Société des Automobiles Pilain (SAP) was an automobile manufacturer based in Lyon between 1902 and 1920.

The SAP founder, François Pilain, had a nephew called Émile Pilain whom he trained in the automotive business and whose own company, Rolland-Pilain, presented its first car in 1907. François Pilain was based in the auto-making hub that grew up around Lyon, however, while his nephew's business was based in Tours, more than  to the west. Sources sometimes confuse the two companies, but in fact there was no link or collaboration between them, once the nephew had grown up and established his own company.

History
François Pilain (1859–1924) had a long career as an engineer-entrepreneur in and around the auto-business, working at different times with Gardner-Serpollet and La Buire.   Between 1893 and 1897 he ran his own company, Société François Pilain, after which he worked for Établissements V. Vermorel.

In 1901 François Pilain established his own business, as an automobile manufacturer, in Lyon.   The cars were sold under the Pilain name,   During 1906/1907 motor car chassis were being produced at the rate of approximately one per day.    However, in 1908 SAP was placed in liquidation.   It was permitted to continue in the auto-making business, but Pilain himself was obliged to resign, to be replaced by a new managing director called de Villeneuve.

During the First World War the manufacturer assembled trucks for Hotchkiss.   Afterwards, in 1920, it was taken over by a locally based recently created company called the  Société Lyonnaise de l'Industrie Mécanique et Autos Pilain ("SLIM").   Between 1920 and 1929 the factory produced cars using the "SLIM" badge.

The cars
SAP started out producing both twin cylinder engine cars and four cylinder cars, but production of the twin cylinder cars ended in 1904.

In 1906 the manufacturer was offering cars with engines of 4000cc and 8600cc.   These were joined in 1909 by a 1900cc model, and in 1912 a six-cylinder 2400cc model was added.    By 1913 the  Société des Automobiles Pilain  was offering a broad range of cars with engine sizes from 1000 cm³ to 6300 cm³.   The cars were meticulously constructed and therefore very expensive.

A car of this type can today (2010) be seen at the Musée Henri Malartre in south-eastern France at Rochetaillée-sur-Saône.

Reference, sources and notes

 Harald Linz, Halwart Schrader: Die Internationale Automobil-Enzyklopädie. United Soft Media Verlag, München 2008, . (in German)
 George Nick Georgano (Chefredakteur): The Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile. Volume 3: P–Z. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago 2001, . (in English)
 George Nick Georgano: Autos. Encyclopédie complète. 1885 à nos jours. Courtille, Paris 1975. (in French)

Car manufacturers of France
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of France
Manufacturing companies based in Lyon
1900s cars
1910s cars
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1901
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1920
French companies established in 1901
1920s disestablishments in France
Brass Era vehicles
Veteran vehicles

Société des Automobiles Pilain


Frontier(s) () is a 2007 horror movie. It was first shown at the Agde Film Festival in 2007. It had a limited release in the United States. The movie was originally rated NC-17 by the Motion Picture Association of America. The movie makers didn't want this rating, so the movie was released unrated. Earlier, it was shown at the After Dark Horrorfest.

Plot
A far right candidate is elected to the French presidency. That causes violent riots and protests in Paris.

A street gang made up of Muslim Arab teens hopes to get away from Paris. They need cash, though. The teens: Alex, Tom, Farid, a pregnant woman named Yasmine and her brother Sami perform a robbery during the chaos. Sami is shot. The group splits up. Alex and Yasmine take Sami to a hospital.

At the hospital, emergency room staff tell the police about Sami. Sami wants Yasmine to run before the police catch her. Sami's dying wish is he doesn't want Yasmine to have an abortion. Alex and Yasmine run away. Sami dies at the hospital.

Yasmine and Alex are chained in a muddy-floored pig pen. Alex breaks Yasmine's chains and allows her to run away. When the captors find out Yasmine has escaped, the family patriarch, von Geisler, cuts Alex's Achilles tendons.

Back in the pig pen, von Geisler grants Alex his last wish. Alex is killed.

A woman named Eva tells Yasmine she (Eva) is obedient. The family promised her that her parents would come back for her someday. Eva and Hans care for rejected children in the mine.

Eva takes Yasmine down to dinner. The family is waiting for her. They find out that Von Geisler is a former and still practicing Nazi. He has lived in the inn since the end of World War II. Von Geisler offers a toast to the new person. Yasmine quickly grabs a large knife. She takes von Geisler hostage. Hans grabs a shotgun. He shoots von Geisler dead. Hans himself is shot dead by Karl.

Cast
 Karina Testa as Yasmine
 Aurélien Wiik as Alex
 Samuel Le Bihan as Goetz
 Estelle Lefébure as Gilberte
 David Saracino as Tom
 Chems Dahmani as Farid
 Adel Bencherif as Sami
 Maud Forget as Eva
 Amélie Daure as Klaudia
 Rosine Favey as La mere
 Joël Lefrançois as Hans
 Patrick Ligardes as Karl
 Jean-Pierre Jorris as Von Geisler

Release
Frontier(s) was going to be one of the 8 Films to Die For at Horrorfest 2007. However, the United States' MPAA Ratings Board gave the movie an NC-17. So the movie was instead released unrated in ten U.S. theaters for one week. It was released on DVD the next week.

Reception
Manohla Dargis from The New York Times gave the movie high marks. She said: "There's enough blood in the unrated film Frontier(s) to satiate even the most ravenous gore hounds. The real surprise here is that this creepy, contemporary gross-out also has some ideas, visual and otherwise.

Rotten Tomatoes' approval rating was 55% for the movie. That was based on 20 reviews.

Jim Ridley from The Village Voice, gave the movie a negative review. He said: "Give the French a taste of neo-fascism, race riots and paramilitary crackdowns, and they seek solace in the American cinema's current favorite pastime - vigorously art-directed torture porn.

References

French horror movies
Swiss movies
2007 horror movies

Frontier(s)


John B. Podesto, nicknamed Presto Podesto from Modesto (March 26, 1921 – November 13, 2015) was an American football quarterback and halfback who played for the St. Mary's Gaels. He was drafted in the first round (10th overall) in the 1944 NFL Draft by the Pittsburgh Steelers but did not play for them. He later was signed by the Chicago Bears but did not play with them either.

Early life and education
Podesto was born on March 26, 1921, in Modesto, California, to Giovannia and Maria Podesto. He was the youngest of nine children. He attended Modesto High School and Modesto Junior College before continuing his education at Saint Mary's University and College of the Pacific. He excelled at baseball and football while at Modesto, Saint Mary's, and College of the Pacific. He played quarterback and halfback when he was in football. In 1943, under coach Amos Alonzo Stagg, Podesto was named All-American while at Pacific. While playing from 1941 to 1943, and from 1944 to 1945, Podesto entered the Marine Corps and achieved the rank of captain while in World War II.

Professional career
Podesto was drafted with the 10th pick in the 1944 NFL Draft by the Pittsburgh Steelers. He was serving in the marines from 1944 to 1945 so he could not play with them. In 1946, he signed with the team. However, Podesto did not play with the Steelers. The next season he signed with the Chicago Bears but did not play with them, either.

Later life
After Podesto's sports career, he was a successful business owner. He worked with the Modesto Tallow Company for over 50 years. He died on November 13, 2015, at the age of 94. At the time of his death he had 5 children, 12 grandchildren, and 2 great-grandchildren.

References

External links

1921 births
2015 deaths
Saint Mary's Gaels football players
Players of American football from Modesto, California
Saint Mary's Gaels baseball players
Pacific Tigers football players
Pacific Tigers baseball players

Johnny Podesto


New rave (also typeset as nu-rave, nu rave or neu rave) is a genre of music described by The Guardian as "an in-yer-face, DIY disco riposte to the sensitive indie rock touted by bands like Bloc Party." It is most commonly applied to a British-based music scene between 2005 and late 2008 of fast-paced electronica-influenced indie music that celebrated the late 1980s Madchester and rave scenes through the use of neon colours and using the term 'raving' to refer to going nightclubbing.

Use of term
The British music magazine NME is largely responsible for popularising the term throughout 2006 and 2007, until claiming in mid-2008 reviews that "New Rave is over". The genre has connotations of being a "new" version of music heard at raves, as well as being a play on the term "new wave".

Aesthetics
The aesthetics of the new rave scene are similar to those of the original rave scene, being mostly centred on psychedelic visual effects. Glowsticks, neon and other lights are common, and followers of the scene often dress in extremely bright and fluorescent colored clothing. New Rave has been defined more by the image and aesthetic of its bands and supporters, than by its music. Trash Fashion lead singer, Jet Storm, and Electro heroine Uffie, have been described as the scene's very own pin ups. Nevertheless, the use of electronic instruments, a musical fusion of rock and dance styles, and a particular anarchic, trashy energy are certainly key elements.

Origins

Klaxons, Trash Fashion, New Young Pony Club, Hadouken!, Late of the Pier and Shitdisco are generally accepted as the main exponents of the genre (although some of them disavow the term entirely).

The term was coined by Klaxons founder Jamie Reynolds. Klaxons later declared they were not new rave, describing it as a "joke that's got out of hand". In reaction to the media overkill of the "genre", Klaxons banned the use of glowsticks at their gigs in April 2007, saying that "We kept getting asked to explain it. The whole idea of new rave was to take the piss out of the media by making them talk about something that didn't exist, just for our own amusement. And they'd say, I appreciate that, but can you tell me more about new rave?" Los Angeles Times critic Margaret Wappler comments that the "minimalist dance-punk of LCD Soundsystem, the analog classicism of Simian Mobile Disco, the fanatical electro-thrash of Justice, the international amalgam of M.I.A., the agitated funk of !!! (Chk Chk Chk) and the art-schooled disco-sleaze of Cansei de Ser Sexy" contributed to the thriving 'new rave' dance scene, which led to a rediscovery of indie rockers, and a critical and intellectual revolution in dance music.

Criticism
The sound of the original rave style is barely (if at all) discernible (save some typical analog synth lines) in the majority of bands referred to as new rave. Bands such as The Sunshine Underground, CSS (Cansei de Ser Sexy) and Hot Chip are often labeled as new rave due to their large following by fans of the genre. M.I.A. has been described as "a new raver before it was old." Several have publicly declared they had nothing to do with the genre. Stylist Carri Mundane described it as funny, saying New Rave was "Vacant in retro. It's just a marketing machine.... I guess it was a fun time but I'm more excited about what happens now. The next level - the next generation. There's a mood of neo-spiritualism and futurism that excites me."

The new rave scene can be viewed as a media construct, largely propounded by the NME and , with other publications treating the subject as a joke. The belief that many of the bands associated with new rave can more appropriately be associated with the genre of dance-punk has given credence to such suggestions, although differences between both genres are said to be minor and more down to aesthetics. Critic John Harris has stated in The Guardian newspaper that the genre is nothing more than a "piss-poor supposed 'youthquake'" that will soon go out of fashion in the same way as rave.

See also
 Rave

References

External links
"Rave Dog" - a documentary about Trash Fashion and new rave on the Channel 4 (UK) programme FourDocs

Electronic dance music genres
British styles of music
British rock music genres
2000s in music
2010s in music
Alternative dance

New rave


A list of endangered languages (with fewer than 1000 speakers or with very fast decline).

In order to judge if a language is actually endangered, the number of speakers is less important than the distribution among age cohorts. There may be 200,000 mother tongue speakers of the Breton language over 50 years of age, but fewer than 2,000 under 25 years of age - thus it is likely Breton will die out in the next half century. On the other hand, while there are 30,000 Ladin language speakers left, almost all children still learn it as their mother tongue - thus Ladin is not endangered in the 21st century.

 This page should include a link to the language's page, geographical localization and an approximate number of speakers

Americas
 Michif, spoken by fewer than 1,000 people in western Canada
 indigenous languages of Canada:
 Abenaki, 10 speakers
 Beaver, 300 speakers
 Cayuga, 360 speakers
 Delaware (Munsee), fewer than 10 speakers
 Han, few speakers
 Hare, 600 speakers
 Onandaga, fewer than 100 speakers
 Oneida, 200 speakers
 Potawatomi, 100 speakers
 Sarcee, 10 speakers
 Seneca, 25 speakers
 indigenous languages of the USA:
 Hawaiian language, Hawaii

Asia
 Ainu, Northern Japan, 15 speakers
 Aramaic, Lebanon, Kurdistan
 Chukchi, Siberia, circa 10,400 speakers (2001)
 Udmurt, various parts of Russia
 Northern indigenous peoples of Russia
 Beechistani ,Somewhere in Northern India(Beechistaan), 6 speakers
Sanskrit, Nepal-India, Less than 500 speakers, According to Indian history, Sanskrit is the mother of all Indo-European languages.
Athpahariya language, Athpahariya
Bahing language, Bahing
Barām language, Barām
Chepang language
Kumāle language, Kumāle
Kusunda language, Kusunda
Surel language, Surel

Australia
 all aboriginal languages

Europe
 European Union
Alsatian (France) very fast decline
 Aragonese (Spain) very fast decline
 Aromanian (Greece) very fast decline
 Basque (Spain and France) very fast decline
 Breton (France) very fast decline
 Catalan (France) very fast decline
 Corsican (France) very fast decline
 Catalan (Italy) very fast decline
 South Italian Greek (Italy) very fast decline
 Italkian (Judeo-Italian) (Italy) probably extinct
 Molise Slavic (Italy) very fast decline
 Occitan (France) very fast decline
 Sami languages, (Scandinavia), some having fewer than 100 speakers
 Scottish Gaelic (United Kingdom) very fast decline
 Lower Sorbian, (Germany) very fast decline
 West Flemish (France) very fast decline
 Yevanic (Judeo-Greek) (Greece) probably extinct
 Outside of the European Union
 Belarusian, very low usage in Belarus
 Istro-Romanian, Istria Croatia, 500 speakers
 Krimchak (Judeo-Crimean Tatar)
 Livonian, Estonia, 35 speakers
 Mordvin (Russia), steady decline
 Erzya language
 Moksha language
 Votian, Russia, 50 speakers

Related pages
 endangered language
 list of extinct languages
 Language families and languages
 Language policy

References

Other websites
 UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages

Language-related lists
Endangered languages

List of endangered languages


The Paris Peace Treaties () were signed on 10 February 1947 following the end of World War II in 1945. The Paris Peace Conference lasted from 29 July until 15 October 1946. The victorious wartime Allied powers (principally the United Kingdom, Soviet Union, United States, and France) negotiated the details of peace treaties with those former Axis powers, namely Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland, which had switched sides and declared war on Germany during the war. They were allowed to fully resume their responsibilities as sovereign states in international affairs and to qualify for membership in the United Nations. Nevertheless, the Paris Peace Treaties avoided to take into consideration the consequences of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, officially known as the Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, whose secret clauses included the division of Poland between the Nazis and Communists, the occupation of several states (Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania), and the annexation of parts of Finland and Romania. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact changed the borders agreed after the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), and was signed on August 23, 1939. One week later, World War II started with the Nazi Germany invasion Poland, followed three weeks later by the Soviet invasion of Poland, which was completely erased from the map. In the following years, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union changed the borders established by the peace treaties at the end of World War I.

The settlement elaborated in the peace treaties included payment of war reparations, commitment to minority rights, and territorial adjustments including the end of the Italian colonial empire in North Africa, East Africa, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Albania, as well as changes to the Italian–Yugoslav, Hungarian–Czechoslovak, Soviet–Romanian, Hungarian–Romanian, French–Italian, and Soviet–Finnish borders. The treaties also obliged the various states to hand over accused war criminals to the Allied powers for war crimes trials.

Political clauses
The political clauses stipulated that the signatory should "take all measures necessary to secure to all persons under (its) jurisdiction, without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion, the enjoyment of human rights and of the fundamental freedoms, including freedom of expression, of press and publication, of religious worship, of political opinion and of public meeting."

No penalties were to be visited on nationals because of wartime partisanship for the Allies. Each government undertook measures to prevent the resurgence of fascist organizations or any others "whether political, military or semi-military, whose purpose it is to deprive the people of their democratic rights".

Border changes

Italy

Italy lost the colonies of Italian Libya and Italian East Africa. The latter consisted of Italian Ethiopia, Italian Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland. Italy continued to govern the former Italian Somaliland as a UN trust territory until 1960. In the peace treaty, Italy recognized the independence of Albania (in personal union with the Italian monarchy after the Italian invasion of Albania in April 1939). Italy also lost its concession in Tianjin, which was turned over to China, and the Dodecanese Islands in the Aegean Sea were ceded to Greece.

Italy lost Istria: the provinces of Fiume, Zara, and most of Gorizia and Pola were ceded to Yugoslavia; the rest of Istria and the province of Trieste formed a new sovereign State (Free Territory of Trieste) divided in two administrative zones under a provisional government for which the United Nations Security Council was responsible. In 1954, Italy incorporated the Province of Trieste (Zone A) and Yugoslavia incorporated the rest of Istria (Zone B). This was officially recognized with the Treaty of Osimo in 1975.

The villages of the Tende valley and La Brigue were ceded to France but Italian diplomats were able to maintain in place the Treaty of Turin (1860), according to which the French-Italian alpine border passes through the summit of Mont Blanc, despite French designs on the Aosta Valley. The French Republic has never made provision for the Italian language in the ceded formerly Italian towns of Briga and Tenda, effectively opting for a policy of linguistic assimilation. The province of South Tyrol was also kept by Italy despite the territorial demands of Austria, largely thanks to the Gruber–De Gasperi Agreement signed some months before.

Finland

Finland was restored to its borders of 1 January 1941 (thus confirming its territorial losses after the Winter War of 1939-1940), except for the former province of Petsamo, which was ceded to the Soviet Union. In Finland, the reparations and the dictated border adjustment were perceived as a major injustice and a betrayal by the Western powers, after the sympathy Finland had received from the West during the Soviet-initiated Winter War. However, this sympathy had been eroded by Finland's collaboration with Nazi Germany between 1941 and 1944. During this time, Finland not only recaptured territory it had lost in 1940, but continued its offensive deeper into Soviet lands, occupying a broad strip of Soviet territory. This prompted the United Kingdom to declare war on Finland in December 1941, further weakening political support in the West for the country. The Soviet Union's accessions of Finnish territory was based on the Moscow Armistice signed in Moscow on 19 September 1944 and resulted in an extension of the accessions in the Moscow Peace Treaty that ended the Winter War.

Hungary
Hungary was restored to its borders before 1938. This meant restoring the southern border with Yugoslavia, as well as declaring the First and Second Vienna Awards null and void, cancelling Hungary's gains from Czechoslovakia and Romania. Furthermore, three villages (namely Horvátjárfalu, Oroszvár, and Dunacsún) situated south of Bratislava were also transferred to Czechoslovakia, in order to form the so-called "Bratislava bridgehead".

Romania
Romania was restored to its borders of 1 January 1941, but not to its borders before 23 August 1939, with the exception of the border with Hungary giving Northern Transylvania back to Romania. This confirmed the 1940 loss of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union and the Treaty of Craiova, which returned Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria.

Bulgaria
Bulgaria was restored to its borders of 1 January 1941, returning Vardar Macedonia to Yugoslavia and Eastern Macedonia and Western Thrace to Greece, but keeping Southern Dobruja per the Treaty of Craiova, leaving Bulgaria as the only former Axis power to keep territory that was gained during the Second World War.

War reparations
The war reparation problem proved to be one of the most difficult arising from post-war conditions. The Soviet Union, the country most heavily ravaged by the war, felt entitled to the maximum amounts possible, with the exception of Bulgaria, which was perceived as being the most sympathetic of the former enemy states. (Bulgaria was part of the Axis but did not declare war on the Soviet Union). In the cases of Romania and Hungary, the reparation terms as set forth in their armistices were relatively high and were not revised.

War reparations at 1938 prices, in United States dollar amounts:
$360,000,000 () from Italy:
$125,000,000 () to Yugoslavia;
$105,000,000 () to Greece;
$100,000,000 () to the Soviet Union;
$25,000,000 () to Ethiopia;
$5,000,000 () to Albania.
$300,000,000 () from Finland to the Soviet Union.
$300,000,000 () from Hungary:
$200,000,000 () to the Soviet Union;
$100,000,000 () to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
$300,000,000 () from Romania to the Soviet Union;
$70,000,000 () from Bulgaria:
$45,000,000 () to Greece;
$25,000,000 () to Yugoslavia.

Aftermath
The dissolution of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s did not lead to any renegotiation of the Paris Peace Treaties. However, in 1990 Finland unilaterally cancelled the restrictions the treaty had placed on its military.

See also

Aftermath of World War II
Allied Commission
Potsdam Agreement (1945, regarding Germany)
Moscow Conference (1945)
Treaty of San Francisco (1951, regarding Japan)
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (1990)
Soviet occupation of Romania
World War II reparations towards Yugoslavia

References

External links

United States Department of State Foreign relations of the United States, 1946. Paris Peace Conference Proceedings
United States Department of State Foreign relations of the United States, 1946. Paris Peace Conference Documents
United Nations Treaty Series volume 49 (Full text of the treaties as registered at the United Nations. French, English and Russian texts are authentic).
 "Paris-WWII Peace Conference-1946: Settling Romania's Western Frontiers" , at the Honorary Consulate of Romania in Boston, has pictures of the Romanian delegation
International Paris Peace Conference (1946) Records at the United Nations Archives

Aftermath of World War II
1947 in Finland
1947 in Bulgaria
1947 in Romania
1947 in Italy
1947 in the Soviet Union
Bulgaria–Soviet Union relations
Finland–Soviet Union relations
Hungary–Soviet Union relations
Italy–Soviet Union relations
Italy–United States relations
Italy–Yugoslavia relations
Romania–Soviet Union relations
Paris, 1947
Paris, 1947
Peace treaties of France
Peace treaties of Hungary
Paris, 1947
Paris, 1947
Paris, 1947
Peace treaties of the United Kingdom
Peace treaties of the United States
Treaties concluded in 1947
Treaties entered into force in 1947
Treaties of the French Fourth Republic
Treaties of Italy
Treaties of the Kingdom of Romania
Treaties of the People's Republic of Bulgaria
Treaties of Yugoslavia
World War II treaties
1947 in Paris
United Kingdom in World War II
February 1947 events in Europe

Paris Peace Treaties, 1947


The Yocto Project is a Linux Foundation collaborative open source project whose goal is to produce tools and processes that enable the creation of Linux distributions for embedded and IoT software that are independent of the underlying architecture of the embedded hardware. The project was announced by the Linux Foundation in 2010 and launched in March, 2011, in collaboration with 22 organizations, including OpenEmbedded.

The Yocto Project's focus is on improving the software development process for embedded Linux distributions. The Yocto Project provides interoperable tools, metadata, and processes that enable the rapid, repeatable development of Linux-based embedded systems in which every aspect of the development process can be customized.

In October 2018, Arm Holdings partnered with Intel in order to share code for embedded systems through the Yocto Project.

Project scope
The Yocto Project has the aim and objective of attempting to improve the lives of developers of customized Linux systems supporting the ARM, MIPS, PowerPC and x86/x86-64 architectures. A key part of this is the OpenEmbedded build system, which enables developers to create their own Linux distribution specific to their environment. The Yocto Project and OpenEmbedded Project share maintainership of the main parts of the OpenEmbedded build system: the build engine, BitBake, and the core metadata, OpenEmbedded-Core. The Yocto Project provides a reference implementation called Poky, which contains the OpenEmbedded build system plus a large set of recipes, arranged in a hierarchical system of layers, that can be used as a fully functional template for a customized embedded operating system.

There are several other sub-projects under the project umbrella which include CROPS, pseudo, the matchbox suite of applications, and many others. One of the central goals of the project is interoperability among these tools.

The project offers different sized targets from "tiny" to fully featured images which are configurable and customisable by the end user. The project encourages interaction with upstream projects and has contributed heavily to OpenEmbedded-Core and BitBake as well as to numerous upstream projects, including the Linux kernel. The resulting images are typically useful in systems where embedded Linux would be used, these being single-use focused systems or systems without the usual screens/input devices associated with desktop Linux systems.

As well as building Linux systems, there is also an ability to generate a toolchain for cross compilation and a software development kit (SDK) tailored to their own distribution. The project tries to be software and vendor agnostic. Thus, for example, it is possible to select which package manager format to use (deb, rpm, or ipk).

Within builds, there are options for various build-time sanity/regression tests, and also the option to boot and test certain images under QEMU to validate the build.

The project is known for making good documentation a priority and attempts to update documentation for each release, retaining all documents for current and archived releases on the website, as the documentation can change significantly with any release.

Governance
The Yocto Project is one of many collaborative projects organized as a non-profit under the banner of the Linux Foundation.

The project's governance is divided loosely into administrative and technical arms, although many members participate in both camps.

At a technical level, the project is overseen by the project architect Richard Purdie (a Linux Foundation Fellow) who has a long history of involvement with many of the project's components and technologies. The architect maintains a hierarchy of maintainers for the different components of the system, much as the Linux kernel is maintained.

The administrative arm consists of an advisory board made up of representatives from the project's member organizations, including several major silicon vendors, commercial operating system vendors that use Yocto Project as their upstream, corporate users, as well as representatives from groups such as software consultants and community members. The member organizations of this board provide resources to the project. There are also several advisory board working groups that handle administrative functions for the project such as finance, infrastructure, advocacy and outreach, and community management.

Releases
Major releases occur about every 6 months (April and October).

Version 3.1 was the first long-term support (LTS) release, initially supported for two years. Since then, a new LTS release is added every two years.

In 2021, support for version 3.1 was extended to two more years until 2024.

The 3.1 series and 4.0 was originally planned for two years but extended to four. Future LTS releases are planned for 4 years.

Branding Program
The Yocto Project Branding Program provides an opportunity to associate the value of using the Yocto Project with a company or product. The Yocto Project Branding Program defines steps to register organizations as Yocto Project Participants, and content as Yocto Project Compatible. Yocto Project Participant is appropriate for organizations who use and support the Yocto Project publicly. Yocto Project Compatible is appropriate for products, BSPs, and other OE-compatible layers, and related open-source projects, and is open to Yocto Project member organizations.

See also
 Buildroot

References

External links

 Deciding between Buildroot and Yocto, LWN.net, April 6, 2016, by Nathan Willis

Build automation
Embedded Linux
Linux Foundation projects

Yocto Project


Herriman ( ) is a city in southwestern Salt Lake County, Utah. The population was 55,144 as of the 2020 census. Although Herriman was a town in 2000, it has since been classified as a fourth-class city by state law. The city has experienced rapid growth since incorporation in 1999, as its population was just 1,523 at the 2000 census. It grew from being the 111th-largest incorporated place in Utah in 2000 to the 14th-largest in 2020.

History

Founding
Herriman was established in 1851 by Henry Harriman, Thomas Jefferson Butterfield, John Jay Stocking, and Robert Cowan Petty. A fort was established where the community garden is today. The only remnants of Fort Herriman are the two black locust trees that stand where the entrance to the fort once was. The Fort was abandoned in 1857 as the Johnston Army came West.

Incorporation
Herriman remained a small community until 1999, when proactive citizens, including Brett Wood, Michelle Baguley, Marion Millett, Jerry Walker and J. Lynn Crane, went door to door asking people to sign a petition to be incorporated into a town. In 1998 Rose Creek Estates, developed by Watt Homes, started the first "subdivision" with the property under 1 acre. Later, Rosecrest, a land developer who acquired some rights in a large area around Herriman, started large-scale residential development. Rosecrest is owned by parent company Sorenson Companies founded by the late James LeVoy Sorenson and currently managed by his son. In 2007, Rosecrest won a lawsuit with partner land owners/developers that allowed about  to be annexed out of neighboring city Bluffdale into Herriman to further expand the Rosecrest/Herriman housing projects. The lawsuit stemmed from a struggle between Bluffdale city officials, strict city building requirements, and Rosecrest. The addition of Rosecrest greatly brought up Herriman's population and enabled the town to be turned into a city.

Natural disasters

Flooding
In 2014, the cemetery on Pioneer Street flooded, leaving many graves washed up. The City restored most of the graves and adjusted drainage in to accommodate for future issues.

In 2018, a water line broke on 13400 S., causing flooding to businesses and houses. The main line broke due to a gardening tool hitting the water line.

Fires
Often, the City experiences fires. In 2018, a youth was playing with smoke bombs in dry grass, resulting in 160 acres burnt and three houses destroyed. The exposed mountains, dry brush, and open fields make Herriman highly susceptible to fires.

Machine Gun Fire
On September 19, 2010, the National Guard was performing an exercise at Camp Williams, south of Herriman, when a tracer bullet likely struck a rock, setting off a  wildfire. Unified Fire Authority members mobilized and were able to arrest the progress of the fire, but not before three homes were destroyed and another damaged. Various small structures were also affected. Over 1,200 homes were evacuated in the face of the oncoming danger, with most of them able to return by Tuesday, September 21, 2010.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 20.3 square miles (52.5 km2), all land. The city frequently annexes new areas west and east of its borders. The newest annexation was in 2018 when part of Kennecott Copper Mine's land was annexed to make way for technology centers.

Herriman shares borders with Riverton to the east, South Jordan to the north, and Bluffdale to the southeast.

Demographics

According to estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau, as of 2017, there were 39,224 people in Herriman. The racial makeup of the county was 83.3% non-Hispanic White, 2.2% Black, 0.8% Asian, 1.6% Pacific Islander, and 4.4% from two or more races. 8.0% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

As of the census of 2010, there were 21,785 people, 5,542 households, and 5,022 families residing in the town. The population density was 1075.0 people per square mile (64.5/km2). There were 6,022 housing units at an average density of 297.2 per square mile (19.4/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 93.3% White, 0.3% Native American, 1.3% Asian, 0.5% Pacific Islander, 0.3% from other races, and 2.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.2% of the population.

There were 5,542 households, out of which 44.1% had children under 18 living with them, 81.3% were married couples living together, 6.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 9.4% were non-families. 6.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 1.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years or older. The average household size was 3.93, and the average family size was 4.13.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 44.1% under 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 29.0% from 25 to 44, 11.7% from 45 to 64, and 2.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 24.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.4 males. For every 100 females aged 18 and over, there were 100.7 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $56,361, and the median income for a family was $57,404. Males had a median income of $44,135 versus $30,893 for females. The per capita income was $18,991. About 2.9% of families and 3.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.7% of those under age 18 and none aged 65 or over.

Education
Herriman has two high schools, Herriman High School, which opened in 2010, and Mountain Ridge High School, which opened in 2019. Herriman also is home to Fort Herriman Middle School and Copper Mountain Middle School. Elementary schools include Herriman, Butterfield Canyon, Silvercrest, Blackridge, Bastian, and Ridge View, which also opened in the 2019–2020 school year. All the public schools in Herriman are run by the Jordan School District.

Herriman also is home to five charter schools: Providence Hall High School, Providence Hall Junior High School, Providence Hall Elementary School, and Athlos Academy. Another, Advantage Arts Academy, was recently opened on 11800 S.

Sports

Herriman is home to the Zions Bank Real Academy, a soccer complex that serves as the training facility for Real Salt Lake of Major League Soccer. The complex includes Zions Bank Stadium, a 5,000-seat stadium for MLS Next Pro affiliate Real Monarchs and the Utah Warriors of Major League Rugby.

Public services
Herriman maintains most of its own services, including police, water, animal services, and roads. Herriman contracts with Rocky Mountain Power, Wasatch Waste and recycling, Dominion Energy, South Valley Sewer, and Unified Fire Authority.

Herriman is home to the Herriman Historical Committee, Be Ready Herriman, the Herriman Arts Council, Herriman Trails Committee, the Herriman Youth Council, and Healthy Herriman.

Notable people

 Francis Bernard, American football player
 Jeff Dewsnup, soccer player
 Blake Freeland, American football player
 Henry Harriman, LDS leader
 Andre James, American football player
 Robert Kirby, humor columnist
 John Knotwell, former member of the Utah House of Representatives
 Edwin Mulitalo, NFL coach and former player
 Rhyan White, swimmer
 Thomas Levi Whittle, Canadian farmer and early LDS figure

See also

 List of cities and towns in Utah

References

External links

Cities in Salt Lake County, Utah
Cities in Utah
Salt Lake City metropolitan area
Populated places established in 1851
1851 establishments in Utah Territory

Herriman, Utah


Graham Sutherland OM (24 August 1903 – 17 February 1980) was an English artist. He is famous for his paintings of abstract landscapes and his portraits of public figures. He also worked in printmaking, tapestry and glass design.

He first worked as a printmaker, before moving to watercolour, and finally to oil painting, in the 1940s. He became famous by his paintings of Pembrokeshire landscapes. He was an official war painter at World War II. After that he became a figurative painter, often of religious motifs.

He created several of portraits of public figures in the 1950s; some where polemical. Fof example, he made a portrait of Winston Churchill, which he disliked and later would be destroyed.

1903 births
1980 deaths
English painters

Graham Sutherland


Charles Edwin Collins  (16 January 1929 – 16 September 2012)   was an American politician and activist. He was an independent candidate for President of the United States in the 1996 presidential election and sought unsuccessfully to run again in 2000.

Bay County, Florida book controversy
In 1986, Collins, who was a former Bay County, Florida school board official, challenged the use of I Am the Cheese and other books at the Mowat Junior High School his granddaughter attended.  He wrote letters to the parents of all the students, and placed an advertisement in the Panama City News-Herald.  At a school board meeting Collins submitted what he claimed was about 9,000 signatures petitioning the use of the book, though a television reporter later found the number to be 3,549.

The case's first national coverage came from The Washington Post, which in the cover story of the Sunday magazine section reported on the case and the death threats that had been received by the teachers and parents defending the book and by the television reporter, Hill.  Hill's apartment was attacked by arson and a bomb threat placed on her car required the summoning of a police bomb squad, though the device proved to be a fake one.  Commenting on the attacks, Collins dismissed the dummy bomb as a "joke" and the fire as "a good way to get your apartment painted by the landlord."

1996 presidential election
Mother Jones magazine called Collins the "consummate internet candidate," and opined that he appealed to an online population of "isolationists, alarmists, and conspiracy theorists."  His campaign advocated abolishing the Federal Reserve and the Internal Revenue Service and other pledges noted to be similar to that of the U.S. Taxpayers Party ticket of Howard Phillips and Herbert Titus.

He initially sought the Republican Party nomination, qualifying for and receiving some votes in the Republican presidential primaries.  He received a mere forty-two votes in the New Hampshire primary and still fell far behind the other candidates in other states where he did better; e.g. 628 votes in Texas and 451 in Oklahoma  Collins withdrew from the Colorado primary after the ballots were printed.  The Republican National Committee barred him from debates.

Collins also sought, and failed to receive, the nomination of the United States Taxpayers Party.  Collins then decided to run as an independent, receiving the endorsement of a group called C.U.R.E. led by the former Republican governor of Arizona Evan Mecham.  C.U.R.E. endorsed Collins over other potential choices including former California State Assemblyman and State Senator Don Rogers, who would later be the presidential candidate of the American Party in the 2000 presidential election and John Yiamouyiannas, formerly a candidate of Take Back America who had received 2,199 votes in the 1992 presidential election.

On August 21, 1996, Collins attempted to have the United States Supreme Court declare all state ballot access laws to be unconstitutional.  They declined his motion.

Continuing to run as an independent candidate, Collins chose as his vice presidential running mate Rosemary Giumarra of Porterville, California.  Collins and Giumarra received 8,952 votes in the election.

2000 presidential election

In 2000, Collins attempted to win the nomination of the Reform Party.  He fell far behind the frontrunner Pat Buchanan in the party's important Missouri primary with 295 votes versus 2,214, though he beat John Hagelin. In California, Collins fell in last place with 1,681 votes.  He thereafter attempted to win the party's nomination for vice president.  The convention split into two factions: Buchanan and Hagelin. In the Buchanan convention, Collins received 23 votes versus the winner of the nomination Ezola B. Foster.

Death
Collins died in Macon, Georgia, on September 16, 2012, at the age of 83.

Notes

References
 https://web.archive.org/web/20101028101426/http://www.politics1.com/reform.htm

  citing .
 :

Further reading
 "Charles E. Collins for President," The Gordon Hall and Grace Hoag Collection of Dissenting and Extremist Printed Propaganda, Brown University Library. OCLC 46319142.

1929 births
2012 deaths
American cattlemen
American political activists
Candidates in the 1996 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 2000 United States presidential election
20th-century American politicians

Charles E. Collins (politician)


"Barbie Girl" is a dance-pop hit song from the Danish music group Aqua. The single was released in 1997. Its lyrics are about Barbie and Ken, the toys from Mattel. The song was very popular. It was #1 across the music charts of certain countries. It was in the Top 20 charts in the United States. Barbie Girl also caused controversy at various times.

1997 songs
Pop songs
Eurodance songs

Barbie Girl


Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. The right to freedom of expression has been recognised as a human right in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and international human rights law by the United Nations. Many countries have constitutional law that protects free speech. Terms like free speech, freedom of speech, and freedom of expression are used interchangeably in political discourse. However, in a legal sense, the freedom of expression includes any activity of seeking, receiving, and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used.

Article 19 of the UDHR states that "everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference" and "everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice". The version of Article 19 in the ICCPR later amends this by stating that the exercise of these rights carries "special duties and responsibilities" and may "therefore be subject to certain restrictions" when necessary "[f]or respect of the rights or reputation of others" or "[f]or the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals".

Freedom of speech and expression, therefore, may not be recognized as being absolute, and common limitations or boundaries to freedom of speech relate to libel, slander, obscenity, pornography, sedition, incitement, fighting words, hate speech, classified information, copyright violation, trade secrets, food labeling, non-disclosure agreements, the right to privacy, dignity, the right to be forgotten, public security, and perjury. Justifications for such include the harm principle, proposed by John Stuart Mill in On Liberty, which suggests that "the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others".

The idea of the "offense principle" is also used to justify speech limitations, describing the restriction on forms of expression deemed offensive to society, considering factors such as extent, duration, motives of the speaker, and ease with which it could be avoided. With the evolution of the digital age, application of freedom of speech becomes more controversial as new means of communication and restrictions arise, for example, the Golden Shield Project, an initiative by Chinese government's Ministry of Public Security that filters potentially unfavourable data from foreign countries.

The Human Rights Measurement Initiative measures the right to opinion and expression for countries around the world, using a survey of in-country human rights experts.

Historical origins
Freedom of speech and expression has a long history that predates modern international human rights instruments. It is thought that the ancient Athenian democratic principle of free speech may have emerged in the late 6th or early 5th century BC.

Freedom of speech was vindicated by Erasmus and Milton. Edward Coke claimed freedom of speech as "an ancient custom of Parliament" in the 1590s, and it was affirmed in the Protestation of 1621. Restating what is written in the English Declaration of Right, 1689, England's Bill of Rights 1689 legally established the constitutional right of freedom of speech in Parliament, which is still in effect. This so-called parliamentary privilege includes no possible defamation claims meaning Parliamentarians are free to speak up in the House without fear of legal action. This protection extends to written proceedings: for example, written and oral questions, motions and amendments tabled to bills and motions.

One of the world's first freedom of the press acts was introduced in Sweden in 1766 (Swedish Freedom of the Press Act), mainly due to the classical liberal member of parliament and Ostrobothnian priest Anders Chydenius.  In a report published in 1776, he wrote:No evidence should be needed that a certain freedom of writing and printing is one of the strongest bulwarks of a free organization of the state, as, without it, the estates would not have sufficient information for the drafting of good laws, and those dispensing justice would not be monitored, nor would the subjects know the requirements of the law, the limits of the rights of government, and their responsibilities. Education and ethical conduct would be crushed; coarseness in thought, speech, and manners would prevail, and dimness would darken the entire sky of our freedom in a few years.Under the leadership of Anders Chydenius, the Caps at the Swedish Riksdag in Gävle on December 2, 1766, passed the adoption of a freedom of the press regulation that stopped censorship and introduced the principle of public access to official records in Sweden. Excluded were defamation of the king's majesty and the Swedish Church.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted during the French Revolution in 1789, specifically affirmed freedom of speech as an inalienable right. Adopted in 1791, freedom of speech is a feature of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. The French Declaration provides for freedom of expression in Article 11, which states that:

Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948, states that:

Today, freedom of speech, or the freedom of expression, is recognised in international and regional human rights law. The right is enshrined in Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, Article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights and Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights. Based on John Milton's arguments, freedom of speech is understood as a multi-faceted right that includes not only the right to express, or disseminate, information and ideas but three further distinct aspects:
 the right to seek information and ideas;
 the right to receive information and ideas;
 the right to impart information and ideas

International, regional and national standards also recognise that freedom of speech, as the freedom of expression, includes any medium, whether orally, in writing, in print, through the internet or art forms. This means that the protection of freedom of speech as a right includes the content and the means of expression.

Relationship to other rights
The right to freedom of speech and expression is closely related to other rights. It may be limited when conflicting with other rights (see limitations on freedom of speech). The right to freedom of expression is also related to the right to a fair trial and court proceeding which may limit access to the search for information, or determine the opportunity and means in which freedom of expression is manifested within court proceedings. As a general principle freedom of expression may not limit the right to privacy, as well as the honor and reputation of others. However, greater latitude is given when criticism of public figures is involved.

The right to freedom of expression is particularly important for media, which play a special role as the bearer of the general right to freedom of expression for all. However, freedom of the press does not necessarily enable freedom of speech. Judith Lichtenberg has outlined conditions in which freedom of the press may constrain freedom of speech. For example, if all the people who control the various mediums of publication suppress information or stifle the diversity of voices inherent in freedom of speech. This limitation was famously summarised as "Freedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one". Lichtenberg argues that freedom of the press is simply a form of property right summed up by the principle "no money, no voice".

As a negative right
Freedom of speech is usually seen as a negative right. This means that the government is legally obliged to take no action against the speaker based on the speaker's views, but that no one is obliged to help any speakers publish their views, and no one is required to listen to, agree with, or acknowledge the speaker or the speaker's views.

Democracy in relation to social interaction

Freedom of speech is understood to be fundamental in a democracy. The norms on limiting freedom of expression mean that public debate may not be completely suppressed even in times of emergency. One of the most notable proponents of the link between freedom of speech and democracy is Alexander Meiklejohn. He has argued that the concept of democracy is that of self-government by the people. For such a system to work, an informed electorate is necessary. In order to be appropriately knowledgeable, there must be no constraints on the free flow of information and ideas. According to Meiklejohn, democracy will not be true to its essential ideal if those in power can manipulate the electorate by withholding information and stifling criticism. Meiklejohn acknowledges that the desire to manipulate opinion can stem from the motive of seeking to benefit society. However, he argues, choosing manipulation negates, in its means, the democratic ideal.

Eric Barendt has called this defence of free speech on the grounds of democracy "probably the most attractive and certainly the most fashionable free speech theory in modern Western democracies". Thomas I. Emerson expanded on this defence when he argued that freedom of speech helps to provide a balance between stability and change. Freedom of speech acts as a "safety valve" to let off steam when people might otherwise be bent on revolution. He argues that "The principle of open discussion is a method of achieving a more adaptable and at the same time more stable community, of maintaining the precarious balance between healthy cleavage and necessary consensus". Emerson furthermore maintains that "Opposition serves a vital social function in offsetting or ameliorating (the) normal process of bureaucratic decay".

Research undertaken by the Worldwide Governance Indicators project at the World Bank, indicates that freedom of speech, and the process of accountability that follows it, have a significant impact on the quality of governance of a country. "Voice and Accountability" within a country, defined as "the extent to which a country's citizens are able to participate in selecting their government, as well as freedom of expression, freedom of association, and free media" is one of the six dimensions of governance that the Worldwide Governance Indicators measure for more than 200 countries. Against this backdrop it is important that development agencies create grounds for effective support for a free press in developing countries.

Richard Moon has developed the argument that the value of freedom of speech and freedom of expression lies with social interactions. Moon writes that "by communicating an individual forms relationships and associations with others – family, friends, co-workers, church congregation, and countrymen. By entering into discussion with others an individual participates in the development of knowledge and in the direction of the community".

Limitations

Freedom of speech is not regarded as absolute by some, with most legal systems generally setting limits on the freedom of speech, particularly when freedom of speech conflicts with other rights and protections, such as in the cases of libel, slander, pornography, obscenity, fighting words, and intellectual property.

Some limitations to freedom of speech may occur through legal sanction, and others may occur through social disapprobation. In Saudi Arabia, Journalists are forbidden to write with disrespect or disapproval of the royal family, religion, or the government. Journalists are also not given any legal protection for their writing in Saudi Arabia. Journalist Jamal Khashoggi was a critic of the Saudi Arabian government. He was killed in 2018 by Saudi Arabian officials for his writing.

Content viewed as harmful and offensive
Some views are illegal to express because they are perceived by some to be harmful to others. This category often includes speech that is both false and potentially dangerous, such as falsely shouting "Fire!" in a theatre and causing a panic. Justifications for limitations to freedom of speech often reference the "harm principle" or the "offence principle".

In On Liberty (1859), John Stuart Mill argued that "...there ought to exist the fullest liberty of professing and discussing, as a matter of ethical conviction, any doctrine, however immoral it may be considered". Mill argues that the fullest liberty of expression is required to push arguments to their logical limits, rather than the limits of social embarrassment.

In 1985, Joel Feinberg introduced what is known as the "offence principle". Feinberg wrote, "It is always a good reason in support of a proposed criminal prohibition that it would probably be an effective way of preventing serious offence (as opposed to injury or harm) to persons other than the actor, and that it is probably a necessary means to that end". Hence Feinberg argues that the harm principle sets the bar too high and that some forms of expression can be legitimately prohibited by law because they are very offensive. Nevertheless, as offending someone is less serious than harming someone, the penalties imposed should be higher for causing harm. In contrast, Mill does not support legal penalties unless they are based on the harm principle. Because the degree to which people may take offence varies, or may be the result of unjustified prejudice, Feinberg suggests that several factors need to be taken into account when applying the offence principle, including: the extent, duration and social value of the speech, the ease with which it can be avoided, the motives of the speaker, the number of people offended, the intensity of the offence, and the general interest of the community at large.

Jasper Doomen argued that harm should be defined from the point of view of the individual citizen, not limiting harm to physical harm since nonphysical harm may also be involved; Feinberg's distinction between harm and offence is criticized as largely trivial.

In 1999, Bernard Harcourt wrote of the collapse of the harm principle: "Today the debate is characterized by a cacophony of competing harm arguments without any way to resolve them. There is no longer an argument within the structure of the debate to resolve the competing claims of harm. The original harm principle was never equipped to determine the relative importance of harms".

Interpretations of both the harm and offense limitations to freedom of speech are culturally and politically relative. For instance, in Russia, the harm and offense principles have been used to justify the Russian LGBT propaganda law restricting speech (and action) concerning LGBT issues. Many European countries outlaw speech that might be interpreted as Holocaust denial. These include Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Slovakia, Switzerland and Romania. Armenian genocide denial is also illegal in some countries.

In some countries, blasphemy is a crime. For example, in Austria, defaming Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, is not protected as free speech. In contrast, in France, blasphemy and disparagement of Muhammad are protected under free speech law.

Certain public institutions may also enact policies restricting the freedom of speech, for example, speech codes at state-operated schools.

In the U.S., the standing landmark opinion on political speech is Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969), expressly overruling Whitney v. California. In Brandenburg, the U.S. Supreme Court referred to the right even to speak openly of violent action and revolution in broad terms: The opinion in Brandenburg discarded the previous test of "clear and present danger" and made the right to freedom of (political) speech protections in the United States almost absolute. Hate speech is also protected by the First Amendment in the United States, as decided in R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, (1992) in which the Supreme Court ruled that hate speech is permissible, except in the case of imminent violence. See the First Amendment to the United States Constitution for more detailed information on this decision and its historical background.

Time, place and manner

Limitations based on time, place, and manner apply to all speech, regardless of the view expressed. They are generally restrictions that are intended to balance other rights or a legitimate government interest. For example, a time, place, and manner restriction might prohibit a noisy political demonstration at a politician's home during the middle of the night, as that impinges upon the rights of the politician's neighbors to quiet enjoyment of their own homes. An otherwise identical activity might be permitted if it happened at a different time (e.g., during the day), at a different place (e.g., at a government building or in another public forum), or in a different manner (e.g., a silent protest). Funeral Protests are a complex issue in the United States. It is a right to Americans to be able to hold a peaceful protest against various policies they deem unreasonable. It is a question of whether or not it is appropriate through the time, place and manner outlook to protest funeral proceedings. Because of recent flare ups of this occurring, legislation has been put to action to limit this. Now, funeral protests are governed and prohibited by law on a state-to-state basis inside the United States.

The Internet and information society

Jo Glanville, editor of the Index on Censorship, states that "the Internet has been a revolution for censorship as much as for free speech". International, national and regional standards recognise that freedom of speech, as one form of freedom of expression, applies to any medium, including the Internet. The Communications Decency Act (CDA) of 1996 was the first major attempt by the United States Congress to regulate pornographic material on the Internet. In 1997, in the landmark cyberlaw case of Reno v. ACLU, the US Supreme Court partially overturned the law. Judge Stewart R. Dalzell, one of the three federal judges who in June 1996 declared parts of the CDA unconstitutional, in his opinion stated the following:

The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) Declaration of Principles adopted in 2003 makes specific reference to the importance of the right to freedom of expression for the "Information Society" in stating:

According to Bernt Hugenholtz and Lucie Guibault, the public domain is under pressure from the "commodification of information" as information with previously little or no economic value has acquired independent economic value in the information age. This includes factual data, personal data, genetic information and pure ideas. The commodification of information is taking place through intellectual property law, contract law, as well as broadcasting and telecommunications law.

Freedom of information

Freedom of information is an extension of freedom of speech where the medium of expression is the Internet. Freedom of information may also refer to the right to privacy in the context of the Internet and information technology. As with the right to freedom of expression, the right to privacy is a recognised human right and freedom of information acts as an extension to this right. Freedom of information may also concern censorship in an information technology context, i.e., the ability to access Web content, without censorship or restrictions.

Freedom of information is also explicitly protected by acts such as the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act of Ontario, in Canada. The Access to Information Act gives Canadian citizens, permanent residents, and any person or corporation present in Canada a right to access records of government institutions that are subject to the Act.

Internet censorship
The concept of freedom of information has emerged in response to state sponsored censorship, monitoring and surveillance of the internet. Internet censorship includes the control or suppression of the publishing or accessing of information on the Internet. The Global Internet Freedom Consortium claims to remove blocks to the "free flow of information" for what they term "closed societies". According to the Reporters without Borders (RWB) "internet enemy list" the following states engage in pervasive internet censorship: Mainland China, Cuba, Iran, Myanmar/Burma, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam.

A widely publicized example of internet censorship is the "Great Firewall of China" (in reference both to its role as a network firewall and the ancient Great Wall of China). The system blocks content by preventing IP addresses from being routed through and consists of standard firewall and proxy servers at the internet gateways. The system also selectively engages in DNS poisoning when particular sites are requested. The government does not appear to be systematically examining Internet content, as this appears to be technically impractical. Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China is conducted under a wide variety of laws and administrative regulations, including more than sixty regulations directed at the Internet. Censorship systems are vigorously implemented by provincial branches of state-owned ISPs, business companies, and organizations.

Saudi Arabia's government had been intensifying the scrutiny of social media accounts, under which they were detaining several activists, critics and even normal social media users over few critical tweets. A law professor, Awad Al-Qarni became a victim of Saudi's internet censorship and was facing death sentence. Saudi-controlled media portrayed him as a dangerous preacher due to his Twitter and WhatsApp posts, but dissidents considered him as an important intellectual who maintained strong social media influence.

Relationship with disinformation

Some legal scholars (such as Tim Wu of Columbia University) have argued that the traditional issues of free speech—that "the main threat to free speech" is the censorship of "suppressive states", and that "ill-informed or malevolent speech" can and should be overcome by "more and better speech" rather than censorship—assumes scarcity of information. This scarcity prevailed during the 20th century, but with the arrival of the internet, information became plentiful, "but the attention of listeners" scarce. Furthermore, in the words of Wu, this "cheap speech" made possible by the internet " ... may be used to attack, harass, and silence as much as it is used to illuminate or debate". The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) has argued that "censorship cannot be the only answer to disinformation online" and that tech companies "have a history of overcorrecting and censoring accurate, useful speech—or, even worse, reinforcing misinformation with their policies."

According to Wu, in the 21st century, the danger is not "suppressive states" that target "speakers directly", but that:

History of dissent and truth

Before the invention of the printing press, a written work, once created, could only be physically multiplied by highly laborious and error-prone manual copying. No elaborate system of censorship and control over scribes existed, who until the 14th century were restricted to religious institutions, and their works rarely caused wider controversy. In response to the printing press, and the theological heresies it allowed to spread, the Roman Catholic Church moved to impose censorship. Printing allowed for multiple exact copies of a work, leading to a more rapid and widespread circulation of ideas and information (see print culture). The origins of copyright law in most European countries lie in efforts by the Roman Catholic Church and governments to regulate and control the output of printers.

In 1501, Pope Alexander VI issued a Bill against the unlicensed printing of books. In 1559, Pope Paul IV promulgated the Index Expurgatorius, or List of Prohibited Books. The Index Expurgatorius is the most famous and long-lasting example of "bad books" catalogues issued by the Roman Catholic Church, which presumed to be in authority over private thoughts and opinions, and suppressed views that went against its doctrines. The Index Expurgatorius was administered by the Roman Inquisition, but enforced by local government authorities, and went through 300 editions. Amongst others, it banned or censored books written by René Descartes, Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei, David Hume, John Locke, Daniel Defoe, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire. While governments and church encouraged printing in many ways because it allowed for the dissemination of Bibles and government information, works of dissent and criticism could also circulate rapidly. Consequently, governments established controls over printers across Europe, requiring them to have official licenses to trade and produce books.

The notion that the expression of dissent or subversive views should be tolerated, not censured or punished by law, developed alongside the rise of printing and the press. Areopagitica, published in 1644, was John Milton's response to the Parliament of England's re-introduction of government licensing of printers, hence publishers. Church authorities had previously ensured that Milton's essay on the right to divorce was refused a license for publication. In Areopagitica, published without a license, Milton made an impassioned plea for freedom of expression and toleration of falsehood, stating:

Milton's defense of freedom of expression was grounded in a Protestant worldview. He thought that the English people had the mission to work out the truth of the Reformation, which would lead to the enlightenment of all people. Nevertheless, Milton also articulated the main strands of future discussions about freedom of expression. By defining the scope of freedom of expression and "harmful" speech, Milton argued against the principle of pre-censorship and in favor of tolerance for a wide range of views. Freedom of the press ceased being regulated in England in 1695 when the Licensing Order of 1643 was allowed to expire after the introduction of the Bill of Rights 1689 shortly after the Glorious Revolution. The emergence of publications like the Tatler (1709) and the Spectator (1711) are credited for creating a 'bourgeois public sphere' in England that allowed for a free exchange of ideas and information.

More governments attempted to centralize control as the "menace" of printing spread. The French crown repressed printing and the printer Etienne Dolet was burned at the stake in 1546. In 1557 the British Crown thought to stem the flow of seditious and heretical books by chartering the Stationers' Company. The right to print was limited to the members of that guild. Thirty years later, the Star Chamber was chartered to curtail the "greate enormities and abuses" of "dyvers contentyous and disorderlye persons professinge the arte or mystere of pryntinge or selling of books". The right to print was restricted to two universities and the 21 existing printers in the city of London, which had 53 printing presses. As the British crown took control of type founding in 1637, printers fled to the Netherlands. Confrontation with authority made printers radical and rebellious, with 800 authors, printers, and book dealers being incarcerated in the Bastille in Paris before it was stormed in 1789.

A succession of English thinkers was at the forefront of early discussion on a right to freedom of expression, among them John Milton (1608–74) and John Locke (1632–1704). Locke established the individual as the unit of value and the bearer of rights to life, liberty, property and the pursuit of happiness. However, Locke's ideas evolved primarily around the concept of the right to seek salvation for one's soul. He was thus primarily concerned with theological matters. Locke neither supported a universal toleration of peoples nor freedom of speech; according to his ideas, some groups, such as atheists, should not be allowed.

By the second half of the 17th century philosophers on the European continent like Baruch Spinoza and Pierre Bayle developed ideas encompassing a more universal aspect freedom of speech and toleration than the early English philosophers. By the 18th century the idea of freedom of speech was being discussed by thinkers all over the Western world, especially by French philosophes like Denis Diderot, Baron d'Holbach and Claude Adrien Helvétius. The idea began to be incorporated in political theory both in theory as well as practice; the first state edict in history proclaiming complete freedom of speech was the one issued 4 December 1770 in Denmark-Norway during the regency of Johann Friedrich Struensee. However Struensee himself imposed some minor limitations to this edict on 7 October 1771, and it was even further limited after the fall of Struensee with legislation introduced in 1773, although censorship was not reintroduced.

John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) argued that without human freedom, there could be no progress in science, law, or politics, which according to Mill, required free discussion of opinion. Mill's On Liberty, published in 1859, became a classic defence of the right to freedom of expression. Mill argued that truth drives out falsity, therefore the free expression of ideas, true or false, should not be feared. Truth is not stable or fixed but evolves with time. Mill argued that much of what we once considered true has turned out false. Therefore, views should not be prohibited for their apparent falsity. Mill also argued that free discussion is necessary to prevent the "deep slumber of a decided opinion". Discussion would drive the march of truth, and by considering false views, the basis of true views could be re-affirmed. Furthermore, Mill argued that an opinion only carries intrinsic value to the owner of that opinion, thus silencing the expression of that opinion is an injustice to a basic human right. It is generally held that for Mill, the only instance in which speech can be justifiably suppressed is to prevent harm from a clear and direct threat. Neither economic or moral implications nor the speaker's own well-being would justify suppression of speech. However Mill in On Liberty suggests the speech of pimps — instigating clients and sex workers to have sex — should be restricted. This suggests he may be willing to restrict some speech that, while not harming others, undermines their decisional autonomy.

In her 1906 biography of Voltaire, Evelyn Beatrice Hall coined the following sentence to illustrate Voltaire's beliefs: "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it". Hall's quote is frequently cited to describe the principle of freedom of speech. Noam Chomsky stated, "If you believe in freedom of speech, you believe in freedom of speech for views you don't like. Dictators such as Stalin and Hitler, were in favor of freedom of speech for views they liked only. If you're in favor of freedom of speech, that means you're in favor of freedom of speech precisely for views you despise". Lee Bollinger argues that "the free speech principle involves a special act of carving out one area of social interaction for extraordinary self-restraint, the purpose of which is to develop and demonstrate a social capacity to control feelings evoked by a host of social encounters". Bollinger argues that tolerance is a desirable value, if not essential. However, critics argue that society should be concerned by those who directly deny or advocate, for example, genocide (see limitations above).

As chairman of the London-based PEN International, a club which defends freedom of expression and a free press, English author H. G. Wells met with Stalin in 1934 and was hopeful of reform in the Soviet Union. However, during their meeting in Moscow, Wells said, "the free expression of opinion—even of opposition opinion, I do not know if you are prepared yet for that much freedom here".

The 1928 novel Lady Chatterley's Lover by D. H. Lawrence was banned for obscenity in several countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, Canada, and India. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, it was the subject of landmark court rulings that saw the ban for obscenity overturned. Dominic Sandbrook of The Telegraph in the UK wrote, "Now that public obscenity has become commonplace, it is hard to recapture the atmosphere of a society that saw fit to ban books such as Lady Chatterley's Lover because it was likely to 'deprave and corrupt' its readers". Fred Kaplan of The New York Times stated the overturning of the obscenity laws "set off an explosion of free speech" in the U.S. The 1960s also saw the Free Speech Movement, a massive long-lasting student protest on the campus of the University of California, Berkeley, during the 1964–65 academic year.

In contrast to Anglophone nations, France was a haven for literary freedom. The innate French regard for the mind meant that France was disinclined to punish literary figures for their writing, and prosecutions were rare. While it was prohibited everywhere else, James Joyce's Ulysses was published in Paris in 1922. Henry Miller's 1934 novel Tropic of Cancer (banned in the U.S. until 1963) and Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover were published in France decades before they were available in the respective authors' home countries.

In 1964 comedian Lenny Bruce was arrested in the U.S. due to complaints again about his use of various obscenities. A three-judge panel presided over his widely publicized six-month trial. He was found guilty of obscenity in November 1964. He was sentenced on 21 December 1964, to four months in a workhouse. He was set free on bail during the appeals process and died before the appeal was decided. On 23 December 2003, thirty-seven years after Bruce's death, New York Governor George Pataki granted him a posthumous pardon for his obscenity conviction.

In the United States, the right to freedom of expression has been interpreted to include the right to take and publish photographs of strangers in public areas without their permission or knowledge. This is not the case worldwide.

Offences

In some countries, people are not allowed to talk about certain things such as Lèse-majesté which is an offence against the dignity of a reigning sovereign or against a state. Doing so constitutes an offence. For example, Saudi Arabia is responsible for executing journalist Jamal Khashoggi in 2018. As he entered the Saudi embassy in Turkey, a team of Saudi assassins killed him. Another Saudi writer, Raif Badawi, was arrested in 2012 and lashed.

On 4 March 2022, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed into law a bill introducing prison sentences of up to 15 years for spreading "fake news" about Russia's military operation in Ukraine. As of December 2022, more than 4,000 Russians were prosecuted under "fake news" laws. The 1993 Russian Constitution expressly prohibits censorship in Article 29 of Chapter 2, Rights and Liberties of Man and Citizen.

See also

 Academic freedom
 Artistic freedom
 Cancel culture
 Civil and political rights
 Digital rights
 Election silence
 Everybody Draw Mohammed Day
 Forced or compelled speech
 Free speech fights
 Freedom of thought
 Glasnost
 Global Network Initiative
 Hate speech
 Heckler's veto
 IFEX (organization)
 Illegal number
 Investigative journalism
 Je suis Charlie
 Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
 Jamal Khashoggi
 Legality of Holocaust denial
 Post–World War II legality of Nazi flags
 Strafgesetzbuch section 86a
 Verbotsgesetz 1947
 Bans on communist symbols
 Lolicon/Shotacon
 Legal status of drawn pornography depicting minors
 Simulated child pornography
 Market for loyalties theory
 Media transparency
 No Platform
 Open court principle
 Paradox of tolerance
 Parrhesia
 Photography Is Not a Crime
 Pirate Party
 Political correctness
 Rights
 Safety of journalists
 Stanley v. Georgia
 Symbolic speech
 Victimless crime

References

Further reading

 Shaw, Caroline. "Freedom of expression and the palladium of British liberties, 1650–2000: A review essay". History Compass (Oct 2020). Online.
 Minorities, Free Speech and the Internet. United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis, 2023.
 Jean Bricmont (2014), La république des censeurs, L'Herne, 176p.

External links

 Article19.org – global campaign for free expression
 Free Speech Debate – a research project of the Dahrendorf Programme for the Study of Freedom at St Antony's College in the University of Oxford
 Index on Censorship – an international organisation that promotes and defends the right to freedom of expression
 Media Freedom Navigator: Media Freedom Indices at a Glance, Deutsche Welle Akademie
 Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, Organization of American States

Fundamental rights
Human rights

Speech
Philosophy of law
Political philosophy
Censorship

Freedom of speech


In mathematics, a Sylvester domain, named after James Joseph Sylvester by ,  is a ring in which Sylvester's law of nullity holds. This means that if A is an m by n matrix, and B is an n by s matrix over R, then
ρ(AB) ≥ ρ(A) + ρ(B) – n
where ρ is the inner rank of a matrix. The inner rank of an m by n matrix is the smallest integer r such that the matrix is a product of an m by r matrix and an r by n matrix.

 showed that fields satisfy Sylvester's law of nullity and are, therefore, Sylvester domains.

References

Ring theory

Sylvester domain


Sara Teasdale (August 8, 1884January 29, 1933) was an American lyric poet. She was born Sarah Trevor Teasdale in St. Louis, Missouri, and used the name Sara Teasdale Filsinger after her marriage in 1914. In 1918 she won a Pulitzer Prize for her 1917 poetry collection Love Songs.

Biography

Sara Teasdale was born on August 8, 1884. She had poor health for much of her childhood, so she was home schooled until age 9. It was at age 10 that she was well enough to begin school. She started at Mary Institute in 1898, but switched to Hosmer Hall in 1899, graduating in 1903. The Teasdale family lived at 3668 Lindell Blvd. and then 38 Kingsbury Place in St. Louis, Missouri. Both homes were designed by Sara's mother. The house on Kingsbury Place had a private suite for Sara on the second floor. Guests entered through a separate entrance and were admitted by appointment. This suite is where Sara worked, slept, and often dined alone.

From 1904 to 1907, Teasdale was a member of The Potters, led by Lillie Rose Ernst, a group of female artists in their late teens and early twenties who published, from 1904 to 1907, The Potter's Wheel, a monthly artistic and literary magazine in St. Louis.

Teasdale's first poem was published in William Marion Reedy's Reedy's Mirror, a local newspaper, in 1907. Her first collection of poems, Sonnets to Duse and Other Poems, was published that same year.

Teasdale's second collection, Helen of Troy and Other Poems, was published in 1911. It was well received by critics, who praised its lyrical mastery and romantic subject matter.

From 1911 to 1914 Teasdale was courted by several men, including the poet Vachel Lindsay, who was truly in love with her but did not feel that he could provide enough money or stability to keep her satisfied. She chose to marry Ernst Filsinger, a longtime admirer of her poetry, on December 19, 1914.

Teasdale's third poetry collection, Rivers to the Sea, was published in 1915. It was and is a bestseller, being reprinted several times. In 1916 she and Filsinger moved to New York City, where they lived in an Upper West Side apartment on Central Park West.

In 1918 she won a Pulitzer Prize for her 1917 poetry collection Love Songs. It was "made possible by a special grant from The Poetry Society"; however, the sponsoring organization now lists it as the earliest Pulitzer Prize for Poetry (inaugurated 1922).

Filsinger's constant business travel caused Teasdale much loneliness. In 1929, she moved interstate for three months, thereby satisfying the criterion to gain a divorce. She did not wish to inform Filsinger, only doing so at her lawyers' insistence as the divorce was going through. Filsinger was shocked. After the divorce she moved only two blocks from her old home on Central Park West. She rekindled her friendship with Vachel Lindsay, who was now married with children.

In 1933, she died by suicide, overdosing on sleeping pills. Lindsay had died by suicide two years earlier. She is interred in Bellefontaine Cemetery in St. Louis.

Teasdale's suicide and "I Shall Not Care"
A common urban legend surrounds Teasdale's suicide.  The poem "I Shall Not Care" was speculated to be her suicide note because of its depressing undertone.  The legend claims that her poem "I Shall Not Care" (which features themes of abandonment, bitterness, and contemplation of death) was penned as a suicide note to a former lover. However, the poem was actually first published in her 1915 collection Rivers to the Sea, a full 18 years before her suicide:

I Shall Not Care
WHEN I am dead and over me bright April
Shakes out her rain-drenched hair,
Tho' you should lean above me broken-hearted,
I shall not care.

I shall have peace, as leafy trees are peaceful
When rain bends down the bough,
And I shall be more silent and cold-hearted
Than you are now.

Legacy and influence

 The poem "There Will Come Soft Rains" from her 1920 collection Flame and Shadow inspired and is featured in a famous short story of the same name by Ray Bradbury.
 Teasdale is the favorite poet of Arlington LeGrande, the main character of Jacquelyn Mitchard's novel The Most Wanted.
 Teasdale's poems "The New Moon", "Only in Sleep" and "Stars" were set as choral pieces by Ēriks Ešenvalds, a Latvian composer, for Musica Baltica. "Stars" has become widely known for its use of crystal glasses for a soothing sound of the 'stars'.
"I Shall Not Care" from the 1915 Collected Poems appeared in the 1966 young adult novel Up a Road Slowly by Irene Hunt.
She was a major influence on academic Marion Cummings.
Composer Amy Beach (1867-1944) set Teasdale's poem "Dusk in June" to music.
Composer Amy Aldrich Worth (1888-1967) set Teasdale's poem "Pierrot's Song" to music.
Composer Dagmar de Corval Rybner (1890-1965) used Teasdale's poems for her songs "Pastorale," "Pierrot," and "Swans."
In 1932, composer Mildred Lund Tyson set Teasdale's poem "Like Barley Bending" to music.
In 1937, the poet Orrick Glenday Johns wrote of her passing in his book, "Time of Our Lives: The Story of My Father and Myself".
 In 1967 Tom Rapp and the group Pearls Before Swine recorded a musical rendition of "I Shall Not Care" on their first album One Nation Underground.
 In 1994, she was inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame.
 Teasdale's poem "There Will Be Rest" has been set to music under multiple titles by different choral composers. In 2004, Craig Hella Johnson and Frank Ticheli composed "There Will Be Rest" for the Conspirare choral ensemble. Victor C. Johnson composed "Stars I Shall Find" in 2008.  In 2017, Z. Randall Stroope composed "And Sure Stars Shining"; additionally, Elaine Hagenberg composed "The Music of Stillness" that same year.
 In 2008, "There Will Come Soft Rains" was included in Fallout 3 alongside Ray Bradbury's short story of the same name. The poem is recited by a robot who has survived the nuclear apocalypse.
 In 2010, Teasdale's works were for the first time published in Italy, translated by Silvio Raffo.
 In 2003, American composer Timothy Hoekman set Teasdale's poem "Pierrot's Song" in his song cycle Serenade for tenor and piano.
In 2006, American composer Phyllis Zimmerman composed "Four Settings of Poems by Sara Teasdale" for choir, which was recorded on CD.
 In 2011, English composer Joseph Phibbs chose poems by Teasdale for his song-cycle From Shore to Shore, and the song "Pierrot", and in 2013-14 he returned to her texts for his six Moon Songs. He has also acknowledged her influence in his orchestral work Rivers to the Sea.
 In 1928 and 1931, respectively, Teasdale's poems "May Night" and "Dusk in June" were set to music by composer Marion Rogers Hickman.
 The Irish musician Tony Wright used the poem "There Will Come Soft Rains" as lyrics for a song of the same name. It was released as part of a double A side charity single for Help Musicians UK.
 In 2018, composer Hans Bridger Heruth set Teasdale's poem "Joy" to music in a piece commissioned by Dustin Cates and the Heartland Men's Chorus.
 In 2019, composer James McCarthy set several poems of Teasdale's to music for his work "Codebreaker: The Alan Turing Story," including "Deep in the Night," "Enough," "At Sea," "If Death is Kind," and "There Will Come Soft Rains."

 In 2022, composer Christopher Tin set several of Teasdale's poems to music as part of his album The Lost Birds.

In 2022, singer-songwriter Marina Anne Nolles (M.A.N) set Teasdale's poems to music in particular "I am not Yours" from book of poems "Love Songs". A connection between the poems and Marina Anne Nolles' great-grandmother's secret love story, gave birth to the musical project "Words Of Sara".

Works
 Sonnets to Duse and Other Poems (1907)
 Helen of Troy and Other Poems (1911)
 In the Train (1915)
 Rivers to the Sea (1915)
 Love Songs (1917)
 Flame and Shadow (1920)
 Dark of the Moon (1926)
 Stars To-night (1930)
 Strange Victory (1933)

References

Translations

 Llegarán suaves lluvias. Antología bilingüe. Edición y traducción de Juan Carlos Villavicencio, con prólogo de Luz María Astudillo y epílogo de Kurt Folch. Descontexto Editores, Santiago de Chile, 2018.
 Тисдейл С. Реки, текущие к морю: Избранные стихотворения (in Russian). – Moscow: 2011. – 192 pages.

External links

 Sara Teasdale Collection at the Harry Ransom Center
 Our Poets of Today by Howard Willard Cook (1918 book) (Internet Archive copy)
 Modern American poetry by Louis Untermeyer (1921 book) (Internet Archive copy). She wrote over 600 poems.

 Complete Poetical Works of Sara Teasdale (Delphi Classics)
 Sara Teasdale: Profile and Poems at Poets.org
 Sara Teasdale Collection. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
 Musical works to texts by Sara Teasdale at the International Music Score Library Project

1884 births
1933 deaths
1933 suicides
20th-century American poets
American women poets
Pulitzer Prize for Poetry winners
Poets from Missouri
Writers from St. Louis
Drug-related suicides in Missouri
Burials at Bellefontaine Cemetery
20th-century American women writers
Writers from the Upper West Side
Mary Institute and St. Louis Country Day School alumni

Sara Teasdale


The Strasbourg Music Festival (Festival de Musique de Strasbourg) (also International Music Festival in Strasbourg) was a prominent annual two-week festival of classical music. It took place in Strasbourg (Alsace), France every month of June.
The festival was founded in 1932 and has been organised by the Strasbourg Friends of Music Society. Due to budget constraints, it was brought to a sudden halt in 2014, a few days before the start of the 76th edition.

The Festival's usual venue had been the Palais des Fêtes and, after 1975, the Palais de la musique et des congrès.

See also
Musica (French music festival)

References

External links
 Strasbourg Music Festival - Official website (French only)
 Poster of the 1938 festival

Music festivals established in 1932
Classical music festivals in France
Annual events in France
1932 establishments in France
Festivals in Strasbourg

Strasbourg Music Festival


Meige's syndrome is a type of dystonia. It is also known as Brueghel's syndrome and oral facial dystonia. It is actually a combination of two forms of dystonia, blepharospasm and oromandibular dystonia (OMD).

When OMD is combined with blepharospasm, it may be referred to as Meige's Syndrome named after Henri Meige, the French neurologist who first described the symptoms in detail in 1910. The symptoms usually begin between the ages of 30 and 70 years old and appear to be more common in women than in men (2:1 ratio). The combination of upper and lower dystonia is sometimes called cranial-cervical dystonia. The incidence is about one case in 20,000 people.

Presentation
The main symptoms involve involuntary blinking and chin thrusting. Some patients may experience excessive tongue protrusion, squinting, light sensitivity, muddled speech, or uncontrollable contraction of the platysma muscle.  Some Meige's patients also have "laryngeal dystonia" (spasms of the larynx). Blepharospasm may lead to embarrassment in social situations, and oromandibular dystonia can affect speech, making it difficult to carry on the simplest conversations. This can cause difficulty in both personal and professional contexts, and in some cases may cause patients to withdraw from social situations.

The condition tends to affect women more frequently than men.

Symptoms
Oromandibular Symptoms
difficulty opening the mouth (trismus)
clenching or grinding of the teeth (bruxism)
spasms of jaw opening
sideways deviation or protrusion of the jaw
lip tightening and pursing
drawing back (retraction) of the corners of the mouth
deviation or protrusion of the tongue.
jaw pain
difficulties eating and drinking
difficulties speaking (dysarthria)

Blepharospasm symptoms
the first symptom to appear is an increased rate of blinking
uncontrollable squinting/closing of eyes
light sensitivity (photophobia)
squinting/eyes closing during speech
uncontrollable eyes closing shut (rare instances completely causing blindness)

In addition, in some patients, the dystonic spasms may sometimes be provoked by certain activities, such as talking, chewing, or biting. Particular activities or sensory tricks may sometimes temporarily alleviate OMD symptoms, including chewing gum, talking, placing a toothpick in the mouth, lightly touching the lips or chin, or applying pressure beneath the chin.

Diagnosis
Meige's is commonly misdiagnosed and most doctors will not be familiar with this condition due to its rare incidence. Usually, a neurologist specializing in psychomotor disorders can detect Meige's. There are currently no technological diagnostic tools to detect Meige's, as it cannot be identified using blood chemistry analysis or radiological imaging, such as MRI or CT scans. A patient presenting with signs of OMD alone may be misdiagnosed with TMJD.

Patients with idiopathic Meige's syndrome do not quickly respond to anticholinergic drug treatments, a diagnostic sign that can help differentiate it from acute dystonia, which does respond to anticholinergic drugs.

Upper and lower dystonia types
The Greek word blepharon means "eyelid". Spasm means "uncontrolled muscle contraction". The term blepharospasm ['blef-a-ro-spaz-m] can be applied to any abnormal blinking or eyelid tic or twitch resulting from any cause, ranging from dry eyes to Tourette's syndrome to tardive dyskinesia. The blepharospasm referred to here is officially called benign essential blepharospasm (BEB) to distinguish it from the less serious secondary blinking disorders. "Benign" indicates the condition is not life-threatening, and "essential" is a medical term meaning "of unknown cause". It is both a cranial and a focal dystonia. Cranial refers to the head and focal indicates confinement to one part. The word dystonia describes abnormal involuntary sustained muscle contractions and spasms. Patients with blepharospasm have normal eyes. The visual disturbance is due solely to the forced closure of the eyelids.

Oromandibular dystonia (OMD) is a form of focal dystonia that affects varying areas of the head and neck including the lower face, jaw, tongue and larynx.  The spasms may cause the mouth to pull open, shut tight, or move repetitively.  Speech and swallowing may be distorted.  It is often associated with dystonia of the cervical muscles (Spasmodic Torticollis), eyelids (Blepharospasm), or larynx (Spasmodic Dysphonia).

In patients with OMD, involuntary contractions may involve the muscles used for chewing (masticatory muscles). These may include the thick muscle in the cheek that closes the jaw (masseter muscle) and the broad muscle that draws back the lower jaw and closes the mouth (temporalis muscle). Some patients may also experience involuntary contractions of the wide muscle at the side of the neck (platysmal muscle). This muscle draws down the corner of the mouth and lower lip or other muscle groups.

Treatment
In some cases Meige's syndrome can be reversed when it is caused by medication. Botulinum toxin injections can be helpful for the blepharospasm and for masseter spasm.

See also
 Mogigraphia

References

External links

Extrapyramidal and movement disorders
Dystonia
Syndromes affecting the eye
Syndromes affecting teeth

Meige's syndrome


A lipid is a type of organic molecule found in living things. It is oily or waxy. Fats are made from lipid molecules. Sources of lipid can be found in algae, seeds, meat, cheese, butter and fish. Lipids are long chains of carbon and hydrogen molecules. Lipids are classified as simple and complex. Examples of complex molecules could be steroids or phospholipids.

A very important biological function of lipids is as lipid bilayers, the basis of many cell membranes. Another function of lipids is to serve as an energy reserve. Lipids can be hydrophobic (non-polar), or amphipatic (containing both polar and non-polar parts).

Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), glycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signalling, and acting as components of cell membranes.

References

Lipid


Rüdiger Heinze (born December 14, 1971, in Riesa, East Germany) is a film producer and screenwriter.

Life and work
In 1997 he went to Ludwigsburg to study film direction and later film production at the Film Academy Baden-Württemberg. In 2003 Rüdiger Heinze earned his university degree. He has worked several times as a film director. In 2008 he co-founded the production company Zum Goldenen Lamm.

Rüdiger Heinze produced the film The Two Lives of Daniel Shore, which was written and directed by Michael Dreher and was released in 2009.

Filmography (selection)
2003: The Troublemaker (Der Ärgermacher) (television producer)
2004: Don't Look for Me (Such mich nicht) (film producer)
2005: Rabenkinder (TV movie) (film producer)
2006: Der Generalmanager oder How to sell a Tit Wonder (co-director)
2007: Blind Flight (Blindflug) (co-producer)
2009: Parkour (screenwriter, film producer)
2009: Die zwei Leben des Daniel Shore (film producer)

Awards and nominations
Winner of the Sat.1 Talent Award for a comedy concept

References

External links

1971 births
Living people
People from Riesa
People from Bezirk Dresden
German film producers
Mass media people from Saxony

Rüdiger Heinze