National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy ( NaUKMA) () is a highly ranked national  research university located in a historic section of Kyiv, Ukraine. The university is bilingual in Ukrainian and English and is one of Ukraine's few universities with internationally recognized diplomas. NaUKMA takes part in numerous international university collaborations, such as the European University Association. With around 4000 students, NaUKMA is one of the smallest universities in Ukraine.

The university takes its name from the institution cited as its main predecessor, the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy established in 1615 and operating until 1819. The NaUKMA is located on that Academy's grounds in the ancient Podil neighborhood. In 1991, the modern university was organized, and teaching began the following year. Alumni of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy played a formative role in the intellectual and church life of Ukraine and Russia in 17th and 18th centuries. Among the most notable alumni were hetman Ivan Mazepa and philosopher Hryhorii Skovoroda. As well, Theophan Prokopovich as a rector of the Kyiv-Mogila Academy elaborated upon and implemented Peter the Great's reform of the Russian Orthodox Church. The university is known as pro-Western and served as headquarters for Orange Revolution activists.

History

Foundation of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy

Today's National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy claims as its predecessor the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, one of the oldest academic and theological schools amongst the Orthodox Christian countries of Eastern Europe. That Academy was first opened in 1615 as the school of the Kyiv bratstvo ("brotherhood"). When, in 1632, the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra school and Kyiv Brotherhood School merged they formed Kyiv's, and by extension Ukraine's, first institution of higher education. The newly formed 'collegium', then located in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was given the Polish name 'Mohylańska' (), in honour of Petro Mohyla, a key figure in bringing about the institution's foundation and proponent of modern Western educational standards at the academy.

In 1658 under the terms of the Treaty of Hadiach the Collegium obtained the status of an 'academy', similar to the Kraków Academy – at that time the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's premier university.

From 1686 Kyiv came under Russian rule as a result of the Polish-Russian war. In 1694 the Collegium was also recognised as an academy by the Moscow Tsardom Tsar Ivan V; this was later reaffirmed by his brother and successor, Peter the Great. Subsequently, during the 17th and 18th centuries the academy was known for its education of the Russian and Ukrainian political and intellectual elites; it was highly acclaimed throughout Eastern Europe and accepted students of all classes and backgrounds from the territories of modern-day Ukraine, Russia, Poland, Belarus, Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece. In particular the hetmans – military leaders of the famed Zaporozhian Cossacks – were benefactors of and actively supported the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. The school flourished under the term of Hetman Ivan Mazepa, an alumnus, and was later able to support the foundation of a number of other colleges built on its model, such as the Vasilian College in Moldavia.

Due to the exceptional quality of the language program many of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy's students continued their education abroad, which at the time meant many of them were required to convert from the Orthodox faith to Roman Catholicism. Despite this, many returning alumni readopted the Orthodox religion, as this was necessary in order to attain positions in the clergy or Academia. By sending so many of its graduates abroad the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy played a vital role in facilitating the transfer of knowledge eastwards cross Europe and popularising the Renaissance both in Ukraine and Russia.

Closure and reopening as the Kyiv Theological Academy

By the late 18th century Kyiv and its surrounding lands had become part of the Russian Empire and in 1817 Tsar Alexander I of Russia made the decision to close the academy. In response to this move a large number of the academy's alumni petitioned the monarch, albeit unsuccessfully, to turn the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy into a formal university. Instead, in 1819, the academy was turned over to the church and transformed into the Kiev Theological Academy - a purely clerical institution. During this time, admission to the Academy was open only to children of the existing clergy and key positions were held mostly by alumni of the Saint Petersburg Seminary.

With the passing years the need for a new, modern, institution of the higher education in Kyiv became apparent and the Tsar's ministers began to consider the establishment of such a school. It would, however, take a long time before the actual opening of a university in the city and when it finally did occur it did not come in the form of a reopened Kyiv-Mohyla Academy but in the foundation of an entirely new secular university - the Saint Vladimir University (founded in 1834 on the orders of the Tsar Nicholas I.

During the Soviet era

With the success of the October Revolution of 1917 and subsequent establishment of the Soviet Union, atheism became the only state sanctioned belief system and the church (along with its associated organs) were repressed. Shortly thereafter the authorities of the newly proclaimed Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic ordered the closure of the Kyiv Theological Academy; its library was later plundered and the main church of the school, the Bogoyavlenskiy Cathedral, was demolished with explosives in 1935.

The premises of the disbanded theological college were later used for a new Soviet military education facility - the Kyiv Higher Naval Political School () - the only naval academy that trained specialist political commissars for the Soviet Navy. To this day one of the university's buildings still bears a mosaic portraying a warship, academic badge and open book displaying quotes by Vladimir Lenin; upon the reestablishment of NaUKMA in 1992 a conscious decision was made to retain this mosaic as a visible reminder of the site's prior usage and totalitarian past.

Since Ukrainian independence

Following Perestroika and the fall of the USSR in 1991, the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was reestablished. This was made possible through the efforts of Vyacheslav Bryukhovetsky - a high-profile Ukrainian academic - who later became the first president of the 'National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy' (NaUKMA). The reestablished institution became the first Ukrainian educational institution to be modelled on and structured according to the basic concepts of the North American higher educational system, with bachelor's and Master's degrees offered according to the requirements of an academic credit system.

On 24 August 1992 – the first anniversary of Ukraine's independence, the first cohort of students matriculated at NaUKMA, and by June 1995 the first six graduates of the reborn Kyiv-Mohyla Academy had received their degrees. Since then, NaUKMA's reputation for academic excellence has become well known throughout Ukraine; the university is now consistently ranked as one of the country's top educational institutions.

In 1994 NaUKMA was a key lobbyist for and partner in the revival of another historically noteworthy Ukrainian educational institution, the Ostroh Academy. Today the Ostroh Academy maintains strong links to NaUKMA and, in the year 2000, joined it as one of Ukraine's 19 'national' research universities.

The NaUKMA widely got to be known for being the first university of which students and professors (among the other parties of the Orange Revolution in Kyiv) openly protested against the massive electoral selection fraud during the Ukrainian presidential election in 2004. After those events a museum dedicated to the Orange Revolution (Pomarancheva Revolyuziya-ukr.) was opened at the NaUKMA.

Claims of continuity with the old Kyiv-Mohyla Academy
Based on its location on the territory of the ancient Mohyla Academy, NaUKMA claims to be the oldest institution of higher education in Kyiv and all of Ukraine. However this is disputed on the grounds that NaUKMA has formally existed as a modern university (with a different focus and structure) only since 1991, without any clear continuity during a long break of 174 years in its history. The modern National University of Ostroh Academy has a similar history of revival, taking its name from Ostroh Academy (dating to 1576) which is considered to be the first institution of higher education in the territory of present-day Ukraine.

Another claimant to the title of  oldest institution of higher education in Ukraine is Lviv University, founded in 1661, which holds the undisputed record for being the oldest continuously operating university in Ukraine. Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv (established in 1834) is the oldest continuously operating higher educational institution in the nation's capital, Kyiv.

Besides NaUKMA, there are two modern theological schools which claim continuity with the academic traditions of the old Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. These are the Kyiv Theological Academy and Seminary of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) and the Kyiv Orthodox Theological Academy of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Kyiv Patriarchate).

The Research Center "Legacy of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy" was founded in 1992 to research the history of the Mohyla Academy and promote NaUKMA's claim to continuity with the traditions of the old Mohyla Academy.

Academics

Profile
NaUKMA holds the highest accreditation level given by the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine and is organized similarly to North American post-secondary institutions. The academic year runs on a trimester system with the longer fall and spring trimesters and a short summer trimester. Fall and spring terms include an extra week of independent study which is aimed to assist students needing to catch up with their coursework and prepare for exams. During undergraduate study students have an academic major and can choose either a minor or electives. Each course is assigned a number of credits based on credit hours and grading is done on a 100-point scale.

NaUKMA Bachelor's degree holders can continue their studies in any of the Masters programs at the university. Graduate academic programs leading to a Master of Business Administration, Candidate of Science (PhD) and Doctor of Science are also offered at NaUKMA. The university was first in Ukraine to join the reforms of the doctoral education within the Bologna process.

NaUKMA is a bilingual institution with Ukrainian and English being the languages of instruction, although the primary language is Ukrainian. The university offers business courses in English to the general public, in partnership with Grant MacEwan College of Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. NaUKMA organizes an annual summer school in Ukrainian studies for international students and an English-language term program for international students entitled "Transitional studies: Ukraine and post-soviet space". Recently a Master program "German and European studies" is offered in collaboration with the University of Jena. The program is offered in German.

Similarly to other public universities in Ukraine, students receive modest monthly scholarship payments from the government. The amount varies according to the student's grades in the previous trimester. Additionally, a number of private scholarships are given to the best students on a merit system. Further, students are rewarded scholarship money for their social activities, thus awards are given to those who make the greatest contribution to the revival of NaUKMA or to those who excel in the promotion of Ukrainian language and culture.

NaUKMA is a state university and governed by the Supervising Board appointed by the Government of Ukraine. The highest university official is the President of NaUKMA, who is Prof. Serhiy M. Kvit. Education and research at the university are coordinated by the Scientific Board. Several public bodies consult the management of the university. These include the International Consulting Board, Board of Trustees, Student Council and Arts Board.

Admissions

Admission to NaUKMA is open to both Ukrainian and international applicants. Admission is granted based on entrance examination scores. Entrance exams are administered as multiple choice tests covering several subjects including Ukrainian, English, law, mathematics, history of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, humanities (literature or history) and natural science, with the tests being machine scored. The admissions procedure was introduced in order to stem alleged corruption in the admission process. Admission tests are considered challenging and cover a broader range of subjects than the typical entrance examinations held at the majority of other universities in Ukraine. Testing the knowledge of history of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy is exceptional among Ukrainian universities. It was introduced because of the role of the university in Ukrainian history. The university also has a Department of Preuniversity Training, which organizes test preparation courses for prospective students as well as trial testing sessions.

Reputation

In 2009 Delovoy magazine ranked NaUKMA as the second best university in Ukraine, being nationally the strongest in humanities, third best in economics and second best in law. According to the independent ranking of 228 universities in Ukraine performed by Compas, NaUKMA was ranked second best in Ukraine regarding the adequacy of alumni to the labor market of Ukraine. In 2007, both the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine and the Dzerkalo Tyzhnia, a weekly national newspaper ranked NaUKMA in third place among the Ukrainian universities. Likewise, the university's business school has the best reputation in the country. The Delovoy magazine ranked the Kyiv Mohyla Business School as the best business school in Ukraine in 2007. NaUKMA was ranked as number four in the ranking "Top-200 Ukraine" conducted by UNESCO in 2007.

In the international Webometrics Ranking of World Universities the university features at 2,055 out of 8,000 ranked institutions and second best among Ukrainian universities.

NaUKMA often hosts visits of foreign and national politicians. Among the latest visitors were Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, Alejandro Toledo, David Kilgour and Jean Chrétien.

NaUKMA in the rankings of universities in Ukraine:

Institutions associated with NaUKMA
Following its reestablishment, NaUKMA has been active in the revival and founding of institutions sharing a common vision of educational standards. Thus, NaUKMA assisted with the development of the National University of Ostroh Academy, the Taras Shevchenko Pedagogical University of Kremenets, and the Petro Mohyla State University of Mykolayiv until they became separate independent universities. However, these schools still share a common admissions system with NaUKMA. Moreover, NaUKMA is an umbrella institution for a network of high schools throughout Ukraine called the collegiums. The curricula of collegiums aim to prepare the students for the NaUKMA entrance exams.

The university publishing house "Kyiv-Mohyla Academy", which specializes in publishing scientific and educational literature in Ukraine, is situated on the NaUKMA campus.

Foreign Partner Universities

The university maintains relations with a number of partner universities both through formal bilateral agreements and schemes like Erasmus Mundus. Current bilateral agreements are outlined below.

Research
Science at NaUKMA is organized into six faculties, 29 departments and 24 research centers. An annual scientific conference Dni Nauky NaUKMA (The Days of Science at NaUKMA) takes place in the last week of January. The main focus of research at the NaUKMA is in the fields of economics, law and humanities. Many faculty members hold permanent positions at the research institutes of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine and NaUKMA students are allowed to use its facilities for scientific and educational purposes.

Libraries

The library of the old Kyiv Mohyla Academy contained a notable collection of the books. However, the archive was plundered in 1920s when the academy was closed. The university administration focuses on creating a research library equipped to modern standards. In addition to the central undergraduate library there is a number of the departmental libraries as well as reading halls for research and periodicals. Further, several international cultural organizations such as the Goethe-Institute, British Council and, American Library are located on campus premises and are open to the public. Also all the NaUKMA students have an access to the Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine.

Campus

The university occupies the grounds of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy in the Podil neighborhood, from Kontraktova Square to the Dnipro River. The campus of NaUKMA is composed of a number of buildings constructed in the times of its predecessor institutions. The oldest buildings date from the 17th century, and include the Halshka Hulevychivna house and the old academic building also called the Mazepa building in honor of its financier Hetman Ivan Mazepa. The Mazepa building contains the congregation hall for ceremonial events, the Center for Contemporary Art and the research library.

In the same neighborhood is the historical museum complex of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, although the building is undergoing renovation. The complex contains a sundial and the house of Halshka Hulevychivna, which was the first building of the Kyiv Brotherhood School. Another historical building called the bursa faces the Dnieper River and was used as a student dormitory during the time of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. The Blahovishchenska (Annunciation) Church built in 1740 for students is also on the NaUKMA campus. Most other buildings were constructed during the time of Kyiv Theological Academy with some additions made during the Soviet era. The dormitories are situated outside the main campus. The largest one is situated in Troyeshchyna (14B Marina Tsvetaeva Street). The second largest is located at the Kharkiv highway, 17. Another one dormitory, a few years ago, transferred to the property of the academy, is located at 31A John McCain Street. The last, and the most remote is located at urban village Vorzel, 6A Klenova Street (masters and postgraduate students are mostly settled here).

An environmentally-friendly office called the Green Office was recently opened at the Department of Environmental Studies at NaUKMA and uses modern energy-saving and environmentally friendly technologies. The project was largely the initiative of students and is the first example of an office-based on sustainable development in a Ukrainian educational institution.

University traditions

Following reestablishment, the NaUKMA academic community has attempted to restore the traditions of its predecessor. However, during NaUKMA's reincarnation, several new traditions have been founded. Every year on 15 October the school celebrates Academy day and NaUKMA students wash the monument of the noted Kyiv-Mohyla alumnus philosopher Hryhorii Skovoroda. This action is called clean Skovoroda. The monument of Skovoroda in front of the university is also decorated with a mortarboard during the annual graduation ceremony held on 28 June. Another tradition during the ceremony is to carry the university turtle named Alma around the new graduates who make wishes while touching her shell. A student tradition connecting the old Kyiv-Mohyla Academy and NaUKMA is theatrical performances called .  possibly were introduced by the students of the old Academy. They are performed during different festive events. Lastly, it is a tradition to open each academic year with a welcome event for the new students, followed by a lecture by a renowned scientist, who is given an honorary professorship at the University. The ceremony of new NaUKMA student initiation includes taking a traditional student oath. During the first term at NaUKMA, students of all faculties introduce themselves to the academic community during the acquaintance ball.

Student life
Despite the relatively small number of NaUKMA students (about 3000 in 2006) there are a number of extracurricular activities on campus. NaUKMA students are also known for their activism, which is also supported by the university administration. Notable among the student organizations on campus are: the Student Council, the Christian Students Union, Mohyla Intellectual Club, the Student Brotherhood, the ecological club Zelena Hvylya, and the Youth Center for Humanities. The NaUKMA student portal Bo.Net.Ua is an online platform for student and alumni communication.

Sports courses are compulsory for NaUKMA students in their two years of study. These courses include elements of calisthenics, sport (soccer, basketball, volleyball and swimming) and fitness exercises. Additionally, there are a number of student sport groups ranging from Combat Hopak to Go.

Arts and music at NaUKMA are represented by the Center of Culture and Art and the Center for Contemporary Art.

Kyiv-Mohyla Academy in literature and popular culture

Kyiv-Mohyla Academy is mentioned in a number of novels. The main characters of Nikolai Gogol's novel Taras Bulba Ostap and Andriy Bulba were alumni of the old Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. Kyiv-Mohyla Collegium is mentioned in several novels by Pavlo Zahrebelnyi including Southern Comfort and I, Bohdan. Kyiv Theological Academy is mentioned in Nikolai Leskov's Pecherskie antiki. Student life in the contemporary Kyiv-Mohyla Academy is described in a novel High school student. Freshman (Старшокласниця. Першокурсниця) by Anastasiya Levkova. Protagonist of the "Myth and Madness" novel by Daniel Hryhorczuk is a PhD student of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy during Euromaidan.

To note the importance of the university in Ukraine's history, a postage stamp dedicated to Kyiv-Mohyla Academy and its revival was issued in 1992. Moreover, a building of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy is portrayed on the 500 hryven' banknote.

Notable alumni and faculty members

Alumni of the old Kyiv-Mohyla Academy have played an important role in Ukrainian professional life. Many hetmans of Zaporozhian Cossacks, political leaders of Ukraine in the 17th and 18th centuries, were educated here. These include Ivan Mazepa, Pylyp Orlyk, Pavlo Polubotok, Ivan Skoropadsky and Ivan Samoylovych. The Grand Chancellor of Russia Alexander Bezborodko was of Ukrainian origin and an alumnus. The Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was a religious school of note in the Orthodox world and archbishops of the Russian Empire such as Stephen Yavorsky and Feofan Prokopovich as well as the metropolitan bishop of Rostov Dimitry of Rostov were all alumni.

More recently, several generations of writers, artists and scholars have been schooled at the Kyiv Mohyla Academy. Examples include writer Simeon of Polotsk, architect Ivan Hryhorovych-Barskyi, and composer Artemy Vedel. Ukrainian philosopher Hryhorii Skovoroda was another alumnus of the university. Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian scientist and founder of Moscow University was briefly a student at Kyiv Mohyla Academy.

After 1819, when the university was turned into a purely religious institution, it still upheld its international reputation and has been an alma mater for the Moldavian poet Alexei Mateevici and metropolitan bishop of the Romanian Orthodox Church Visarion Puiu.

Alumni of NaUKMA are employed by national and international companies, research and governmental institutions and many graduates continue their studies abroad. Journalist and politician Andriy Shevchenko, Ukrainian writer Myroslav Laiuk and the contemporary Ukrainian writer Maryna Sokolyan studied at NaUKMA.

See also

Economics Education and Research Consortium
List of universities, colleges, and research institutions in Kyiv
Open access in Ukraine

References

Further reading

Omeljan Pritsak and Ihor Sevcenko, eds. "The Kyiv Mohyla Academy (Commemorating the 350th Anniversary of Its Founding, 1632–1982)." Harvard Ukrainian Studies. vol. VIII, no. 1/2. Cambridge, MA, 1985.
S.M. Horak. "The Kiev Academy. A Bridge to Europe in the 17th century". East European Quarterly, vol. 2, 2, 1968.
V. Brioukhovetsky. "National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy: symbol of the rebirth of Ukraine". The Ukrainian Weekly, Sunday, 22 November 1998.
Interview with Vyacheslav Bryukhovetsky, president of Kyiv Mohyla Academy. Welcome to Ukraine, 1, 2006.
O. Ilchenko. "The Once and Future University Kyiv Mohyla Academy, the First Educational Establishment in Eastern Europe". Welcome to Ukraine, 1, 2000.
"Vivat Academia", Welcome to Ukraine, 3, 1999.
S. Makhun. "'Kyiv-Mohyla Academy' National University of Ukraine: Citadel of European Spirit and Ukrainian Enlightenment". The Day, 22 October 2002.
Kyivan Mohyla Academy in the Encyclopedia of Ukraine.
History of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy.
Additional literature in the Ukrainian version of this article.

External links

NaUKMA homepage
NaUKMA campus map
Wikimapia – Satellite view of NaUKMA
Admissions to NaUKMA for international applicants
NaUKMA International Office
NaUKMA photo gallery
Kyiv Mohyla Foundation of America
Architecture and photographs of Kyiv Mohyla Academy campus

1632 establishments in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Educational institutions established in the 1630s
Educational institutions established in 1991
Universities and colleges in Kyiv
1991 establishments in Ukraine
Podilskyi District
National universities in Ukraine


The Red River War was a military campaign launched by the United States Army in 1874 to displace the Comanche, Kiowa, Southern Cheyenne, and Arapaho Native American tribes from the Southern Plains, and forcibly relocate the tribes to reservations in Indian Territory. The war had several army columns crisscross the Texas Panhandle in an effort to locate, harass, and capture nomadic Native American bands. Most of the engagements were small skirmishes with few casualties on either side. The war wound down over the last few months of 1874, as fewer and fewer Indian bands had the strength and supplies to remain in the field. Though the last significantly sized group did not surrender until mid-1875, the war marked the end of free-roaming Indian populations on the southern Great Plains.

Background

Prior to the arrival of English American settlers on the Great Plains, the southern Plains tribes had evolved into a nomadic pattern of existence. Beginning in the 1830s, significant numbers of permanent settlements were established in what had previously been the territory of the various Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Attacks, raids, and counter-raids occurred frequently. Prior to the Civil War, the U.S. Army was only sporadically involved in these frontier conflicts, manning forts, but limited to a handful of larger expeditions due to manpower limitations. During the Civil War, the Regular Army withdrew almost completely, and Indian raids increased dramatically. Texas, as part of the Confederate States of America, lacked the military resources to fight both the Union and the tribes.

After the war, the military began reasserting itself along the frontier. The Medicine Lodge Treaty, signed near present-day Medicine Lodge, Kansas, in 1867, called for two reservations to be set aside in Indian Territory, one for the Comanche and Kiowa and one for the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho. According to the treaty, the government would provide the tribes with housing, agricultural training, and food and other supplies. In exchange, the Indians agreed to cease raiding and attacking settlements. Dozens of chiefs endorsed the treaty and some tribal members moved voluntarily to the reservations, but it was never officially ratified and several groups of Indians still on the Plains did not attend the negotiations.

In 1867, the U.S. Army began hunting buffalo to sabotage the food sources of the indigenous people inhabiting the plains. In 1870, a new technique for tanning buffalo hides became commercially available. In response, commercial hunters began systematically targeting buffalo for the first time. Once numbering in the tens of millions, the buffalo population plummeted. By 1878, they were all but extinct.

The destruction of the buffalo herds was a disaster for the Plains Indians, on and off the reservations. The entire nomadic way of life had been based around the animals. They were used for food, fuel, and construction materials. Without abundant buffalo, the southern Plains Indians had no means of self-support.

By the winter of 1873–1874, the southern Plains Indians were in crisis. The reduction of the buffalo herds combined with increasing numbers of new settlers and more aggressive military patrols had put them in an unsustainable position.

War
During the winter, a spiritual leader named Isatai'i emerged among the Quahadi Band of Comanches. Isa-tai claimed to have the power to render himself and others invulnerable to their enemies, including to bullets, and was able to rally an enormous number of Indians for large raids. Also, a shift occurred within the political structure of the Kiowa, bringing the war faction (influenced by the head chief Guipago, or Gui-pah-gho, sometimes known, by modern people, as Lone Wolf "the Elder" to prevent confusion with Mamay-dayte, later named Lone Wolf "the Younger") into a greater position of influence than they had held previously.

Early engagements

On 27 June 1874, Isa-tai'i and Comanche chief Quanah Parker led about 250 warriors in an attack on a small outpost of buffalo hunters in the Texas Panhandle called Adobe Walls. The encampment consisted of just a few buildings and was occupied by only 28 men and one woman. Though a few whites were killed in the opening moments of the Second Battle of Adobe Walls (the first had been in 1864), the majority was able to barricade themselves indoors and hold off the attack. Using large-caliber buffalo guns, the hunters could fire on the warriors from much greater range than the Indians had expected, and the attack failed.

A second engagement involving the Kiowa took place in Texas. Warriors led by Lone Wolf attacked a patrol of Texas Rangers in July. The Lost Valley fight had light casualties on both sides, but it served to raise tensions along the frontier and push the Army into an aggressive response.

The explosion of violence took the government by surprise. The "peace policy" of the Grant administration was deemed a failure, and the Army was authorized to subdue the southern Plains tribes with whatever force necessary. At this time, roughly 1,800 Cheyennes, 2,000 Comanches, and 1,000 Kiowas remained at large. Combined, they mounted about 1,200 warriors.

Army response
General Philip Sheridan ordered five army columns to converge on the general area of the Texas Panhandle and specifically upon the upper tributaries of the Red River. The strategy was to deny the Indians any safe haven and attack them unceasingly until they went permanently to the reservations.

Three of the five columns were under the command of Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie. The Tenth Cavalry, under Lieutenant Colonel John W. Davidson, came due west from Fort Sill. The Eleventh Infantry, under Lieutenant Colonel George P. Buell, moved northwest from Fort Griffin. Mackenzie himself led the Fourth Cavalry north from Fort Concho.

The fourth column, consisting of the Sixth Cavalry and Fifth Infantry, was commanded by Colonel Nelson A. Miles and came south from Fort Dodge. The fifth column, the Eighth Cavalry commanded by Major William R. Price, a total of 225 officers and men, plus six Indian scouts and two guides originated from Fort Union, marched east via Fort Bascom in New Mexico. The plan called for the converging columns to maintain a continuous offensive until a decisive defeat had been inflicted on the Indians.

As many as 20 engagements took place across the Texas Panhandle. The Army, consisting entirely of soldiers and scouts, sought to engage the Indians at any opportunity. The Indians, traveling with women, children, and elderly, mostly attempted to avoid them. When the two did encounter one another, the Indians usually tried to escape before the Army could force them to surrender. However, even a successful escape could be disastrously costly if horses, food, and equipment had to be left behind. By contrast, the Army and its Indian scouts had access to essentially limitless supplies and equipment, they frequently burned anything they captured from retreating Indians, and were capable of continuing operations indefinitely. The war continued throughout the fall of 1874, but increasing numbers of Indians were forced to give up and head for Fort Sill to enter the reservation system.

Battle of the Upper Washita River

On September 9, 1874, Captain Wyllys Lyman led a wagon train full of rations to Camp Supply in the Indian Territory for Col. Nelson A. Miles' troops when they were confronted by a group of Comanches and Kiowas. In the ensuing battle, Lyman and 95 troops formed a wagon corral and held off their adversaries, numbered at about 400, and a scout was dispatched to send word to Camp Supply.
Soon after, the Sixth Cavalry was sent without rest and during a rainstorm to aid the wagon train. Upon their arrival on September 14, the attackers fled.
The battle was the longest and one of the most publicized of the War. It is known as both the Battle of the Upper Washita River and the Battle of Lyman's Wagon Train.

Battle of Palo Duro Canyon

Early in September, Tonkawa and Black Seminole Scouts in advance of the Fourth Cavalry were ambushed by Comanche near the Staked Plains and escaped with their lives. The scouts relayed the Comanche position and alerted Col. Mackenzie of their whereabouts.

The largest Army victory came when Mackenzie's scouts found a large village of Comanche, Kiowa, and Cheyenne, including their horses and winter food supply, in upper Palo Duro Canyon. At dawn on September 28, Mackenzie's troops attacked down a steep canyon wall. The Native Americans were unprepared and did not have time to gather their horses or supplies before retreating. Sergeant John Charlton wrote of the battle:

The warriors held their ground for a time, fighting desperately to cover the exit of their squaws and pack animals, but under the persistent fire of the troops, they soon began falling back.

Only four Indians were killed, but the effect was devastating. Mackenzie's men burned over 450 lodges and destroyed countless pounds of buffalo meat. They also took 1,400 horses, most of which were subsequently shot to prevent the Indians from recapturing them.

Except for its unusually large size, the Battle of Palo Duro Canyon was typical of the war. Most encounters produced little to no casualties, but the Indians could not afford the constant loss of food and mounts. Even if it escaped immediate danger, an Indian band that found itself on foot and with limited options for food generally had no choice but to give up and head for the reservation.

Aftermath

The Red River War officially ended in June 1875 when Quanah Parker and his band of Quahadi Comanche entered Fort Sill and surrendered; they were the last large roaming band of southwestern Indians. Combined with the extermination of the buffalo, the war left the Texas Panhandle permanently open to settlement by farmers and ranchers. It was the final military defeat of the once powerful Southern Plains tribes and brought an end to the Texas–Indian Wars.

References

Further reading
 Carter, R.G., On the Border with Mackenzie, 1935, Washington D.C.: Enyon Printing Co.
 Hutton, Paul. Phil Sheridan and His Army (1985).

External links
 Map of Red River War 1874-75

Conflicts in 1874
1874 in the United States
Comanche
Cheyenne
Indian wars of the American Old West
Comanche campaign
Wars between the United States and Native Americans
Battles involving the Comanche
Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant
Red River of the South

Red River War


Stephen Michael "Steve" Reich (Born October 3, 1936) is an American composer of music in the style of minimalism. He is known for his music made with tape recordings, and instrumental music with a steady beat (such as Music for 18 Musicians).

He also wrote pieces that used what is called a phasing technique. With phasing technique, two parts might be playing the same part but at slightly different speeds. It is almost like a canon, or round. He wrote pieces like these for piano, violin, and, again, for tape recordings.

He also composed such pieces like In C and Different Trains, some of his most popular works. Others include, Drumming, City Life and The Cave.

The critic Kyle Gann has said Reich "may...be considered...America's greatest living composer."

On January 25, 2007, Reich was named the 2007 recipient of the Polar Music Prize, together with jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins. On April 20, 2009, Reich was awarded the 2009 Pulitzer Prize for Music for his Double Sextet.

References

Other websites
 (an example of phasing, using two pianos)
 (a composition by Steve Reich for tape)

1936 births
Living people
American composers

Steve Reich


Constructive possession is a legal fiction to describe a situation in which an individual has actual control over chattels or real property without actually having physical control of the same assets. At law, a person with constructive possession stands in the same legal position as someone with actual possession.

For example, if one's car sits in one's driveway, one has physical possession. However, any person with the key has constructive possession, as they may take physical possession at any time without further consent from one.

Constructive possession is an important concept in both criminal law, regarding theft and embezzlement, and civil law, regarding possession of land and chattels. For example, if someone steals your credit card number, the credit card never leaves your actual possession, but the person who has stolen the number has constructive possession and could most likely be charged with theft of your credit card information.

Constructive possession is also essential in the seizure of goods by private or government authorities. Take, for example, a large piece of equipment. Should money be lent against the value of the equipment, and the loan goes into default, the creditor may find it difficult to remove the equipment promptly. However, by notice to the borrower, it may take constructive possession, which effectively prevents the borrower from further using the equipment pending its removal. Similarly, when a landlord exercises a contractual remedy of distraint of goods for unpaid rent, the landlord need not remove the goods from the premises but may take constructive possession of the goods through a simple declaration.

However, a person who makes it impossible to take possession of another's property has taken actual possession, not constructive possession. For example, if someone chains someone else's car to an immovable object, they have taken possession of it even though they have not moved it.

Constructive possession can also refer to items inside of a vehicle. The owner and driver of the vehicle can be in constructive possession of all things inside their car. If a minor were driving their vehicle with passengers possessing alcohol or any illegal substance, the driver may be cited for constructive possession.

A person can be charged with constructive possession of an illegal device if they possess the otherwise legal material to assemble it. If a person has in his possession or control the ingredients to make an explosive device, he can be charged with constructive possession of that device.

In regards to determining if a firearm is loaded, some states with strict gun control laws apply the concept of constructive possession in establishing that one has a loaded firearm if the individual has both the firearm and its ammunition in their possession or readily accessible, regardless of whether or not a live round is in the firing chamber or a magazine with live ammunition has been inserted into the firearm. In this context, the firearm would be considered "legally loaded" by law, even though it may not be physically loaded.

References

Legal fictions
Property law

Constructive possession


Reshef Ari Hen (, born 28 May 1968) is an Israeli lawyer and former politician who served as a member of the Knesset for Shinui and the Secular Faction between 2003 and 2006.

Biography
Born in Haifa, Hen gained an LLB at the University of Essex and an MBA at the University of Haifa before working as an attorney.

Between 1998 and 2003 he served on Haifa city council. For the 2003 Knesset elections he was placed ninth on the Shinui list, and entered the Knesset when the party won 15 seats. During his first term, he was chair of the Shinui faction, a member of the House Committee, the Committee on Drug Abuse, the Constitution, Law and Justice Committee and the Committee on the Status of Women. He was also a member of the parliamentary inquiries into trafficking of women and corruption in the government.

Along with most of the party's MKs, he defected to the Secular Faction (which later became Hetz) shortly before the 2006 elections following disagreements over the results of Shinui's primary results. He was placed 60th on the Hetz list for the elections, and lost his seat when it failed to cross the electoral threshold.

References

External links

1968 births
Politicians from Haifa
Alumni of the University of Essex
University of Haifa alumni
Israeli lawyers
Living people
Shinui politicians
Hetz (political party) politicians
Members of the 16th Knesset (2003–2006)

Reshef Hen


Pierre David Édouard de Colbert-Chabanais (Paris, 18 October 1774 – 1853) was a general of the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars, noted for his unbreakable loyalty to Napoleon.

Life

Revolution
Born into a noble family descended from the prestigious Colbert line, he was the son of the comte de Colbert, a rich landowner. On 23 August 1793, Pierre followed the traditional family route into the army, which was now the Republican army, although he was suspicious of the French Revolution. He fought in the 1793 campaigns in the Army of the Rhine, as a member of the bataillon de Paris, also known as the bataillon Guillaume-Tell after William Tell. He moved to the 11th Hussar Regiment, gaining promotion to maréchal-des-logis in September 1793 and to sous-lieutenant the following month.

After three years in the Army of the Rhine and in the armies suppressing the Vendéan Revolt, he was dismissed by Lazare Hoche in 1796. He left the 7th Hussars to become a commissaire des guerres to the armée d'Orient, with the job of guaranteeing Bonaparte's supply lines to Egypt. During that time Bonaparte took him under his wing.

First Empire
Returning to the army after Egypt, he was wounded and made a captain in the 3rd Dragoon Regiment, before finally rising to become aide-de-camp to Damas. He then became adjudant-major to the Mamelukes and aide-de-camp to Junot in 1803. He then followed Junot to become part of the armée des côtes.

Colbert left Junot in 1805 and followed major général Maréchal Berthier as his aide de camp. He assisted at Austerlitz, where he was wounded and made a chef d'escadron. He fought bravely at Iena and Pułtusk. In 1807 he was made a colonel and head of his old regiment, the 7th Hussars. This unit was now part of Lassalle's brigade, nicknamed the "infernal" brigade due to its passion. Napoleon made him a knight of the Légion d'honneur in 1808 and baron de Chabanais et de l'Empire in 1809

Colbert was promoted to général de brigade on 9 March 1809 and put under the orders of Oudinot. He won glory at the Battle of Raab by charging and defeating Ott's hussars, cutting several squadrons of the enemy Hungarian cavalry to pieces and nearly coming to the aid of the 9th Hussar Regiment, which the Austrians were on the point of overwhelming. At Wagram Colbert was shot in the head three times and was made a commander of the Légion d'honneur.

Attached to the Imperial Guard in 1811, he re-formed and commanded the 2e régiment de chevau-légers lanciers de la Garde impériale (better known as the Red Lancers, they were also nicknamed the écrevisses or crayfish, after their red uniforms). He also led the brigade for the whole of the Russian campaign under the orders of the duc d'Istrie. He and the Lancers then bravely covered the Grande Armée's retreat. During the German campaign of 1813 at Bautzen he broke and routed the Russians and cut them to pieces. On 25 November 1813 he was promoted to général de division during the retreat back through Germany .

1814–1817
General Colbert fought bravely at Montmirail, Champaubert and Nangis, but finally defected to the Bourbons, who made him a chevalier de Saint-Louis and commander of the lancers corps in the royal guard. On Napoleon's return, general Colbert dithered until 23 March 1815. When Colbert came to the Tuileries, Napoleon said to him icily "General Colbert, I've been waiting for you for three days", to which Colbert replied "I have been waiting for you for a year" and Napoleon put him in command of his personal guard. Colbert was wounded fighting at Waterloo and after the armée de la Loire was disbanded the Bourbons held a grudge against Colbert. He thus returned home, only for his loyalty to turn against him – in 1816 he was arrested without charge, held in the Prison de l'Abbaye for two months and exiled on his release. In 1817, however, he was recalled.

1826–1853
After ten years' inactivity, his military career only resumed in 1826. However, he had lost the brilliance he had shown during the Napoleonic Wars and instead became inspector general of cavalry and commander of a division of the camp de Lunéville. After the July Revolution in 1830, he was put in charge of disbanding the eight cavalry regiments of the former royal guard. In 1834, general Colbert became aide-de-camp to Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours, accompanying the prince to Africa and taking part in the first expedition to Constantine in 1836. He was made a peer of France in 1838 and Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur in 1839.
He was standing next to Louis Philippe I during Giuseppe Marco Fieschi's assassination attempt and was wounded by Fieschi's gun. He died in 1853.

Coat of arms
D'or, à la couleuvre ondoyante en pal d'azur surmontée d'un lambel du second; au canton des Barons militaires de l'Empire brochant.

References

Sources
  Marie-Nicolas Bouillet and Alexis Chassang (ed.), "Pierre David de Colbert-Chabanais" in Dictionnaire universel d'histoire et de géographie, 1878
  "Pierre David de Colbert-Chabanais", in Charles Mullié, Biographie des célébrités militaires des armées de terre et de mer de 1789 à 1850, 1852
  P Louis Lainé, Archives généalogiques et historiques de la noblesse de France, ou, Recueil de preuves, mémoires et notices généalogiques, servant à constater l'origine, la filiation, les alliances et lés illustrations religieuses, civiles et militaires de diverses maisons et familles nobles du royaume, 1830;
http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/commanders/c_colbert.html
http://www.virtualarc.com/officers/colbert1/

1774 births
1853 deaths
French commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
Commanders in the French Imperial Guard
Peers of France
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe

Pierre David de Colbert-Chabanais


Research paper may refer to:
 Academic paper (also called scholarly paper), which is in academic journals and contains original research results or reviews existing results or shows a totally new invention
 Capstone project or synthesis project, is a hands-on project, essay, or other document submitted in support of a candidature for a degree or professional qualification, written in a professional writing format, presenting from the perspective of a professional in the field as opposed to the perspective of an academic researcher or student who typically use an academic writing format.
 Position paper, an essay that represents the author's opinion
 Term paper, is a type of research paper written by high school or college students to fulfill course requirements.
 Thesis or dissertation, a document submitted in support of a candidature for a degree or professional qualification, presenting the author's research and findings

See also
 Academic publishing, the sub-field of publishing which distributes academic research and scholarship
 Academic writing, which is any writing assignment given in an academic setting
 Research paper mill
 Scientific writing, which reports original, empirical and theoretical work within a scientific field
 White paper

Research paper


The 1950s House was a hands-on exhibit building at Shelburne Museum in Shelburne, Vermont. The exhibit was designed to allow museum visitors to experience everyday life in 1950s Vermont.

The house, which opened at the Shelburne Museum in 2000, brought to life the transformative history of America during the mid-20th century when a vibrant consumer culture developed after World War II. Having been built in the 1940s, it was outfitted in late-1940s design and decoration. The furnishings and decor highlighted the industrial boom of the late 1940s and early 1950s. Packed with the era's fashionable furniture, books, toys, food, and magazines, the 1950s House provided a window into mid-century visual culture.

History
Shelburne residents Frank and Helen LaFlam built the 1950s House on land purchased in 1948 from the subdivision of a  farm. In 1950 Vermont had abundant land and natural resources, and the town of Shelburne, which did not institute zoning until 1957, encouraged new home building.

In designing their house, the LaFlams incorporated state-of-the-art amenities such as central heating, public water, and modern bathroom and kitchen appliances, including a refrigerator and built-in cabinets. The burgeoning industry of the late 1940s enabled the LaFlams to purchase a ready-cut house (see prefabricated home) modeled from architectural plans and specifications that was inexpensive and easily shipped to the building site. The one-story design, attached garage, plain overhanging eaves, and simple white clapboard siding represent the hallmarks of mid-century house design. The LaFlams detailed the windows and doors with broad, stained wood trim, which is the kind of simple detailing available in a lumber-rich place like Vermont. The house, which is neither a traditional Cape nor a typical ranch, has characteristics of do-it-yourself construction, with an engagingly awkward mix-and-match of new and old, typical and idiosyncratic, details.
In the summer of 2000, the house was opened to the public as a temporary exhibition entitled "The Fabulous 50's: Welcome Home to Postwar Vermont". In 2002, the exhibition was extended through 2005.

As of May 4, 2012, the 1950s house was torn down to make way for the Pizagalli center for art and education.

See also
Electra Havemeyer Webb
1950s

References

External links
 Shelburne Museum website

Shelburne Museum
Historic house museums in Vermont
1950s in the United States
Houses in Chittenden County, Vermont
2000 establishments in Vermont

de:Shelburne Museum

1950s House


The Cathedral-Basilica of Saint Louis, King of France (French: Cathédrale-Basilique de Saint-Louis, Roi-de-France, Spanish: Catedral-Basílica de San Luis, Rey de Francia), also called St. Louis Cathedral, is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans and is the oldest cathedral in continuous use in the United States alongside the Royal Presidio Chapel in Monterey, California. It is dedicated to Saint Louis, also known as King Louis IX of France. The first church on the site was built in 1718; the third, under the Spanish rule, built in 1789, was raised to cathedral rank in 1793.  The second St. Louis Cathedral was burned during the great fire of 1788 and was expanded and largely rebuilt and completed in the 1850s, with little of the 1789 structure remaining.

Saint Louis Cathedral is in the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana, United States, on the Place John Paul II (French: Place Jean-Paul II), a promenaded section of Chartres Street (rue de Chartres) that runs for one block between St. Peter Street (rue Saint-Pierre) on the upriver boundary and St. Ann Street (rue Sainte-Anne) on the downriver boundary. It is located next to Jackson Square and facing the Mississippi River in the heart of New Orleans, situated between the historic buildings of the Cabildo and the Presbytère.

History

Three Roman Catholic churches have stood on the site since 1718, when the city was founded. The first was a crude wooden structure in the early days of the French colony. As the French were Catholic, their church was prominently located on the town square. Construction of a larger brick and timber church was begun in 1725 and was completed in 1727. Along with numerous other buildings, the church was destroyed in the Great New Orleans Fire (1788) on Good Friday, March 21, 1788. The cornerstone of a new church was laid in 1789 and the building was completed in 1794 in the Spanish Louisiana period. In 1793 Saint Louis Church was elevated to cathedral rank as the See of the Diocese of New Orleans, making it one of the oldest cathedrals in the United States. In 1819, a central tower (designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe) with a clock and bell were added. The bell was embossed with the name "Victoire" in commemoration of the Battle of New Orleans victory in 1815.

Enlarging the building to meet the needs of the growing congregation had been pondered since 1834, and J. N. B. de Pouilly was consulted to design plans for a new building. De Pouilly also designed St. Augustine Church in Tremé, the first church building dedicated as a parish church outside the French Quarter. (The Mortuary Chapel on North Rampart had been dedicated in 1827 as a chapel, and St. Vincent de Paul was established in a little frame church in 1838 but not dedicated.) On March 12, 1849, the diocese contracted with John Patrick Kirwan to enlarge and restore the cathedral, using De Pouilly's plans.

These specified that everything be demolished except the lateral walls and the lower portions of the existing towers on the front facade. During the reconstruction, it was determined that the sidewalls would have to be demolished also. During construction in 1850, the central tower collapsed. De Pouilly and Kirwan were replaced. As a consequence of these problems and reconstruction, very little of the Spanish Colonial structure survived.  The present structure dates primarily to 1850. The bell from the 1819 tower was reused in the new building and is still there today. During the renovation, St. Patrick's Church served as the pro-cathedral for the city.

Bombing
On April 25, 1909, a dynamite bomb was set off in the cathedral, blowing out windows and damaging galleries. The following year a portion of the foundation collapsed, necessitating the building's closure while repairs were made, from Easter 1916 to Easter 1917.

Language switch
A 1906 church census reported that Mass at the cathedral was offered in both English and French. The language of the sacramental register of the cathedral switched from French to English in 1910. By the early 1920s it was reported 95% of the parishioners understood English, although it is not clear when French-language services were last routinely held.

Visits of popes
The cathedral was designated as a minor basilica by Pope Paul VI in 1964. Pope John Paul II visited the cathedral in September 1987.

Hurricane Katrina
The high winds of Hurricane Katrina displaced two large oak trees in St. Anthony's Garden behind the cathedral, dislodging  of the ornamental gate. The nearby marble statue of Jesus Christ was damaged, losing a forefinger and a thumb.

The winds tore a hole in the roof, allowing water to enter the building and severely damage the Holtkamp pipe organ. Shortly after the storm, the organ was sent back to Holtkamp to be rebuilt. An electronic substitute was used until June 2008, when the organ was reinstalled in the cathedral. Originally installed during the cathedral's extensive renovation in 2004, the organ was donated by longtime choirmaster and organist Elise Cambon.

See also
 List of Catholic cathedrals in the United States
 Oldest churches in the United States

References

External links

 Official website
 Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans, official website

 Kendall, John (1922). "The Churches", in History of New Orleans.

Louis in New Orleans, Cathedral of
Louis in New Orleans, Cathedral of
Louis, St, New Orleans
French Quarter
Louisiana (New France)
1718 establishments in New France
Spanish Colonial architecture
Colonial architecture in Louisiana
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1794
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1850
18th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in the United States

St. Louis Cathedral (New Orleans)


Piramo e Tisbe is an opera in two acts, described by its composer as an intermezzo tragico, by Johann Adolf Hasse to a libretto by Marco Coltellini.

Piramo e Tisbe is based on the story of the lovers Pyramus and Thisbe as told in Ovid's Metamorphoses. The same story is parodied in Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream, and this comic version of it forms the basis of the 1745 opera Pyramus and Thisbe by John Frederick Lampe, but Coltellini's libretto is a straightforward sentimental tragedy, in which the two eponymous lovers kill themselves, (as does Tisbe's father, who blames himself, having previously forbidden their love).

Piramo e Tisbe is more elaborately composed than Hasse's other operas, with accompanied recitatives and arias which are thorough-composed, that is, not merely strophic settings. Hasse wrote to a friend  that he rated it "amongst the best works I have written".

Performance history
Piramo e Tisbe was first performed in the autumn of 1768 at an as yet unidentified estate outside Vienna. The work was revised and performed at the theatre of the Laxenburg Palace of that city in September 1770. Its first American performance was in 2003 at the Bloomington Early Music Festival in Indiana.

Roles

Recordings
Capella Clementina, cond. Helmut Müller-Brühl; Barbara Schlick, Suzanne Gari, Michel Lecocq (Koch-Schwann, 1984)
La Stagione Orchestra (Frankfurt), cond. Michael Schneider; Barbara Schlick, Ann Monoyios, Wilfried Jochens (Capriccio, 1995)
San Rocco Academy Orchestra (Venice), cond. Mario Merigo; Marina Bolgan, Svetlana Svorodova, Emanuele Giannino (Mondo Musica, 2000)

Notes

References
Sven Hansell, Piramo e Tisbe, Grove Music Online, retrieved 27.6.2008.

1768 operas
Operas by Johann Adolf Hasse
Intermezzi
Italian-language operas
Operas based on Metamorphoses
Operas

Piramo e Tisbe


Justin Astley (born 20 May 1983) is an English former professional snooker player. He played on Challenge Tour in 2001/02, and first qualified for the Main Tour in 2002/03, but lost his place. Then he played on Challenge Tour again from 2003 to 2005. He returned for the 2005/2006 season, but he couldn't defend his place. In the 2009–10 season he reached the finals of the last two events of the International Open Series and was ranked seventh in the 2009/2010 PIOS rankings. As a result, Astley qualified for the 2010/2011 professional Main Tour, but dropped off at the end of the season.

References

1983 births
Living people
English snooker players
Sportspeople from Darwen

Justin Astley


The Unseen Stream is a progressive classical album by Troy Donockley. This was his first solo outing and was released in 1998.

This recording shows Troy as a multi-skilled wood player. His main instrument is the Uilleann Pipes adding also Low Whistles, Electric and Acoustic Guitars, Keys, Cittern and Mandolin, and he has composed most of the tracks. Although a solo recording he includes guests Irish fiddler Nollaig Casey, piano player Neil Drinkwater, his Iona colleagues Joanne Hogg (voice), Terl Bryant (percussion) and Tim Harries (bass), the Emperor String Quartet and Duncan Rayson on the Rochdale Town Hall Organ. The piece draws on Irish Orchestral works, folk, rock, jazz, Scandinavian symphonies and New Age stylistically. The music is mostly expressions of Troy's experience, particularly inspired by natural beauty of the coast.

Personnel

Musicians in order of appearance
Troy Donockley - Uilleann Pipes, Low Whistles, Electric and Acoustic Guitars, Keys, Cittern and Mandolin, Tin Whistles, Vocals
Terl Bryant - Percussion (Cymbals, Gong, Bodhrans, Bells, Various Drums)
Duncan Rayson - Organ
Nollaig Casey - Fiddle
Chris Redgate - Oboe
Emperor String Quartet - Strings
Martin Burgess - Violin
Claire Hayes - Violin
Fiona Bonds - Viola
William Schofield - Cello
Neil Drinkwater - Grand Piano
Tim Harries - Bass
Joanne Hogg - Vocals
Nick Holland - Voice
Julie Darling - Harp
Andy Duncan - Percussion (Djembe, Darabuka), Voices

Additional credits
 Produced by Troy Donockley and Nigel Palmer
 Recorded at Gemini Studios, Ipswich; Warterworld, Yorkshire; Chapel Studios, Lincolnshire; Cannibal Studios, Dublin
 Engineered by Nigel Palmer
 Organ recorded on location at Rochdale Town Hall
 Design and Photography by Chris Sands
 Troy Photograph by Jonathan Mark
 Remastered by Denis Blackham at Skye Masters 2005
 Music composed and arranged by Troy Donockley except "Air" (traditional; arranged by Troy Donockley) and "Finlandia" (Sibelius; arranged by Troy Donockley)

Track listing
"Wild Black Coast" - 3:23
"Sights" - 3:10
"Air" - 5:00
"Yearl" - 14:14
"Carousel" - 4:55
"Tunnels" - 9:52
"Finlandia" - 3:45
"Death of Rainbows" - 3:16

Total time - 47:41

Release Details
1998, UK, Alliance Records 1901162, Release Date 10 August 1998, CD
2005, UK, Lantern Music and SGO Music Publishing Ltd. LNTNCD2, Remastered, CD

Troy Donockley albums
1998 debut albums

The Unseen Stream


Banksia brunnea  is a species of low, bushy shrub that is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It has dark green pinnatisect leaves, heads of up to seventy pink and brownish flowers and glabrous follicles in the fruiting head.

Description
Banksia brunnea is a bushy, much-branched shrub that typically grows to a height of  but does not form a lignotuber. Its leaves are dark green,  long,  wide on a petiole  long and pinnatisect with between forty and seventy-five lobes on each side with V-shaped spaces between the lobes. The flowers are arranged in heads of between fifty-five and seventy flowers, each flower with a pink perianth  long and a deep red pistil  long. Flowering occurs in August and the fruit is a mostly glabrous, egg-shaped follicle  long.

Taxonomy and naming
This banksia was first formally described in 1845 by Carl Meissner who gave it the name Dryandra brownii and published the description in Lehmann's Plantae Preissianae. In 2007 Austin Mast and Kevin Thiele transferred all the dryandras to the genus Banksia but as there was already a plant named Banksia brownii, Mast and Thiele chose the specific epithet "brunnea". The specific epithet is from a Latin word meaning "brown".

Distribution and habitat
Banksia brunnea grows in kwongan between Albany, the Stirling Range and the Fitzgerald River National Park.

Conservation status
This species is classified as "not threatened" by the Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife.

Ecology
An assessment of the potential impact of climate change on this species found that its range is likely to contract by between 30% and 80% by 2080, depending on the severity of the change.

References

brunnea
Endemic flora of Western Australia
Eudicots of Western Australia
Plants described in 1845
Taxa named by Kevin Thiele

Banksia brunnea


Dennis Joseph Mills (born July 19, 1946) is a Canadian businessman and former politician. He was a Liberal Member of Parliament for the riding of Toronto—Danforth in the east-end of downtown Toronto. From February 2012 until November 2016, Mills was a member of the board of directors of Pacific Rubiales Energy Corp and from April 2013 until the present he has been a director on the board of CGX Energy Inc. Mills is currently the President and CEO of Toronto Partners Inc. and is also founder of Racing Future Inc. where he is currently President and CEO.

Mills has long conducted business in Toronto. In the 1988, 1993, 1997 and 2000 general elections, he won re-election to the House of Commons in the Danforth area of Toronto. In 1993, Mills was inducted into the Order of St. Michael

Biography

The early years
Mills served on the personal staff of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau from 1980 until 1984, when Trudeau was succeeded as Liberal leader and prime minister by John Turner. Mills ran as the Liberal candidate in Broadview-Greenwood in the 1988 election in which the Progressive Conservative government of Brian Mulroney was re-elected, defeating New Democratic Party incumbent Lynn McDonald over the issue of support for the Meech Lake Accord, which Mills opposed.

With the Liberal Party in opposition, Mills served as parliamentary critic for entrepreneurship and small business. When the Liberal Party, under the leadership of Jean Chrétien, formed the government following the 1993 election, he served as Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Industry from 1993 to 1996. He then served as chair of the House of Commons Sub-Committee on Sports and vice-chair of the House of Commons Standing Committee on Canadian Heritage.

In 1996, he briefly left the Liberal caucus to sit as an "Independent Liberal", protesting the government's failure to abolish the Goods and Service Tax as it had promised in the 1993 campaign. Following Chrétien's resignation as Liberal leader, Mills publicly considered running to succeed Chrétien at the 2003 leadership convention and agitated against a "coronation" for front runner Paul Martin, but he did not end up standing for the leadership.

He is best known for helping to organize large events in Toronto. These include World Youth Day in 2002 that brought Pope John Paul II to Toronto, and the post-SARS Rolling Stones concert in 2003. In 1989, Mills organized the Summit on the Environment in Toronto, which attracted approximately 50,000 people and performers such as John Denver and Gordon Lightfoot. In 2001, with the Assembly of First Nations, Mills organized and co-chaired the Bala Summit on Water (See http://dennismills.com/water-manifesto/), attended by leading experts from Canada and the United States.

Starting in 1999, Mills initiated events for the Family Farm Tribute (See http://dennismills.com/family-farm-tribute/) to recognize the contributions of Canadian family farms.

Waterfront Dreams
He has long been involved in the rebuilding plans for the Toronto waterfront. He was responsible for the creation of the Toronto Port Authority and is still one of its greatest proponents, though he opposes the proposed bridge to the island airport designed by the Port Authority. In 2004, Mills unveiled his plan for the Toronto Waterfront, which includes a campus of the United Nations University for Peace, as well as an aquarium, plenty of greenspace, affordable housing, and new sporting facilities. Funding for the University campus was promised on May 20, 2004 by the federal government, but only $3 million, which will not be sufficient. This was part of $125 million re-announced by Paul Martin in funding for the other recommendations in the project. This is smaller than the $325 million promised in the 1997 election and the $300 million promised in the 2000 election, of which of less than $10 million was ever actually delivered.

He was considered by many to be an opponent of Toronto mayor David Miller. He was at first a supporter of John Nunziata in the 2003 mayoral election, but then switched his support to John Tory, who had become one of the leading candidates.

In 2003, he promised in writing to resign in thirty days if an abandoned property known as the Gatekeeper Squat was not turned into community housing. This was, in Mills words, "to avoid a riot" between the Ontario Coalition Against Poverty and the police.

Shortly before the month's end, a compromise deal to convert the property into interim housing was reached. Many protested that the house was not converted into public housing by the end of the 30 days and thus felt the issue had been exploited, but supporters of Mills claim that it would have been impossible to do so much in so little time, and that the weather at the time, which went as low as -30 degrees Celsius, made conversion of a building impossible. The building is still set to be converted into social housing.

Mills was regularly labelled by opponents one of the most socially conservative members of the Liberal caucus. He was opposed to same-sex marriage, a position unpopular in the strongly left-wing riding of Toronto–Danforth. His defeat was a high priority of gay rights groups in the 2004 election. That said, he did favour civil unions, and stated he would respect any decision derived from a free vote on the issue in the House of Commons. He is personally opposed to abortion rights, but does not and has never opposed or raised debate regarding the issue or abortion laws. These social views are commonly associated with his Roman Catholic faith.

Mills is noted for having advocated what opponents call a flat tax, which he calls a "single tax", about which he wrote two books, A Life Less Taxingand The Single Tax. His other published book is Developing an Agenda for the 21st Century.

In 2001, he was criticized for spending $330,884 on travel and office expenses, more than any other Liberal Member of Parliament (MP). Mills was always among the top of the MP rankings on office expenses, which he was sometimes congratulated and sometimes criticized for. In 2004, he was voted Best Constituency MP by the Ottawa Hill Times. Mills' constituency office on Danforth Avenue took thousands of constituent cases, in such matters as immigration and citizenship, and won numerous awards.

The name of the electoral district was changed in 2000 to "Toronto—Danforth" on the suggestion of Mills. The reasoning behind this was that Mills believed that "Broadview--Greenwood" was confusing on a federal scale, and because the NDP had registered a web address for Broadview—Greenwood.

2004 election loss and retirement from public life
In the 2004 election, Mills was defeated in a close race by New Democratic Party leader and former city councilor Jack Layton in the Toronto—Danforth riding, placing a strong second with nearly 20,000 votes, ahead of Green Party leader Jim Harris and Conservative candidate Loftus Cuddy. One of the major issues of the campaign was the fate of the Toronto waterfront and Mills' public support for the highly controversial Toronto Port Authority.

After the election, Mills re-joined Magna International where he served as CEO and Vice-Chairman of MI Developments with responsibility for all of the company's global real estate assets including all North American Thoroughbred racetracks. Mills retired from MI Developments in 2011.

From February 2012 until November 2016, Mills was on the board of directors of Pacific Rubiales Energy Corp. He was on the board of Hut8 Mining until December 2020. He is also a Director at CGX Energy Inc (April 2013 – Present).

Mills is the founder and president and CEO of Racing Future Inc, a portal for the global community dedicated to re-building and growing the sport of horse racing.

Mills has a wife, Vicki, and four children, Jennifer, Craig, Stephanie, and Andrea. They continue to reside in the Toronto-Danforth riding.

References

External links

1946 births
Businesspeople from Toronto
Canadian Roman Catholics
Independent Liberal MPs in Canada
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Living people
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Politicians from Toronto
21st-century Canadian politicians

Dennis Mills


Caroline Schultze (born Karola Szulc, 20 May 1866) was a Polish physician who worked in France.

Schultze was born in Warsaw, Congress Poland. Her father was a musician.

She gained a baccalaureat in 1884 and became a medical student at the University of Paris. In 1888, at the age of 22, she completed a doctoral thesis, "The Woman Physician in the Nineteenth Century." Schultze argued in the thesis that the achievements of women doctors were part of "a general movement of intellectual and professional emancipation for women" that had begun in the 1850s. Her thesis defense was controversial, with the neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot objecting to the "pretension" of Schultze's argument that medicine could be practiced ably by women as well as by men. However, the thesis was finally accepted, and Schultze won the doctorate.

Schultze's thesis was influential, inspiring a wave of dissertations by other French women scholars on women-related topics. It also inspired various novels about "new women," featuring women doctors and other professionals as protagonists and investigating the dilemma of balancing a career with family matters. Schultze was part of the flourishing of women's education in the later nineteenth century, as one of the thousands of women completing university degrees; she was also one of many women of her time who, having been barred from advanced training in their home countries, relocated to find it elsewhere.

In 1888, Schultze was one of the contributors to La Revue scientifique des femmes, a short-lived journal edited by the feminist activist Céline Renooz. Schultze later worked as the chief physician for women employees of La Poste, the French postal, telegraph and telephone service.

Schultze married the statistician Jacques Bertillon; they had two daughters.

References

Physicians from Warsaw
1866 births
French women physicians
19th-century French physicians
University of Paris alumni
Year of death missing
Emigrants from Congress Poland to France
19th-century women physicians

Caroline Schultze


Sandy Bay is a suburb of the city of Hobart, Tasmania, Australia, located immediately south of the central business district, and adjoining the suburb of Battery Point. Sandy Bay is bounded on the east by the Derwent River, and has several beaches along the shore, the main beaches with public access are Short Beach, Nutgrove Beach, Long Beach and Lords Beach.

The suburb has many large homes, and is known as one of the city's prestigious areas. In the more southern areas of Sandy Bay, close to the water and also high on the slopes of Mt Nelson, are some of Tasmania's most expensive real estate. It is also the site of the Hobart campus of the University of Tasmania, and the private schools, Fahan School, The Hutchins School, and Mount Carmel College, Sandy Bay. There is considerable diversity within the suburb. The area surrounding the University of Tasmania is home to considerable student accommodation.

Sandy Bay is accessible from the city via Sandy Bay Road, which runs from Davey Street in the city all the way to the Kingborough municipal boundary at Taroona where it becomes the Channel Highway. Before the construction of the Southern Outlet, the road was the primary route to and from Kingston. The higher parts of Sandy Bay are accessible via Regent Street, which bypasses the main shopping district and goes through the University to Churchill Avenue and Lower Sandy Bay.

Australia's first legal casino, Wrest Point Hotel Casino, was opened in 1973 at the site of the former Wrest Point Riviera hotel.

History

Most of the land at Sandy Bay was granted to Norfolk Islanders when the colonial authorities forced them to relocate to Van Diemen's Land in 1808.

The suburb's long sandy beach was one of the first venues for horseracing in Tasmania's early days.  The tides had to be considered when scheduling the races to ensure there was sufficient space available.  The races attracted large crowds and there was a lot of rash betting, loud shouting and uninhibited consumption of refreshments.

The Queenborough Road Trust was initiated in 1861. The Trust was created under the Cross and Bye Roads Act 1852 (15 Vict No.8.), proposed on 24 Nov 1860, and held its first meeting on 22 Jan 1861. Its purpose was to construct, maintain and regulate cross and bye roads in the Queenborough Road District.

The Browns River Road District was proclaimed on 8 Nov 1852, under the Cross and Bye Roads Act 1852 (15 Vict No.8.) and abolished on 4 Sep 1871.

The Browns River and Sandy Bay Rivulet Road District was proclaimed on 4 Sep 1871, under the Cross and Bye Roads Act 1870 (33 Vict No.8.) and abolished on 26 Sep 1881.

The Browns River Road District was proclaimed on 26 Sep 1881, under the Cross and Bye Roads Act 1870 (33 Vict No.8.) and was abolished on 16 Nov 1885.

The Sandy Bay Road District was proclaimed on 16 Nov 1885, under the Roads Act 1870 (48 Vict No.28.).

The Browns River Road District proclaimed on 23 Jul 1897, and the name changed to Kingston on 26 Nov 1897.

Queenborough became a town under the Towns Act 1891 (55 Vict No.41.), and was proclaimed on 16 May 1892 (HTG 17 May 1892 p. 1038). It ultimately became part of the City of Hobart in 1914.

Sandy Bay Post Office opened on 22 April 1852. It was named Queenborough between 1859 and 1878. In the south of the suburb the Lower Sandy Bay office opened in 1885. It was renamed Sandy Bay Lower in 1895, Beachside in 1921 and Sandy Bay Lower in 1968.

Demographics
At the 2016 census, Sandy Bay had a population of 11,927 people.

Sandy Bay residents had a median age of 40. Median individual incomes in Sandy Bay were above average for the region—$511 per week compared with $455 per week; and 23.74% had incomes above $1,000 per week, compared with 15.50% across the Greater Hobart region. Industry sectors in which Sandy Bay residents worked were comparable with those in Hobart generally, with the largest proportions working in health care (17.67%), education (15.77%), retail (13.84%), hospitality (11.91%), public administration (9.66%) and professional, scientific and technical services (7.19%).

There is considerable diversity within the suburb. One of Sandy Bay's census collection districts (CCDs), based around the University of Tasmania and representing 1,131 people or 10% of the population, has a median age of 23 and an average income of $218, with almost three-quarters of the population in some form of education. Over 20% of the district's population is from Malaysia or China, compared to 5.7% in the suburb generally. At the other end of the scale, 59% of the suburb's population live in CCDs with median incomes above $500, some significantly above this, especially in the Lower Sandy Bay district.

The most common religious affiliations in descending order in the 2006 census were Anglican, no religion, Roman Catholic, Uniting and Buddhism. Parishes for the Anglican and Catholic churches have existed in the suburb since 1922 and 1934 respectively.

Politics
Sandy Bay is the only suburb of Hobart which is consistently safe for the centre-right Liberal Party at both state and federal level. The suburb is served by four booths – Sandy Bay, Sandy Bay Beach, Lower Sandy Bay and Waimea Heights – while another booth, Dynnyrne, is shared with the neighbouring suburbs of South Hobart and Dynnyrne respectively.

At federal level the electoral Division of Denison which encompasses the Sandy Bay region which had been a consistently marginal seat, but was held by the Australian Labor Party between 1987 and 2010 with little difficulty. The current member is the incumbent independent MP Andrew Wilkie, elected at the 2010 election.

At state level in the Division of Clark which encompasses the Sandy Bay area the current sitting members are:

Scott Bacon – Labor
Elise Archer – Liberal
Matthew Groom – Liberal
Cassy O'Connor – Greens
Madeleine Ogilvie – Labor

In the Tasmanian Legislative Council, Sandy Bay is within the electoral division of Nelson, and has been represented by independent member Jim Wilkinson since 1995.

Notable people
Chris Stone (footballer) was born in Sandy Bay

References

External links

Suburbs of Hobart
Bays of Tasmania
Sandy Bay, Hobart
Localities of City of Hobart

Sandy Bay, Tasmania


The Port of Gladstone is a seaport in Gladstone, Queensland. It exports the fourth largest amount of coal of any seaport in the world.

The port has several different parts to it. Auckland Point was where coal began to be exported in 1925.
Later, live horses were moved there in the mid-1930s. Barney Point was used to export coal from Moura. Barney Point was made part of the Port of Gladstone in November 1998.

The Fisherman's Landing part was opened in 1980. It was expanded in the 1990s and is planned to be expanded more. Boyne Wharf is used by the Boyne Island aluminium smelter and was opened in August 1982. The South Trees part of the port have been used by Queensland Alumina Limited, an aluminum company. The RG Tanna Coal Terminal was opened in 1997 and is used to export coking coal to Japanese steel mills.

References

Queensland

Port of Gladstone


Many undeciphered writing systems exist today; most date back several thousand years, although some more modern examples do exist. The term "writing systems" is used here loosely to refer to groups of glyphs which appear to have representational symbolic meaning, but which may include "systems" that are largely artistic in nature and are thus not examples of actual writing.

The difficulty in deciphering these systems can arise from a lack of known language descendants or from the languages being entirely isolated, from insufficient examples of text having been found and even (such as in the case of Vinča) from the question of whether the symbols actually constitute a writing system at all. Some researchers have claimed to be able to decipher certain writing systems, such as those of Epi-Olmec, Phaistos and Indus texts; but to date, these claims have not been widely accepted within the scientific community, or confirmed by independent researchers, for the writing systems listed here (unless otherwise specified).

Proto-writing
Certain forms of proto-writing remain undeciphered and, because of a lack of evidence and linguistic descendants, it is quite likely that they will never be deciphered.

Neolithic signs in China
Yellow River civilization
Jiahu symbols – Peiligang culture, from China, c. 6600 – 6200 BC.
Damaidi symbols – Damaidi, from China, earliest estimated dates range from Paleolithic to c. 3000 years ago
Dadiwan symbols – Dadiwan, from China, c. 5800 – 5400 BC.
Banpo symbols – Yangshao culture, from China, 5th millennium BC.
Jiangzhai symbols – Yangshao culture, from China, 4th millennium BC.
Dawenkou symbols – Dawenkou culture, c. 2800 – 2500 BC.
Longshan symbols – Longshan culture, from China, c. 2500 – 1900 BC.
Yangtze civilization
Wucheng symbols – Wucheng culture, from China, c. 1600 BC
Other areas
Sawveh – Guangxi, from China; possible proto-writing or writing

Neolithic signs in Europe
Dispilio Tablet – Neolithic Europe, from Greece, c. 5202 BC.
Vinča symbols – Neolithic Europe, from Central Europe and Southeastern Europe, c. 4500 BC – 4000 BC.

Afro-Eurasian scripts

Indian subcontinent
Indus script, c. 3500 BC to 1900 BC.
Vikramkhol inscription, c. 1500 BC
Megalithic graffiti symbols, c. 1000 BC - 300 AD, possible writing system and possible descendant of Indus script
Pushkarasari script – Gandhara, 3rd century BC to 8th century AD.
Shankhalipi, c. 4th to 8th century

West Asia
Proto-Elamite script, c. 3200 BC
Jiroft script, c. 2200 BC
Wadi el-Ħôl script, c. 1800 BC, likely an abjad.
Byblos syllabary – the city of Byblos, c. 1700 BC
Cypro-Minoan syllabary, c. 1550 BC
Eteocypriot, c. 10th century BC, written in the deciphered Cypriot syllabary but the language itself is undeciphered.

East Asia
Ba–Shu scripts, 5th to 4th century BC.
Khitan large script and Khitan small script – Khitan, 10th century, not fully deciphered.
Tujia script

Southeast Asia
Singapore Stone, a fragment of a sandstone slab inscribed with an ancient Southeast Asian script, perhaps Old Javanese or Sanskrit. At least 13th century, and possibly as early as 10th to 11th century

Central Asia
Oxus script, c. 2200 BC
Issyk inscription, Kazakhstan, c. 4th century BC
Kushan script, c. 2nd century BC - 7th century AD, partially deciphered.

Europe
Cretan hieroglyphs, c. 2100 BC.
Linear A and Cretan hieroglyphs are both believed to be an example of the Minoan language. Several words have been decoded from the scripts, but no definite conclusions on the meanings of the words have been made.
Phaistos Disc, c. 2000 BC.
Linear A, c. 1800 BC, a syllabary
Grakliani Hill script - Grakliani Hill, c. 11th - 10th century BC
Paleohispanic scripts
Southwest Paleohispanic script, from c. 700 BC
Eteocretan, c. 7th - 3rd century BC, written in the Greek script but language is undeciphered, likely related to Minoan.
Sitovo inscription
Alekanovo inscription, c. 10th - 11th century
 Rohonc Codex
 Folio 7r-v of British Library manuscript MS 73525, pre-1550, possibly liturgical.
 Voynich manuscript, carbon dated to the 15th century.
 Some scholars consider the corpus of Pictish symbol stones to be an undeciphered writing system

North Africa
The Starving of Saqqara - possibly dating to pre-dynastic Egypt
Numidian language (although the script, Libyco-Berber, has been almost fully deciphered, the language has not)
Meroitic language, c. 300 BC to 400 AD, though the Meroitic script is largely deciphered, the underlying language is not.
Ṣǝḥuf ʾǝmni inscription (although written in the well-known South Arabian script, the language has not yet been identified)

Sub-Saharan Africa
Eghap script – Cameroon, c. 1900, partially deciphered.
Ancient inscriptions in Somalia, According to the Ministry of Information and National Guidance of Somalia, inscriptions can be found on various old Taalo Tiiriyaad structures. These are enormous stone mounds found especially in northeastern Somalia. Among the main sites where these Taalo are located are Xabaalo Ambiyad in Alula District, Baar Madhere in Beledweyne District, and Harti Yimid in Las Anod District.

American scripts

Andean South America
Khipu – Inka Empire and predecessor states, like the Wari Empire or the Caral-Supe Civilization, c. 2600 BC - 18th century, with some variants still in use today; it could possibly be a writing system or a set of writing systems.

Mesoamerica
Olmec – Olmec civilization, c. 600 BC, possibly the oldest Mesoamerican script.
Epi-olmec, c. 400 BC–500 AD, apparently logosyllabic.
Izapan script, Late Preclassic - possibly logosyllabic. Guatemalan and Chiapas Pacific Coast. Probably an offshoot of Epi-olmec.
Zapotec – Zapotec. Possibly logosyllabic, c. 500 BC–700 AD.
Ñuiñe script- Late Classic. Similar to and possibly an offshoot of Zapotec in the Mixteca Baja
Teotihuacan. Possibly descended from the Zapotec script, and itself being the probable ancestor of the Post-classic Mixtec and Aztec scripts, c. 100 BC - 700 AD. Possibly a logosyllabary
Mixtec – Mixtec, 12th–14th century, the pictographic elements which accompany the script are well-understood, but semantic and linguistic components of the script proper are less well known. The glyphs proper which accompany the pictographs are logosyllabic.

Virtually all Mesoamerican Glyphic Scripts remain undeciphered, with the only exceptions being the Maya Script and the Aztec Script.

There were other scripts in several areas of Postclassic Mesoamerica descended from the Teotihuacan script and siblings of the Aztec and Mixtec scripts, but they are very poorly attested in some colonial period codices.

Pacific scripts
Rongorongo – Rapa Nui (aka Easter Island), before 1860.

Related concepts: texts that are not writing systems
One very similar concept is that of false writing systems, which appear to be writing but are not. False writing cannot be deciphered because it has no semantic meaning. These particularly include asemic writing created for artistic purposes. One prominent example is the Codex Seraphinianus.

Another similar concept is that of undeciphered cryptograms, or cipher messages. These are not writing systems per se, but a disguised form of another text. Of course any cryptogram is intended to be undecipherable by anyone except the intended recipient so vast numbers of these exist, but a few examples have become famous and are listed in list of ciphertexts.

References

External links
 Proto-Elamite (CDLI link)
 Vinča signs (The Old European Script: Further evidence - Shan M. M. Winn)

Undeciphered writing systems


Brandon Charles Kolb (born November 20, 1973) is a former right-handed relief pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for the San Diego Padres and Milwaukee Brewers in  and . He attended Monte Vista High School in Danville, California. He later went to Chabot College and then to Texas Tech.

Standing at 6'1", 190 pounds, Kolb was originally drafted by the Oakland Athletics 1077th overall in the 1993 draft. Deciding not to sign, he would have to wait until  to be drafted again, when he was selected by the Padres in the fourth round. This time, he chose to sign.

Originally a starter in the minors, his best record was 16–9, which he achieved in 1996 with the Clinton LumberKings. Although he showed promise as a starter in the minor leagues, he was being used mostly as a reliever by 1998. He spent 1998 and 1999 entirely as a reliever.

He made his Major League debut on May 12, 2000, against the Arizona Diamondbacks at the age of 26. Although he struck out one batter in the single inning he pitched that game, he also gave up two hits and an earned run. He would improve down the stretch, lowering his season ERA to 4.50. Although he gave up 16 hits in 14 innings that year, not one of them was a home run. He walked 11 and struck out 12 that year.

During the 2000/2001 offseason, Kolb was sent to the Brewers with a player to be named later for Santiago Pérez and a player to be named later. The players to be named would end up being Will Cunnane for the Padres and minor leaguer Chad Green of the Brewers.

His career took a major turn for the worse while with the Padres in 2001. He did not give up a single earned run until his fifth appearance of 2001, but he still posted a season ERA of 13.03. He gave up six home runs in 9 innings of work, including three in one inning—on June 20 against the Cincinnati Reds, Kolb gave up home runs to Sean Casey, Michael Tucker, and Pokey Reese. Since he had given up two home runs the game before, Kolb ended up allowing five home runs over a two-game span—he pitched a total of only 1 innings in that time.

His season ended on September 19, 2001. In his final career game, Kolb allowed two earned runs. He did strike out the final batter he faced in his career, though. It was pitcher Steve Kline.

After his big league career ended, Kolb spent time bouncing around the minors until 2004, even spending time in independent baseball.

Overall in his Major League career, Kolb was 0–1 with a 7.99 ERA in 21 games. In 23 innings of work, Kolb walked 19 and struck out 20. He went 0-for-2 as a batter, although he did score a run. His fielding percentage was .667.

He wore numbers 47 and 38 in his career.

He lives in Flower Mound, Texas and is a private instructor.

References

External links

1973 births
Living people
Major League Baseball pitchers
San Diego Padres players
Milwaukee Brewers players
Baseball players from Oakland, California
Chabot Gladiators baseball players
Texas Tech Red Raiders baseball players
Arizona League Padres players
Idaho Falls Braves players
Clinton LumberKings players
Rancho Cucamonga Quakes players
Mobile BayBears players
Las Vegas Stars (baseball) players
Indianapolis Indians players
Louisville Bats players
Iowa Cubs players
Long Island Ducks players
Nashua Pride players

Brandon Kolb


Deadpool is the name of multiple comic book titles featuring the character Deadpool and published by Marvel Comics, beginning with the original Deadpool comic book series which debuted in 1997.

Publication history

Volume 1
In 1997, Deadpool was given his own ongoing title, initially written by Joe Kelly, with then-newcomer Ed McGuinness as an artist. Deadpool became an action comedy parody of the cosmic drama, antihero-heavy comics of the time. The series firmly established his supporting cast, including his prisoner/den mother Blind Al and his best friend Weasel. The ongoing series gained cult popularity for its unorthodox main character and its balance of angst and pop culture slapstick and the character became less of a villain, though the element of his moral ambiguity remained. The writer Joe Kelly noted, "With Deadpool, we could do anything we wanted because everybody just expected the book to be cancelled every five seconds, so nobody was paying attention. And we could get away with it." Reportedly Kelly introduced the fourth wall breaking gimmick.

The series was taken over by Christopher Priest who noted that he found Kelly's issues to be "complex and a little hostile to new readers like me" and by issue 37, he realized that "it was okay to make Deadpool look stupid." Kelly may have introduced Deadpool to breaking the fourth wall, but Priest "could be credited for establishing it as an essential part of the character's personality and worldview." Priest left the series after only one year at issue #45.

For a time, writers who followed generally ignored the fourth wall entirely, until Gail Simone took over with issue #65. Her version is remembered for the frequent use of the "little yellow boxes." Deadpool lasted until issue #69, at which point it was relaunched as a new title by Simone with a similar character called Agent X in 2002. This occurred during a line wide revamp of X-Men related comics, with Cable becoming Soldier X and X-Force becoming X-Statix. Simone notes that 'When I took the Deadpool job, the revamp hadn't been planned, so it was a complete surprise. Thankfully, we heard about it in time to make adjustments to the early scripts'. It appeared that Deadpool was killed in an explosion fighting the supervillain Black Swan. Deadpool's manager, Sandi Brandenberg later founded Agency X with a mysterious man called Alex Hayden, who took the name dubbed Agent X. Deadpool later returned to the series. Simone left the title after seven issues due to creative differences with the series editor, but then returned to conclude with issues 13–15.

Volume 2
A new Deadpool ongoing series written by Daniel Way with artist Paco Medina began as a Secret Invasion tie-in. In the first arc, the character is seen working with Nick Fury to steal data on how to kill the Skrull queen Veranke. Norman Osborn steals the information that Deadpool had stolen from the Skrulls, and subsequent stories deal with the fallout from that. Writer Daniel Way explained, "the first thing Osborn does to try and take care of the situation is to bring in a hired gun to take Deadpool down, which would be Tiger-Shark. That would be the standard thing to do, but of course everything about Deadpool is non-standard. So it goes completely awry and Norman has to get more serious about things." The story also sees the return of Bob, Agent of HYDRA, "I don't want the book to become 'Deadpool and Friends' so characters will drift in and out, but Bob was someone I definitely wanted to bring in. It just had to be at the perfect moment and when I was putting this storyline together that moment presented itself." This all led directly to a confrontation with the new Thunderbolts in "Magnum Opus" which crossed over between Deadpool vol. 2 #8–9 and Thunderbolts #130–131. Thunderbolts writer Andy Diggle said, "it's a natural progression for Deadpool to go after Norman, and for Norman to send his personal hit-squad after Deadpool." In Deadpool #15, Deadpool decides to become a hero resulting in conflicts with proper heroes like Spider-Man (who he had recently encountered in The Amazing Spider-Man #611 as part of "The Gauntlet") and leading to a 3-issue arc where he takes on Hit-Monkey, a character who debuted in the same month in a digital, then print, one-shot.

A special anniversary issue titled Deadpool #900 was released in October 2009. It features stories written by several authors, with the main feature written by the original Deadpool series writer Joe Kelly and drawn by Deadpool's creator Rob Liefeld.

Volume 3
As part of Marvel's Marvel NOW! initiative a new Deadpool ongoing series was launched, written by Brian Posehn and Gerry Duggan and illustrated by Tony Moore. In the 27th issue of his new series, as part of "All-New Marvel NOW!", Deadpool was married for the third time. Initially a secret, his bride was revealed in the web comic Deadpool: The Gauntlet to be Shiklah, Queen of the Undead. Deadpool also discovers that he has a daughter by the name of Eleanor from a former flame of Deadpool named Carmelita.

Deadpool's death occurs in Deadpool #250, involving story ideas that cowriters Gerry Duggan and Brian Posehn have had in mind since the beginning of the NOW series. Issue #250 was technically issue #45 but was so named as it was the cumulative 250th issue of the character's solo series. Deadpool faces off in a final showdown with ULTIMATUM and Flag-Smasher, killing all of them, and gives up the "Deadpool" identity, wishing to have a better life. He, along with his family and friends, (and presumably everyone on Earth) are all killed when the Earth collides with an alternate universe's Earth. Deadpool laments that the Secret Wars should have stayed an Avengers event, but then dies at peace, content that everybody else is dying with him.

Volume 4
Deadpool Vol. 4 began in 2016.

References

1997 comics debuts
Comics adapted into video games
Deadpool
Marvel Comics adapted into films
Marvel Comics titles
Metafictional comics

Deadpool (comic book)