and iOS. Initially released in 2015 as only a tracker-blocking application for iOS, it has since been developed into a full mobile browser for both iOS and Android.

Firefox Lockwise

Firefox Lockwise was a password manager offered by Mozilla. On desktop, it was a built-in feature of the Firefox browser. On mobile, it was offered as a standalone app that could be set as the device's default password manager.

Firefox Monitor

Firefox Monitor is an online service that informs users if their email address and passwords have been leaked in data breaches.

Firefox Send

Firefox Send was an online encrypted file-transfer service offered by Mozilla. In September 2020, Mozilla announced that it would be decommissioned and would no longer be part of the product lineup.

Mozilla VPN

Mozilla VPN, formerly Firefox Private Network, is a subscription-based VPN and a free privacy extension.

Firefox Private Relay

Firefox Private Relay provides users with disposable email addresses that can be used to combat spam (by hiding the user's real email address) and manage email subscriptions by categorizing them based on the party a particular address was given to.

Firefox Relay was first released as a Firefox add-on on April 9, 2020. Mozilla announced Firefox Relay Premium monthly subscription service, ending Beta version of Firefox Relay on November 19, 2021. In addition to this, users who benefit from the subscription can receive unlimited alias emails as firstname.lastname@example.com as @relay.firefox.com Instead of the pseudonymous e-mail addresses provided, @mozmail.com e-mail addresses have been switched.

Firefox Reality
In September 2018, Mozilla announced that its VR version was ready for consumers to download. Called Firefox Reality, the browser was built entirely for virtual reality. It is currently available on the Oculus.

In January 2019, HTC announced its partnership with Mozilla, under which the Firefox Reality web browser has been made available on Vive headsets. In February 2022, Mozilla announced that Igalia had assumed stewardship of the project, whose name was changed to Wolvic.

Firefox OS

Firefox OS (project name: Boot to Gecko also known as B2G) is a free software operating system developed by Mozilla to support HTML5 apps written using "open Web" technologies rather than platform-specific native APIs. The concept behind Firefox OS is that all user-accessible software will be HTML5 applications, using Open Web APIs to access the phone's hardware directly via JavaScript.

Some devices using the OS include Alcatel One Touch Fire, ZTE Open, and LG Fireweb.

Mozilla announced the end of Firefox OS development in December 2015. A fork of B2G, KaiOS, has continued development and ships with numerous low-cost devices.

Pocket

Pocket is a mobile application and web service for managing a reading list of articles from the Internet. It was announced that it would be acquired by the Mozilla Corporation, the commercial arm of Mozilla's non-profit development group, on February 27, 2017. Originally designed only for desktop browsers, it is now available for macOS, Windows, iOS, Android, Windows Phone, BlackBerry, Kobo eReaders, and web browsers.

Thunderbird

Thunderbird is a free software, cross-platform email and news client developed by the volunteers of the Mozilla Community.

On July 16, 2012, Mitchell Baker announced that Mozilla's leadership had come to the conclusion that ongoing stability was the most important thing for Thunderbird and that innovation in Thunderbird was no longer a priority for Mozilla. In that update, Baker also suggested that Mozilla had provided a pathway for its community to innovate around Thunderbird if the community chooses.

On July 11, 2023, the Thunderbird blog announced the release of a new version of Thunderbird called Supernova. It features a new, modernized, user interface, among other new features. Changes have also been made to the older underlying code structure to make "maintenance and extensibility easier".

SeaMonkey

SeaMonkey (formerly the Mozilla Application Suite) is a free and open-source cross-platform suite of Internet software components including a web browser component, a client for sending and receiving email and Usenet newsgroup messages, an HTML editor (Mozilla Composer) and the ChatZilla IRC client.

On March 10, 2005, the Mozilla Foundation announced that it would not release any official versions of Mozilla Application Suite beyond 1.7.x, since it had now focused on the stand-alone applications Firefox and Thunderbird. SeaMonkey is now maintained by the SeaMonkey Council, which has trademarked the SeaMonkey name with help from the Mozilla Foundation. The Mozilla Foundation provides project hosting for the SeaMonkey developers.

Bugzilla

Bugzilla is a web-based general-purpose bug tracking system, which was released as free software by Netscape Communications in 1998 along with the rest of the Mozilla codebase, and is currently stewarded by Mozilla. It has been adopted by a variety of organizations for use as a bug tracking system for both free and open-source software and proprietary projects and products, including the Mozilla Foundation, the Linux kernel, KDE, Red Hat, Eclipse and LibreOffice.

WebThings
WebThings is a framework that allowed management of IoT devices through a single framework, gateway and UI. It was based on W3C Web of Things standard. Since 2020, it is no longer affiliated with Mozilla. It was spun off as an independent project following layoffs in 2020. It was known as Project Things and allowed users to use a Raspberry Pi as a gateway for IoT management with decentralized software.

Components

NSS

Network Security Services (NSS) comprises a set of libraries designed to support cross-platform development of security-enabled client and server applications. NSS provides a complete free software implementation of crypto libraries supporting SSL and S/MIME. NSS is licensed under the GPL-compatible Mozilla Public License 2.0.

AOL, Red Hat, Sun Microsystems/Oracle Corporation, Google and other companies and individual contributors have co-developed NSS and it is used in a wide range of non-Mozilla products including Evolution, Pidgin, and LibreOffice.

SpiderMonkey

SpiderMonkey is the original JavaScript engine developed by Brendan Eich when he invented JavaScript in 1995 as a developer at Netscape. It became part of the Mozilla product family when Mozilla inherited Netscape's code-base in 1998. In 2011, Eich transferred the nominal ownership of the SpiderMonkey code and project to Dave Mandelin.

SpiderMonkey is a cross-platform engine written in C++ which implements ECMAScript, a standard developed from JavaScript. It comprises an interpreter, several just-in-time compilers, a decompiler and a garbage collector. Products which embed SpiderMonkey include Firefox, Thunderbird, SeaMonkey, and many non-Mozilla applications.

Rhino

Rhino is a free software JavaScript engine managed by the Mozilla Foundation. Developed entirely in Java, it converts JavaScript scripts into Java classes. It works in both compiled and interpreted mode.

Gecko

Gecko is a layout engine that supports web pages written using HTML, SVG, and MathML. Written in C++, it uses NSPR for platform independence. Its source code is licensed under the Mozilla Public License.

Firefox uses Gecko for rendering web pages and for rendering its user interface. Gecko is also used by Thunderbird, SeaMonkey, and many non-Mozilla applications.

Rust

Rust is a compiled programming language developed by Mozilla Research. It is designed for safety, concurrency and performance. It is intended for creating large, complex software which must be both fast and safe against exploits.

Rust is being used in an experimental layout engine, Servo, which was developed by Mozilla and Samsung. Although Servo is not yet used in any consumer-oriented browsers, the project developers plan for parts of its source code to be incrementally merged into Gecko and Firefox.

XULRunner

XULRunner is a software platform and technology experiment by Mozilla that allows applications built with the same technologies used by Firefox extensions (XPCOM, Javascript, HTML, CSS, XUL) to be run natively as desktop applications, without requiring Firefox to be installed. XULRunner binaries are available for the Windows, Linux and OS X operating systems, allowing such applications to be effectively cross-platform.

pdf.js

Pdf.js is a library developed by Mozilla that allows in-browser rendering of PDF documents using HTML5 Canvas and JavaScript. It is included by default in Firefox, allowing the browser to render PDF documents without requiring an external plugin. It is available separately as an extension, "PDF Viewer", for Firefox for Android, SeaMonkey, and the Firefox versions which don't include it built-in. It can also be included as part of a website's scripts, to allow PDF rendering for any browser that implements the required HTML5 features and can run JavaScript.

Shumway

Shumway is a free software replacement for Adobe Flash Player developed by Mozilla since 2012, using open web technologies as a replacement for Flash technologies. It uses Javascript and HTML5 Canvas elements to render Flash and execute Actionscript. It is included by default in Firefox Nightly and can be installed as an extension for any recent version of Firefox. The current implementation is limited in its capabilities to render Flash content outside simple projects.

Servo

Servo is a browser engine being developed for application and embedded use. In August 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, due to lack of funds and organization restructuring, Mozilla laid off most of the Servo development team. Servo then became part of the Linux Foundation, where development currently continues.

SOPS: Secrets OPerationS
SOPS is an editor of encrypted files that supports YAML, JSON, ENV, INI and BINARY formats and encrypts with AWS KMS, GCP KMS, Azure Key Vault, age, and PGP.

WebXR Viewer
WebXR Viewer is an AR viewer that lets developers create and run AR experiences built with web technologies and ARKit.

Other activities

Mozilla VR
Mozilla VR is a team focused on bringing virtual reality (VR) tools, specifications, and standards to the open Web. Mozilla VR maintains A-Frame (VR), a web framework for building VR experiences, and works on advancing WebVR support within web browsers.

On April 26, 2018, the first experiment from their Social Mixed Reality efforts was released; Hubs, a multi-user virtual space in WebVR.

Mozilla Persona

Mozilla Persona was a secure, cross-browser website authentication mechanism which allowed a user to use a single username and password (or other authentication method) to log into multiple sites. Mozilla Persona shut down on November 30, 2016.

Mozilla Location Service

This free software crowdsourced geolocation service was started by Mozilla in 2013 and offers a free API.

Webmaker
Mozilla Webmaker is Mozilla's educational initiative, and Webmaker's goal is to "help millions of people move from using the web to making the web." As part of Mozilla's non-profit mission, Webmaker aims "to help the world increase their understanding of the web, take greater control of their online lives, and create a more web literate planet."

MDN Web Docs

Mozilla maintains a comprehensive developer documentation website called the MDN Web Docs which contains information about web technologies including HTML, CSS, SVG, JavaScript, as well as Mozilla-specific information. In addition, Mozilla publishes a large number of videos about web technologies and the development of Mozilla projects on the Air Mozilla website. This was renamed to MDN Plus.

Common Voice

In July 2017, Mozilla launched the project Common Voice to help make voice recognition open to everyone. Visitors to the website can donate their voice to help build a free software voice recognition engine that anyone can use to make apps for devices and the web that make use of voice recognition. The website allows visitors to read a sentence to help the machine system learn how real people speak, as well as validate the read sentences of other people.

Mozilla publishes Common Voice data sets under a CC-0 license.

IRL – Online Life Is Real Life
On June 26, 2017, Mozilla launched IRL – Online Life Is Real Life to explore popular stories from the web that deal with issues of the internet that affect society as a whole.

Controversies

Eich CEO promotion
In 2008, Brendan Eich donated US$1,000 in support of California's Proposition 8, a California ballot proposition and state constitutional amendment in opposition to same-sex marriage. Eich's donation eventually became public knowledge in 2012, while he was Mozilla's chief technical officer, leading to angry responses on Twitter—including the use of the hashtag "#wontworkwithbigots".

Controversy later re-emerged in 2014, following the announcement of Eich's appointment as CEO of Mozilla. U.S. companies OkCupid and CREDO Mobile notably objected to his appointment, with the former asking its users to boycott the browser, while Credo amassed 50,000 signatures for a petition that called for Eich's resignation.

Due to the controversy, Eich voluntarily stepped down on April 3, 2014, and Mitchell Baker, executive chairwoman of Mozilla Corporation, posted a statement on the Mozilla blog: "We didn't move fast enough to engage with people once the controversy started. Mozilla believes both in equality and freedom of speech. Equality is necessary for meaningful speech. And you need free speech to fight for equality."

Push Notifications for Mozilla Blog without user consent
In July 2020 Mozilla forced push notifications, an advertisement for its own blog post about Facebook and Mozilla's #StopHateForProfit campaign. These notifications were sent without user consent and faced a backlash by Firefox users.

Mozilla and Meta (Facebook) partnership
In February 2022, Mozilla and Meta partnered to propose a privacy-preserving advertising technology. This faced a backlash on the internet because Mozilla partnered with the same company they were running a campaign against 2 years ago and given Meta's reputation, Mozilla was criticized for collaborating with them.

Community
The Mozilla Community consists of over 40,000 active contributors from across the globe. It includes both paid employees and volunteers who work towards the goals set forth in the Mozilla Manifesto. Many of the sub-communities in Mozilla have formed around localization efforts for Mozilla Firefox, and the Mozilla web properties.

Local communities

There are a number of sub-communities that exist based on their geographical locations, where contributors near each other work together on particular activities, such as localization, marketing, PR, and user support.

In 2017, Mozilla created a Wireless Innovation for Network Security (WINS) challenge that awarded a total of $2 million in prize money to innovators who used its decentralized design to create wireless solutions for post-natural disaster internet access. This challenge also envisioned connecting communities that lacked internet access.

Mozilla Reps

The Mozilla Reps program is a volunteer-based program, which allows volunteers to become official representatives of Mozilla. Volunteers are required to be 18 years or older in order to participate in the program. Activities under the program include recruitment for contributors, workshops, and attending Mozilla summits.

Conferences and events

Mozilla Festival

The Mozilla Festival (MozFest) is a unique hybrid: part art, tech, and society convening, part maker festival, and the premiere gathering for activists in diverse global movements fighting for a more humane digital world. Journalists, coders, filmmakers, designers, educators, gamers, makers, youth, and anyone else, from all over the world, are encouraged to attend, with nearly 10,000 participating virtually in 2021 from more than 87 countries, working together at the intersection of human rights, climate justice, and technology, specifically trustworthy artificial intelligence.

The event revolves around key issues based on the chosen theme for that year's festival. MozFest unfolds over the span of two weeks, with more than 500 interactive sessions, films, talks, round-tables, hack-a-thons, exhibits, and socials. Topics range from privacy best practices, developing solutions to online misinformation and harassment, building free software tools, supporting Trustworthy AI innovations, and more. The titles of the festival revolve around the main theme, freedom, and the Web.

MozCamps

MozCamps are multi-day gatherings aimed at growing the contributor network by providing lectures, workshops, and breakout sessions led by Mozilla staff and volunteers. While these camps have been held in multiple locations globally in the past, none have occurred .

Mozilla Summit

Mozilla Summit was a global event with active contributors and Mozilla employees who collaborated to develop a shared understanding of Mozilla's mission together. Over 2,000 people representing 90 countries and 114 languages gathered in Santa Clara, Toronto, and Brussels in 2013. Mozilla had its last Summit in 2013 and replaced them with smaller all-hands where both employees and volunteers come together to collaborate.

See also
-zilla
Mozilla (mascot)
The Book of Mozilla
Timeline of web browsers
W3C

References

External links

, including the Mozilla Manifesto

Mozilla Wiki
Mozilla Mercurial Repository

1998 establishments in the United States
Netscape
Projects established in 1998

Mozilla


WJBO (1150 kHz) is a commercial AM radio station in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, calling itself "WJBO Newsradio 1150 AM & 98.7 FM."  It carries a news/talk format and is owned by iHeartMedia, Inc.  The studios are on Hilton Avenue, east of downtown Baton Rouge.

By day, WJBO is powered at 15,000 watts.  But at night, to avoid interfering with other stations on 1150 AM, it reduces power to 5,000 watts.  It uses a directional antenna with a four-tower array.  The transmitter site is on Rosedale Road (Louisiana Highway 76) in Port Allen.  Programming is also heard on 250-watt FM translator K254DM at 98.7 MHz.

Programming
Weekday programming on WJBO begins with the regionally syndicated Walton & Johnson, with Steve Johnson and Kenny Webster.  That's followed by The Glenn Beck Program, The Clay Travis and Buck Sexton Show, The Sean Hannity Show, The Michael Berry Show, Ground Zero with Clyde Lewis, Coast to Coast AM with George Noory and This Morning, America's First News with Gordon Deal.

Weekends feature specialty shows on money, health, gardening, technology and the law., as well as repeats of weekday programs.  Weekend shows include Kim Komando, The Weekend with Michael Brown, Bill Handel on the Law and Sunday Night Live with Bill Cunningham.  Most hours begin with an update from Fox News Radio.

History

WAAB
WJBO was first licensed, with the sequentially assigned call letters WAAB, in .  It was owned by the New Orleans Times-Picayune newspaper. It was one of the first stations to receive a 4-letter call sign starting with "W". WAAB made its debut broadcast on the evening of April 6, 1922.

A few months later ownership was transferred to the station's primary operator, Valdemar Jensen, at 137 South Saint Patrick Street. Jensen operated and experimented with the station from his house's basement.

WJBO
In early 1926, the call letters were changed to WJBO  It stood for the Jensen Broadcasting Organization.  The station began a policy of selling airtime. Following a few days of test transmissions, the station made its formal debut as "the first commercially operated radio station in the South" on February 28, 1926.

WJBO was one of the first stations to regularly broadcast news, working in tandem with The Times-Picayune. Jensen broadcast from the Roosevelt Hotel and Orpheum Theater. In 1932, he sold WJBO to the Manship family, owners of The Advocate newspaper in Baton Rouge. The Manships moved the station to Baton Rouge in December 1934 as the capital's first commercial radio station. It operated at 1420 kilocycles as a 100-watt daytimer.

By the early 1940s, the station's frequency had moved to 1150 kHz and its power increased to 500 watts.  In 1941, WJBO's power got a big boost to 5,000 watts.  Originally, the station broadcast from Highland Road in South Baton Rouge, but in 1941, a new studio was built on Florida Street to accommodate the growing station.

WJBO was affiliated with the NBC Blue Network from 1937 until 1948.  (NBC Blue later became ABC.)  In 1948, with the launch of radio station WLCS (precursor to now defunct station WUBR), WJBO affiliated itself with the NBC Red Network.  It stayed an NBC affiliate until 1979. From 1976 until it folded, WJBO was also affiliated with the Mutual Broadcasting System (MBS), and in the late 1970s, was also affiliated with APR.

In 1941, WJBO signed on an FM counterpart on 44.5 megacycles, originally as W45BR. In 1959, the call letters changed to WJBO-FM. WJBO-FM later moved to 102.5 MHz, and its call letters changed to WFMF in 1974. (The original 98.1 frequency is now occupied by WDGL.) It acquired a television sister in 1955, when WBRZ-TV signed on as an NBC-TV affiliate.  (It is now the capital's ABC affiliate.)

MOR and Talk
As network programming moved from radio to television in the 1950s, WJBO switched to a full service, middle of the road music format, including news, sports and talk.  In the 1970s and '80s, as listeners tuned increasingly to FM for music, WJBO added more talk programming.

In the 1980s, music programming was eliminated and WJBO became a full time talk station.  In 1989, the Manship family sold WJBO and WFMF to station manager George Jenne. Following the sale, WJBO affiliated itself with an array of talk radio and news networks including: ABC Talkradio, CBS Radio News, NBC Radio News, Associated Press Radio, NBC Talknet, Transtar, United Stations Radio Network, and Westwood One.  Under the ownership of Jenne, the WJBO and WFMF studios moved from their location on Florida Street in downtown Baton Rouge (where they broadcast since 1941) to new studios on Corporate Blvd.  In 1995, Jenne sold the stations to Gulfstar Communications.  The station came under ownership of Clear Channel Communications when Gulfstar folded.  In 2014, Clear Channel changed its name to iHeartMedia, Inc.

The station was the Baton Rouge affiliate of the New Orleans Saints radio network until the 2009 season.  For decades, it also served as the flagship station for LSU Tigers college football and basketball games.

References

External links
WJBO Newsradio Facebook

 (covering 1927-1979)
FM Translator

Radio stations in Louisiana
News and talk radio stations in the United States
Radio stations established in 1922
IHeartMedia radio stations
1922 establishments in Louisiana

WJBO


The following is a list of states and territories of The Republic of India by area according to the census of 2011. India consists of 28 states and eight union territories.

List

Source:Area of states

The area figures of states and union territories do not add up to area of India because:
 The shortfall of 7 km2. area of Madhya Pradesh and 3 km2. area of Chhattisgarh is yet to be resolved by the  Survey of  India.
 Disputed area of 13 km2. between Puducherry and Andhra Pradesh is neither included in Puducherry nor in Andhra Pradesh.
 Area figures includes the area under occupation by Pakistan and China.  The area includes 13,297+64,817 = 78,114  km2. of disputed area under occupation of Pakistan, 5,180  km2. of disputed area handed over by Pakistan to China and 37,555  km2 of disputed area under occupation of China 5,180+37,555=42,735 sq km .

Notes

References

India-related lists

List of states and union territories of India by area


Encanto Park is a public park in central Phoenix, Arizona. The park is composed of  of land consisting of picnic areas, a lagoon, a boat house, swimming pool, nature trail, amusement park, fishing and two golf courses.  The lagoon is approximately  in surface area and about  deep, on average.  The park is bounded by Thomas Road on the north, Encanto Boulevard on the south, 15th Avenue on the west and 7th Avenue on the east and is at a surface elevation of .

One notable attraction at Encanto Park is Enchanted Island, an amusement park with rides, games, concessions, and a miniature train ride around the amusement area.

Encanto Park has been designated as a Phoenix Point of Pride.

History
The Encanto area become a City of Phoenix park in 1934.  Property was purchased from J. W. Doris (100 acres) and Dr. Norton among others. Quitclaim deed 11-27-1934. It was re-classified as a park to curtail livestock grazing. By 1955, the Encanto Park Brochure included activities such as archery, tennis, badminton and other games. In the mid-1970s, the Phoenix Parks and Recreation Department encouraged archery events. In 1985, more sports facilities to accommodate greater interest in physical fitness and games. The focus was on soccer and handball, leaving archery to one side.  Bike paths and jogging trails are also a major focus. The improvements were made to the "south side" by way of 1979 and 1984 bonds totaling $1.3M

See also

 List of historic properties in Phoenix, Arizona

References

External links

 Friends of Encanto Park
 Arizona Fishing Locations Map
 Where to Fish in Arizona Species Information
 Arizona Boating Locations Facilities Map
 Arizona Lake Levels
 North Encanto Neighborhood Association

Parks in Phoenix, Arizona
Reservoirs in Maricopa County, Arizona
Phoenix Points of Pride
Reservoirs in Arizona

Encanto Park


The Women's Cricket Association (WCA) was responsible for the running of women's cricket in England between 1926 and 1998. It was formed by a group of enthusiasts following a cricket holiday in Malvern. Forty-nine games were arranged in that first season, and the popular cricket festival at Stowe Lane, Colwall, which is still held today, was launched.

By the following season there were ten affiliated clubs, by 1934 there were eighty, and by 1938 the number had reached 123. At its peak there were 208 affiliated clubs and 94 school and junior teams.

By 1931 the first county associations had been formed, and Durham played a combined Cheshire and Lancashire XI. Four years later the country was divided into five regional associations: East, Midlands, North, South and West.

The WCA administered the Women's Area Championship (1980–1996), the Women's Territorial Tournament (1988–1994) and the first Women's County Championship season, in 1997. In 1998, the WCA handed over the running of women's cricket in England to the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) and disbanded.

See also

Netta Rheinberg and Rachael Heyhoe-Flint, Fair Play - the story of women's cricket, Angus & Robertson, 1976, .

External links
History of women's cricket
ECB women's cricket pages

History of women's cricket
Cricket administration
Women's cricket in England
Cricket administration in England
Sports organizations established in 1926
1926 establishments in England
Sports organizations disestablished in 1998
Women's organisations based in England
1998 disestablishments in England

Women's Cricket Association


General elections were held in the Central African Republic on 25 October 1992 to elect a President and National Assembly. They were the first elections to be held after multi-party democracy was restored in 1991, and saw incumbent President André Kolingba come last. However, the results of both elections were annulled by the Supreme Court due to widespread irregularities. Fresh elections were held the following year.

References

Central African Republic
1992 in the Central African Republic
Annulled elections
Elections in the Central African Republic
Presidential elections in the Central African Republic
Election and referendum articles with incomplete results
October 1992 events in Africa

1992 Central African general election


The Bristol Pegasus is a British nine-cylinder, single-row, air-cooled radial aero engine. Designed by Roy Fedden of the Bristol Aeroplane Company, it was used to power both civil and military aircraft of the 1930s and 1940s. Developed from the earlier Mercury and Jupiter engines, later variants could produce  from its capacity of 1,750 cubic inches (28 L) by use of a geared supercharger.

Further developments of the Pegasus created the fuel-injected Bristol Draco and the diesel cycle Bristol Phoenix, both types being produced in limited numbers. In contrast, by the end of production over 30,000 Pegasus engines had been built. Aircraft applications ranged from single-engine biplanes to the four-engined Short Sandringham and Sunderland flying boats. Several altitude and distance records were set by aircraft using the Pegasus.

The Bristol Siddeley company reused the name many years later for the turbofan engine used in the Hawker Siddeley Harrier and which became known as the Rolls-Royce Pegasus when Rolls-Royce took over that company. Two Bristol Pegasus engines remain airworthy in 2010, powering Fairey Swordfish aircraft operated by the Royal Navy Historic Flight (became Navy Wings in March 2019); other examples are preserved and on public display in aviation museums.

Design and development

The Pegasus was designed by Sir Roy Fedden as the follow-on to the Bristol Aeroplane Company's very successful Bristol Jupiter, using lessons learned in development of the Mercury. Although having a capacity (25 L) almost 15% smaller, the Mercury produced about as much power as the Jupiter, through a combination of supercharging to improve the "charge", and various changes to increase the operating RPM. The power of a piston engine can be calculated by multiplying the charge per cylinder by the number of cycles per second; the Mercury improved both and thereby produced more power for a given size. The primary advantage was a much improved power-to-weight ratio due to better volumetric efficiency.

The Pegasus was the same size, displacement and general steel/aluminium construction as the Jupiter, but various improvements allowed the maximum engine speed to be increased from 1,950 to 2,600 rpm for take-off power. This improved performance considerably from the Jupiter's , to the first Pegasus II with , to  in the first production model Pegasus III, and eventually to the late-model Pegasus XXII with  thanks to the two-speed supercharger (introduced on the Pegasus XVIII) and 100-octane fuel. This gave rise to the claim "one pound per horsepower" reflecting the excellent power-to-weight ratio.

Some notable users of the Pegasus were the Fairey Swordfish, Vickers Wellington, and Short Sunderland. It was also used on the Anbo 41, Bristol Bombay, Saro London, Short Empire, Vickers Wellesley and the Westland Wallace. Like the Jupiter before it, the Pegasus was also licensed by the PZL company in Poland. It was used on the PZL.23 Karaś and PZL.37 Łoś bombers.
In Italy Alfa Romeo Avio built both the Jupiter (126-RC35) and the Pegasus under licence, with the engine based on the Pegasus designated as the Alfa Romeo 126-RC34 with the civil version as the 126-RC10.  In Czechoslovakia it was built by Walter Engines and was known as the Pegas.

Approximately 32,000 Pegasus engines were built. The Pegasus set three height records in the Bristol Type 138: in 1932, 1936 and 1937. It was used for the first flight over Mount Everest in the Westland Wallace, and in 1938 set the world's long-distance record in Vickers Wellesleys.

In service the Pegasus was generally reliable with the exception that the valves were prone to failure. The valves were operated by rocker-boxes, which were lubricated by oil pads on the top of the cylinder heads. In hot climates the lubrication deteriorated which could lead to seizing of the valves. Also if a problem developed with the engine and the pilot shut it down it was not possible to "feather" the propeller and so it would continue to rotate creating drag and continue to turn the engine which had no lubrication being forced through it by the oil pump.

Variants
The Pegasus was produced in many variants, early prototype engines were unsupercharged but the majority used a geared supercharger, either single-speed or two-speed. Variant differences included compression ratios, propeller reduction gear ratios and accessories.

Applications

Note:

Engines on display
Bristol Pegasus engines can be viewed installed in aircraft at the Royal Air Force Museum London and the Imperial War Museum Duxford. An unrestored Pegasus recovered from the sea bed is in the care of the Bristol Aero Collection, which is closed while moving from Kemble Airport to Filton.
There is also an engine on display at the Brooklands Museum at Weybridge.

Survivors
As of October 2010 two Bristol Pegasus engines remain airworthy in England. They power the two Fairey Swordfish aircraft operated by the Royal Navy Historic Flight.

Specifications (Pegasus XVIII)

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography

 Bridgman, L, (ed.) (1998) Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II. Crescent.
Gunston, Bill. World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines: From the Pioneers to the Present Day. 5th edition, Stroud, UK: Sutton, 2006.
 Gunston, Bill. Development of Piston Aero Engines. Cambridge, UK. Patrick Stephens, 2006.
 Lumsden, Alec. British Piston Engines and Their Aircraft. Marlborough, Wiltshire: Airlife Publishing, 2003. .
White, Graham. Allied Aircraft Piston Engines of World War II: History and Development of Frontline Aircraft Piston Engines Produced by Great Britain and the United States During World War II. Warrendale, Pennsylvania: SAE International, 1995.

External links

Bristol Pegasus at the Bristol Aero Collection
Bristol Pegasus use in altitude record - Flight, 1932
"Improving the Breed" a 1936 Flight article on the Pegasus and Mercury

Aircraft air-cooled radial piston engines
Pegasus
1930s aircraft piston engines

Bristol Pegasus


Kid Chaos, also known as Haggis (born Stephen Harris), is a British rock bassist and guitarist who played in incarnations of hard rock bands Zodiac Mindwarp and the Love Reaction, The Cult and The Four Horsemen as well as guesting with Appetite for Destruction era Guns N' Roses.

History
Harris was born in 1966, in Swansea, Wales. He joined his first group, The Autonomes, at age 13. At 16, he failed most of his O-levels and left school. Harris enrolled in the Youth Enterprise Scheme, setting up a record label called Fierce Recordings with a friend.

Various record label dealings brought him to the attention of the just forming Zodiac Mindwarp and the Love Reaction and he joined the band as their bass guitarist in October 1985, appearing on their mini album High Priest of Love. After this release he left the Love Reaction and joined The Cult as their bassist for their tour supporting the Electric album. Cult bassist Jamie Stewart had switched to rhythm guitar for the duration of the tour.  Kid Chaos was credited in the tour booklet as "special guest" and was billed as "The Kid".  In addition to playing live with The Cult on their tour, he can also be seen in the video for the "Wild Flower" single.

After the Electric tour finished, Kid Chaos moved to New York City and then Hollywood, quickly putting together a new band, The Four Horsemen, who were a more blues and boogie inspired group than the hard rock/metal of ZMATLR and The Cult. Now known as Haggis, he switched to guitar and wrote most of the material. The Four Horsemen released a four track self-titled EP in 1989 before releasing the first full-length album Nobody Said It Was Easy in 1991 on Rick Rubin's Def American label. Business issues and internal fighting led to Harris walking away from the band.

Now residing in New York City, he released a solo album after a long absence under his real name of Stephen Harris. The album, Songs from the Mission of Hope, was released in 2003. The music was more singer-songwriter than his previous output, with Harris playing most of the instruments. The lyrics were personal, making the album a sort of autobiography.

In his thirties, Harris decided to go back to school, and after initially struggling with his studies he learned he has a lifelong learning difficulty. By 2006 he was able to overcome this enough to enroll in Columbia University as a pre-med student.

Harris graduated from Columbia University, summa cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa, in 2008, after which he attended the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York.

In 2013, his first band, The Autonomes, reformed briefly while he was visiting Swansea for a one-off gig, and recorded an album. He also helped form Punkhouse Records, a record label dedicated to releasing material from Swansea punk bands in the late 1970s and early 1980s, on which the Autonomes album was released.

References

1964 births
Living people
British rock bass guitarists
The Cult members
Musicians from Swansea
British expatriates in the United States
Columbia University alumni

Kid Chaos


V. V. Raghavan (23 June 1923 – 27 October 2004) was a Communist Party of India (CPI) politician from Thrissur, Kerala. He was the Member of Parliament from Thrissur Lok Sabha constituency for the 11th and 12th Lok Sabha.

History
V. V. Raghavan was born on 23 June 1923 as the son of Velappan.

He entered politics by participating in the Cochin Praja Mandal struggle for responsible Government in the state, he later joined Kerala Socialist Party and participated in the Freedom struggle. He had also to endure police brutality and imprisonment, in connection with the "Rajendra Maidan" incident, during this time.

A strong supporter of the cause of have nots and downtrodden, he joined CPI, during his period of imprisonment in 1948 and worked among labourers and organised underground activities for two years. His acquaintance with C. Achutha Menon, who became his brother-in-law later, served a great deal, to mould his political outlook profoundly.

Raghavan was elected to Kerala Legislative Assembly twice, from Cherpu constituency, as a member of CPI in the 8th and 9th KLA.  Raghavan served as the Minister for Agriculture in the Second E. K. Nayanar ministry from 2 April 1987 to 17 June 1991. He was the chief architect of 'Fayalil ninnum Vayalilekku'. Raghavan was subsequently became elected to Lok Sabha in 1996 and 1998 from Thrissur Parliamentary constituency and subsequently to the Rajya Sabha in 2000.

Earlier, he had also been elected to the Thrissur Municipal Council thrice.
A lover of literature and arts, he has published many articles and has also authored a book In the Land of Lenin, which had won the Soviet Land Nehru award in 1977. His wife is C. Sathyabhama and they have one son and one daughter.

V. V. Raghavan died on 27 October 2004, while serving as a member of Rajya Sabha.

References

1923 births
2004 deaths
Malayali politicians
Politicians from Thrissur
Communist Party of India politicians from Kerala
India MPs 1996–1997
India MPs 1998–1999
Lok Sabha members from Kerala
Rajya Sabha members from Kerala
Kerala MLAs 1991–1996

V. V. Raghavan


The work commonly referred to as Laienspiegel is a book of law. It was published in Augsburg, in 1509. Its full title is ″Laijen Spiegel. von rechtmässigen ordnungen in Burgerlichen vnd peinlichen regimenten. mit allegation[en] vn[d] bewerungen auß geschribnen rechten vnnd gesatzen".

This can be roughly translated as A layman's guide, of the correct order of civil and criminal regiments, with illustrations of written rights and laws. It was written by Ulrich Tengler, and published by Sebastian Brant. There was a second edition in 1511. The work was important enough to warrant 14 editions of its publication in the 16th century.

The work is divided in three parts. It contains private law, criminal law, and law of the public institutions. The publication is much like the Klagspiegel of 1436. Other similar works are the Malleus Maleficarum of the 15th century, and the Constitutio Criminalis Bambergensis.

References

External links
 Completely digitised edition of the Work (Univ. Heidelberg) (German)

Law books
Legal history of Germany
Witchcraft in Germany
Witch hunter manuals
Witchcraft treatises
1509 books

Laienspiegel


Palazzo Borghese is a palace in Rome, Italy, the main seat of the Borghese family. It was nicknamed il Cembalo ("the harpsichord") due to its unusual trapezoidal groundplan; its narrowest facade faces the River Tiber. The entrance at the opposite end of the building, the "keyboard" of the cembalo, faces onto the Fontanella di Borghese, with another in a great flanking facade to the Piazza Borghese that is extended by a slightly angled facade leading down Via Borghese towards the river. Both these entrances lead into a large courtyard on one side of which is a two level open arcade, with paired Doric and Ionic columns, that frames the garden beyond.

The first floor of the palace is the seat of the Embassy of Spain in Italy since 1947.

History

The architectural historian Howard Hibbard has demonstrated that the nine-bay section of the palace on Piazza Fontanella Borghese was begun in 1560/61 for Monsignor Tommaso del Giglio, whose coat of arms or stemma remain over the door in Piazza Borghese, and he suggests that the architect was Vignola, an attribution accepted by Anthony Blunt, considered conclusive by James S. Ackerman and followed by other scholars since, with more or less reduced interventions by Longhi. Before Tomasso del Giglio died in 1578, the façade and the unique but undocumented double-columned two-storey arcade of the courtyard had been established, a conceptual scheme of Vignola's, Hibbard suggested, but which was carried out in 1575-78 by Martino Longhi the Elder. Longhi was retained by Pedro Cardinal Deza, who bought the property in 1587, but seems to have done little more than continue the great courtyard.

Cardinal Camillo Borghese purchased the structure in 1604 and acquired further adjacent properties towards the river. When the Cardinal became Pope Paul V in 1605, he gave the palace to his brothers but continued to commission the work, which was carried forward vigorously, at first by Flaminio Ponzio, and completed after Ponzio's death in 1613 by Carlo Maderno and Giovanni Vasanzio. Ponzio extended the square courtyard from five to seven bays, and the oval stair between the courtyard and a garden that stretched as far as the Ripetta. He also constructed the secondary facade onto the Piazza Borghese and down towards the Tiber, with  balconies above the rusticated entrance on the Via di Ripetta.

On the death of his uncle, Cardinal Scipione Borghese took up residence and undertook changing the garden to a loggia and hanging garden.

In 1671-76 Carlo Rainaldi added new features for Prince Giovan Battista Borghese; the most extensive changes were made on the newly raised ground floor of the long wing extending towards the Tiber, ending with river views, which the Borghese found the most congenial dwelling spaces: Rainaldi added the columnar loggia to Ponzi's end facade (illustration, right), and on the interior a richly stuccoed oval chapel, and the narrow barrel-vaulted galleria, the highly charged Cortonesque decorative details of which were designed by Giovan Francesco Grimaldi (1606-1680).

The Porto di Ripetta, the port of Rome, was along the river bank of the Via di Ripetta. From 1707, the Tiber side of Palazzo Borghese would have overlooked the scenographic steps of the Porto di Ripetta designed by Alessandro Specchi. The port was destroyed in the 19th century with the development of Lungotevere.

Overview
The main façades have three stories with two mezzanines inserted between them and the two majestic portals are flanked by columns and a balcony. Through the portal on the Piazza Fontanella Borghese, a view across the courtyard is centred on one of the wall fountains in the garden beyond.

The edifice has a magnificent inner courtyard, surrounded by ninety-six granite columns and decorated with statues, a nympheum, and other features, as well as an enclosed garden with three niche wall-fountains built to designs by Johann Paul Schor and finished by Rainaldi for Prince Giovan Battista Borghese in 1673. The court has been described as "one of the most spectacular existing, not only in Rome".

The façade towards the Piazza Fontanella Borghese faces another Borghese palace, rebuilt in the 16th century by Scipio Borghese to house the lesser members of the family, the stables and the servants.

Palazzo Borghese was the original seat of the family's art collection, with works by Raphael, Titian and many others, transferred in 1891 to the Galleria Borghese in Villa Borghese.

The balcony scene in the 1968 film Romeo and Juliet was filmed not at this Palazzo Borghese but at Palazzo Borghese in Artena outside Rome.

Notes

References

Hibbard, Howard. (1962) The Palazzo Borghese (Rome: American Academy) Biographies of Longhi and Ponzio are in appendices.
Touring Club Italiano, (1965)Roma e Dintorni

External links
Page with ancient print of the palace

Borghese residences
Borghese
Houses completed in the 17th century
Rome R. IV Campo Marzio
Diplomatic missions in Rome
Diplomatic missions of Spain
Italy–Spain relations

Palazzo Borghese


Toguéré Coumbé is a village and commune of the Cercle of Ténenkou in the Mopti Region of Mali. The commune contains 32 villages and in 2009 had a population of 27,057.

The village is 75 km northeast of Ténenkou and 80 km northwest of Mopti, near the right bank of the Diaka Channel, a distributary of the Niger River that only fills when the Niger is in flood. The commune occupies part of the Inner Niger Delta and from July to December much of the commune is under water and many villages are only accessible by boat.

The market that is held in the village on Saturdays serves many settlements in the surrounding region.

References

Communes of Mopti Region

Toguéré Coumbé


Pelengana (or Pélengana) is a small town and rural commune in the Cercle of Ségou in the Ségou Region of southern-central Mali. The commune contains the town and 25 villages in an area of approximately 359 square kilometers. In the 2009 census it had a population of 56,259. The town of Pelengana lies 5 km southeast of Ségou on the Route Nationale 6.

References

External links
.
.

Communes of Ségou Region

Pelengana


Albert Foster Dawson (January 26, 1872 – March 9, 1949) was a three-term Republican U.S. Representative from Iowa's 2nd congressional district.

Born in Spragueville, Iowa, Dawson attended the public schools and the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He engaged in newspaper work at Preston, Iowa, in 1891 and 1892, and was the city editor for the Clinton Herald from 1892 to 1894. He was secretary to Representative George M. Curtis and Senator William B. Allison of Iowa from 1895 to 1905. He studied finance at George Washington University.

In 1904, Dawson challenged incumbent Democratic Congressman Martin J. Wade for the U.S. House seat for Iowa's 2nd congressional district.  Riding the coattails of President Theodore Roosevelt's re-election, Dawson, like every other Republican congressional candidate in Iowa, defeated his Democratic opponent.  After serving in the Fifty-ninth Congress, Dawson was re-elected in 1906 (to serve in the Sixtieth Congress), and in 1908 (to serve in the Sixty-first Congress). In 1910 he declined to run for a fourth term, citing business and family reasons.  In all, he served in Congress from March 4, 1905, to March 3, 1911.

In 1911, he also declined an offer to serve as private secretary to President William Howard Taft. Returning to Iowa at age thirty-eight, he served as president of the First National Bank of Davenport, Iowa, from 1911 to 1929. He was executive secretary of the Republican National Senatorial Committee in 1930, and he was a public utility executive from 1931 to 1945.

He retired from business activities and resided in Highland Park, Illinois, until his death on March 9, 1949, on a train as it neared Cincinnati, Ohio. He was interred in Preston Cemetery.

References

External links
 The Albert Foster Dawson Papers are housed at the University of Iowa Special Collections & University Archives.

1872 births
1949 deaths
George Washington University School of Business alumni
American bankers
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
People from Jackson County, Iowa
Politicians from Clinton, Iowa
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Iowa

Albert F. Dawson


is a platform game released in arcades by Namco in 1985. It was ported to the Amstrad CPC, Atari ST, Commodore 64, Family Computer, and ZX Spectrum.

Metro-Cross runs on Namco Pac-Land hardware, but with a video system modified to support a 2048-color palette like that used in Dragon Buster. It uses a Motorola M6809 microprocessor, with a Hitachi HD63701 sub-microprocessor (both running at 1.536 MHz) and Namco 8-channel waveform PSG for audio.

Gameplay

The player must take control of a man known only as Runner, who is given a time limit to run through each of the game's thirty-two rounds while avoiding obstacles and collecting drink cans. The actual running happens automatically: the job of the player is to avoid the obstacles and collect the cans by moving the Runner with the stick and adjusting his speed accordingly.

If the Runner finishes the round within the time limit, the remaining time will be awarded to him as bonus points and he will proceed to the next round. Every fourth round is special, using the remaining time from the three previous ones as additional time. However, if the Runner has not finished the round by the time the time limit runs out, he will be electrocuted and the game will immediately be over.

Obstacles along the way include Slip Zones which will slow the Runner down if he tries to cross over them, Pitfalls which will break under the Runner's weight and drop him into the holes beneath them, and Crackers which will launch the Runner up into the air and cause him to land on his back. Later rounds also feature Jumbo Tires that bounce towards the Runner, Walls that emerge from the ground before receding back into it, Cubes that move through particular columns of tiles, Mice that attempt to jump onto the Runner and slow him down, and Chess Knights and Kings that bounce from one tile to another.

The rounds also feature Springboards, which can be used to propel the Runner forward at a great speed. Some rounds have a special layout of Springboards, where it is possible to use one Springboard to land directly on the second one. Some other rounds also feature Skateboards which will speed the Runner up and make him immune to Slip Zones. There are also two different types of drink cans; kicking them will either gain the player bonus points (from 100 to 5000) or speed the Runner up, but jumping on them will stop the timer for a few seconds.

Reception
Game Machine listed Metro-Cross as being the ninth most popular arcade game of June 1985 in Japan.

Legacy
Metro-Cross was re-released as part of Namco Museum Volume 5 for PlayStation and Namco Museum Virtual Arcade for Xbox 360 (renamed Retro-Cross in the European and Australian versions of Virtual Arcade).

A high definition sequel called Aero-Cross was being developed for the Xbox Live Arcade and PlayStation Network as part of the Namco Generations line until it was cancelled along with the Namco Generations brand itself being discontinued; multiple players would have been able to play simultaneously, similar to Konami's Hyper Olympic games.

A theme based on Metro-Cross is featured in Pac-Man 99, as special DLC.

Notes

References

External links

1985 video games
Amstrad CPC games
Arcade video games
Atari ST games
Commodore 64 games
Kitkorp games
Namco arcade games
Now Production games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Nintendo Switch games
PlayStation 4 games
U.S. Gold games
Video games developed in Japan
Virtual Console games
Virtual Console games for Wii U
ZX Spectrum games
Hamster Corporation games
Multiplayer and single-player video games

Metro-Cross


Iosif Yakovlevich Boyarsky (November 7, 1917 – March 12, 2008) was a Russian animator and director, the longtime Director of the Model Animation Association of  Soyuzmultfilm Studio, an award-winning Russian animation studio based in Moscow.

Boyarsky was born in Moscow on November 7, 1917, to Yacov Boyarsky and Anna Arluck. He graduated from the Economy Faculty of Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography, which is abbreviated as VGIK.

He first began working at Soyuzmultfilm in 1960. He worked as a director at the studio. He then became the director general of the Model Animation Association. Boyarsky later served as Soyuzmultfilm's Dean of Animation Faculty of the Higher Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors from 1979 until 2000. Under Boyarsky's guidance and direction, some of the Soviet Union's most well known animated works, such as 38 Parrots and Cheburashka, were created at Soyuzmultfilm.

Iosif Boyarsky died on March 12, 2008, in Moscow at the age of 90.

Russian animation film director Yuri Norstein spoke of Boyarsky's work at Soyuzmultfilm in an interview, "The flourishing of model animation in Soyuzmultfilm was undoubtedly related to the name of Iosif Yakovlevich. Boyarsky was an extremely jolly and optimistic person, and a very well educated one. He was not a Communist Party member, and thus, was not engaged in all those things. It was thanks to him that most bold and fresh ideas could be implemented in the model animation studio."

References

External links

Soviet film directors
Soviet animators
1917 births
2008 deaths
Soviet animation directors

Iosif Boyarsky


General Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet, of Newbyth, GCB (6 December 1757 – 18 August 1829) was a British Army officer.

Military career
He was born at Newbyth House in Haddingtonshire, Scotland, the son of an Edinburgh merchant family, and entered the British Army in 1772.  He was sent to India in 1779 with the 73rd (afterwards 71st) Highlanders, in which he was a captain. Immediately on his arrival, Baird was attached to the force commanded by Sir Hector Munro, which was sent forward to assist the detachment of Colonel Baillie, threatened by Hyder Ali. In the action which followed the whole force was destroyed, and Baird, severely wounded, fell into the hands of the Mysore chief. The prisoners remained captive for over four years. Baird's mother, on hearing that her son and other prisoners were in fetters, is said to have remarked, "God help the chiel chained to our Davie." The bullet was not extracted from Baird's wound until his release.

He was promoted to major in 1787, visited England in 1789, and purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in 1790, returning to India the following year. He held a brigade command in the war against Tipu Sultan, and served under Lord Cornwallis in the Seringapatam operations of 1792. He captured Pondicherry being promoted colonel in 1795. Baird served also at the Cape of Good Hope as a brigadier-general, and he returned to India as a major-general in 1798. In the last war against Tipu in 1799 Baird was appointed to the senior brigade command in the army. At the successful assault of Seringapatam, Baird led the storming party, and soon took the stronghold where he had previously been a prisoner.

Disappointed that the command of the large contingent of the nizam was given to the then Colonel Arthur Wellesley, and that after the capture of the fortress the same officer obtained the governorship, Baird felt he had been treated with injustice and disrespect. He later received the thanks of parliament and of the Honourable East India Company for his gallant bearing on that important day, and a pension was offered him by the company, which he declined, apparently in the hope of receiving the Order of the Bath from the government.

General Baird commanded an Anglo-Indian expeditionary that had been raised in Bombay early 1801 to co-operate with Sir Ralph Abercromby in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. He arrived after the Battle of Alexandria on 21 March 1801, where soon afterward Abercromby was killed in a skirmish, dying on 28 March. Wellesley had been appointed second in command to Baird, but owing to ill-health did not accompany the expedition on 9 April 1801. Baird reached Jeddah on 17 May, where he was joined by a contingent from the Cape of Good Hope. The force went onto and landed at Kosseir on 8 June, and marched 167 miles across the desert to Qena on the Nile, and then another 253 miles to Cairo. The French surrendered Cairo on 27 June. The Indian contingent then marched on to Alexandria in time for the Siege of Alexandria fought between 17 August and 2 September 1801.

On his return to India in 1802, he was employed against Sindhia, but being irritated at another appointment given to Wellesley he relinquished his command and returned to Europe. In 1804 he was knighted, and in 1805–1806, being by now a lieutenant-general, he commanded the expedition against the Cape of Good Hope with complete success, capturing Cape Town and forcing the Dutch general Janssens to surrender. But here again his usual ill luck attended him. Commodore Sir Home Popham persuaded Sir David to lend him troops for an expedition against Buenos Aires; the successive failures of operations against this place involved the recall of Baird early in 1807, though on his return home he was quickly re-employed as a divisional general in the Copenhagen expedition of 1807. During the subsequent Battle of Copenhagen, Baird was wounded. The same year he was made Colonel of the 24th (2nd Warwickshire) Regiment of Foot, a post he would hold until his death.

Shortly after his return, he was sent out to the Peninsular War in command of a considerable force which was sent to Spain to cooperate with Sir John Moore, to whom he was appointed second in command.
It was Baird's misfortune that he was junior by a few days both to Moore and to Lord Cavan, under whom he had served at Alexandria, and thus never had an opportunity of a chief command in the field.
At the Battle of Corunna, he succeeded to the supreme command after Moore's death, but shortly afterwards his left arm was shattered, and the command passed to Sir John Hope.
Once again thanked by parliament for his gallant services, he was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Bath and a baronet in 1809. He was not employed again in the field, and personal and political enmities caused him to be neglected and repeatedly passed over.

He was not given the full rank of general until 1814, and his governorship of Kinsale was given five years later. In 1820 he was appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland and made a Privy Counsellor for Ireland, but the command was soon reduced, and he resigned in 1822.

Family

Sir David Baird was the fifth son of an Edinburgh merchant, William Baird of Newbyth, who was grandson of Sir Robert Baird, Bart., of Saughton, and cousin and heir of Sir John Baird, Bart., of Newbyth, and Alicia Johnston.

Sir David married Anne Preston Menzies Campbell Preston, daughter and heiress of Major Patrick Preston, Younger of Valleyfield, on 4 August 1810.

He died on 18 August 1829 at age 71, without issue, and was succeeded by his nephew, David, the son of Robert Baird and Hersey Christina Maria Gavin.

His widow erected an obelisk to him on a hillock above Trowan near Crieff. On the south side of the monument is a plaque commemorating the march of the Anglo-Indian army across the Great desert from Kosseir to Alexandria 1801.

Popular culture
Baird appears as a character in the Richard Sharpe series of novels, focusing on his role in the 1799 Mysore campaign, and the 1807 expedition to Copenhagen. Baird is shown as hearty, bluff likeable man, and is friendly towards Sharpe. He is described as being able to move within the high society. Though an officer, he was considered to be fearless, he could outswear any sergeant and was as tough as an enlisted man. Though a high-ranking officer, he led from the front with the men.

Baird also appears as a commanding General in the naval fiction book The Only Victor by Alexander Kent. This is set just before Baird's successful campaign to capture Cape Town of which he eventually became the Governor.

Baird's role in the capture of Cape Town is described in some detail by Julian Stockwin in his novel Conquest, published in 2011, as is Baird's role in the attack on Buenos Aires in Stockwin's book Betrayal, released in 2012.

Baird is one of several 17th and 18th century generals, used as computer opponent identities in many computer adaptations of the board game Risk.

Baird also appears by reference in the opening pages of the novel The Moonstone, by Wilkie Collins.

References

Attribution

Further reading

 Theodore Hook, Life of Sir David Baird.
 Brendan Carnduff, 'Baird, Sir David, first baronet (1757–1829)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004.

External links

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1757 births
1829 deaths
71st Highlanders officers
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David
British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
British Army generals
British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Mysore War
British military personnel of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
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Governors of the Cape Colony
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
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South Wales Borderers officers

Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet


Wet and messy fetishism (WAM), also known as sploshing, is a form of sexual fetishism whereby a person becomes aroused when copious amounts of a substance are applied to the naked skin, face, or to clothing. Several dozen websites are dedicated to WAM.

Many people with WAM fetishes are drawn to the tactile sensations of wet or messy substances against their skin. Other individuals simply prefer the visual appeal of others getting wet or messy with products that have different textures, consistencies and colours. A subject will often be pelted with cream pies (sometimes using shaving foam rather than real cream pie filling), have slime dumped on them, or sit on cakes. Another common theme is the pouring of substances inside clothing while it is being worn; clothing chosen for this can vary from swimsuits or underwear to full outfits. Normal street clothes, either casual or office wear, are commonly featured in WAM productions, but many other types of outfits, from wedding attire to industrial overalls or more specialist fetishwear such as PVC, latex, or leather items may be used. White items are particularly popular with some fans of this fetish.

There is a wide variety of messy substances associated with WAM. Popular food items include cakes, pies, whipped cream, raw eggs, milk, pudding, syrups, honey, custard, baked beans, pasta, soups, treacle, condiments, ice cream, peanut butter, cake batter and oatmeal. Non-food items like lotion (see lotion play), paint, oil, mud, shaving foam, hair conditioner, soap, and slime are also widely used.

A fetish for bodily fluids such as feces, urine, vomit, semen, and female ejaculate is not considered part of WAM. The former three are typically considered coprophilia, urophilia, and emetophilia; urophilia is occasionally found in mainstream pornography; the other two are less common fetishes.

WAM fetish videos (made by both fans and commercial producers) may include nudity and sexual acts, while others may only feature fully clothed participants. Videos can frequently be seen on public video hosting sites like YouTube. Some of these videos are flagged but most of them remain available despite the sexual undertones, mainly because a large majority of wet and messy videos posted publicly do not include nudity and are therefore considered suitable for all audiences to view. Indeed, not only is much WAM video content indistinguishable in any easily defined sense from the kind of slapstick featured in mainstream entertainment, but scenes of slimings or pieings from the mainstream media are often compiled and marketed by producers towards a WAM fetishist target audience.

Crossover with other fetishes
There is some crossover between the wet and messy fetish and clothing destruction fetishes. Some WAM productions will see models start out fully dressed, usually in quite smart outfits such as formal dresses or suits; they will then be covered in messy substances, after which their messy clothes are cut up, typically with scissors, leaving them naked or nearly so.

WAM is sometimes also combined with bondage, where a subject is first restrained or chained up and then hosed down or messed up. Wet and Messy fetishism lends itself well to domination/submission role-playing.

"Cake Sitting" (the act of deliberately sitting on a large cake, either clothed or nude) is often considered a sub-fetish in its own right, but may be linked to the crush fetish.  While participants who sit on cakes for pleasure will do so for the tactile sensory experience, or as part of submissive role-playing, those who enjoy watching the act will often focus specifically on the crushing of the dessert as a visual stimulus for a sexual reaction.  Cake sitting as a fully clothed WAM activity can also form just part of the overall messing up of a participant, along with other methods of application of messy substances.

Psychology
No conclusive research has been conducted into the psychology behind the fetish; however, it is not uncommon for fetishists to have had interest in the sensations of messy play since their formative years (age 3–4) with a sexual element manifesting at the onset of puberty. For many, the simple breaking of taboos—doing what one was told not to as a child—brings about a sense of personal liberation. In any form, the fetish is about sensual stimulation, whether visual, tactile, or otherwise.

One unproven theory is that individuals drawn to WAM have low tactile sensitivity, which is increased and intensified by wet substances acting as a lubricant under applied pressure or friction. "Messy play" is a common clinical therapy used in treating hypo-tactile patients (mostly pediatric cases) to give them an outlet and appropriate time and place to engage in mess-making.

Another aspect is the link to other fetishes, as some wet and messy play is done in a submissive or dominating way and has possible links to BDSM, the emphasis being on the humiliation of the victim, although this is often mitigated or negated by the victim taking it in good humour. The dominant partner inflicting the mess can also be an object of attraction as an assertive figure of playful mischief.

In media
The popular sex column Savage Love has mentioned WAM. In one article, there was a reply to a letter from the roommate of someone who masturbates with condiments, possibly for fetishistic purposes. Daniel Savage, the writer of Savage Love, did not condemn the use of condiments in that incident, but, instead, only chided the fetishist for using condiments that were later used by others.

See also

Food play
Lotion play
Mud wrestling
Mysophilia
Saliromania
Slapstick
Splosh!
Wet T-shirt contest
Wetlook

References

External links

The Ultimate Messy Directory

Splat! An Introduction to Sploshing and Food Play

Paraphilias
Sexual fetishism
Pornography by genre

Wet and messy fetishism


Murray Grand (August 27, 1919 – March 7, 2007) was an American singer, songwriter, lyricist, and pianist best known for the song "Guess Who I Saw Today".

Born in Philadelphia, Grand played piano as a teenager. During World War II, he served as an infantryman in U.S. Army and played piano accompaniment for USO Tour stars including  Gypsy Rose Lee and Betty Grable. After the war, Grand studied piano and composition at the Juilliard School and worked as a cabaret performer in New York City.

In 1952, he wrote "Guess Who I Saw Today" (with lyrics by Elisse Boyd) for the Broadway musical revue New Faces of 1952. The song has been recorded by Nancy Wilson, Carmen McRae, and Eydie Gorme among others.

Grand's songs have been recorded by Peggy Lee, Eartha Kitt, Paula West, Blossom Dearie, Toni Tennille, Eydie Gorme, and Michael Feinstein.

Grand appeared in two Paul Mazursky films: The Tempest and Moscow on the Hudson.

In his later years Grand lived for a time in Fort Lauderdale, Florida where he ran a pet food business and continued to perform. He died of emphysema in Santa Monica, California.

Songs
Songs written or co-written by Grand include:
 "Guess Who I Saw Today" (written with Elisse Boyd)
 "Casino Royale (dedicated to Ian Fleming)
 "Chicken Song" (from the musical The Chicken Inspector)
 "Gore Galore"
 "I Was Beautiful"
 "Love At An Auction"
 "Morris Was Nice"
 "Rouge"
 "The Spider And The Fly"
 "Hurry"
 "April in Fairbanks"
 "Boozers and Losers" (written with Cy Coleman)
 "Thursday's Child" (written with Elisse Boyd)
 "Too Old to Die Young"
 "I Always Say Hello to a Flower"
 "Everything You Want"
 "Come By Sunday"
 "I'd Rather Cha-Cha Than Eat"
 "Comment Allez-Vous"
 "Not a Moment Too Soon"

References

"Murray Grand, 87, Composer" Variety, March 27, 2007

External links

1919 births
2007 deaths
Musicians from Philadelphia
Songwriters from Pennsylvania
American male composers
Juilliard School alumni
American musical theatre composers
Cabaret singers
United States Army personnel of World War II
Deaths from emphysema
20th-century American singers
20th-century American pianists
20th-century American composers
American male pianists
20th-century American male musicians
United States Army soldiers
American male songwriters

Murray Grand


The Bad Axe Massacre was a massacre of Sauk (Sac) and Fox Indians by United States Army regulars and militia that occurred on August 1–2, 1832. This final scene of the Black Hawk War took place near present-day Victory, Wisconsin, in the United States. It marked the end of the war between white settlers and militia in Illinois and Michigan Territory, and the Sauk and Fox tribes under warrior Black Hawk.

The massacre occurred in the aftermath of the Battle of Wisconsin Heights, as Black Hawk's band fled the pursuing militia. The militia caught up with them on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River, a few miles downstream from the mouth of the Bad Axe River. Historians have called it a massacre since the 1850s. The fighting took place over two days, with the steamboat Warrior present on both days. By the second day, Black Hawk and most of the Native American leaders had fled, though many of the band stayed behind. The victory for the United States was brutal and decisive and the end of the war allowed much of Illinois and present-day Wisconsin to be opened for further settlement.

Background
In an 1804 treaty between the governor of Indiana Territory and a council of leaders from the Sauk and Fox, Native American tribes ceded  of their land to the United States for $2,234.50 and an annual annuity of $1,000. The treaty also allowed the Sauk and Fox to remain on their land until it was sold. The treaty was controversial; Sauk war leader Black Hawk, and others disputed its validity because they said that the full tribal councils were not consulted and the council that negotiated the treaty did not have the authority to cede land. After the discovery of lead in and around Galena, Illinois, during the 1820s, miners began moving into the area ceded in the 1804 treaty. When the Sauk and Fox returned from the winter hunt in 1829, they found their land occupied by white settlers and were forced to return west of the Mississippi River.

Angered by the loss of his birthplace, Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River into Illinois between 1830 and 1831, but each time was persuaded to return west without bloodshed. In April 1832, encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British, he again moved his so-called "British Band" of around 1,000 warriors and non-combatants into Illinois. Finding no allies, he attempted to return across the Mississippi to present-day Iowa, but the undisciplined Illinois Militia's actions led to Black Hawk's surprising victory at the Battle of Stillman's Run. A number of other engagements followed, and the militia of Michigan Territory and the state of Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk's band. The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War.

The period between the Battle of Stillman's Run in May and the raid at Sinsinawa Mound in late June was filled with war-related activity. A series of attacks at Buffalo Grove, the Plum River settlement, Fort Blue Mounds, and the war's most famous incident, the Indian Creek massacre, all took place between mid-May and late June 1832. Two key battles, one at Horseshoe Bend on June 16 and the other at Waddams Grove on June 18, played a role in changing public perception about the militia after its defeat at Stillman's Run. The Battle of Apple River Fort on June 24 marked the end of a week that was an important turning point for the settlers. The fight was a 45-minute gun battle between defenders garrisoned inside Apple River Fort and Sauk and Fox warriors led by Chief Black Hawk.

The next day, after an inconclusive skirmish at Kellogg's Grove, Black Hawk and his band fled the approaching militia through modern-day Wisconsin. The Sinsinawa Mound raid occurred on June 29, five days after the Battle of Apple River Fort. As the band fled the pursuing militia, they passed through what are now Beloit and Janesville, then followed the Rock River toward Horicon Marsh, where they headed west toward the Four Lakes region, near modern-day Madison. On July 21, 1832, the militia caught up with Black Hawk's band as they attempted to cross the Wisconsin River, near the present-day Town of Roxbury, in Dane County, Wisconsin, resulting in the Battle of Wisconsin Heights.

Prelude

A few hours after midnight on July 22, with Black Hawk's band resting on a knoll on the Wisconsin Heights Battlefield, Neapope, one of the key leaders accompanying Black Hawk, attempted to explain to the nearby militia officers that his group wanted only to end the fighting and go back across the Mississippi River. In a "loud shrill voice" he delivered a conciliatory speech in his native Ho-Chunk language, assuming Pauquette and his band of Ho-Chunk guides were still with the militia at Wisconsin Heights. However, the U.S. troops did not understand him, because their Sauk allies had already departed the battlefield. Following this failed attempt at peace, Neapope abandoned the cause and returned to a nearby Ho-Chunk village. The British Band had slowly disintegrated over the months of conflict; most of the Ho-Chunk and Potawatomi that had joined were gone by the Battle of Bad Axe. Others, especially children and the elderly, had died of starvation while the band fled the pursuing militia through the swamps around Lake Koshkonong.

Following the engagement at Wisconsin Heights, the militia decided to wait until the following day to pursue Black Hawk. They heard, but did not understand, Neapope's speech during the night, and to their surprise, when morning arrived their enemy had disappeared. The battle, though militarily devastating for the British Band, had allowed much of the group to escape to temporary safety across the Wisconsin River. The reprieve was short-lived for many – a group of Fox women and children who attempted to escape down the Wisconsin following the battle were captured by U.S.-allied tribes or shot by soldiers further downstream. During the night, while the non-combatants escaped in canoes, Black Hawk and the remaining warriors crossed the river near present-day Prairie du Sac, Wisconsin. The band fled west over rugged terrain toward the banks of the Mississippi River, with a week's head start on the militia.

While the band fled west, Commanding General Henry Atkinson trimmed his force to a few hundred men and set out to join militia commanders Henry Dodge and James D. Henry to regroup and resupply at Fort Blue Mounds. Under the command of Atkinson, around 1,300 men from the commands of Henry, Dodge, Alexander Posey and Milton Alexander crossed the Wisconsin River between July 27–28 near present day Helena, Wisconsin. The well-fed and rested militia force picked up Black Hawk's trail again on July 28 near present-day Spring Green, Wisconsin, and relatively quickly closed the gap on the famished and battle-weary band of Native Americans. On August 1, Black Hawk and about 500 men, women, and children arrived at the eastern bank of the Mississippi, a few miles downstream from the mouth of the Bad Axe River. On arrival, the leaders of the band, including Black Hawk, called a council meeting to discuss their next move.

Battle

First day
Near the mouth of the Bad Axe River, on August 1, 1832, Black Hawk and Winnebago prophet and fellow British Band leader White Cloud advised the band against wasting time building rafts to cross the Mississippi River, because the U.S. forces were closing in, urging them instead to flee northward and seek refuge among the Ho-Chunk. However, most of the band chose to try to cross the river.

While some of the band managed to escape across the Mississippi River that afternoon, the steamboat Warrior, commanded by Captain Joseph Throckmorton, appeared on the scene and halted the band's attempt to cross to safety. Waving a white flag, Black Hawk tried to surrender, but as had happened in the past the soldiers failed to understand and the scene deteriorated into battle. The warriors who survived the initial volley found cover and returned fire and a two-hour firefight ensued.  The Warrior eventually withdrew from battle because of lack of fuel, and returned to Fort Crawford at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin.

At the time, newspaper reports stated that 23 Native Americans were killed, including one woman estimated to be 19 years old; she was shot through her child's upper arm as she stood holding the child watching the battle.  Her child was retrieved by Lieutenant Anderson after the battle, and taken to the surgical tent, where the baby's arm was amputated. The child was then taken to Prairie du Chien, where he is believed to have recovered. The fight convinced Black Hawk that refuge lay to the north, not west across the Mississippi. In one of his last actions as commander of the British Band, Black Hawk implored his followers to flee with him, to the north. Many did not listen, and late on August 1, Black Hawk, White Cloud and about three dozen other followers left the British Band and fled northward. Most of the remaining warriors and non-combatants remained on the eastern bank of the Mississippi. Forces on the Warrior suffered only one casualty – a retired soldier from Fort Snelling was wounded in the knee during the fight.

Second day

At 2 a.m. on August 2, Atkinson's forces awoke and began to break camp, setting out before sunrise. They had moved only a few miles when they ran into the rear scout element of the remaining Sauk and Fox forces. The Sauk scouts attempted to lead the enemy away from the main camp and were initially successful. The combined U.S. forces fell into formation for battle: Generals Alexander and Posey formed the right wing, Henry the left wing, and Dodge and the regulars the center element. As the Native Americans retreated toward the river, the militia's left wing were left in the rear without orders. When a regiment stumbled across the main trail to the camp, the scouts could only fight in retreat and hope that they had given their comrades a chance to escape the militia, while the Sauk and Fox kept retreating to the river. However, Warrior returned after obtaining more wood in Prairie du Chien, leaving the refueling point about midnight and arriving at Bad Axe about 10 a.m. The slaughter that followed continued for the next eight hours.

Henry's men, the entire left wing, descended a bluff into the midst of several hundred Sauk and Fox warriors, and a desperate bayonet and musket battle followed. Women and children fled the fight into the river, where many drowned immediately. The battle continued for 30 minutes before Atkinson came up with Dodge's center element, cutting off escape for many of the remaining Native warriors. Some warriors managed to escape the fight to a willow island, which was being peppered with canister shot and gunfire by Warrior.

The soldiers killed everyone who tried to run for cover or cross the river; men, women and children alike were shot dead. More than 150 people were killed outright at the scene of the battle, which many combatants later termed a massacre. The soldiers then scalped most of the dead, and cut long strips of flesh from others for use as razor strops. U.S. forces captured an additional 75 Native Americans. Of the total 400–500 Sauk and Fox at Bad Axe on August 2, most were killed at the scene, others escaped across the river. Those who escaped across the river found only temporary reprieve as many were captured and killed by Sioux warriors acting in support of the U.S. Army. Sioux brought 68 scalps and 22 prisoners to the U.S. Indian agent Joseph M. Street in the weeks following the battle. The United States suffered five killed in action and 19 wounded.

Context

On August 3, 1832, the day after the battle, Indian Agent Street wrote to William Clark describing the scene at Bad Axe and the events that occurred there. He stated that most of the Sauk and Fox were shot in the water or drowned trying to cross the Mississippi to safety. Major John Allen Wakefield published an account of the war in 1834, which included a description of the battle. His description characterized the killing of women and children as a mistake:

Black Hawk's own account, though he was not present at the battle's second day, termed the incident a massacre. Later histories continued to assail the actions of the whites at Bad Axe. The 1887 Perry A. Armstrong book, The Sauks and the Black Hawk War, called Throckmorton's actions "inhuman and dastardly" and went on to call him a "second Nero or Calligula ". In 1898, during events honoring the 66th anniversary of the battle, Reuben Gold Thwaites termed the fight a "massacre" during a speech at the battle site. He emphasized this theme again in a 1903 collection of essays.

Modern-day historians have continued to characterize the battle as a wholesale massacre. Mark Grimsley, a history professor at Ohio State University, concluded in 2005, based on other modern accounts, that the Battle of Bad Axe would be better termed a massacre. Kerry A. Trask's 2007 work, Black Hawk: The Battle for the Heart of America, points to the writings of Wakefield as evidence that delusional beliefs about doing brave deeds and magnifying manliness spurred the U.S. forces to revel in and pursue massacring and exterminating the Sauk and Fox. Trask concluded that Wakefield's statement "I must confess, that it filled my heart with gratitude and joy, to think that I had been instrumental, with many others, in delivering my country of those merciless savages, and restoring those people again to their peaceful homes and firesides," was a viewpoint held by nearly all militia members.

Aftermath
The Black Hawk War of 1832 resulted in the deaths of at least 70 settlers and soldiers, and hundreds of Black Hawk's band. As well as the combat casualties of the war, a relief force under General Winfield Scott suffered hundreds deserted and dead, many from cholera. The end of the war at Bad Axe ended the large-scale threat of Native American attacks in northwest Illinois, and allowed further settlement of Illinois and what became Iowa and Wisconsin.

The members of the British Band, and the Fox, Kickapoo, Sauk, Ho-Chunk and Potawatomi that later joined them, suffered unknown numbers of dead during the war. While some died fighting, others were tracked down and killed by Sioux, Menominee, Ho-Chunk, and other native tribes. Still others died of starvation or drowned during the Band's long trek up the Rock River toward the mouth of the Bad Axe. The entire British Band was not wiped out at Bad Axe; some survivors drifted back home to their villages. This was relatively simple for the Potawatomi and Ho-Chunk of the band. Many Sauk and Fox found return to their homes more difficult, and while some returned safely, others were held in custody by the army. Prisoners, some taken at the Battle of Bad Axe, and others taken by U.S.-aligned Native American tribes in the following weeks, were taken to Fort Armstrong at modern Rock Island, Illinois. About 120 prisoners – men, women, and children – waited until the end of August to be released by General Winfield Scott.

Black Hawk and most of the leaders of the British Band were not immediately captured following the conclusion of hostilities. On August 20, Sauk and Fox under Keokuk turned over Neapope and several other British Band chiefs to Winfield Scott at Fort Armstrong. Black Hawk, however, remained elusive. After fleeing the battle scene with White Cloud and a small group of warriors, Black Hawk had moved northeast toward the headwaters of the La Crosse River. The group camped for a few days and was eventually counseled by a group of Ho-Chunk, which included White Cloud's brother, to surrender. Though they initially resisted the pleas for surrender, the group eventually traveled to the Ho-Chunk village at La Crosse and prepared to surrender. On August 27, 1832, Black Hawk, White Cloud and the remnants of the British Band surrendered to Joseph M. Street at Prairie du Chien.

Notes

External links
 Black Hawk's account of the battle
 General Atkinson's account
 St. Paul District History - Battle of Bad Axe
 The Battle of Bad Axe by Peter Shrake

1832 in Michigan Territory
August 1832 events
Conflicts in 1832
Massacres of Native Americans

Pre-statehood history of Wisconsin
Bad Axe 1832

Massacres of Native Americans by the United States military

Battle of Bad Axe