Mary Loretta Landrieu ( ; born November 23, 1955) is an American entrepreneur and politician who served as a United States senator from Louisiana from 1997 to 2015. A member of the Democratic Party, Landrieu served as the Louisiana State Treasurer from 1988 to 1996, and in the Louisiana House of Representatives from 1980 to 1988.

Born in Arlington, Virginia, Landrieu was raised in New Orleans, Louisiana. She is the daughter of Moon Landrieu, former New Orleans mayor and secretary of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, and the sister of Mitch Landrieu, a former mayor of New Orleans and Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana. She received her baccalaureate degree from Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge. She won a close race for the U.S. Senate in 1996; she was re-elected by increasing margins in competitive races in 2002 and 2008, but was defeated in 2014 by U.S. Representative Bill Cassidy.

Landrieu came to national attention in the wake of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 after she publicly criticized the federal response to the natural disaster. Her opposition to the public option played a major role in the crafting of the 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as she did not agree to support it until additional concessions were granted to support Louisiana's Medicaid system. In 2011, she became a cardinal (chair) of the Senate's Homeland Security Appropriations Subcommittee. She chaired the Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship from 2009 to 2014, and chaired the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources from 2014 to 2015.

Early life, education, and real estate career
Landrieu was born in Arlington, Virginia, the daughter of Verna (née Satterlee) and Moon Landrieu, who served as mayor of New Orleans. She is the sister of Mitch Landrieu, the former mayor of New Orleans and lieutenant governor of Louisiana. She was raised in New Orleans as a Catholic and attended Ursuline Academy of New Orleans. While a student at Ursuline, Landrieu participated in the Close Up Washington civic education program. She graduated from Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge in 1977, where she was a member of Delta Gamma sorority.

Before entering politics, Landrieu worked as a real estate agent. She is Italian on her mother's side, and her family was among the large wave of Sicilian immigrants that came to Louisiana during the nineteenth century. Her mother, Verna Satterlee Landrieu, was the daughter of Kent Satterlee and Olga Helen Macheca. Landrieu has been repeatedly highlighted by the Order Sons of Italy in America as the first woman of Italian-American heritage to become a US senator. Her paternal great-grandmother Cerentha Mackey was the illegitimate child of a mixed-race black woman and an unknown father.

Early political career

State legislature
Landrieu was first elected to the Louisiana House of Representatives in 1979, serving from 1980 to 1988 and representing a New Orleans district. She was re-elected to the 90th district in October 1983 with 78% of the vote. In October 1987, she was succeeded in the 90th district by her brother Mitch.

On July 25, 1995, The Times-Picayune revealed that as a state representative, Landrieu awarded Tulane University tuition waivers to a former campaign manager.

State treasurer
On January 1, 1987, State Treasurer Mary Evelyn Parker, the longtime Democratic incumbent, resigned with nearly a year and a half left in her fifth term. Landrieu ran to succeed her in both the special and regularly scheduled elections, both held in October 1987. No Republican filed to run, so Landrieu faced only Democratic opponents. She came first on both ballots with 44%. She defeated two legislative colleagues, State Rep. Kevin P. Reilly, Sr., at the time chief executive officer of Lamar Advertising Company in Baton Rouge, who came second in the special and regular elections, with 33% and 32%, respectively, and State Rep. Claude "Buddy" Leach, a former U.S. Representative, who came third in both elections with 15%. Tom Burbank, son of Thomas D. Burbank Sr., former head of the state police, came in last in both elections with 9% of the vote. Reilly decided not to contest a runoff election, known in Louisiana as a "general election", and Landrieu won the treasurer's position by default. In 1991, Landrieu was unopposed for re-election.

1995 gubernatorial election
Landrieu declined to run for a third term as Treasurer, giving up the office to run for governor in the 1995 election. The other major candidates in the race were Democratic U.S. Representative Cleo Fields; State Senator Murphy J. Foster, Jr., who switched his party affiliation from Democratic to Republican when he filed; Democratic attorney Phil Preis; Republican former Governor Buddy Roemer; and Democratic Lieutenant Governor Melinda Schwegmann. Landrieu finished third in the state's nonpartisan blanket primary with 18% of the vote, finishing 8,983 votes behind Fields, who came second with 19% of the vote. Roemer came fourth with 18%, Preis was fifth with 9% and Schwegmann came sixth with 5%. Foster came first with 26% and went on to defeat Fields in the runoff with 64% of the vote. Landrieu was succeeded as state treasurer by her fellow Democrat Ken Duncan, a Baton Rouge attorney and businessman.

U.S. Senate

Elections

Landrieu was elected in 1996 to the U.S. Senate seat previously held by John Bennett Johnston, Jr. of Shreveport after winning a close and controversial runoff election. (The runoff election is what other states would call "the general election" of a federal seat.) She defeated state Representative Woody Jenkins of Baton Rouge. Landrieu narrowly won re-election in 2002. She defeated state Election Commissioner Suzanne Haik Terrell of New Orleans. Some experts and pundits had considered Landrieu as a possible running mate for presidential candidate John Kerry in the 2004 election before he selected then- Senator John Edwards of North Carolina. In 2004 Landrieu became Louisiana's senior senator upon the retirement of John Breaux, who was replaced by Republican David Vitter.

In 2008, she won a relatively comfortable 52% to 46% re-election to a third term in a race against her challenger, state Treasurer John Neely Kennedy. He was a former Democrat who switched to the Republican Party in 2007.

Landrieu sought re-election in 2014. Former President Bill Clinton campaigned on her behalf in Louisiana.  While Landrieu garnered 42% of the vote she fell short of the 50.1% required for re-election. She was defeated in the December 6, 2014, runoff election by her Republican opponent, Congressman Bill Cassidy, by a 56% to 44% margin.

Tenure
In 2002, she voted for the Iraq Resolution, and in 2003, she issued a statement indicating that, "The time for diplomacy has ended." She voted for the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 and the Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act.

In 2005, Landrieu sponsored a resolution, which the Senate passed in an unprecedented action, to formally apologize for its repeated failure in the early twentieth century to pass anti-lynching legislation. The Senate Southern white Democrats had filibustered the Dyer bill in 1922 and two other bills that passed the House. She held high-profile hearings on the mistakes of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in the wake of hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005.

Subsequent to the 2006 mid-term elections, in which the Democratic Party gained control of both houses of Congress, Landrieu announced (along with Republican Olympia Snowe of Maine) the formation of the "Common Ground Coalition", a group of moderate senators of both parties, with the goal of finding bipartisan consensus on legislative matters.

Landrieu voted to raise the estate tax exemption to $5 million in 2008, but voted against repeal of the estate tax in 2006.

On December 15, 2008, it was announced that Landrieu would become chairwoman of the Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship for the 111th Congress when former Chairman John Kerry left to lead the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, previously headed by Vice President-elect Joe Biden.

In September 2010, Landrieu announced she would hold up OMB director Jacob Lew's confirmation until the administration lifted or eased a federal freeze on deepwater oil-and-gas drilling. Her delay of Lew's nomination came despite broad bipartisan support for appointing him to OMB. The Senate Budget Committee recommended that Lew be confirmed on a 22–1 vote.

According to The Washington Post, Landrieu "is one of the lawmakers leading for more natural gas exports".

On December 18, 2010, Landrieu voted in favor of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010. In 2011, she became chairman of the Senate's Homeland Security Appropriations Subcommittee, giving her significant influence in the funding of federal agencies like the U.S. Coast Guard, Department of Homeland Security and FEMA. On April 17, 2013, Landrieu voted to expand background checks for gun purchases.

In April 2014, the United States Senate debated the Minimum Wage Fairness Act (S. 1737; 113th Congress). The bill would amend the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) to increase the federal minimum wage for employees to $10.10 per hour over the course of a two-year period. The bill was strongly supported by President Barack Obama and many of the Democratic senators, but strongly opposed by Republicans in the Senate and House. She wanted additional debate on the timeline and the raise for tipped workers. Landrieu said that "I do not believe that $10.10 an hour is too high to aspire to, but how quickly we get there and what increments, the tipped wage, how that should be handled, who should get paid the tipped wage, and who shouldn't. There are a lot of questions about that, and some of those discussions are going on."

Health care
Landrieu opposed the public health insurance option in the America's Affordable Health Choices Act of 2009 (HR 3200) until the bill was rewritten to send a $300,000,000 payment to Medicaid for her home state. When two pages were added to the bill to place $300 million in Louisiana's Medicaid system, she changed her web page in order to reflect her support of the program. Conservative figures referred to the deal as the "Louisiana Purchase". A typographical error in the bill resulted in $4.3 billion in additional funds for Medicaid for Louisiana. As a result, prominent conservative figures Glenn Beck and Rush Limbaugh called her a "high-priced prostitute". Days later, Sen. Landrieu took to the Senate floor to defend her vote by detailing the timeline of her Medicaid funding request. Landrieu noted her $300 million request was made before President Barack Obama was sworn into office.

On November 21, 2009, Landrieu voted with fifty-nine other senators to bring the health care bill up for debate. On December 8, 2009, she voted against the Nelson–Hatch–Casey amendment which proposed to ban federal funding for private plans that covered elective abortions but would have allowed individuals to purchase separate individual riders that would cover abortions. Prior to a concession of $300 million being added to the bill, Landrieu responded to a question on popular support of the public option, and asserted that the option has popular support because "when people hear 'public option' they hear 'free health care'. Everybody wants free health care. Everybody wants health care they don't have to pay for."

Landrieu voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (known as "Obamacare") in December 2009. In September 2013, Landrieu voted to restore funding for the ACA that House Republicans had eliminated in their version of the funding bill.

On March 1, 2012, Landrieu voted against a measure that would have repealed a birth control mandate in the health care bill. In October 2013, she introduced a bill to force health insurance companies to re-issue plans which they have cancelled.

Hurricane Katrina

In the weeks following Hurricane Katrina, Landrieu and fellow Senator David Vitter co-sponsored the Hurricane Katrina Disaster Relief and Economic Recovery Act of 2005 (S.1765), a 440-page aid package worth an estimated $250 billion The bill was read twice by Congress, then referred to the United States Senate Committee on Finance.

Separate legislation was passed to provide $1 billion in loans to communities affected by Katrina despite Landrieu's objection to the provision insisted on by Republicans that prohibited the loans from being forgiven. In 2007, when Democrats took control of the House and Senate, they passed legislation written by Landrieu that authorized FEMA to forgive the loans.
However, 40% of the loans were not forgiven by FEMA, which led Landrieu to insert addition provisions into the 2013 federal spending bill to forgive the remainder of these loans.

Landrieu's national name recognition rose in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina as she made multiple TV appearances to discuss the response effort. Landrieu was noted in The New York Times as becoming "a national spokeswoman for victims of the hurricane" as she complained of "the staggering incompetence of the national government."  She was particularly critical of President George W. Bush, who, in turn, was critical of her in his 2010 memoir Decision Points, in which he related telling her to be quiet after she interrupted him in a meeting with what he called an "unproductive emotional outburst".

Judicial nominations
Landrieu voted for the confirmation of Chief Justice John Roberts in 2005, but in 2006, she opposed Samuel Alito; she voted in favor of cloture to send the nomination to an up-or-down vote. She voted for both Sonia Sotomayor in 2009 and Elena Kagan in 2010.

USA PATRIOT Act
On August 3, 2007, Landrieu broke ranks with Democrats when she and Louisiana Rep. Charlie Melancon sided with Republicans and the Bush administration in voting for the Protect America Act, an amendment to the USA Patriot Act further expanding wiretap powers.

In 2011, she was the inadvertent Senate sponsor of the four-year extension to the Patriot Act when Senator Reid amended a small business bill introduced by Landrieu as a means of avoiding a threatened filibuster by Senator Rand Paul. Landrieu joined the majority in voting for the extension, which passed 72–23.

Conservative activists convicted in failed sting attempt
On January 25, 2010, four Republican conservative activists, including Stan Dai, Joseph Basel, both 24; Robert Flanagan, son of Bill Flanagan, acting U.S. Attorney in Louisiana; and conservative filmmaker James O'Keefe, were arrested by US Marshals and subsequently charged with entering a federal facility under false pretenses for entering Landrieu's New Orleans office under the guise of being telephone repairmen. The crew intended to record their interactions with Landrieu's staff. Two of the activists posed as telephone repair technicians in order to gain access to the telephone system. O'Keefe admitted to secretly "recording" the interactions with the staff with his cell phone and aiding in the "planning, coordination, and preparation of the operation."

On March 27, 2010, the U.S. Attorney reduced the charges to entering federal property under false pretenses, a misdemeanor charge. On May 26, 2010, all four pleaded guilty before Magistrate Daniel Knowles III in a New Orleans federal court. Three of the four received two years' probation, 75 hours of community service and $1,500 fines; while James O'Keefe received a sentence of three years' probation, 100 hours of community service and a $1,500 fine.

"Air Mary" controversy
There was a controversy over Landrieu's payment of airline flights with Senate money, some of which may have violated campaign finance law. Landrieu's opponents called attention to the controversy, launching a campaign called "Air Mary". Activists dressed as pilots, flight attendants, and ground crew workers greeted her at her campaign appearances.

In August 2014 after it was reported that Landrieu violated federal law by using taxpayer dollars to charter at least four private flights to campaign events Landrieu announced that she had ordered an internal investigation into all of her flights during her time in the Senate. In September 2014, Landrieu revealed that the internal investigation into her flights had concluded that since she had entered the Senate she had improperly charged her Senate office $33,700 for private flights to campaign events. Landrieu originally said the charter company mistakenly billed Landrieu's Senate office instead of her re-election campaign.

Committee assignments
 Committee on Appropriations
 Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development
 Subcommittee on Financial Services and General Government
 Subcommittee on Homeland Security (Chair)
 Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, Education, and Related Agencies
 Subcommittee on Military Construction and Veterans' Affairs, and Related Agencies
 Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs
 Committee on Energy and Natural Resources (Chair)
 Subcommittee on Energy
 Subcommittee on National Parks
 Subcommittee on Public Lands and Forests
 Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
 Subcommittee on Oversight of Government Management, the Federal Workforce, and the District of Columbia
 Ad Hoc Subcommittee on State, Local, and Private Sector Preparedness and Integration
 Ad Hoc Subcommittee on Disaster Recovery (Chair)
 Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship

Caucus memberships
 Senate Oceans Caucus
 Senate Natural Gas Caucus, co-chair
 Congressional Coalition on Adoption, co-chair
 Senate Caucus on Foster Youth, co-chair

Political positions

Landrieu was one of the more conservative Democrats in the U.S. Senate. The American Conservative Union rated Landrieu as 40% conservative in 2007, which was the highest score of any sitting Democrat and higher than the scores of two Republicans. As of 2012, her lifetime rating is 21%, which is the fourth highest rating among Democrats in the Senate.  For 2012 votes, National Journal ranked Landrieu as the 47th-most conservative member of the Senate, while the Times-Picayune found that she voted in support of President Obama's positions 97% of the time.

Abortion
Landrieu supports abortion rights. She has a 100% rating from the pro-choice group NARAL and a 0% rating from the pro-life group Louisiana Right to Life Federation.

Energy
Landrieu voted to confirm Gina McCarthy as the administrator of the EPA Landrieu supports the Keystone Pipeline and has called for President Obama to approve its construction.

Guns
Landrieu had a "C" rating from the NRA Political Victory Fund in 2013, and a "D" rating in 2014. The NRA-PVF endorsed her opponent, Bill Cassidy, in the 2014 Louisiana Senate race, running a specific attack campaign against Landrieu.

Internet sales tax
Landrieu voted in favor of an Internet sales tax.

Affordable Care Act
Landrieu voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, commonly known as "Obamacare". Critics claimed she withheld her vote until she had secured what is now referred to as the "Louisiana Purchase" originally for up to $300,000,000 in additional Medicaid funds to Louisiana, which, due to a typographical error in the healthcare bill, became an additional $4.3 billion for Louisiana's Medicaid program. Days later, Sen. Landrieu took to the Senate floor to defend her vote by detailing the timeline of her Medicaid funding request. Landrieu noted her $300 million request was made before President Obama was sworn into office. When asked by reporters in 2013, Sen. Landrieu said that she would vote for it again if she were given a chance.

Same-sex marriage
Landrieu personally supports same-sex marriage, but defended the state's constitutional ban on the grounds that a majority of Louisianans voted for it.

Personal life
Landrieu and her husband, attorney Frank Snellings, have two children, Connor and Mary Shannon, and one grandson, Maddox. In December 2014 Frank was the subject of an article in The Irish Times, having rediscovered his Irish family 44 years after he was adopted in Ireland by the Snellings family from Louisiana.

Electoral history

1995 gubernatorial election

1996 Senate election

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2002 Senate election

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2008 Senate election

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2014 Senate election

Bill Cassidy ran for the Senate in 2014 against three term incumbent Mary Landrieu. Cassidy was endorsed by Republican Senator David Vitter. Cassidy defeated Landrieu in the run-off election held on December 6, 2014, winning 56% of the vote while Landrieu received 44% of the vote. Cassidy thus became the first Republican to occupy the seat since William P. Kellogg left it in 1883.

Post-Senate career
Landrieu is a Senior Policy Advisor for Van Ness Feldman, a DC Law Firm. She became a strategic adviser to the Walton Family Foundation in April 2015. Landrieu is also a member of the pro-Israel group American Israel Public Affairs Committee.

In December 2018, Landrieu and a bipartisan group of former U.S. senators co-authored an opinion piece in The Washington Post urging the Senate to protect the Special Counsel Investigation led by special counsel Robert Mueller.

See also
 Women in the United States Senate
 Conservative Democrat

References

Further reading

External links

 Mary Landrieu official Senate Website (archived)

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1955 births
1992 United States presidential electors
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American women politicians
21st-century American politicians
21st-century American women politicians
Centrism in the United States
Democratic Party United States senators from Louisiana
Female United States senators
Mary
Living people
Louisiana State University alumni
Democratic Party members of the Louisiana House of Representatives
Politicians from Arlington County, Virginia
Politicians from New Orleans
State treasurers of Louisiana
The Graduate School of Political Management faculty
Women state legislators in Louisiana
Women state constitutional officers of Louisiana
American people of Italian descent
Members of Congress who became lobbyists
American people of African descent

Mary Landrieu


The Association is an American pop music group. It  formed in California, United States in 1965. The group was formed by Jules Alexander, Terry Kirkman, Russ Giguere, Jim Yester, Brian Cole, and Ted Bluechel Jr. They have many popular songs such as Cherish, Never My Love, Windy, and Along Comes Mary.

Brian Cole died from an overdose of Heroin on August 2, 1972. He was age 29.

Larry Ramos joined the group in 1967. He died from melanoma on April 30, 2014 at the age of 72.

American pop music groups

The Association


The Wairarapa Railway Restoration Society is a railway heritage and preservation community group in the town of Carterton, in the Carterton District of Wairarapa on New Zealand's lower North Island.  The society has leased the Carterton railway station building through the Carterton District Council, though it is owned by the New Zealand Railways Corporation.

The society operates a museum from the station using volunteer labour, in which items of railway and other local historical interest are on display.  This includes static displays in the station building, as well as items of railway rolling stock which are stored in the station yard.  The Wairarapa Line runs through the site and the station also serves as a stop for the Wairarapa Connection passenger train.

History

The impetus for the formation of the society was a proposal in the 1980s to demolish the historic station building at Carterton station and replace it with a more modern structure. Some concerned locals formed a group in 1990 with the goal of preventing this and restoring the station building. The museum opened a short time later.

After recovering from an arson attack in 1993, the refurbishment was finally completed in 1996.

Since then, the society has been responsible for maintenance of the buildings and fences at the site, and has worked with other local like-minded groups to acquire items of local historical interest for their archives and display in the Carterton Railway Museum at the Carterton railway station.

Affiliated groups

The society is a member of the following organisations:
 Wairarapa Heritage Association
 Federation of Rail Organisations of New Zealand (FRONZ)

The society has also worked with the Carterton District Historical Society to acquire memorabilia for the museum, and has the support of the Carterton District Council and Rail Heritage Trust of New Zealand.

Museum

The museum normally opens to the public on Sundays. Displays include:
 Rolling stock
 Photographs
 Railway artefacts
 Waingawa station building
 Railway signalling apparatus
 Railway motor trolleys
 A&G Price Shunting locomotive TR class 170 (TMS TR724) - stored offsite

Upon occasion, the society has been involved in or associated with plans to relocate other buildings of historical railway interest in the Wairarapa to the Carterton station precinct for preservation purposes, including the Greytown station goods shed (currently located on West Street in Greytown) and the class 6 passenger shelter building from Solway station.

References

External links

Rail transport in Wellington
Railway museums in New Zealand
Museums in the Wellington Region
Carterton, New Zealand

Wairarapa Railway Restoration Society


Sakawa is a Ghanaian term for illegal practices which combine modern Internet-based fraud with African traditionalist rituals. The term or word Sakawa is an Hausa word which means putting inside, how to make money. The rituals, which are mostly in the form of sacrifices, are intended to spiritually manipulate victims so that the scammer's fraud is successful.  The term Sakawa referred to specific online scams but has since broadened to include all types of online frauds and scams mainly targeting foreigners. The scammers flaunt stylish clothes, luxury cars, and enormous wealth, in order to promote this act. In impoverished areas, it can be seen as a way of survival for some.

Scammers involved in this practice call themselves Sakawa boys. A culture has developed around Sakawa which has influenced music and clothing brands. Movies depicting the lifestyle have become popular, a movement led by Ghanaian filmmaker Socrate Safo.

See also
Crime in Ghana
Nigerian scam

References

External links
 The Sakawa Boys, a documentary about the phenomenon.
A Look at the Real African Social Engineers, an article on Sakawa culture.
The Anatomy Of a Sakawa Scam, an article detailing sakawa type frauds.

Crime in Ghana
Internet fraud
Telecommunications in Ghana
Crimes involving Satanism or the occult

Sakawa


Essex and Suffolk Water is a water supply company in the United Kingdom. It operates in two geographically distinct areas, one serving parts of Norfolk and Suffolk, and the other serving parts of Essex and Greater London. The total population served is 1.8 million. Essex and Suffolk is a 'water only' supplier, with sewerage services provided by Anglian Water and Thames Water within its areas of supply. It is part of the Northumbrian Water Group.

History
The South Essex Waterworks Company and the Southend Waterworks Company merged to form the Essex Water Company in 1970. In 1994 the Essex Water Company merged with Suffolk Water Company to form Essex and Suffolk Water. Since 2000 it has been part of Northumbrian Water, but continues to trade under the Essex and Suffolk Water name in the area.

Southend Waterworks Company
The Southend Waterworks Company had its origins in Southend-on-Sea in 1865 when a private undertaking constructed a well in Milton Road. A pumping station pumped the water to a reservoir on Cambridge Road. In 1871, the Southend Waterworks Company Limited was formed, and bought the works. The company became a statutory undertaker in 1879, which restricted the amount of money they could borrow, the profits they could retain and the dividend payable to shareholders, but gave them powers to lay pipes beneath public streets and on private land.

By 1924, the company were supplying an area of  bounded on the south by the River Thames, on the north by the River Crouch, and stretching westwards to the outskirts of Shenfield. As the volume of water required increased, additional wells were sunk, until there were 36 wells or boreholes in operation. They penetrated a layer of London clay near the surface, and continued into the sands of the Lower London tertiary deposits below that, but the yields obtained were generally poor and gradually diminished over time. In 1921 the company started to look at extracting water from rivers, but failed to obtain parliamentary approval for a joint scheme with the South Essex Waterworks Company to obtain water from the River Stour on the border between Essex and Suffolk. They therefore developed a scheme to extract water from the River Blackwater, the River Chelmer and its tributary, the River Ter. An Act of Parliament was obtained in August 1924, to enable construction of Langford Works, to the west of Maldon.

The project involved the construction of intakes on the Chelmer and Ter, so that water from either or both could be fed into a concrete pipeline which was  in diameter and  long. The water flowed by gravity along the pipeline to two sedimentation reservoirs each covering  and capable of holding . Water from the Blackwater intake at Langford Mill is pumped to the sedimentation reservoirs. From there the water flows by gravity to the Langford pumping station. In order to maintain the quality of the water, effluent discharged from the Chelmsford sewage treatment works on the Chelmer and the Witham sewage treatment works on the Blackwater was piped to new outfalls below the intakes.

When built, the Langford pumping station contained two triple-expansion steam engines, with room for a third, which was fitted in 1931. There were used in pairs, and each drove a low lift pump to transfer water to the treatment works, and a high lift pump to take treated water and pump it along a  cast iron pipe to Southend. The pipe crossed below the River Crouch at Hullbridge, where shafts were built on either side of the river, and a tunnel was constructed between them. The water main is formed of twin steel tubes within the tunnel. The Oakwood storage reservoir was constructed in Bramble Crescent, Hadleigh (51°33'53.3"N 0°37'43.4"E). This was supplied with water from Langford, firstly by the 28-inch main and later by an additional 32-inch main. Oakwood (elevation 65 metres) was the main storage reservoir supplying treated water to Southend by gravity. Additional storage reservoirs were added at Oakwood, increasing the capacity to 17 million gallons (77.2 Ml). The engines were normally worked in pairs, and a pair could deliver  per day. In August 1927, water from the Chelmer started to be used, and between then and 1945, 96 per cent of the water supplied by Southend Waterworks came from Langford. The wells and boreholes were maintained, to provide a backup supply when necessary.

In 1960, work began on replacing the steam engines at Langford pumping station with semi-automatic electric pumps. The project cost £260,000, and was formally inaugurated on 31 October 1963, when Sir George Chaplin, the Chairman of Essex County Council, switched on the new pumps. In the late 1960s, construction of a new treatment works next to the storage reservoirs began. The works cost £1.5 million, and were opened on 30 June 1970. They can produce  of treated water per day. Earlier that year, the Essex Water Order was passed by Parliament, and on 1 April Southend Waterworks Company amalgamated with South Essex Waterworks Company to become the Essex Water Company. Negotiations between Maldon District Council, Essex and Suffolk Water and other interested parties in 1996 resulted in the Langford pumping station and its one remaining engine, dating from 1931, becoming the fledgling Museum of Power.

South Essex Waterworks Company
The South Essex Waterworks Company was formed in 1861, and supplied drinking water to an area of  stretching from Grays to East Ham and from Brentwood to the River Thames. Water was obtained from boreholes sunk into the chalk aquifer underlying the area, but by the time of the First World War, these supplies were not sufficient to meet the demand for water, and so the company looked further afield. Following the failure of the joint scheme with Southend Waterworks Company, they obtained an Act of Parliament in 1928 for a revised scheme which included a water treatment works at Langham with an intake from the River Stour. Treated water was pumped from the works to Tiptree works, and was pumped from there to a reservoir at Danbury. It then flowed by gravity to another storage reservoir at Herongate and then into the distribution network. One condition of the Act was that the company had to supply water to other local authorities which were outside their original supply area.

Although the Langham works could supply  per day, and came online in 1932, they estimated that they would still be facing a shortage by the end of the decade. The company obtained another Act of Parliament in 1935 for a second abstraction point on the Stour. This was located at Stratford St. Mary, about  downstream from the Langham intake. A pumping station pumped up to  of water per day to the new Abberton Reservoir, and a new treatment works was built at Layer de la Haye near its northern shore. Treated water was pumped to Tiptree, where it was blended with water from Langham. The pipeline from Stratford St. Mary was  long, while Abberton Reservoir covers an area of  and lies in the valley of the Layer Brook. When full, it could hold . Layer treatment works could process  per day, and the system was designed to store water from winter rainfall for use in the summer months.

Construction of the reservoir began in March 1936 and continued until the start of the Second World War in 1939. To pass under the River Colne, shafts were constructed on either side of the river, and a  diameter tunnel was excavated between the shafts. The miners worked in compressed air, and twin pipes of  diameter were run through the tunnel. The original pipeline consisted of bitumen-lined steel tubes, some  and some  in diameter. A second pipeline of  diameter pipes was subsequently installed. Filling of the reservoir began in 1939 and was completed by the end of 1940. Some minor commissioning work, including the Abberton pumping station, was delayed until the end of hostilities. The project cost £500,000. Many of the construction workers came from Durham, and some stayed on to run the works, including Stanley Aldridge, who had been the engineer, and became the general manager of the Layer works.

Joint projects

Although the Southend Waterworks Company and the South Essex Waterworks Company did not formally unite until 1970, they co-operated on two major projects prior to that date. These were the construction of Hanningfield Reservoir and the Ely-Ouse to Essex Transfer Scheme.

The construction of Hanningfield Reservoir, which was authorised by the Hanningfield Water Order 1950, and began in 1951, was a joint venture between the two companies. It was built in the Sandon Valley, to the north of Wickford, and covered the hamlet of Peasdown. A  mass earth dam with a puddle clay core was built across the north-east edge of the site, and a new  pipeline was built from the Langford pumping station to supply the reservoir. The main contractors for the project were W&C French, and it took around five years to complete, with the treatment works beginning production in August 1956. The formal opening took place over a year later, when Henry Brooke, MP, the Minister of Housing and Local Government, performed the ceremony in September 1957. The total cost of the project was £6 million, and when full, the reservoir can hold . If supplies around  or treated water per day, although the maximum throughput of the works is  per day. Water levels fluctuate seasonally, and during the winter months, up to  per day are pumped into the reservoir via the Langford pipeline.

In order to meet the rising demands for water faced by both companies, the next major project was the Ely-Ouse to Essex Transfer Scheme. Surplus water in the River Great Ouse, which would otherwise flow into the sea, was to be diverted via a series of channels, tunnels and pipelines to augment supplies to the Abberton and Hanningfield reservoirs. At the northern end, the Cut Off Channel carries the headwaters of the River Lark, the River Little Ouse and the River Wissey to the Great Ouse at Denver Sluice, when those rivers are in flood. An intake was constructed at Blackdyke, close to the Little Ouse, and a tunnel carries the water to a pumping station at Kennett. From there a  pipeline carries the water to Kirtling Green Outfall, where it enters Kirtling Brook, a tributary of the River Stour. Further down the Stour, some of the water is removed from the river by Wixoe pumping station. A  diameter pipeline carries it to the Great Sampford outfall, where it is discharged into the River Pant, the name of the upper reaches of the River Blackwater. Construction of the scheme was completed in 1971.

Suffolk Water plc

The Great Yarmouth Waterworks Company was set up in 1853, authorised by the Great Yarmouth Waterworks Act 1853. They built a waterworks at Ormesby Broad, from where water flowed by gravity into Great Yarmouth. Two steam engines raised the water up to some filter beds. The construction of the distribution network of pipes through the town was completed in 1855, when the Ormesby Waterworks was opened.

Public water supply in Lowestoft also began in 1853, with the creation of the Lowestoft Water, Gas and Market Company. They retained this name until 1897, when they became the Lowestoft Water and Gas Company. The company had an authorised capital of £25,000, and bought the gas works for £5,000. Water was supplied to a tower at Kirkley from a well at Middle West Field, and subsequently from a lake at Bunkers Hill, Lound. From there it was pumped through a  pipeline to a covered reservoir located to the north of the town.

Both the company and the Great Yarmouth company were finding that the supplies were inadequate for the populations of the two towns, particularly are there was a large seasonal tourist trade, and in 1906, they attempted to get authorisation for extracting water from the River Bure. The bill faced a rough passage through Parliament, as there were objections to parts of it from Norfolk County Council, the Great Yarmouth Corporation, the Great Yarmouth Court Commissioners, the London Drainage Commissioners, the Ecclesiastical Commissioners for England, and some private individuals. The chief concerns were that removing water from the Bure would impede navigation, and that the quality of the water would be poor, and unfit to supply as drinking water. However, the bill eventually became the Great Yarmouth Waterworks and Lowestoft Water and Gas Act 1907.

The two companies amalgamated in 1962 to become the East Anglian Water Company. The merger was sanctioned by the East Anglian Water Order 1962, using the powers of the Water Act 1945. By this time the Lowestoft Water and Gas Company was known as the Lowestoft Water Company, as all gas companies had been nationalised in 1948. A further change of name occurred on 18 January 1991, when it became Suffolk Water plc, and the new company was taken over by Essex Water on 8 April 1994, to become Essex and Suffolk Water. Both were owned by the French company  at the time.

Essex and Suffolk Water
In order to provide improved supplies to Great Yarmouth, the company bought most of the Trinity Broads in 1995. These are isolated from the River Bure by a narrow channel, and have been further protected by the installation of a sluice gate. They were designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest in 1998. Osmesby Works is situated by the side of Ormesby Broad, and can treat water from the broads. A second source of water is pumped some  from the River Bure to the works. Parts of the works date from the 1930s, and others from the 1950s, but a major upgrade was completed in 2005, to enhance the treatment of water from the broads, which is affected by algal bloom for around a quarter of each year.

In order to meet long-term supply requirements, the company looked at several options, and in 1997 settled on expanding the capacity of Abberton Reservoir. After ten years of design work and a lengthy tendering process, work began in January 2010 on a project costed at £150 million, to increase the capacity of the reservoir by 58 per cent, and to upgrade the capacity of the Ely-Ouse Essex Transfer Scheme. The clay core of the main dam was raised by , to allow the water level to be raised by , increasing the surface area of the reservoir from  to . The original pumping station which pumped water to Layer de la Haye treatment works would have been submerged by the new water levels, and so had to be demolished and rebuilt at a higher level. In order to keep the system operational while this was being done, a temporary pumping station was built on the shore of the reservoir. The new station can deliver  of raw water per day to the works. Other enhancements at the reservoir site included the construction of a new visitor centre for the Essex Wildlife Trust, and work on the B1026 causeway, which crossed the reservoir at a height where it would be below the level of the new water surface.

With the capacity of the reservoir increased from , two new pipelines were constructed, to improve the transfer of water from the Ouse. The Ely Ouse to Essex Transfer Scheme was licensed to allow  per day to be transferred, but the pumps at the Kennett pumping station could not deliver this volume, and the maximum permitted discharge into the river at Kirtling Green was  per day. As part of the upgrade, three additional pumps were installed at Kennett. Around  of new underground pipeline was constructed from Kirtling Green in Suffolk, along the banks of the Stour to Wixoe, where the water discharges into the river. Most is  in diameter, but this reduces to  for the final , where the gradient is steeper. It can deliver an additional  per day into the river system. Further down the river, a new pumping station was constructed at Wormingford, to remove the water from the river and pump it to Abberton. The pumping station pumps the water for approximately  to a break tank, from where it can flow by gravity to the reservoir. Most of the two pipelines were installed using cut and cover techniques, but the southern pipeline passes under the River Colne and beneath the A12 road and the East Coast railway to the west of Colchester. Twin shafts,  in diameter and  deep were excavated, and  of  diameter bored tunnel passed under both the road and the railway. The pipeline was then laid through the tunnel and grouted in. The entire project was completed in 2014.

Supply area
The company supplies water to an area of  in southeast Norfolk, east Suffolk, Essex and the London boroughs of Barking and Dagenham, Havering and Redbridge in Greater London. The total population served is 1.8 million, through over 735,000 domestic connections and over 47,000 non-household connections. Essex and Suffolk is a 'water only' supplier, with sewerage services supplied by Anglian Water (Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk and part of Upminster) and Thames Water (Greater London and part of Brentwood).

Bibliography

References

External links

Water companies of England
Companies supplying water and sanitation to London

Essex and Suffolk Water


Atheism is rejecting the belief in a God or gods.
It is the opposite of theism, which is the belief that at least one god exists. A person who rejects belief in gods is called an atheist. Adding an a, meaning "without", before the word theism results in atheism, or literally, "without theism".

Atheism is not the same as agnosticism: agnostics say that there is no way to know whether gods exist or not. Being an agnostic does not have to mean a person rejects or believes in god. Some agnostics are theists, believing in god. The theologian Kierkegaard is an example. Other agnostics are atheists. Gnosticism refers to a claim of knowledge. A gnostic has sufficient knowledge to make a claim. Adding an a, meaning "without", before the word gnostic results in agnostic, or literally, "without knowledge".

While theism refers to belief in one or more gods, gnosticism refers to knowledge. In practice, most people simply identify as a theist, atheist, or agnostic.

History of atheism
Anaxagoras was the first known atheist. He was an Ionian Greek, born in Clazomenae in what is now Asia Minor. He travelled to other Greek cities, and his ideas were well known in Athens. Socrates mentioned that his works could be bought in Athens for a drachma. Eventually he was prosecuted and condemned for impiety, and banished from Athens.

Anaxagoras' beliefs were interesting. He thought the Sun was not a god, and was not animated (alive). The Sun was "a red-hot mass many times larger than the Peloponnese". The Moon was a solid body with geographical features, and made of the same substance as the Earth. The world was a globe (spherical).

Reasons for atheism
Atheists often give reasons why they do not believe in a god or gods. Three of the reasons that they often give are the problem of evil, the argument from inconsistent revelations, and the argument from nonbelief. Not all atheists think these reasons provide complete proof that gods cannot exist, but these are the reasons given to support rejecting belief that gods exist.

Some atheists do not believe in any god because they feel that there is no evidence for any god nor gods and goddesses, so believing any type of theism means believing unproved assumptions. These atheists think a simpler explanation for everything is methodological naturalism which means that only natural things exist. Occam's razor shows simple explanations without many unproved guesses are more likely to be true.

Etymology

The word "atheism" comes from the Greek language. It can be divided into a- (ἄ), a Greek prefix meaning "without", and theos (θεός), meaning "god", and recombined to form "without gods" or "godless". In Ancient Greece it also meant "impious".

Starting in about the 5th century BC, the word came to describe people who were "severing relations with the gods" or "denying the gods". Before then, the meaning had been closer to "impious". There is also the abstract noun,  (), "atheism".

Cicero transliterated the Greek word into the Latin atheos. This word was often used in the debate between early Christians and Hellenists. Each side used it to label the other, in a bad way.

Karen Armstrong writes that "During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the word 'atheist' was still reserved exclusively for polemic ... The term 'atheist' was an insult. Nobody would have dreamed of calling himself an atheist."
Atheism was first used to describe an openly positive belief in late 18th-century Europe, meaning disbelief in the monotheistic Abrahamic god.
The 20th century saw the term expand to refer to disbelief in all deities. However, it is still common in Western society to describe atheism as simply "disbelief in God".

Atheism in society

In many places, it is (or was) a crime to make public the idea of atheism. Examples would be to claim the Bible or Qur'an could not be true, or to speak or write that there is no god.

Muslim apostasy, that is becoming an atheist or believing in a god other than Allah, may be a dangerous act in places with many conservative Muslim people. Many religious courts have punished and some still punish this act with the death penalty. Many countries still have laws against atheism. Although it is considered by most Muslim scholars to be a sin, not all agree, that is should be punishable. For example, "Surah Al Kafirun" in the Quran is clearly stating everyone's freedom to choose his religion and beliefs. The laws against Atheism in the Muslim World is not universal, and is based on each society's interpretation of the Holy Book.

Atheism is becoming more common, mainly in South America, North America, Oceania and Europe (by percentage of people that had a religion before and started to be atheist).

In many countries, mainly in the Western world, there are laws that protect atheists' right to express their atheistic belief (freedom of speech). This means that atheists have the same rights under the law as everyone else. Freedom of religion in international law and treaties includes the freedom to not have a religion.

Today, about 2.3% of the world's population describes itself as atheist. About 11.9% is described as nontheist.
Between 64% and 65% of Japanese describe themselves as atheists, agnostics, or non-believers,
and up to 48% in Russia. The percentage of such people in European Union member states ranges between 6% (Italy) and 85% (Sweden). In the United States, according to Pew and Gallup—two of the most reputable polling firms in America—both conclude that about 10% of Americans say they do not believe in God, and this figure has been slowly creeping up over the decades. The real number is likely higher than this, due to the stigma around atheism.

Defining atheism
People disagree about what atheism means. They disagree on when to call certain people atheists or not.

Implicit and explicit atheism
Atheism is generally described as not believing in God.

George H. Smith created the expressions "implicit atheism" and "explicit atheism" to describe the difference between different types of Atheism. Implicit atheism is when you do not believe in God because you do not know about the concept of God. Explicit atheism is when you do not believe in God after learning about the idea.

In 1772, Baron d'Holbach said that "All children are born atheists; they have no idea of God".

In 1979 George H. Smith said that: "The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would also include the child [who is able to] grasp the issues involved, but who is still unaware of those issues. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist".

Those two quotes describe implicit atheism.

Ernest Nagel disagrees with Smith's definition of atheism as an "absence of theism", saying only explicit atheism is true atheism. This means that Nagel believes that to be an atheist, a person needs to know about God and then reject the idea of God.

"Weak" and "strong" atheism
Philosophers like Antony Flew,
have looked at strong (sometimes called positive) atheism against weak (sometimes called negative) atheism. According to this idea, anyone who does not believe in a god or gods is either a weak or a strong atheist.

Strong atheism is the certain belief that no god exists. An older way of saying strong atheism is to say "positive atheism". Weak atheism is all other forms of not believing in a god or gods. An older way of saying weak atheism is to say "negative atheism" These terms have been used more in philosophical writing and in Catholic beliefs.
since at least 1813.
Under this definition of atheism, most agnostics are weak atheists.

Michael Martin says that agnosticism includes weak atheism. Some agnostics, including Anthony Kenny, disagree. They think being an agnostic is different from being an atheist. They think atheism is no different from believing in a god, because both require belief. This overlooks the reality that agnostics also have their own belief or "claim to knowledge".

Agnostics say that it cannot be known if a god or gods exist. In their view, strong atheism requires a leap of faith.

Atheists usually respond by saying that there is no difference between an idea about religion with no proof, and an idea about other things
The lack of proof that god does not exist does not mean that there is no god, but it also does not mean that there is a god.
Scottish philosopher J.J.C. Smart says that "sometimes a person who is really an atheist may describe herself, even passionately, as an agnostic because of unreasonable generalised philosophical skepticism which would preclude us from saying that we know anything whatever, except perhaps the truths of mathematics and formal logic".
So, some popular atheist authors such as Richard Dawkins like to show the difference between theist, agnostic and atheist positions by the probability assigned to the statement "God exists".

Atheism in daily life
In everyday life, many people define natural phenomena without the need of a god or gods. They do not deny the existence of one or more gods, they simply say that this existence is not necessary. Gods do not provide a purpose to life, nor influence it, according to this view.
Many scientists practice what they call methodological naturalism. They silently adopt philosophical naturalism and use the scientific method. Their belief in a god does not affect their results.

Practical atheism can take different forms:
 Absence of religious motivation—belief in gods does not motivate moral action, religious action, or any other form of action;
 Active exclusion of the problem of gods and religion from intellectual pursuit and practical action;
 Indifference—the absence of any interest in the problems of gods and religion; or
 Unawareness of the concept of a deity.

Theoretical atheism
Theoretic atheism tries to find arguments against the existence of god, and to disprove the arguments of theism, such as the argument from design or Pascal's Wager. These theoretical reasons have many forms, most of them are ontological or epistemological. Some rely on psychology or sociology.

Positions of well-known philosophers

Immanuel Kant
According to Immanuel Kant, there can be no proof of a supreme being that is made using reason. In his work, "Critique of Pure Reason", he tries to show that all attempts of either proving the existence of God, or disproving it, end in logical contradictions. Kant says that it is impossible to know whether there are any higher beings. This makes him an agnostic.

Ludwig Feuerbach
Ludwig Feuerbach published The Essence of Christianity in 1841. In his work he postulates the following:
 Religion is not only a historical or transcendental fact, but most of all an achievement of human consciousness, its mind or its imagination.
 All religions are only different in their form, but they have one thing in common: They are projections of unmet needs of human nature. God, and all religious content is nothing more than psychological projections. The material causes of these projections are rooted in the nature of human beings.

The following phrases sum up Feuerbach's writing:
 Man created God in his image
 Homo homini Deus est ('Man is a god to Man')

Related pages
 Secular humanism
 Agnosticism
 State atheism
 Law of three stages
 God is dead

References

Books

 Martin, Michael, ed. (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Atheism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Smith, George, Atheism: The Case Against God, (1974).

Philosophical movements and positions

Atheism


The National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF), was a communist army based in South Vietnam that fought against the governments of South Vietnam and the United States during the Vietnam War (1955-75). The group is better known as the Viet Cong (Việt Cộng) or V.C., short for "Vietnamese Communist." American soldiers called the Vietnamese communist forces Charlie (which is the letter "C" in the NATO phonetic alphabet), whether North Vietnamese or Viet Cong.

The group was made up of people from both South and North Vietnam. Most of the people in the group were communists but some members were not communists, but the main leaders were. The Viet Cong used guerilla warfare, including terrorist bombings, assassinations, and ambushes. The group is best known for the Tet Offensive, a surprise attack on many South Vietnamese cities that began in January 1968 during Tet, or the Vietnamese New Year. The group was closely allied with the government of North Vietnam, which conquered the South in 1975.

According to Re-thinking Camelot (Noam Chomsky 1993), the NLF resistance was in part the result of terror that was inflicted by the government of South Vietnam, which was backed and guided by the US, while the NLF was peacefully awaiting the national elections that had been promised by the Geneva Accords of 1954.

Some, however, accuse Chomsky of minimizing the communists' atrocities and of exaggerating those of their opponents.

History
After the Geneva Agreement, Vietnam was temporarily divided into two regions. The people of the North and the Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam resolutely fought for the implementation of the Geneva Agreements in order to achieve peaceful reunification of Vietnam.

References

Vietnam War
National liberation movements
Rebel militia groups in Asia
Communism
1954 establishments in Asia
1976 disestablishments in Asia

Viet Cong


John Beckett (born 1958) is an English musician, actor and record producer.  He is best known for being a former guitarist of Adam and the Ants under the name Johnny Bivouac, during which time he recorded the track "Deutscher Girls" with the band, later a UK Top 15 hit single.  As an actor, he is best known for the role of Strings in the police sitcom Operation Good Guys.

Adam and the Ants and other bands
In June 1977, Beckett was guitarist in the band Desolation Angels when their drummer, David Barbarossa was recruited away from the group by a recently formed punk band, The Ants, who had supported them at a concert in Chelsea that month.  Four months later, after the Ants sacked their guitarist Mark Ryan, Beckett was recruited as his replacement and took the stagename Johnny Bivouac.  Bivoauc stayed with the band, shortly thereafter renamed Adam and the Ants, until May 1978, recording the band's first Peel session on 23 January 1978 and the following day recording Deutscher Girls for the soundtrack album of Derek Jarman's film Jubilee. Label E.G. Records released the track as a single A side in February 1982, to cash in on the later commercial success of the Ants' early 1980s incarnation.  This reached 13 on the UK Singles Chart.

After leaving the band, Bivouac was a member of Ryan's band Lustralarza and later Swim.  In 1980 he was invited to join the new Ants as bass player, but declined, with the role eventually going to Kevin Mooney. He has continued to use the pseudonym Johnny Bivouac for any guitar credits since leaving the Ants.

Production work
Later on, Bivouac set up his own studio facility to help develop his production and composition, while continuing to work live with various bands as a guitarist and, occasionally, keyboard player. He worked as a composer and producer on various corporate videos and advertising jingles before composing his first work for mainstream television   Carlton's The Spooks of Bottle Bay. He has since worked on numerous film and TV projects as either composer, music producer, music supervisor and/or performer.

Beckett has produced and remixed artists as diverse as Freddie Mercury, Denise van Outen and Rolf Harris.  He also dabbled in hard-core techno with the project Vagen, following his scoring of a three-part series about the history of the Volkswagen Beetle.

Fugitive Group
In the 1990s, Beckett became a partner in British independent film/TV company Fugitive Features (responsible for such films as The Krays, Death Machine and The Passion of Darkly Noon), initially running their music publishing division, Fugitive Music Ltd. Soon he was involved in all areas of the company's activities including production, administration and music supervision. As of November 2010 he was a director of the Group.

Acting
Beckett appeared as Strings in the BBC comedy series Operation Good Guys, where he portrayed a musically frustrated policeman. This led to further roles in the films Final Cut and Love, Honour and Obey.

References

External links

Living people
1958 births
English rock guitarists
English record producers
English television actors

Johnny Bivouac


Peary Charan Sircar (also spelled Pyari Churn Sircar or Pyari Charan Sircar in contemporary documents; 1823–1875), was an educationist and textbook writer in nineteenth century Bengal. His series of Reading Books introduced a whole generation of Bengalis to the English language, sold in the millions and were translated into every major Indian language. He was also a pioneer of women's education in Bengal and was called 'Arnold of the East'.

Early life and family
Sircar was born at Chorbagan in North Calcutta. His family hailed from Taragram in Hooghly district of West Bengal, and the family name was originally Das. For services rendered, the Nawab of Bengal had awarded the title 'Sarkar' to Bireshwar Das, an ancestor. Bhairav Chandra Sarkar, Pyari Charan's father, had become quite wealthy as a ship chandler serving the East India Company, and the family was a fairly good example of the new bhadralok class. Sarkar was and educated at David Hare's Pataldanga School, and admitted to Hindu College, but shortly afterwards his father and then one of his brothers died. His eldest brother was working in Hooghly and could only send money to their mother; as a Hindu widow she had little standing in the family and was ejected from the family home, along with Sircar and his younger brothers and sisters.

Sircar was forced to leave college and take up a job in 1843 as a teacher at the Hooghly School; his teachers gave him glowing certificates and praised his acumen in mathematics and English. In the same year (1843) his essay 'On the Effect upon India of the New Communication with Europe by Means of Steam' appeared in the Department of Public Instruction's Report on Education. Sarkar became headmaster of Barasat School (later named Barasat Peary Charan Sarkar Government High School in his honour), in 1846, and occupied the post till 1854.

His son, J.N. Sircar, Esq., Barrister-at-Law, was a lawyer who practised in the Central Provinces and Berar. He was one of the earliest Indian students of Balliol College, Oxford. A great-nephew of his was Brajendranath De, Esq., ICS, who was the District Magistrate and Collector of Hooghly, and Commissioner (Offgt.) of Burdwan.

The Barasat Girls' School

At Barasat, two brothers, Nabin Krishna Mitra and Kalikrishna Mitra, offered in 1847 to fund Bengal's first private school for girls if Sarkar would agree to help set it up. The school (later renamed Kalikrishna Girls' High School) began operations, but Barasat was an extremely conservative Brahmin-majority area and the residents were outraged. Swapan Basu, in his biography of Sircar, alleges that rumours circulated that several landlords were offering money to have Sircar assassinated (p. 24). At this juncture John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune stepped in to help. He exhorted the financiers not to give up, and with time the opposition weakened. Bethune visited the Barasat school in 1848, and was so impressed that in 1849 he set up the Bethune School for Girls in Calcutta. Sircar continued to be active in campaigning for women's education, helping to set up several more such schools, including a technical and an agricultural school. In 1854, with a stipend of two hundred rupees, he was appointed headmaster of the Colootollah School and was responsible for changing its name to Hare School.

Presidency College
In 1863 he was appointed as a temporary lecturer at Presidency College, Kolkata, and in 1867 he was made permanent. There was some opposition to this as he had never completed his education, but in those days this was not so unusual as it later was to become, and Sircar's abilities were plainly evident to the authorities.

Sircar continued his campaigning for women's rights, donating two and a half thousand rupees (then a huge sum of money) to the Widow remarriage Fund in 1869. In 1873, he became a member of the working committee of Keshub Chunder Sen's Society for the Suppression of Vice in Indian Society. He was also associated with the Bengal Temperance Society. Keshab Chandra Sen later took up his work on temperance in Indian Reform Association.

Even after he was appointed as Assistant Professor at Presidency College, he used to visit Colootollah school and take a few classes whenever he could. He was a very meticulous teacher and always corrected his students' work minutely. He also insisted that they learn practical skills as well, and used to teach them gardening. In 1875, while working in his garden, he cut his finger. The wound turned gangrenous and an operation failed to save his life. He died on 1 October.

The Reading Books
The First Book of Reading for Native Children was published in 1850, probably by the School Book Press, and the rest of the Reading Books (numbers two to six) came out between 1851 and 1870, not necessarily in sequence. In 1875 Sarkar's friend and colleague at Presidency College, E. R. Lethbridge, proposed a revision of the books and began negotiations with Thacker and Spink of Calcutta to republish them. However, at around this time Lethbridge was contacted by Macmillan and Company and (rather unethically) he gave the books to them. Thacker had already printed a few copies and when this was discovered Macmillan had to buy them up and soothe Thacker's ruffled feelings.
Macmillan were looking for a ready made series with which to launch their Indian publishing business.

Other achievements

He played a significant role in the Bengal Renaissance. Apart from his role in initiating women's education and impressing upon people to send their daughters to school when Bethune school was opened, he played a pioneering role in the teaching of agriculture in a scientific manner. He set up a vocational training centre for the children of women workers and was instrumental in opening many new schools. He was one of the patrons of Hindu Mela.

He took charge of editing the government newspaper Education Gazette in 1866, but resigned from that position when he was not allowed to publish certain news. He took a leading part to promote prohibition and was one of the founders of Eden Hindu Hostel.

He published two newspapers named Well Wisher and Hitasadhak.

Sources
Sangsad Bangla Charitrabhidhan (The Sangsad Dictionary of Biography) (Calcutta: Sahitya Sangsad, 1998) (Bengali language source).
Swapan Basu, Pyari Charan Sarkar, (Calcutta: Bangla Sahitya Akademi, 2001) (Bengali language source).

References

1823 births
1875 deaths
Bengali Hindus
Bengali educators
19th-century Bengalis
Hare School alumni
Academic staff of Presidency University, Kolkata
Academic staff of the University of Calcutta
Bengali writers
19th-century Indian educational theorists
Writers from Kolkata
People from Hooghly district
Founders of Indian schools and colleges
19th-century Indian non-fiction writers
19th-century Indian educators
19th-century Indian male writers
Educators from West Bengal
Indian writers
Indian male writers
Indian educators
Indian non-fiction writers
Indian male non-fiction writers
Indian educational theorists
Educationists from India
Indian editors
Indian newspaper editors

Peary Charan Sarkar


A visor can be

 The bill of a baseball cap or similar hat.

 A ball cap without the crown.

 An opaque panel mounted over the windshield of an automobile or other vehicle that the driver or front seat passenger can adjust to block direct sunlight.

 Green eyeshade - a green tinted visor commonly associated with old fashioned accountants, telegraphers and copy editors formerly to lessen eye strain.

Hats

Visor


The Killing Room is a 2009 psychological thriller film directed by Jonathan Liebesman and starring Clea DuVall, Nick Cannon, Chloë Sevigny and Timothy Hutton. It premiered at the 2009 Sundance Film Festival. It was distributed internationally by ContentFilm.

Plot
Four individuals sign up for a psychological research study only to discover that they are now subjects of a brutal, modern version of the Project MKULTRA indoctrination program. One by one, the subjects are brought into a large, white room, in which the tables and chairs have been bolted to the floor.

They are each given a questionnaire to fill out. In the meantime, a researcher enters the room, ostensibly to give an overview of the study. He indicates to the subjects—three men and a woman—that the study will take approximately eight hours to complete, at which time they will each be paid $250. Upon completing his introduction, the researcher shoots the female subject in the head with a gun and promptly leaves the room.

Over the next few hours, the remaining three male subjects will be subjected to additional physical and psychological brutality. Only one subject will survive the ordeal. This subject manages to escape into the building. The loudspeaker gives details of where the subject is in the building. It is then realized that the subject is going where he is supposed to be. He ends up in a room with two other males tied to their chairs. The loudspeaker then states that phase 2 is to begin.

It is revealed, during the last subject's escape attempt, that the goal of the covert program is to achieve in human civilians a phenomenon similar to apoptosis in cells (a comparison noted in the film), by developing "civilian weapons" akin to suicide bombers.

Cast
 Chloë Sevigny as Ms. Emily Reilly
 Nick Cannon as Paul Brody
 Timothy Hutton as Crawford Haines
 Shea Whigham as Tony Mazzola
 Peter Stormare as Dr. Phillips
 Clea DuVall as Kerry Isalano

Reception
, the film holds a 71% approval rating on ratings aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, based on seven reviews with an average rating of 5.79/10. MTVs Larry Carroll labeled it as the "best movie" at Sundance 2009, praising it as "brutal, daring and utterly unpredictable". Alongside other films with a claustrophobic air, he characterised it as "Cube with better actors. Reservoir Dogs without the hipness. Lifeboat with a modern spin on war-time paranoia."

References

External links

2009 films
2009 independent films
2009 psychological thriller films
Films scored by Brian Tyler
Films directed by Jonathan Liebesman
American psychological thriller films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films

The Killing Room


Silvia Olari (born 17 July 1988) is an Italian pop, rock, soul and R&B singer. She made her debut under Warner Music after she participated in the famous Italian talent show Amici di Maria De Filippi in 2008.

Career

Early life
Silvia Olari was born in Parma on 17 July 1988 and lives in Fornovo di Taro, a little town near that city, with her parents. When she was only 8 years old she began to study classic piano under Jolanda Degli Innocenti at the music school Il Podio in Noceto (Parma). A year later, in the same school, under Daniela Galli she began to study modern singing. When she was 12 she took part in different provincial and regional events, getting great scores. When she was 14 she began to study lyric technique and singing, and continued for another year and half studying modern singing with her teacher Michela Ollari. In 2002 she changed direction in her musical career, combining together her singing and piano. When she was 17 she studied singing with Stefania Rava.

In 2002 she started to perform away from Parma and reached the semi-final of Festival di Napoli and Accademia di Sanremo. Between 2004 and 2006 she took part in important competitions in the north of Italy, coming first in Una voce per Sanremo in 2005, and again at the following year's Il Cantaestate in Mantova. In 2007 she won first prize at the City Voices in Nozza di Vestone (Brescia), and thanks to this event she attended the Luca Pitteri's singing stage. She took second place at Controfestival in Castelleone (Cremona), won the Publisher song section of 2005's Live Song Festival in Traversetolo (Parma) and in 2007 the critics' prize.

Amici di Maria De Filippi 2007
She progressed in the summer of 2007 through the casting stages of the Italian talent show Amici di Maria De Filippi, but at the first show on Canale 5, failed to be admitted.

In November 2007 she participated in the Marcafestival in Treviso, where she was placed third. In December she won the Festivalmare in Forte dei Marmi (Lucca), while in February she took part in the Festival di Ghedi, where she attended a stage with Gatto Panceri. At the end of the show she classified got second place with the song Georgia on my mind, and she won a scholarship for the Hope Music School of Rome.

Amici di Maria De Filippi 2008
On 4 October 2008 Silvia Olari again passed all the auditions for the talent show Amici di Maria De Filippi, and at her first public introduction was described as "a unique talent that no one can miss". From the first period on the show she had three songs included in the show's cd compilation album "Scialla". On 4 January she progressed to the next section of the show where all the participants challenged for first place. Unexpectately, Silvia was eliminated on February 18. Despite some critics of the show and one of the show's teacher, Luca Jurman, asking for her readmission, the other participants did not accept this, even though the public had previously expressed in her favour.

To the present
After her departure from the Amici di Maria De Filippi, she obtained a recording contract with Warner Music Italy, that had already expressed interest when she still was in the show. Her self-titled first album "Silvia Olari" was released on 10 April 2009. It contained 7 tracks, with two of them having been previously released on the "Scialla" compilation album. The first single from her album, Fino all'Anima, was written by Nek and arranged by Luca Jurman. Jurman also collaborated as musician and arranger for all the cd. In 2009, the debut album was certified silver by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry with sales of over fifteen thousand albums.

Discography

Albums

Singles

Compilations
 2009 – Scialla (with other contestants of Amici)

Videography

References

External links
 Official Site Silvia Olari

1988 births
Living people
Italian pop singers
English-language singers from Italy
21st-century Italian singers
21st-century Italian women singers

Silvia Olari


The 2020 Pacific typhoon season was an event in which typhoons formed in the Pacific Ocean. The season lasts all year, although most tropical cyclones form between May and October. The season's first tropical cyclone formed on May 10, making it the sixth-latest start in the basin on record.

Typhoon Vongfong (Ambo), the season's first storm, became a Category 3 typhoon and struck the Philippines, causing extensive damages during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Season summary

The first few months of 2020 were extremely quiet, with no tropical systems developing between the months of January and April. On May 10, the season saw its first tropical system with the development of Ambo, making it the sixth-latest starting season on record, as well as the latest since 2016. Two days later, the system strengthened to the first officially named tropical storm of the season, Vongfong. Vongfong then hit the Philippines at peak intensity, and weakened soon after landfall.

After Vongfong, a month of inactivity ensued, and on June 10, a new tropical depression formed off the coast of Samar, and was named Butchoy by the PAGASA a day later. Butchoy made landfall in the Philippines as the JTWC issued a tropical cyclone formation alert for it. It then got upgraded to a tropical storm, and impacted Hong Kong, Macau and parts of China upon landfall.

Typhoon Vongfong

A low-pressure area near Micronesia slowly organized over the course of a few hours, and developed into a tropical depression soon after. It became the first tropical cyclone to form in the Western Pacific in 2020, and PAGASA named it "Ambo". Favourable sea temperatures, low wind shear and excellent vertical outflow made the system intensify into a tropical storm, then the JMA named it "Vongfong".

Less than a day later, when convection started to rapidly organize around the storm's center, and a well-defined rain band at the northwest side of the storm, JTWC upgraded it to a typhoon. Vongfong made landfall on Samar Island at around 12 PM Philippines Time. It began to weaken because of many landfalls over the Philippines, and emerged into the South China Sea on May 17. It turned north and dissipated due to high wind shear the next day, just south of Taiwan.

Tropical Storm Nuri
On June 10, the JMA began monitoring on a weak tropical depression that had developed to the east of the Philippine island of Samar in Visayas. During the next day, the PAGASA began tracking the system, giving the local name Butchoy. The storm then made its first landfall in Polillo Island in Quezon at 5:30 pm PHT, and making its second landfall in Infanta, Quezon shortly thereafter. Soon after, the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert for the storm. Afterwards, the JTWC officially upgraded Butchoy to a tropical depression, and designated it as 02W. With a favorable environment with low vertical wind shear, moderate equatorial outflow and 30–31 °C sea surface temperatures, Butchoy started to intensify in the South China Sea, becoming a tropical storm and receiving the name Nuri from the JMA later on the same day. Then, PAGASA issued their final warning on Nuri as it exited the Philippine Area of Responsibility. By the next day, Nuri intensified further and subsequently peaked in intensity, with the JMA analyzing the storm's peak winds of 75 kilometres per hour (47 mph). Six hours later, the JTWC upgraded Nuri to a tropical storm. However, later in the same day, the JTWC downgraded Nuri into a tropical depression, citing that the storm has drifted into high vertical wind shear. The JMA followed suit, downgrading Nuri into a depression. The JTWC issued their final warning on Nuri as the storm subsequently made landfall in Yanjiang, China. The JMA followed suit six hours later, issuing their final warning on the system.

The PAGASA issued Tropical Cyclone Signal No. 1 for western Mindanao, southern Luzon, and Visayas on June 11 as Butchoy neared the Philippines. The combination of the system and prevailing southwesterly winds brought showers and thunderstorms across the Philippines. Heavy rainfall in Albay led to the activation of disaster risk management officials and other emergency assets. The rains from the tropical depression prompted PAGASA to declare the start of the rainy season in the Philippines on June 12, 2020, which was also during the country's Independence Day. In Hong Kong, Nuri brought heavy rain. One person also drowned due to rough waters.

Tropical Depression Carina
A tropical depression tracked by PAGASA and Japan Meteorological Agency

References

2020 Pacific typhoon season

2020 Pacific typhoon season


Wallpaper is a kind of paper used to cover walls inside of houses and buildings.  Wallpaper is used to decorate the inside of buildings instead of paint.  It is sold in rolls and are put onto a wall using wallpaper paste. Wallpapers can come either plain (so that it can be painted), or with pictures or patterns.

"Wallpaper" is also a word for a picture on a computer monitor.

Photo wallpapers are wallpapers with an image applied to them. Consist of parts (the number of parts depends on the size). The image is applied using large-format printers (plotter) or offset printing.

History
Wallpaper was first used in Europe around the year 1500.  In the time of Henry VIII the English aristocrats couldn't get as many tapestries from France, so they used more English wallpaper instead.  During The Protectorate, the Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell banned wallpaper.  However, by 1750 people made great use of wallpaper and made better wallpaper.

How to get rid of wallpaper

Water
Water is the easiest way to get rid of wallpaper.  Water makes the wallpaper paste become not sticky, then the wallpaper falls off.

Chemicals
Sometimes the wallpaper paste is too strong for water, then special chemicals need to be used to make the paste not sticky.  Most of the time only new wallpaper has to be taken off with chemicals.

Steam
Hot water makes it easier to remove wallpaper.  There are special machines that people can use to make water into steam and use it to remove wallpaper.

References

Paper
Construction
Walls
Printmaking

Wallpaper


The MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive is a website maintained by John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson and hosted by the University of St Andrews in Scotland. It contains detailed biographies on many historical and contemporary mathematicians, as well as information on famous curves and various topics in the history of mathematics.

The History of Mathematics archive was an outgrowth of Mathematical MacTutor system, a HyperCard database by the same authors, which won them the European Academic Software award in 1994. In the same year, they founded their web site.  it has biographies on over 2800 mathematicians and scientists.

In 2015, O'Connor and Robertson won the Hirst Prize of the London Mathematical Society for their work. The citation for the Hirst Prize calls the archive "the most widely used and influential web-based resource in history of mathematics".

See also
 Mathematics Genealogy Project
 MathWorld
 PlanetMath

References

External links

 Mathematical MacTutor system

Works about the history of mathematics
Mathematics websites
University of St Andrews

MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive


Craig S. Harris (born September 10, 1953) is an American jazz trombonist, who started working with Sun Ra in 1976. He also has worked with Abdullah Ibrahim, David Murray, Lester Bowie, Cecil Taylor, Sam Rivers, Muhal Richard Abrams, and Charlie Haden. He has recorded since 1983 as leader for India Navigation, Soul Note and JMT. For the latter he recorded with two groups. The Tailgater's Tales was a quintet with clarinetist Don Byron, trumpeter Eddie Allen, Anthony Cox on double bass, and Pheeroan akLaff on drums. His large ensemble Cold Sweat was a tribute to the music of James Brown.

He is a graduate of the music program of State University of New York at Old Westbury, and was influenced by its founder and director Makanda Ken McIntyre. Harris's move to New York City in 1978 established him with trombonists Ray Anderson, Joseph Bowie, and George E. Lewis.

He first played alongside another of his teachers at SUNY, baritone saxophonist Pat Patrick, in Sun Ra's Arkestra for two years. Harris than embarked on a world tour with South African pianist Abdullah Ibrahim (Dollar Brand) in 1981. While on tour in Australia, Harris discovered the indigenous Australian wind instrument the didgeridoo, which he added to the collection of instruments he plays.

Discography

As leader
 Aboriginal Affairs (India Navigation, 1983)
 Black Bone (Soul Note, 1984)
 Tributes (OTC, 1985)
 Shelter (JMT, 1987)
 Blackout in the Square Root of Soul (JMT, 1988)
 Cold Sweat Plays J. B. (JMT, 1989)
 4 Play (JMT, 1990)
 F-Stops (Soul Note, 1994)
 Istanbul (Doublemoon, 1998)
 Souls Within the Veil (Aquastra Music, 2005)

As sideman
With Muhal Richard Abrams
 Blues Forever (Black Saint, 1982)
 Rejoicing with the Light (Black Saint, 1983)
 Song for All (Black Saint, 1997)

With David Murray
 Murray's Steps (Black Saint, 1983)
 Live at Sweet Basil Volume 1 (Black Saint, 1985)
 Live at Sweet Basil Volume 2 (Black Saint, 1985)
 New Life (Black Saint, 1987)
 David Murray Big Band (DIW, 1991)
 Hope Scope (Black Saint, 1991)
 Picasso (DIW, 1993)
 South of the Border (DIW, 1995)
 Dark Star: The Music of the Grateful Dead  (Astor Place, 1996)
 Fo Deuk Revue (Enja, 1997)
 Octet Plays Trane (Justin Time, 2000)
 Yonn-Dé (Justin Time, 2002)
 Now Is Another Time (Justin Time, 2003)
 Perfection with Geri Allen and Terri Lyne Carrington (Motema, 2016)
 Blues for Memo (Motema, 2018)

With Sun Ra
 Live at Montreux (Saturn Research, 1976)
 Cosmos (Cobra, 1976)
 Unity (Horo, 1978)
 Sleeping Beauty (El Saturn, 1979)
 Strange Celestial Road (Rounder, 1980)
 A Quiet Place in the Universe (Leo, 1994)

With others
 Ahmed Abdullah, Traveling the Spaceways (Planet Arts, 2004)
 Ayibobo, Freestyle (DIW, 1993)
 Billy Bang, Hip Hop Be Bop (ITM, 1993)
 Lester Bowie, I Only Have Eyes for You (ECM, 1985)
 Dollar Brand, African Marketplace (Elektra, 1980)
 Dollar Brand, At Montreux (Enja, 1980)
 Don Byron, Bug Music (Nonesuch, 1996)
 Carla Cook, Dem Bones (Maxjazz, 2001)
 Paulinho da Costa, Sunrise (Victor, 1984)
 Joseph Daley, The Seven Deadly Sins (Jaro, 2010)
 Lena Horne, Lena Horne: The Lady and Her Music (Qwest, 1981)
 Joseph Jarman, Earth Passage - Density  (Black Saint, 1981)
 The Roots, The Roots Come Alive (MCA, 1999)
 Sekou Sundiata, LongStoryShort (Righteous Babe, 2000)
 Warren Smith, Dragon Dave Meets Prince Black Knight from the Darkside of the Moon (Porter, 2011)
 Henry Threadgill, When Was That? (About Time, 1982)
 Henry Threadgill, Just the Facts and Pass the Bucket (About Time, 1983)
 World Saxophone Quartet, Experience (Justin Time, 2004)
 World Saxophone Quartet, Political Blues (Justin Time, 2006)

References

American jazz composers
American jazz trombonists
Male trombonists
Avant-garde jazz musicians
Free jazz trombonists
People from Hempstead (village), New York
1953 births
Living people
India Navigation artists
State University of New York at Old Westbury alumni
Jazz musicians from New York (state)
21st-century trombonists
American male jazz composers
21st-century American male musicians
JMT Records artists
Black Saint/Soul Note artists

Craig Harris


is a Japanese professional baseball pitcher and designated hitter for the Los Angeles Angels of Major League Baseball (MLB). He previously played for the Hokkaido Nippon-Ham Fighters of Nippon Professional Baseball's (NPB) Pacific League.

Ohtani was the first pick of the Fighters in the 2012 draft. He played in NPB for the Fighters from 2013 through 2017 as a pitcher and an outfielder. Ohtani recorded the fastest pitch by a Japanese pitcher and in NPB history at 165 kilometres per hour (102.5 mph). The Fighters posted Ohtani to MLB after the 2017 season, and he signed with the Angels. He won the 2018 American League Rookie of the Year Award. He hit for the cycle on June 13, 2019.

1994 births
Japanese baseball players
Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim players
Los Angeles Angels players
Sportspeople from Iwate Prefecture
Living people

Shohei Ohtani


WWE Anthologyはアメリカのプロレス団体WWEが2002年11月12日に発売したコンピレーション・アルバム。3枚組CDで発売され、それぞれTHE FEDERATION YEARS、THE ATTITUDE ERA、NOW!にわかれており、計86曲もの新旧スーパースターの入場曲を収録している。

収録曲

The Federation Years
 "World Wrestling Federation Signature"
 "Real American" (Hulk Hogan)
 "Hitman" (Bret Hart)
 "Walkabout" (The Bushwhackers)
 "Together" (Randy Savage and Miss Elizabeth's Wedding)
 "It's All About the Money" (Ted DiBiase)
 "Snake Bit" (Jake Roberts)
 "Bad Boy" (Razor Ramon)
 "No Holds Barred" (Theme to No Holds Barred)
 "Unstable" (The Ultimate Warrior)
 "I Love You" (Brother Love)
 "Cool Cocky Bad" (The Honky Tonk Man)
 "One Two Three" (The 1-2-3 Kid)
 "Sweet Lovin' Arms" (Bertha Faye)
 "Can't Get Enough" (Flash Funk)
 "I Know You Want Me" (Sunny)
 "I'll Be Your Hero" (Lex Express)
 "Sexy Boy" (Shawn Michaels)
 "Los Boricuas" (Los Boricuas)
 "Schizophrenic" (Mankind)
 "Smokin'" (The Smoking Gunns)
 "Sumo" (Yokozuna)
 "Snapped" (Sycho Sid)
 "Tell Me a Lie" (Shawn Michaels Tribute)
 "Enough Is Enough" (Owen Hart)
 "With My Baby Tonight" (Jesse James)
 "Wild Cat" (Sable)
 "You Start the Fire" (Bret Hart Tribute)
 "Diesel Blues" (Diesel)
 "Dude's Shack" (Mick Foley)
 "Power" (Nation of Domination)
 "Corporate Ministry" (Corporate Ministry)
 "The Dudester" (Dude Love)

The Attitude Era
 "Attitude Signature"
 "Break It Down" (D-Generation X)
 "I Won't Do What You Tell Me" (Steve Austin)
 "Ass Man" (Billy Gunn)
 "Brawl for All" (Brawl for All Theme)
 "Gold-Lust" (Goldust)
 "California" (WrestleMania 2000 Theme)
 "Who I Am" (Chyna)
 "The Real Deal" (D'Lo Brown)
 "Deadly Game" (Survivor Series 1998 Theme)
 "The Ultimate" (Ken Shamrock)
 "You Think You Know Me" (Edge)
 "Blood" (Gangrel)
 "The Ho Train" (The Godfather)
 "Fist" (DX with Mike Tyson)
 "Oh, You Didn't Know?" (New Age Outlaws)
 "Burned" (Kane)
 "Hello Ladies" (Val Venis)
 "Real Man's Man" (William Regal)
 "I Don't Suck" (Kurt Angle)
 "Latino Heat" (Eddie Guerrero)
 "It Just Feels Right" (Lita)
 "Sexual Chocolate" (Mark Henry)
 "No Chance in Hell" (Vince McMahon)
 "Oh Hell Yeah" (Steve Austin)
 "If You Smell..." (The Rock)
 "Bad Man" (Rikishi)
 "Bangin' It" (Scotty 2 Hotty)
 "13" (Tazz)
 "We're Comin' Down" (Dudley Boyz)
 "My Time" (Triple H)
 "Rabid" (Chris Benoit)
 "How Do You Like Me Now?" (Hardcore Holly)
 "Dark Side" (The Undertaker)
 "Break Down the Walls" (Chris Jericho)

Now!
 "WWE Signature"
 "Next Big Thing" (Brock Lesnar)
 "Dead Man" (The Undertaker)
 "At Last" (Christian)
 "I'm Back" (Eric Bischoff)
 "Eyes of Righteousness" (Reverend D-Von)
 "Fight" (SummerSlam 2002 Theme)
 "619" (Rey Mysterio)
 "Time to Rock & Roll" - Lil' Kim (Trish Stratus)
 "Eye of the Hurricane" (The Hurricane)
 "King of My World" - Saliva (Chris Jericho)
 "All Grown Up" (Stephanie McMahon)
 "Need a Little Time"- Lilian Garcia (Torrie Wilson)
 "The Game"- The DX Band (Triple H)
 "You're Gonna Pay" (The Undertaker)
 "You Look So Good to Me" (Billy and Chuck)
 "The End" (Armageddon Theme)
 "Here Comes the Money"- Naughty by Nature (Shane McMahon)

2002年のアルバム
WWE

WWE Anthology


Autolycus of Pitane (; c. 360 – c. 290 BC) was a Greek astronomer, mathematician, and geographer. He is known today for his two surviving works On the Moving Sphere and On Risings and Settings, both about spherical geometry.

Life
Autolycus was born in Pitane, a town of Aeolis within Ionia, Asia Minor. Of his personal life nothing is known, although he was a contemporary of Aristotle and his works seem to have been completed in Athens between 335–300 BC. Euclid references some of Autolycus' work, and Autolycus is known to have taught Arcesilaus.

The lunar crater Autolycus was named in his honour.

Work

Autolycus' two surviving works are about spherical geometry with application to astronomy: On the Moving Sphere and On Risings and Settings (of stars). In late antiquity, both were part of the "Little Astronomy", a collection of miscellaneous short works about geometry and astronomy which were commonly transmitted together. They were translated into Arabic in the 9th century, and with the addition of a few additional works became known as the "Middle Books" (sitting between Euclid's Elements and Ptolemy's Almagest). Both were preserved both in Greek and in Arabic, but were unknown in medieval Western Europe. They were translated from Arabic into Latin in the 12th century. Later, remaining Greek copies were also translated into Latin.

On the Moving Sphere

On the Moving Sphere ( ) concerns the movements of points and arcs on the sphere as it rotates on an axis. While the obvious application is the diurnal motion of the stars as the celestial sphere appears to rotate about an immobile Earth (as modeled at the time), Autolycus' treatise never explicitly discusses this application: its content consists entirely of elementary theorems about the arcs of great circles and parallel small circles on an abstract sphere. The work is simple and probably derivative of older works, but each theorem includes a clearly enunciated statement, a figure of the construction alongside its proof, and finally a concluding remark.

On the Moving Sphere is believed to be the oldest mathematical treatise from ancient Greece that is completely preserved: All prior Greek mathematical works are taken from later summaries, commentaries, or descriptions of the works. It shows that by Autolycus' day there was a thoroughly established textbook tradition in geometry that is today regarded as typical of classical Greek geometry. Moreover, it gives indications of what theorems were well known in his day (around 320 BC).

Two hundred years later Theodosius wrote the Spherics, a treatise establishing the fundamental definitions and constructions in spherical geometry whose content is believed to have a common origin with On the Moving Sphere in some pre-Euclidean textbook, possibly written by Eudoxus.  In contrast to later astronomical analyses by Hipparchus (2nd century BC) and Ptolemy (2nd century AD), but similarly to the planar geometry of Euclid's Elements, both Autolycus's work and Theodosius' does not involve concrete quantification or trigonometry: spherical arcs are compared in size, but not given any numerical measure.

On Risings and Settings

In the two-book treatise On Risings and Settings ( ), Autolycus studied the relationship between the rising and the setting of the stars throughout the year. The second book is an expansion of the first and of higher quality. He wrote that "any star which rises and sets always rises and sets at the same point in the horizon." Autolycus relied heavily on Eudoxus' astronomy and was a strong supporter of Eudoxus' theory of homocentric spheres.

Footnotes

References

  on line at

External links
 Autolycus On The Moving Sphere from the Million Books Project (Greek with Latin translation)
 ΠΕΡΙ ΚΙΝΟΥΜΕΝΗΣ ΣΦΑΙΡΑΣ and ΠΕΡΙ ΕΠΙΤΟΛΩΝ ΚΑΙ ΔΥΣΕΩΝ (Mogenet ed., 1950)

4th-century BC Greek people
3rd-century BC Greek people
3rd-century BC writers
Ancient Greek astronomers
Ancient Greek mathematicians
Ancient Greek geographers
Aeolians
360s BC births
290s BC deaths
4th-century BC geographers
3rd-century BC geographers
4th-century BC mathematicians
3rd-century BC mathematicians

Autolycus of Pitane


Granule is a generic term used for a small particle or grain.  The generic term is used in a lot of contexts.

 Granule (solar physics), visible structures in the photosphere of the Sun arising from activity in the Sun's convective zone
 Granule (cell biology), any of several submicroscopic structures, some with explicable origins, others noted only as cell type-specific features of unknown function
 "Azurophil granule", a structure characteristic of the azurophil eukaryotic cell type
 "Chromaffin granule", a structure characteristic of the chromophil eukaryotic cell type
 Martian spherules, spherical granules of material found on the surface of the planet Mars
 A specified particle size of 2–4 millimetres (-1– -2 on the φ scale)

Granule