The Crown is a historical drama television series about the reign of Queen Elizabeth II, created and principally written by Peter Morgan, and produced by Left Bank Pictures and Sony Pictures Television for Netflix.

Plot
The Crown focuses on the life of Queen Elizabeth II. It begins at her wedding with Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.

 The first season is about Elizabeth II coping with her new position as Queen of the United Kingdom as well as the death of King George VI.
 The second season covers events between 1956 and 1964.
 The third season is about the years leading up to 1977 and also introduces Camilla.
 The fourth season focuses on Margaret Thatcher and Diana Spencer.
 The fifth season covers the failing marriage of Diana and Prince Charles.
 The sixth season will be the last but has not been released yet.

Main cast

 Claire Foy (seasons 1–2, featured season 4, guest season 5), Olivia Colman (seasons 3–4), and Imelda Staunton (season 5) as Queen Elizabeth II
 Matt Smith (seasons 1–2), Tobias Menzies (seasons 3–4), and Jonathan Pryce (season 5) as Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
 Vanessa Kirby (seasons 1–2, guest season 5), Helena Bonham Carter (seasons 3–4), and Lesley Manville (season 5) as Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon
 Eileen Atkins (season 1) and Candida Benson (guest season 5) as Queen Mary
 Jeremy Northam as Anthony Eden (seasons 1–2)
 Victoria Hamilton (seasons 1–2), Marion Bailey (seasons 3–4), and Marcia Warren (season 5) as Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother
 Ben Miles (season 1, featured season 2, guest season 5) and Timothy Dalton (featured season 5) as Peter Townsend
 Greg Wise (seasons 1–2) and Charles Dance (season 3, featured season 4) as Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma
 Jared Harris as King George VI (season 1, featured season 2)
 John Lithgow as Winston Churchill (season 1, featured seasons 2–3)
 Alex Jennings (season 1, featured seasons 2 and 5) and Derek Jacobi (featured season 3) as Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor
 Lia Williams (season 1, featured seasons 2 and 5) and Geraldine Chaplin (featured season 3) as Wallis, Duchess of Windsor
 Anton Lesser as Harold Macmillan (season 2)
 Matthew Goode (season 2) and Ben Daniels (season 3) as Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon
 Jason Watkins as Harold Wilson (season 3)
 Erin Doherty (seasons 3–4) and Claudia Harrison (season 5) as Princess Anne
 Josh O'Connor (seasons 3–4) and Dominic West (season 5) as Charles, Prince of Wales
 Emma Corrin (season 4) and Elizabeth Debicki (season 5) as Diana, Princess of Wales
 Gillian Anderson as Margaret Thatcher (season 4)
 Stephen Boxer as Denis Thatcher (season 4)
 Emerald Fennell (season 4, featured season 3) and Olivia Williams (season 5) as Camilla Parker Bowles
 Jonny Lee Miller (season 5) and Marc Ozall (guest season 4) as John Major
 Natascha McElhone (season 5) as Penny Knatchbull, Lady Romsey

References

2016 American television series debuts
Netflix original series
English-language television programs

The Crown (TV series)


Brian St. Clair (born May 24, 1968) is an American drummer, best known as a member of the rock duo Local H, from July 1999 until October 2013.

Raised in Fullerton, California, Brian's family moved to the town of Glen Ellyn, Illinois in 1980.

He has played drums for a few Chicago area bands (in order): Eye's On Troy, Political Justice?, Denied Remarks (as a second drummer), God's Acre, My Life With The Thrill Kill Kult, Rights Of The Accused (also known as: ROTA, the entire band sang back up vocals on a 1000 Homo Djs record), and Triple Fast Action. Brian moved to NYC in 1998 after Triple Fast Action broke up.

After Political Justice? broke up St. Clair played with a few bands before landing the role of drummer in one of Chicago's most famous punk bands Rights Of The Accused. In 1988 ROTA were taken on tour with Ministry (band) and became close friends with Al Jourgensen who took them into the studio to sing back up vocals on the 1000 Homo DJs record and put the band in his video for the song Stigmata from the album The Land of Rape and Honey where St. Clair played drums, Herb played bass, Wes played guitar, and Mike jumped around and yelled.  However it is very hard to see anyone other than Mike due to all of the fog produced by the fog machine on the set.  Also while in ROTA Brian was cast by Cynthia Plaster Caster, one of the Plaster Casters Of Chicago.

Kidd and St. Clair formed Triple Fast Action who released several singles on indie labels and a full CD on Capitol Records and one on Deep Elm records before Brian left the band to pursue other interests. In 1999 St. Clair joined Local H with Scott Lucas.

Just prior to Local H he was the drum tech for Bun E. Carlos of Cheap Trick, and was credited on Cheap Trick's Silver DVD. Brian has been the tour manager for Liz Phair, Brazilian Girls, Micki Free, Triple Fast Action, and Local H. He has also been dubbed one of the "hardest working drummers" in rock history.

St. Clair's hobbies include birdwatching, in which he has seen 550 of the some 810 species in The USA. He was featured in a famous birdwatching book called "Red-Tails in Love" (Random House, 1998) by Marie Winn. In 1998 Brian St. Clair auditioned for the world famous "Blue Man Group" and was told to start taking acting classes so he could join in the future, he took three months of classes at T. Schriber acting school then got too busy with Cheap Trick to continue.

Aside from Local H, St. Clair works for three other bands: Cheap Trick, Brazilian Girls, and Micki Free, where he works behind the scenes in Tour Management and production.

In December 2011 St. Clair signed a drum endorsement deal with Taye Drums.

On August 21, 2013 he announced that he would be departing from Local H after a farewell tour to focus on his tour management company.

2013 - Present: St. Clair has been Cheap Trick's Production Manager. Since 2021 St. Clair added drum tech to his job title with Cheap Trick.

In May 2014 he was diagnosed with prostate cancer. As of April 2015, St. Clair is on indefinite hormonal therapy.

References

1968 births
Alternative rock drummers
American alternative rock musicians
American male drummers
American rock drummers
Living people
Local H members
Musicians from Illinois
People from Glen Ellyn, Illinois
20th-century American drummers
People from Fullerton, California
My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult members
21st-century American drummers
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians

Brian St. Clair


Rabbit Rampage is a 1955 Warner Bros. Looney Tunes animated cartoon, directed by Chuck Jones. The short was released on June 11, 1955, and stars Bugs Bunny.

Plot
The short opens to Bugs Bunny's hole being drawn by the animator in the ground; the animator abruptly erases and redraws the hole in the sky. A sleepy Bugs climbs out and falls to the ground. When Bugs realizes who is in charge of the feature, he makes his desire plain to not be a victim of an animator who plans on making him look bad. With that said, Bugs is about to get back into his rabbit hole, but the animator erases it, causing Bugs to jump headfirst into the ground. After Bugs stands up, he restates his desire to not work with the animator ("Look, Buster. What's the big idea? I said I wasn't working with you and that is that!"), who paints a yellow streak on Bugs' back, implying that Bugs is a coward. Bugs then grabs the brush and breaks it in half.

Bugs emphatically states he will report the animator to his bosses at Warner Bros. Studios. and calls the animator "a menace to society", while the animator draws a picket sign reading "I WON'T WORK" in Bugs's left hand. When Bugs sees the sign, he panics and throws it on the ground, off-screen. Bugs asks if the animator is trying to get him fired, before explaining that he has become a good asset to the studio, which gives the animator time to draw another picket sign now reading "I REFUSE TO LIVE UP TO MY CONTRACT". After panicking and throwing away the last sign off-screen, Bugs returns, wiping off the yellow paint with a towel. Afterwards, Bugs grudgingly agrees to work on the picture, but pauses once he sees the animator has drawn a hat on his head, prompting Bugs to throw it on the ground, stating the animator knows he is not supposed to wear a hat. In response, the animator draws a big pink women's hat, and Bugs throws it on the ground too ("Cut it out! Ya crazy idjit!"), revealing another hat beneath it, with another hat revealed under that one when Bugs throws it on the ground as well. The cycle continues with various ridiculous hats and wigs until Bugs announces that he gives up, after which he finally gets the endless line of hats off his head and walks away. The animator draws a rotated forest, and finding himself in it, Bugs tries to get in his hole by climbing down a nearby tree. The animator draws an anvil on Bugs' tail, causing Bugs to fall on a street, later rolling into an empty area.

Angry, Bugs incoherently yells at the animator, but the animator erases Bugs's head to shut him up. When Bugs realizes this, he taps one foot impatiently and points at the spot where his head existed. The animator then draws a Jack-o'-lantern on Bugs' body. Realizing this, Bugs demands it be corrected, which the animator supplies by simply adding rabbit ears to the existing head, infuriating Bugs even further. The animator erases the pumpkin head and then draws a tiny version of Bugs' head. Bugs does not realize what has happened until he pulls a carrot out of his pocket, stopping short when he sees that something else is wrong and that the carrot is now huge. He then takes notice of his high-pitched voice. He smacks his hand against his face and realizes that his head is now small. He angrily requests that the animator draw his head back in properly, which he does, except he does not apply the ears. Bugs requests the ears, to which the animator puts in human ears. Bugs requests that he has long rabbit ears, to which the animator then draws long, droopy rabbit ears, only to revert them back when Bugs snaps at him to not "be so danged literal!"

Now with his ears back, Bugs walks away again, only to have his tail erased. When Bugs orders that his tail be put back, it is replaced with a horse's tail, and when Bugs states a horse's tail belongs on a horse, the animator erases Bugs's body and redraws him as a horse. Bugs, while standing on two hind legs and eating a carrot, points out to the animator that this misinterpretation will not make his employers happy, seeing that his contract clearly says he is to be drawn as a rabbit, allowing the animator to pretend to comply with what Bugs is telling him by erasing Bugs's horse body and redrawing him as a more abstract, simplified rabbit with big cheeks and feet. Bugs warns the animator as soon he finds that this appearance is not quite right that this latest bit of teasing can lead to serious consequences for both of them, which leads the animator to draw him back to normal.

When Bugs sardonically asks the animator if he wants to paint him into a grasshopper, the animator takes out a brush and Bugs quickly takes it back. Bugs attempts to make friends with the animator, promising that they could do something popular. While he is doing this, the animator draws two clones of Bugs, prompting Bugs to shove the clones out of the picture. Bugs then states he has finally had enough and he will not leave the spot until the animator gets the boss, but the animator, not wanting to (possibly) get fired, instead paints Bugs on a railroad track with a train coming out of a tunnel behind him. Bugs leans on a rock to avoid the train as it passes by, and he says he still knows one way out and that the animator cannot stop him. He jumps up and pulls down a card with the words "The End."

The camera pulls back to the animator, who is revealed to be Elmer Fudd, in a cameo appearance, who laughs and states his delight to the audience by saying, "Well, anyway, I finawwy got even with that scwewy wabbit!"

Voice Cast and Additional Crew
 Mel Blanc voices Bugs Bunny
 Arthur Q. Bryan voices Elmer Fudd (uncredited)
 Production Manager: John W. Burton
 Film Edited by Treg Brown
 Additional Story by Chuck Jones & Tedd Pierce (both uncredited)
 Uncredited Animation by Ken Harris

Production notes
Rabbit Rampage is a spiritual successor to the 1953 cartoon Duck Amuck, in which Daffy Duck was teased by an off-screen animator, revealed at the end to be Bugs Bunny. In Rabbit Rampage, Bugs is similarly teased by another off-screen animator, who is revealed at the end to be Elmer Fudd.

The cartoon inspired a 1993 video game for the Super NES, Bugs Bunny Rabbit Rampage, which allows the player to control Bugs, following a similar plot. A few clips from this short were shown in a trailer for the Looney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 1 DVD set (seen on the Looney Tunes: Back in Action DVD), but was not included as part of that set. The complete short was released on the Volume 6 set of the series as a "bonus" cartoon.

Legacy
While not as a big of a success as Duck Amuck, the short has been fairly popular. A similar plot was also included in the episode "Duck's Reflucks" of Baby Looney Tunes, in which Bugs was the victim, Daffy was the animator, and it was made on a computer instead of a pencil and paper. It is done once again with Daffy tormenting Bugs in the New Looney Tunes episode "One Carroter in Search of an Artist", with the technology updated and the pencil and paintbrush replaced by a digital pen.

In issue #94 of the Looney Tunes comic (November 2002), Bugs Bunny gets back at Daffy Duck by making him the victim, in switching various movie roles, from Duck Twacy in Who Killed Daffy Duck," a video game character, and a talk show host, and they always wind up with Daffy starring in Moby Dick (the story's running gag). After this, Bugs comments, "Eh, dis guy needs a new agent."

See also
 Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies filmography (1950–1959)
 List of Bugs Bunny cartoons
 List of cartoons featuring Elmer Fudd

References

External links

1955 films
1955 animated films
1955 short films
1950s Warner Bros. animated short films
Looney Tunes shorts
1955 comedy films
Metafictional works
Self-reflexive films
Surrealist films
Surreal comedy films
Short films directed by Chuck Jones
Films about animation
Films scored by Milt Franklyn
American films about revenge
Bugs Bunny films
Elmer Fudd films
Films with screenplays by Michael Maltese
1950s English-language films

Rabbit Rampage


George James Wardle CH (15 May 1865 – 18 June 1947) was a British politician.

Biography
He was born on 15 May 1865.

He was editor of the Railway Review and, in 1906, was elected a Labour Member of Parliament for Stockport. At the 1916 Labour Party conference, he made a speech which resulted in the conference passing resolutions as to the party stand on World War I, something the party leader Ramsay MacDonald had failed to establish. He was a founding member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in 1917, and between 1917 and 1919 he served as Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade. In the 1918 General Election he successfully stood for election as a Coalition Labour candidate.  He resigned as a Member of Parliament on 9 March 1920 by becoming Steward of the Chiltern Hundreds.

He died on 18 June 1947.

References

External links

1865 births
1947 deaths
Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants-sponsored MPs
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1906–1910
UK MPs 1910
UK MPs 1910–1918
UK MPs 1918–1922
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
Coalition Labour MPs
Chairs of the Labour Party (UK)
Parliamentary Secretaries to the Board of Trade
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Stockport

George Wardle


The Double Qaim-Maqamate of Mount Lebanon (1843–1861, , or simply, ; Al-Qāʾim maqāmiyyatayn, ) was one of the Ottoman Empire's subdivisions following the abolishment of the Mount Lebanon Emirate. After 1843, there existed an autonomous Mount Lebanon with a Christian and a Druze subdivision, which have been created as a homeland for the Maronite Christians under European diplomatic pressure following the 1841 massacres, and for the Druze segment of the population which found the neighboring Christians as enemies. After the collapse of the Double Qaim-Maqamate due to the 1860 conflict, the Maronite Catholics and the Druze further developed the idea of an independent Lebanon in the mid-nineteenth century, through the creation of the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.

The idea of dividing Mount Lebanon between Christians and Druze was a system proposed by the Austrian Chancellor Metternich between the British and the Ottomans, who backed the Druze demand for a Druze governor, and the French, who insisted on the return of the Shihab principality. Thus, the Druze emir Ahmad Arslan was appointed qāʾim maqām of the mixed southern district and Christian emir Haydar Ahmad Abu al-Lamaʿ qāʾim maqām of the mostly Christian northern district, each qāʾim maqām was to be accompanied by two wakils, a Druze and a Christian, who exercised their judicial and fiscal authority over the members of their respective communities

The declaration of the Qāʾim Maqāmiyya triggered a wave of violence and further worsened the religious tensions, a series of overlapping and complicated conflicts dominated the years that followed its declaration, with Christian commoners fighting against both Christian and Druze feudal lords, and bad weather controlling the region in 1856–1858, alongside a crisis in silk production which cut the production of the valuable product in Mount Lebanon to a half, led to several peasant's revolts that ultimately caused the climax of the tensions between the Druze and the Maronites. Subsequently, the Mount Lebanon conflict of 1860 began and led to the demise of the Double Qaim-maqamate.

Background
The emir Bashir III did not care about the demands of the Druze, as he refused to extract the land from the new owners who bought it from the previous emir during the Egyptian occupation, and he was not satisfied with that, but stripped a number of other feudal lords of their remaining privileges in collecting taxes, maintaining security in their areas, and exercising judicial authority. And since this prince was among the Shehab princes who converted to Christianity at an earlier time, the Druze considered him an apostate, a traitor to Islam and the Druze community in particular, before others, and the mutual hatred between them and Christians increased, until it turned in the year 1841 into a bloody conflict between Druze and Maronite peasants because of a dispute over the eligibility of a Maronite crossing and hunting partridge on land owned by a Druze.

Usually, in these types of incidents, the sheikhs and the ʿUqalā ("Those of Good-Will") would had intervened to solve it, and if they were not successful, they would raise the matter to the emir, who would issue his ruling and restore things to normal, but anxiety and tension among the population and the emir being unable to impose his will on a party that does not recognize him prevented such solutions. The conflict moved to some areas in the Beqaa Valley, and it reached its climax when some Druze besieged the emir in the Deir al-Qamar Palace and then stormed him and arrested the emir and mistreated him. The Ottomans seized this opportunity and dealt their final blow. On 13 December 1842, that is, three months after the start of the unrest, the governor of Beirut summoned Prince Bashir III from Deir al-Qamar to Beirut, from which an Ottoman ship took him to Constantinople.

After the removal of Prince Bashir III, the Lebanese Shehab emirate, which had been the ruling entity of the country and its population for many years, collapsed. The Ottomans appointed one of the most senior officials as direct ruler on the mountain, with the ruler being a Sunni Muslim of Austrian origins named Omar Pasha, the Druze welcomed him and the Christians rejected him, and the majority of the Christians stood by the Maronite Patriarch Youssef Boutros Hobeish, who announced that he refused to cooperate with any non-Lebanese ruler or any ruler not chosen by the Lebanese themselves. The Pasha had hired agents to edit petitions that showed the people's support for him and their refusal to return to the Chehab rule. A number of people signed these petitions in exchange for a bribe, a promise or a threat, and some of them signed them with consent, when the matter of the petitions was exposed in Constantinople and the Porte got determined to dismiss the Austrian, the Pasha tried to lure the Druze to him and persuade them to fight the Christians population, but the Druze, feeling that the Pasha had taken advantage of them, led forces against him and almost stormed his palace, had it not been for a battalion of the Ottoman soldiers had rescued him, then he was sent to Beirut, where he was dismissed from his position, on the same day, the Porte and representatives of European countries reached in Constantinople a new project to govern Mount Lebanon, and to be implemented in early 1843.

History

After dismissing Omar Pasha of his position, the Ottoman government tried to appoint two non-Lebanese Ottoman rulers in his place, one on the south of the mountain, that is, on the Druze-majority side, and the other on the north of the mountain, that is, on the Christian-majority side, with the rulers being the subject of the Governor of Beirut, but the Europeans stood in the way of the Ottoman plan, as it entailed strengthening the Ottoman Islamic grip on Mount Lebanon, and since the influence of the Ottoman Empire was weakening at the time and unable to compete with the European influence, the Sultan accepted the proposals of representatives of the great powers to divide the mountain into a Christian and a Druze side and on 1 December 1843, the Sultan agreed to the proposal of Prince Metternich, Chancellor of Austria, and asked Asaad Pasha, the governor of Beirut, to divide Mount Lebanon into two provinces: a northern province ruled by a Christian Qa'im-Maqam and a southern province governed by a Druze Qa'im-Maqam, both of whom are chosen by the notables, and are subject to the Governor of Beirut, this system was later known as the double Qa'im-Maqamate system.

Troubles of 1845–1858
The defects of the double Qa'im-Maqamate system became clear when sectarian strife continued under it, the reason for this is that this system not only failed to eliminate the causes of discord among the inhabitants of the mountain, but also added to it a new factor of discrimination and conflict, the factor being the class struggle between the feudal lords and the common people, after taking away from the Druze and Christian feudal leaders their judicial and financial powers, and making them the prerogative of the qāʾim maqām and the Qāʾim maqām Council. In the year 1856, Sultan Abdulmejid I issued his famous firman, in which he equalized all Ottoman subjects, regardless of their different religious beliefs, and abolished the political and social privileges enjoyed by a group or a sect. The Christians were at the forefront of those adhering to the provisions of this decree, as they constituted most of the peasants and the majority of the working class consisted of them. The peasants in the Christian areas, led by Tanyus Shahin, revolted against the feudal lords and burned their palaces and robbed their crops. Then the movement of revolution spread to the south of Mount Lebanon, where the farmers were a mixture of Druze and Christians, however, at that time, confidence was already lost between the two parties, making it impossible to unite the word of the peasants of the two communities for their common interest against their feudal leaders. The Druze feudal leaders took advantage of religious ties, and they convinced their peasants of their own sect that conflict between them and the Christians exists and that they could not be trusted, and urged them to support their leaders and rally around them to defend their followers of their faith.

Foreign countries played a major role in worsening sectarian hatreds. The British, after their Protestant missionaries were unable to win a large audience of native Lebanese Christians, supported and encouraged the Druze and supplied them with money and weapons, as did the French for the Maronites, with most of Britain and France's agents being Orientalists who spent many years in the Levant. For all of these reasons, the atmosphere in Mount Lebanon had become filled with tensions between the Maronites and the Druze, and was liable to explode at any moment for the most trivial of reasons.

Fall

1860 civil war

The events of this civil war began in the summer of 1859, with a simple dispute over a game of Gelleh (Marbles) between a Druze and a Maronite kid in the town of Beit Meri, the parents of each of the kids participated in the dispute, and it turned into a bloody quarrel in which the people of the two sects from Beit Meri, then from all the villages of Matn, participated. The fighting got reignited on 22 May 1860, when a small group of Maronites fired on a group of Druze at the entrance to Beirut, killing one and wounding two. This sparked a torrent of violence which swept through Lebanon. In a mere three days, from 29 to 31 May 60 villages were destroyed in the vicinity of Beirut. 33 Christians and 48 Druze were killed. By June, the disturbances had spread to the "mixed" neighbourhoods of southern Lebanon and the Anti Lebanon, to Sidon, Hasbaya, Rashaya, Deir el Qamar, and Zahlé. The Druze peasants laid siege to Catholic monasteries and missions, burnt them, and killed the monks. France intervened on behalf of the local Christian population and Britain on behalf of the Druze after the massacres, in which over 10,000 Christians were killed.

The number of dead reached twelve thousand, and the Druze were the fiercest fighters, it was said that out of the 12,000 dead, 10,000 of them were Christians. Property losses were estimated at four million golden pound sterlings, and the strife occurred during the silk season, which was the mainstay of the Levantine economy in general and the Lebanese mountainous economy in particular, the war destroyed it and eliminated it, and many Christian craftsmen emigrated from Damascus, fearing for their lives, leading to the dramatic decline of the famous Damascene steel industry. The violence of the sedition was mitigated by inter-religious support, with the Druze Banu Talhouq defending Christian monks and sheltering them in their homes, and some Christians remained in the protection of the Druze sheikhs, safe from any harm that might befall on them. In Damascus, Emir Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri protected the Christians, sheltering them in his house and in a citadel, he also took advantage of his influence in Beirut to protect them, Muslim clerics and a number of Beirut notables opened their homes to the afflicted Maronites, as did the Shiite leaders in Jabal Amel.

When Sultan Abd al-Majid I feared that this sedition would lead to the military intervention of foreign countries in the Ottoman affairs, he instructed the Ottoman officials in Beirut and Damascus to put the civil war down immediately, and at the same time he dispatched the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Fuad Pasha, who was known for his cunning and firmness, and who gave him absolute powers, to deal with the situation. With his mission succeeding, he executed most of those who caused the massacres, imprisoned the rest, exiled some of them, returned some of the war booty to their afflicted Christian owners, and collected many donations, which he spent on restoring villages. The major European countries pressured the Sultan and urged him to accept the formation of an international committee entrusted with restoring stability to Mount Lebanon, liquidating the sedition, and setting up a new system of governance. Thus, the reign of the double Qa'im-Maqamate ended in the year 1861, after it lasted for nineteen years.

List of qaimaqams
Christian qaimaqams
 Haydar abi-Lamaʿ (1843–1854)
 Bashir Ahmad abi-Lamaʿ (1854–1859)
 Hassan abi-Lamaʿ (1859–1860)
 Youssef Bey Karam (1860–1861)

Druze qaimaqams
 Ahmad Arslan (1843–1844)
 Amin Arslan (1844–1859)
 Muhammed Arslan (1859–1861)

Maps

See also
 Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate

References

Ottoman period in Lebanon

Double Qaim-Maqamate of Mount Lebanon


Paul Igwe  (born 27 November 1977) is a Nigerian television director, writer, producer, and creator, and CEO of Whitestone Cinema Limited. He produced popular Soap (TV series) like "Clinic Matters", "The Benjamins", "Ojays", and "Asunder".

Career

In 2000, Paul Igwe started his own production company, Whitestone Cinema Limited and has directed over 20 movies and 8 television series. He debuted in 2000 as a director with the movie "Outrageous" and in 2007; he was a key force in the 39 episodes TV drama series, "Extended Family", working as director/consulting producer. He started his own television sitcom "Clinic Matters" in 2009, a series that won several awards and nominations locally and internationally including the prestigious 2012 World Quality Commitment Award in Paris.

In February 2012, he produced his second television series "The Benjamins" which was nominated at the 2014 Africa Magic Viewers Choice Awards for Best Television series Comedy/Drama.

In 2015, he started a new family sitcom "Ojays" which was nominated for the Best Comedy award in the Nafca Awards. Paul also started a culinary show in Igbo called "USEKWU IGBO" which means 'Igbo Kitchen'. The show won the Best Indigenous Movie/TV Series award at the 2016 Africa Magic Viewers Choice Awards held at the Eko Hotel and Suites, Victoria Island, Lagos.

In 2016, Paul started another family sitcom called "House 6" followed by another family sitcom "Troubled Cottage". Paul Igwe also launched his analytical drama series, "Asunder", later in the year, which focuses on the marital lives of different families.

In 2017, he produced another Igbo soap opera "Nkewa" showing on Africa Magic Igbo. He also directed "Dance To My Beat", a movie starring Joseph Benjamin, Kehinde Bankole, Toyin Abraham, and Mary Remmy Njoku.

Filmography

See also
 List of Nigerian film producers

References

External links

1977 births
Living people
Nigerian film directors
Nigerian film producers
Businesspeople from Lagos
Igbo businesspeople
20th-century Nigerian businesspeople
21st-century Nigerian businesspeople
Nigerian television company founders
Nigerian television directors
Nigerian chief executives
Nigerian writers
Igbo people

Paul Igwe


(554–628) was the 33rd Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.  Her reign started in 593 and ended in 628.  Historians consider details about the life of Empress Suiko to be possibly legendary, but probable. The name Suiko-tennō was created for her posthumously by later generations.

The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.

In the history of Japan, Suiko was the first of eight women to be empress. The seven others were: (a) Kōgyoku/Saimei, (b) Jitō, (c) Gemmei, (d) Genshō, (e) Kōken/Shōtoku, (f) Meishō, and (g) Go-Sakuramachi.

Traditional history
Suiko was the third daughter of Emperor Kimmei. She was the half-sister of Emperor Yōmei and Emperor Sushun.

Suiko was also a wife of Emperor Bidatsu.

Events of Suiko's life
When Suiko became empress, she ended a power struggle for the throne after the deaths of emperors who were her brothers.

 593 : In the 2nd year of Emperor Sushun's reign, he died.  The next monarch  was his half-sister who became known as Empress Suiko.  This succession was confirmed in ceremonies.

Prince Shōtoku was the most important man in Suko's court.

In 599, an earthquake destroyed buildings in Yamato province which is now known as Nara Prefecture.

The reign of this empress was marked by the opening of relations with the Sui court in 600.

The use of the Sexegenary cycle calendar (Jikkan Jūnishi) in Japan is credited to Empress Suiko in 604.

 604:  In the 12 year of Suiko's reign (the Suiko period), Japan organized its earliest Imperial calendar.

Suiko ruled for 35 years. She abdicated in 628.

After her death

Suiko died in 628.  This empress' official name after her death (her posthumous name) was regularized only after death.  Her reign name means "to reason from antiquity."

The actual site of Suiko's grave is known.  This empress is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Osaka.

The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Suiko's mausoleum.  It is formally named Shinaga no Yamada no misasagi.

Related pages
 Emperor of Japan
 List of emperors of Japan
 Japanese imperial family tree
 Suiko seamount
 Japanese empresses

References

Other websites

554 births
628 deaths
Emperors of Japan

Empress Suiko


Guy of Ibelin (French: Guy d'Ibelin) (1250/1255 – 1304), of the Ibelin family, was count of Jaffa and Ascalon during the latter part of the Crusades. He was the son of John of Ibelin (aka John of Jaffa) and Maria of Barbaron. He was count in name only.  His father, John of Jaffa, had died in 1266, after which the fragile truce with the Muslims collapsed, and Jaffa was captured by Baibars in 1268. John was probably succeeded by Guy's older brother James, who held the title of Count of Jaffa until his death in 1276, at which point the title passed to Guy.

In 1299/1300, Guy was able to capture Byblos with a Genoese fleet, but held it only briefly. He also met with the Mongol leader Kutlushah in 1301, in an unsuccessful attempt to coordinate a military attack against the Muslims. In 1302 he and his family were captured by pirates while staying at their ancestral fiefdom in Episcopia, Cyprus.

He died on 14 February 1304 and was buried in Nicosia, Cyprus, in a pauper's grave in accordance with his vows. Guy must have been held in high regard on the island, judging from the turmoil following his death reported by the chronicler Amadi.

Family
Guy married twice. His second wife was Maria, Lady of Ascalon and Naumachia, daughter of Philip of Ibelin and Simone de Montbeliard.  Guy and Maria had five children:
 Philip (born before 1293, died 1315/1316 in Kyrenia), Count of Jaffa
 John (died 1315/1316 in Kyrenia)
 Maria (b. 1294, died before 1318), first wife of the man who later became Hugh IV of Cyprus in 1324
 Hugh (b. 1295/1300, died before 10 May 1349), Count of Jaffa, and then Seneschal of Jerusalem.  Second husband of Isabella of Ibelin, widow of Infante don Fernando de Mallorca and daughter of Philip of Ibelin, Seneschal of Cyprus, and his second wife Maria of Giblet.
 Balian (b. 1298/1300), married Joan of Montfort, daughter of Rupen of Montfort

References

External links
 Templar of Tyre, Online

Counts of Jaffa and Ascalon
13th-century births
1304 deaths
House of Ibelin

Guy of Ibelin (died 1304)


Laodice (; flourished 3rd century BC) was a Greek Princess of the Seleucid Empire. She was one of the daughters and youngest child born to the Seleucid Monarchs Antiochus II Theos and Laodice I. Among her siblings were her brothers Seleucus II Callinicus and Antiochus Hierax. Laodice was born and raised in the Seleucid Empire.

Somewhere between 245 BC to 239 BC, her mother and Seleucus II arranged for her to marry King Mithridates II of Pontus. Laodice married Mithridates II, as a part of a political alliance between the Seleucid Empire and the Kingdom of Pontus. In 245 BC, her mother and Seleucus II were in the Third Syrian War Third Syrian War. To gain support from the Kingdom of Pontus, Laodice was given to Mithridates II in marriage and as a marriage gift, Phrygia was transferred as well.

Through her marriage Laodice became Queen of Pontus. Mithridates' marriage to Laodice was one of the most important events of his reign and was an ambitious marriage policy he initiated. Through his political alliance and marriage to Laodice, Mithridates II allied himself to the most important royal house in Asia, gaining impressive recognition for Pontus as a political power in the Hellenistic world. This marriage also strengthened the pro-Seleucid orientation of Pontus foreign policy.

The marriage occurred early in the reign of Seleucus II Callinicus, so he could secure Anatolia behind him, so that Seleucus II could turn his attention to war with the Egyptian Greek Pharaoh Ptolemy III Euergetes. At some point, Laodice may have influenced Mithridates II by her desire to weaken the Seleucid state, by supporting her first brother Seleucus II Callinicus in joint rule with her other brother Antiochus Hierax, who were at civil war with each other. Laodice bore Mithridates II three children, two daughters: Laodice III, Laodice of Pontus and a son Mithridates III of Pontus.

Sources

BC. McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus, BRILL, 1986,

References

3rd-century BC Greek people
3rd-century BC Greek women
Queens of Pontus
Seleucid princesses
Greek people of Iranian descent

Laodice (wife of Mithridates II of Pontus)


My Life Is Hell () is a 1991 French comedy film directed by Josiane Balasko.

Plot
Leah Lemonnier (Josiane Balasko), 35, leads a dreary and depressing life between her work as the secretary of a dentist who spends his time reprimanding her, her analyst (Richard Berry) who sees in her only a source of income, her neighbor, Mr. Chpil, a sexually obsessed party animal (Jean Benguigui) and her mother (Catherine Samie), nymphomaniac, selfish, greedy, narcissistic and contemptuous. But one day, she unwittingly invokes the devil. He has the face of a handsome devil, Abar (Daniel Auteuil), who offers her a deal: He will be at her service until her death in exchange of her soul.

Leah signs the pact and turns into a dream creature to seduce her shrink. The pact is soon canceled by the intervention of the archangel Gabriel, who is moved by the naivety of the young woman. He tells Abar that he got the wrong prey, who was supposed to be Leah's mother. Gabriel cancels the agreement and takes all power away from Abar. But Leah begins to find Abargadon attractive and decides to save his soul. She pleads in his favor and the archangel accepts provided that Abar does not commit any sin for a period of several weeks.

Leah and Abar live in a seedy hotel. During a fire at the hotel, Abargadon saves a child but Leah is on the verge of death, poisoned by smoke. Abargadon decides to save her by giving her a blood transfusion. By this gesture, the archangel Gabriel decides to save his soul and makes him human.

A few months later, Leah, who has become demon, is at the head of a pharmaceutical company. She comes upon Abar robbing the business in order to steal patents. She offers a contract to Abar, now mortal, against his soul. Taking advantage of prior knowledge, he negotiates a favorable contract: a long life of carnal love between him and his love.

Cast

Josiane Balasko - Leah Lemonnier
Daniel Auteuil - Abargadon
Richard Berry - Xavier Langsam
Michael Lonsdale - Gabriel
Catherine Samie - Flo Lemonnier
Jean Benguigui - Mr. Chpil
Luis Rego - Pazou
Catherine Hiegel - Lilith
Ticky Holgado - El Diablo
Bertrand Blier - The priest
Marilou Berry - The little girl
Alexandre Desplat - The pianist
Pierre Gérald - Dimitri
Joël Houssin - Gorilla archangel Gabriel
Bruno Moynot - The realtor

Parodies
This film mocks:
 Insurance companies and their clauses written in small print;
 Psychoanalysis: The analyst writes his shopping list whilst his client tells him about her life; when she asks him to consider her financial situation, he explains that the amount of money is part of therapy; when his client takes revenge on him, Richard Berry sends up Freud's terminology.

Release
The film sold 1,170,523 tickets at the box office in France. In 1993, it was presented at the Adelaide Film Festival in Australia.

References

External links

1991 comedy films
1991 films
French comedy films
Films about size change
Films directed by Josiane Balasko
2000s French films
1990s French films

My Life Is Hell


Jirishanca is a  mountain in the Huayhuash mountain range in west central Peru, part of the Andes. Other sources cite a height of . It is the tenth highest peak in Peru and the third in the Huayhuash range (after Yerupajá and Siula Grande). Jirishanca translates as "hummingbird bill peak".

Ascents

The mountain is notoriously difficult and has seen very few successful ascents. The first ascent in July 1957 by the Austrian mountaineers   and Siegfried Jungmair over the (north)east face has been called "one of the boldest climbing feats ever performed in the Cordillera". Their route has only been repeated once. In 1964 Gary Colliver and Glen Denny of an American expedition climbed the north ridge to the slightly lower north summit, but a traverse over the "cockscomb of ice" connecting to the main summit has so far not been attempted. On July 6, 1969, an Italian team led by the 60-year-old Riccardo Cassin forged the first route through the West face. On July 31, 1971 the Americans Dean Caldwell and Jon Bowlin first climbed the southwest face in two days. Leaving their expedition below, Bowlin and Caldwell forged their own route and reached the peak on August 1, and were back at base camp by August 2.  In 1973, a Japanese team led by Masayuki Shinohara succeeded in climbing the south east face for the first time, though it took them 49 days.

Climbing
It is one of the hardest 6000 meter mountains of the Andes. The easier route to the summit is quoted TD but more difficult routes exist, many on them on vertical ice and with overhanging section of mixed terrain such as the Cassin route (70° ice and a pitch rated UIAA IV+).

Elevation
The altitude of 6125 isn't likely as other data from available digital elevation models show lower elevations: SRTM yields 6028 metres and TanDEM-X 5734 metres. The height of the nearest key col is 5610 meters, leading to a topographic prominence of 484 meters. Jirishanca is considered a Mountain according to the Dominance System  and its dominance is 7.94%. Its parent peak is Yerupaja and the Topographic isolation is 3.5 kilometers.

References

Mountains of Peru
Mountains of Ancash Region
Mountains of Lima Region
Mountains of Huánuco Region
Six-thousanders of the Andes

Jirishanca


From the Earth to the Moon: A Direct Route in 97 Hours, 20 Minutes () is an 1865 novel by Jules Verne. It tells the story of the Baltimore Gun Club, a post-American Civil War society of weapons enthusiasts, and their attempts to build an enormous Columbiad space gun and launch three people — the Gun Club's president, his Philadelphian armor-making rival, and a French poet — in a projectile with the goal of a Moon landing. Five years later, Verne wrote a sequel called Around the Moon.

Background
Verne's novel was not the first literary work to recount a journey to the Moon; these include A True Story, by Lucian (second century AD), Francis Godwin's The Man in the Moone (1638), the Comical History of the States and Empires of the Moon (1657) by Cyrano de Bergerac, John Wilkins's novel The Discovery of a World in the Moone of 1638, and Voyages de Milord Céton dans les sept planètes, ou Le nouveau Mentor by Marie-Anne Robert which appeared in Paris in 1756.

The story is notable in that Verne attempted to do some rough calculations as to the requirements for the cannon and in that, considering the comparative lack of empirical data on the subject at the time, some of his figures are remarkably accurate. However, his version of a space gun for a non-rocket spacelaunch turned out to be impractical for safe human space travel since a much longer barrel would have been required to reach escape velocity while limiting acceleration to survivable limits for the passengers.

The character of Michel Ardan, the French member of the party in the novel, was inspired by the real-life photographer Félix Nadar.

In 1889 Verne wrote a second sequel to the novel, The Purchase of the North Pole, which has the Gun Club members (led by J. T. Maston) plan to use the Columbiad to alter the tilt of the Earth to enable the mineral wealth of the Arctic region to be put within reach of exploitation.

Plot

The story opens some time after the end of the American Civil War. The Baltimore Gun Club, a society dedicated to the design of weapons of all kinds (especially cannons), comes together when Impey Barbicane, its president, calls them to support his latest idea. He's done some calculations, and believes that they could construct a cannon capable of shooting a projectile to the Moon. After receiving the support of his companions, another meeting is held to decide the place from which the projectile will be fired, the dimensions and materials of both the cannon and the projectile, and which kind of powder they are to use.

An old enemy of Barbicane, a Captain Nicholl of Philadelphia, designer of plate armor, declares that the entire enterprise is absurd and makes a series of bets with Barbicane, each of them of increasing amount, over the impossibility of such a feat.

The first obstacle, enough money to construct the giant cannon (and against which Nicholl has bet $1,000), is raised from a number of countries in America and Europe. Notably, the U.S. donates four million dollars, whilst England, at first, does not give anything. In the end, nearly five and a half million dollars are raised, which ensures the financial feasibility of the project.

Stone's Hill in "Tampa Town", Florida is chosen as the site for the cannon's construction. The Gun Club travels there and begins construction of the Columbiad cannon, which requires the excavation of a  and  circular hole, which is completed in the nick of time, but a surprise awaits Barbicane: Michel Ardan, a French adventurer, plans to travel to the Moon aboard the projectile.

During a meeting between Ardan, the Gun Club, and the inhabitants of Florida, Nicholl appears and challenges Barbicane to a duel. The duel is stopped when Ardan—having been warned by J. T. Maston, secretary of the Gun Club—meets the rivals in the forest where they have agreed to duel.  Meanwhile, Barbicane finds the solution to the problem of surviving the incredible acceleration that the explosion would cause. Ardan suggests that Barbicane and Nicholl travel with him in the projectile, and his proposition is accepted.

In the end, the projectile is successfully launched, but the destinies of the three astronauts are left inconclusive. The sequel, Around the Moon, deals with what happens to the three men during their voyage from the Earth to the Moon.

Influence on popular culture
The novel was loosely the inspiration for the 1875 opera Le voyage dans la lune, music by Jacques Offenbach, without the permission of the author.

In 1880 The Pall Mall Gazette described Verne's Columbiad as a 'space-ship' - the first recorded use of this term in history.

In H. G. Wells' 1901 novel The First Men in the Moon (also relating to the first voyagers to the Moon) the protagonist, Mr. Bedford, mentions Verne's novel to his companion, Professor Cavor, who replies (in a possible dig at Verne) that he does not know what Bedford is referring to. Verne returned the dig later when he pointed out that he used gun cotton to send his men to the Moon, an actual substance. "Can Mr. Wells show me some 'cavourite'?", he asked archly.

The novel (along with Wells' The First Men in the Moon) inspired the first science fiction film, A Trip to the Moon, made in 1902 by Georges Méliès; in 1958, another film adaptation of the story was released, titled From the Earth to the Moon and in 1967 became the basis for the very loose adaptation Jules Verne's Rocket to the Moon (1967), a caper-style British comedy starring Burl Ives and Terry-Thomas. The 1961 Czechoslovak film The Fabulous Baron Munchausen combines characters and plot elements from the Verne novel with those of the stories of Baron Munchausen and Cyrano de Bergerac.

In March 1953, the Gilberton Company published a comic-book adaptation of From the Earth to the Moon as issue No. 105 in its Classics Illustrated series.  An unidentified scriptwriter combined Verne's From the Earth to the Moon with the sequel, Around the Moon. Gilberton art director Alex A. Blum supplied both the cover painting and the 44 pages of interior art. The title went through twelve printings between 1953 and 1971.

During their return journey from the Moon, the crew of Apollo 11 made reference to Jules Verne's book during a TV broadcast on 23 July. The mission's commander, astronaut Neil Armstrong, said, "A hundred years ago, Jules Verne wrote a book about a voyage to the Moon. His spaceship, Columbia , took off from Florida and landed in the Pacific Ocean after completing a trip to the Moon. It seems appropriate to us to share with you some of the reflections of the crew as the modern-day Columbia completes its rendezvous with the planet Earth and the same Pacific Ocean tomorrow."

In the 2010 The Quantum Thief trilogy, the protagonist enters an uneasy alliance with the "Gun Club zoku", who specialize in military weaponry, and in The Causal Angel (2014) after escaping Earth using a nuclear-powered space gun, sells the "Verne gun bullet" to them as a unique collectible item; author Hannu Rajaniemi is a fan of Verne.

The Japanese anime adaption of the Space Brothers (2012-2014) opening for episodes 39-51 ("Small World" by Fujifabric) was a parody of the story, even ending with the cover of an early English translation.

The first incarnation in 1995 of the roller coaster Space Mountain in Disneyland Paris, named Space Mountain: De la Terre à la Lune, was based loosely on the novel. The attraction's exterior used a Verne era retro-futuristic influence, with a rivet and boiler plate effect and the "Columbiad", which recoils with a bang and produces smoke as the train passes, giving riders the perception of being shot into space. In 1995 the BBC made a 44-minute documentary about the creation of Space Mountain, called Shoot For The Moon; Tim Delaney and his team were shown bringing the book to life.

See also

Around the Moon (1870 sequel)
The First Men in the Moon, 1901 novel by H.G. Wells
Apollo 8
Apollo 11
Verneshot
Moon in science fiction
Amédée Guillemin
Apollo command and service module, the US lunar spacecraft whose dimensions were "predicted" by Verne's novel
Project HARP
Project A119

References

External links

 —This is the original translation of Mercier and King published by Sampson Low et al. in 1873 and deletes about 20% of the original French text, along with numerous other errors.
 —Gut. text #83 in HTML format with original illustrations.
 —This the version of both parts of Earth to the Moon and Round the Moon as published by Ward Lock in London in 1877. The translation is more complete than the Mercier version, but still has flaws, referring to the space capsule as a "bullet".
 , an analysis and comparison to Apollo.
 .
 .
 .

1865 French novels
1865 science fiction novels
Fictional rivalries
French novels adapted into films
French science fiction novels
French novels adapted into television shows
Novels by Jules Verne
Novels set in Florida
Novels set on the Moon
Space exploration novels
Science fiction novels adapted into films

From the Earth to the Moon


Antonio Caso Andrade (December 19, 1883 – March 6, 1946) was a Mexican philosopher and rector of the former Universidad Nacional de México, nowadays known as the National Autonomous University of Mexico from December 1921 to August 1923. Along with José Vasconcelos, he founded the Ateneo de la Juventud, a humanist group against philosophical positivism. The Athenian generation opposed Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer's philosophical views, giving credence to and expanding on the ideas of  Henri Bergson, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, and José Enrique Rodó. Caso opposed rationalism. His group the ateneistas believed in a moral, willing, and spiritual individual being. He was the older brother of archaeologist Alfonso Caso.

Philosophical Work
In the summer of 1909, Caso presented his critiques of positivism in a series of conferences later expanded in the third edition by the Athenians of Youth. He was inspired by the Christian philosophical tradition, in particular by Blaise Pascal and Tolstoy. Caso distinguishes three aspects of human existence: economic, aesthetic, and moral.  Caso refuted Gabino Barreda's thesis and the first Justo Sierra that the future of Mexico was built primarily on basis of a scientific doctrine. In the work "Catholicism, Jacobinism and Positivism" included in the book Discursos a la nacion mexicana (Discourses to the Mexican nation) Caso deepens his criticism of two of the hegemonic ideologies in the late nineteenth century: Jacobinism (or extreme liberalism) and positivism. The supporters of the first accuse them of ignoring reality, while those in the second get the blame for the alleged inevitability of reality. Antonio Caso is a pioneer in the Mexican philosophy that was developed later by Samuel Ramos, Leopoldo Zea Aguilar, and Octavio Paz among others. In his book El problema de México y la ideología nacional, (The problem of Mexico and the nation ideology) published in 1924, Caso argues Mexico's biggest problem is the lack of unity (racial, cultural and social). Towards the end of his life, Caso was influenced by the philosophies of Husserl, Scheler, and Heidegger, especially Husserl, whose ideas were reflected in the book La filosofía de Husserl, El acto ideatorio, La persona humana y el estado totalitario y El peligro del hombre. (Husserl's philosophy, ideatory The act, The human person and the totalitarian state, and the danger of man).

Works
•	La filosofía de la intuición, 1914 The philosophy of intuition, 1914

•	El concepto de la historia universal, 1918 The concept of universal history, 1918

•	Sociología genética y sistemática, 1927 Genetical and Systematical Sociology, 1927

•	Principios de estética, 1925 Principles of aesthetics, 1925

•	El acto ideatorio, 1934 The act ideatorio, 1934

•	El peligro del hombre, 1942 The danger of man, 1942

References

Further reading
Candelaria, Michael, The Revolt of Unreason. Miguel de Unamuno and Antonio Caso on the Crisis of Modernity. Edited and with a foreword by Stella Villarmea. Amsterdam/New York, NY, Rodopi, 2012.  E-

1883 births
1946 deaths
National Autonomous University of Mexico alumni
Writers from Mexico City
20th-century Mexican philosophers

Antonio Caso Andrade


PayNow is a near-instant real-time payment system developed by Association of Banks in Singapore. The interface facilitates inter-bank peer-to-peer and person-to-merchant transactions.  The system is supported by all major Singaporean banks and is regulated by the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) and works by transferring funds between two bank accounts.

Payments can be made to any registered Singaporean mobile number, NRIC, corporate Unique Entity Number (UEN) or Virtual Payment Address (VPA).  Scanning QR codes is also an option.  PayNow is linked with other payment providers including Stripe, DuitNow (Malaysia), PromptPay (Thailand) and UPI (India).

In 2020, 125 million transactions worth S$22 billion were processed through PayNow.

References

2017 establishments in Singapore
Payment interchange standards
Interbank networks
Banking in Singapore
Mobile payments
Mobile payments in Singapore

PayNow


John Francis Marchment Middleton (22 May 1921 – 27 February 2009) was a British professor of anthropology in the United States, specializing in Africa. He was director of the International African Institute in 1973-74 and in 1980–81. His work on the Lugbara religion is considered a classic of African anthropology.

Biography
Middleton was born and grew up in London, England. He received his bachelor of arts degree from the University of London in 1941. After World War II he returned to school and received his Bachelor of Science degree from Oxford University in 1949, and a doctorate in anthropology in 1953, also from Oxford.  Middleton did his field work for his Ph.D. with the Lugbara in Uganda, beginning in 1949.

From 1953 to 1954, Middleton was a lecturer in anthropology at the University of London. From 1954 to 1956, he was a senior lecturer at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. In 1956, he returned to the University of London where he taught until 1963, during fieldwork in Zanzibar in 1958. From 1963 to 1966, he was a professor at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, and he did fieldwork in Nigeria. In 1966 he started teaching at New York University, but that year he was offered a professorship at Yale University, which he accepted, so for a while he taught at both institutions. In 1972, Middleton left Yale to accept appointment as professor of African anthropology at the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London. This also enabled him to resume fieldwork, which he did in 1976 and 1977 in Ghana. In 1981, he returned to Yale, doing fieldwork in Kenya in 1986. Middleton continued to teach at Yale as a professor emeritus until his death in 2009.

During his long career, he was a visiting professor at the University of Virginia, the University of Oregon, University of Lagos in Nigeria, and the École pratique des hautes études in Paris. He was editor in chief of the Encyclopedia of Africa South of the Sahara (1997) and of the expanded New Encyclopedia of Africa (2007).

Middleton died on Friday, 27 February 2009, at the Yale-New Haven Hospital of head trauma after falling from a seizure two weeks before.

Awards
 2001 Thomas Henry Huxley Memorial Medal by the Royal Anthropological Institute
 2007 Distinguished Africanist Award by the African Studies Association

Selected works
 1953 The Central Tribes of the North-Eastern Bantu; the Kikuyu, including Embu, Meru, Mbere, Chuka, Mwimbi, Tharaka, and the Kamba of Kenya, London: International African Institute,
 1960 Lugbara religion; ritual and authority among an East African people International African Institute, Oxford University Press, London
 1961 Land Tenure in Zanzibar, London: H.M. Stationery Office,
 1965 The Lugbara of Uganda, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
 1992 The World of the Swahili: An African Mercantile Civilization, New Haven: Yale University Press,
2000 The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Society, Blackwell Publishers,  (co-written with Mark Horton)

Notes

1921 births
English anthropologists
English emigrants to the United States
English Africanists
Academic staff of the University of Cape Town
Academics of SOAS University of London
New York University faculty
Yale University faculty
Northwestern University faculty
University of Virginia faculty
Academic staff of the University of Lagos
Alumni of the University of London
Alumni of the University of Oxford
2009 deaths
Accidental deaths from falls
British expatriates in South Africa
British expatriates in Uganda
British expatriates in Ghana
British expatriates in Kenya
British expatriates in Nigeria
British expatriate academics in the United States

John Francis Marchment Middleton


Telekom Malaysia Cycling Team is an Invitational Continental Team cycling team based in the Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The team are founded to participate in the Tour de Langkawi. Telekom Malaysia Cycling Team's most prominent riders are New Zealand's Graeme Miller, Hong Kong's Wong Kam-po, Indonesia's Tonton Susanto, Iran's Ghader Mizbani Iranagh and Malaysia's Nor Effandy Rosli and Mohamad Fauzi Shafihi.

The team's title sponsor is Telekom Malaysia, which is the largest telecommunication company in Malaysia and also Southeast Asia's second-largest telecommunication company.

Squad

Team achievements

Riders

Team

External links
 http://www.tm.com.my

UCI Continental Teams (Asia)
Cycling teams based in Malaysia
Cycling teams established in 2000

Telekom Malaysia Cycling Team


School segregation in the United States was the segregation of students based on their ethnicity. Where they were not prohibited from schools and denied an education, various minorities were barred from schools for whites. The U.S. Supreme Court rules Blacks were not and could never be U.S. citizens and overturned the 1875 Civil Rights Act, passed by Republicans during the Reconstruction era, in 1883. Segregation laws were dismantled in the late 1960s by the U.S. Supreme Court. Segregation was practiced in the north and segregation continued longstanding exclusionary policies in much of the South (where many African Americans lived) after the Civil War. School integration in the United States took place at different times in different areas and often met resistance. Jim Crow laws codified segregation. These laws were influenced by the history of slavery and discrimination in the US. Secondary schools for African Americans in the South were called training schools instead of high schools in order to appease racist whites and focused on vocational education.  After the ruling of Brown v. Board of Education, which banned segregated school laws, school segregation took de facto form. School segregation declined rapidly during the late 1960s and early 1970s as the government became strict on schools' plans to combat segregation more effectively as a result of Green v. County School Board of New Kent County. Voluntary segregation by income appears to have increased since 1990. Racial segregation has either increased or stayed constant since 1990, depending on which definition of segregation is used. In general, definitions based on the amount of interaction between black and white students (exposure definitions) show increased racial segregation, while definitions based on the proportion of black and white students in different schools (unevenness definitions) show racial segregation remaining approximately constant.

Residential segregation in the United States and school choice, both historically and currently, have had a considerable effect on school segregation. Not only does the current segregation of neighborhoods and schools in the US affect social issues and practices, but it is considered by some to be a factor in the achievement gap between black and white students. Some authors such as Jerry Roziek and Ta-Nehisi Coates highlight the importance of tackling the root concept of racism instead of Desegregation efforts that arise as a result of the end of de jure segregation. Along with educational and social outcomes, the average income and occupational aspirations of minority households that are products of segregated schooling have worse outcomes than the products of desegregated schooling.

More than half of students in the United States attend school districts with high concentrations of people (over 75%) of their own ethnicity and about 40% of black students attend schools where 90%-100% of students are non-white.

Blacks, "Mongolians" (Chinese), Japanese, and Native American students were segregated in California. Native American children faced separation from their families and forced assimilation programs at boarding schools. But there were also cases where Native Americans successfully challenged school segregation and won access to public schools.

Historical segregation

Antebellum era
African Free School was in New York City in the 18th century. Education during the slave period in the United States was limited. Richard Humphreys, Samuel Powers Emlen Jr, and Prudence Crandall established schools for African Americans in the decades preceding the Civil War.

In 1832, Prudence Crandall admitted an African American girl to her all-white Canterbury Female Boarding School in Canterbury, Connecticut, which was the subject of public backlash and protests. She converted the boarding school to one for only African American girls, but Crandall was jailed for her efforts for violating a Black Law. In 1835, an anti-abolitionist mob attacked and destroyed Noyes Academy, an integrated school in Canaan, New Hampshire founded by abolitionists in New England. In 1849, the Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were allowed under the Constitution of Massachusetts (Roberts v. City of Boston). Emlen Institution was a boarding school for African American and Native American orphans in Ohio and then Pennsylvania. Richard Humphreys (philanthropist) bequeathed money to establish the Institute for Colored Youth in Philadelphia. Yale Law School co-founder, judge, and mayor of New Haven David Daggett was a leader in the fight against schools for African Americans and helped block plans for a college for African Americans in New Haven, Connecticut.

Black schools were established by some religious groups and philanthropists to educate African Americans. Oberlin Academy was one of the early schools to integrate. Lowell High School also accepted African American students.

Reconstruction era

The formal segregation of black and white people began following the end of the Reconstruction Era in 1877. The United States Supreme Court's Dred Scott v. Sandford decision upheld the denial of citizenship to African Americans and found that descendants of slaves are "so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect."

Following the American Civil War, the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified and ended slavery nationwide. The Fourteenth Amendment, guaranteeing equal protection under the law, was ratified in 1868, and citizenship was extended to African Americans. Congress also passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875, banning racial discrimination in public accommodations. But in 1883, the Supreme Court struck down the Civil Rights Act of 1875, finding that discrimination by individuals or private businesses was constitutional.

Jim Crow era
The Dunning School at Columbia University, provided the intellectual underpinning for Jim Crow era discrimination. Segregation continued in de jure form with the passage of Jim Crow laws in the 19th century. The Reconstruction era saw efforts at integration in the South, but discriminatory laws were also passed by state legislatures in the South and parts of the lower Midwest and Southwest, segregating public schools. These stated that schools should be separated by race and offer equal amenities, but conditions were far from equal.The constitutionality of Jim Crow laws was upheld in the Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which ruled that separate facilities for black and white people were permissible provided that the facilities were of equal quality.

New Deal era
Franklin D. Roosevelt enacted housing reforms that focused their benefits on home buying aid to only white Americans. These restrictions in loans further separated black and white neighborhoods, which introduced the long term effects of residential segregation projects on schooling. The boundaries housing projects were intentionally drawn so that black neighborhoods had less access to education and jobs. This depletion of resources led to an increase in poverty rates which broadened academic achievement gaps.

The establishment of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund (LDF) in 1939 serves as the foundation of the efforts and funding to challenge school segregation. Charles Hamilton Houston initially ran the LDF, and focused heavily on proving that black schools were severely unequal to white schools Eventually, the LDF shifted its leadership to Thurgood Marshall, who became the first director of the LDF and was a leader in significant court battles including Brown v. Board of Education.

Civil Rights era

Plessy v. Ferguson was overturned in 1954, when the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education ended de jure segregation in the United States. The state of Arkansas would experience some of the first successful school integrations below the Mason–Dixon line. In the decade following Brown, the South resisted enforcement of the Court's decision. States and school districts did little to reduce segregation, and schools remained almost completely segregated until 1968, after Congressional passage of civil rights legislation. In response to pressures to desegregate in the public school system, some white communities started private segregated schools, but rulings in Green v. Connally (1971) and Runyon v. McCrary (1976) prohibited racial discrimination in private schools and revoked IRS-granted non-profit status of schools in violation. Desegregation efforts reached their peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when the South transitioned from complete segregation to being the nation's most integrated region.

Mexican-American segregation during these eras
While African Americans faced legal segregation in civil society, Mexican Americans often dealt with de facto segregation, meaning no federal laws explicitly barred their access to schools or other public facilities, yet they were still separated from white people. The proponents of Mexican-American segregation were often officials who worked at the state and local school level and often defended the creation and sustaining of separate "Mexican schools". Prior to the 1930s, segregation of Mexican children in schools was a rarity. Following the Great Depression, funding from the New Deal and legislation such as the 1934 Sugar Act enabled the creation of segregated schools for Mexican American children in Wyoming. An example of Mexican-American school segregation is from the city of Oxnard, California. According to the district records, the schools and neighborhoods in Oxnard were segregated based on ethnicity. The number of Latino migrants in Oxnard was climbing, causing overcrowding in the schools, which triggered local officials to "solve" this issue by creating a "school-within-a-school" form of segregation, and eventually by establishing a separate school for Latino students. School segregation occurred due to the residential segregation that was also present in Oxnard. By placing restrictive policies and covenants on properties, officials in Oxnard were able to keep Latino residents in a separate neighborhood from the "American" (or non-Latino residents), which provided a justification for segregating the schools. The segregation of Mexican children occurred throughout much of the U.S. West. During the Depression era in Wyoming, the segregation of Mexican children—whether they were US citizens or not—mirrored Jim Crow laws. The segregation of Mexicans also took place in Colorado, Montana, Nebraska, and Texas. The Blackwell School in Texas is one of the few remaining formerly de facto segregated Mexican school buildings.

Parents of both African-American and Mexican-American students challenged school segregation in coordination with civil rights organizations such as the NAACP, ACLU, and LULAC. Both groups challenged discriminatory policies in court, with varying success. The NAACP initially challenged graduate and professional school segregation asserting that desegregation at this level would result in the least backlash and opposition by whites.

Catholic schools
Initially, Catholic schools in the South generally followed the pattern of segregation in public schools, sometimes enforced by law. However, most Catholic dioceses began moving ahead of public schools to desegregate. In St. Louis, Catholic schools were desegregated in 1947.  In Washington, DC, the Catholic schools were desegregated in 1948. Catholic schools in Tennessee were desegregated in 1954, Atlanta in 1962, and Mississippi in 1965, all ahead of the public school systems.

Protestant schools
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, when some states (including Alabama, Virginia, and Louisiana) closed their public schools to protest integration, Jerry Falwell Sr. seized the opportunity to open "Christian academies" for white students.

Contemporary Segregation

Segregation since the 1960s
From 1968 to 1980, segregation declined. School integration peaked in the 1980s and then gradually declined over the course of the 1990s. In the 1990s and early 2000s, minority students attended schools with a declining proportion of white students, so that the rate of segregation as measured as isolation resembled that of the 1960s. A study by The Civil Rights Project found that in the 2016 to 2017 school year, nearly half of all black and Latino students in the U.S. went to schools where the student population was 90% people of color, while the average white student went to schools that were 69% White.  There is some disagreement about trends since the 1980s; while some researchers presented trends as evidence of "resegregation," others argue that changing demographics in school districts, including class and income, are responsible for most of the changes in the racial composition of schools. A 2013 study by Jeremy Fiel found that, "for the most part, compositional changes are to blame for the declining presence of whites in minorities' schools," and that racial balance increased from 1993 to 2010. The study found that minority students became more isolated and less exposed to whites within a school although districts were statistically more integrated. Another 2013 study found that segregation measured increased over the previous 25 years due to changing demographics. The study did not find an increase in racial balance. Racial unevenness remained stable. Researcher Kori Stroub found that the "racial/ethnic resegregation of public schools observed over the 1990s gave way to a period of modest reintegration," but segregation between school districts increased even though within-district segregation is low.  Fiel believed that increasing interdistrict segregation would exacerbate racial isolation.

Sources

Residential segregation
A source of school segregation is residential segregation. Residence and school assignment are linked due to the tradition of locally controlled schools. Residential segregation is related to growing income inequality in the United States.

The deterioration of cities and urban education systems between the 1950-80s was the consequence of several post-war policies like the Home Owners' Loans Corporation, Federal Housing Administration, Interstate Highway Act, and discriminatory zoning practices. The loss of war-time industrial employment perpetuated 'white flight' and suburban sprawl at the expense of poor, marginalized urban residents. Mid-20th century urban divestment and suburban development redirected social services and federal funding to predominantly white residencies. Remaining urban residents witnessed dramatic decreases in quality of living, creating countless barriers to a stable life, including in academic success. Consequently, urban school districts became relatively accurate measures for documenting the increasing educational inequalities among students of color.

A study conducted by Sean Reardon and John Yun found that from 1990 to 2000, residential black/white and Hispanic/white segregation declined by a modest amount in the United States, while public school segregation increased slightly during the same time period. Because the two variables moved in opposite directions, changes in residential patterns were not responsible for changes in school segregation trends. Rather, the study determined that in 1990, schools showed less segregation than neighborhoods, indicating that local policies were helping to ameliorate the effects of residential segregation on school composition. By 2000, however, racial composition of schools had become more closely correlated to neighborhood composition, indicating that public policies no longer redistributed students as evenly as before.

In the 2005 Civil Rights Project conducted at Harvard University, researchers reported that over 80% of high-minority schools—where the student population is over 90% non-white—are high poverty schools as indicated by a large majority qualifying for free and reduced lunch. Additionally, of five million enrolled students in two dozen of the largest central cities, 70% are black and Latino students in predominantly minority-majority, urban schools.

Another study targets spatial inequalities and student outcomes based on the physical and social presence in specific neighborhoods. Factors like pollution, perceived safety, proximity to other students, and healthy learning environments can all affect academic outcomes of various student groups. In correspondence to high poverty environments, students are likely to face various obstacles that prevent effective learning environments including food and housing insecurity. Likewise, black, Latino, and Indigenous students experience twice the exposure to poor students than their Asian and white counterparts.

Researcher Peter Katel addressed the resegregation of schools as barriers for poor students in inner-city neighborhoods who are unprepared for higher education. Katel also reported that educational experts viewed high densities of marginalized students as a loss of funding that most white families do not experience, because they are more likely to have the capability to attend different schools. A 2013 study corroborated these findings, showing that the relationship between residential and school segregation became stronger between 2000 and 2010. In 2000, segregation of black people in schools was lower than in their neighborhoods; by 2010, the two patterns of segregation were "nearly identical".

Supreme Court rulings
The Court's 1970 ruling in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education furthered desegregation efforts by upholding busing as constitutional, but the ruling had no effect on the increasing segregation between school districts. The court's ruling in Milliken v. Bradley in 1974 prohibited interdistrict desegregation by busing.

The 1990 decision in Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell declared that once schools districts had made a practicable, "good faith" effort to desegregate, they could be declared to have achieved "unitary" status, releasing them from court oversight. The decision allowed schools to end previous desegregation efforts even in cases where a return to segregation was likely.  The court's ruling in Freeman v. Pitts went further, ruling that districts could be released from oversight in "incremental stages", meaning that courts would continue to supervise only those aspects of integration that had not yet been achieved.A 2012 study determined that "half of all districts ever under court-ordered desegregation [had] been released from court oversight, with most of the releases occurring in the last 20 years". The study found that segregation levels in school districts did not rise sharply following court dismissal, but rather increased gradually for the next 10 to 12 years. As compared to districts that had never been placed under court supervision, districts that had achieved unitary status and were released from court-ordered desegregation had a subsequent change in segregation patterns that was 10 times as great. The study concludes that "court-ordered desegregation plans are effective in reducing racial school segregation, but ... their effects fade over time in the absence of continued court oversight."

In a pair of rulings in 2007 (Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 and Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education), the court's decision limited schools' ability to use race as a consideration in school assignment plans. In both cases, the Court struck down school assignment plans designed to ensure that the racial composition of schools roughly reflected the composition of the district as a whole, saying that the plans were not "narrowly tailored" to achieve the stated goal and that race-neutral alternatives had not been given adequate consideration.

School choice

While greater school choice may increase integration by drawing students from more diverse areas, expanded choice often has the opposite effect.  When studies compare the racial and ethnic composition of charter schools to public schools, researchers generally find that charter schools preserve or intensify racial and economic segregation, and/or facilitate white flight from public schools. Furthermore, studies that compare individual students' demographic characteristics to the schools they are leaving (public schools) and the schools they are switching to (charter schools) generally demonstrate that students "leave more diverse public schools and enroll in less diverse charter schools".

Private schools constitute a second important type of school choice. A 2002 study found that private schools continued to contribute to the persistence of school segregation in the South over the course of the 1990s. Enrollment of whites in private schools increased sharply in the 1970s, remained unchanged in the 1980s, and increased again over the course of the 1990s. Because the changes over the latter two decades was not substantial, however, researcher Sean Reardon concludes that changes in private school enrollment is not a likely contributor to any changes in schools segregation patterns during that time.

In contrast to charter and private schools, magnet schools generally foster racial integration rather than hinder it.  Such schools were initially presented as an alternative to unpopular busing policies, and included explicit desegregation goals along with provisions for recruiting and providing transportation for diverse populations. Although today's magnet schools are no longer as explicitly oriented towards integration efforts, they continue to be less racially isolated than other forms of school choice.

Outcomes

Education
Desegregation in the 1970s and 1980s led to academic gains for black students. As integration increased, the educational attainment of black students increased while that of whites remained largely unchanged. Historically, greater access to schools with higher enrollment of white students reduced high school dropout rates for black students, and reduced the test score gap.

Minority students continue to be concentrated in high-poverty, low-achieving schools, while white students are more likely to attend high-achieving, more affluent schools.  Resources such as funds and high-quality teachers attach unequally to schools according to racial and socioeconomic composition.  Schools with high proportions of minority enrollment are often characterized by "less experienced and less qualified teachers, high levels of teacher turnover, less successful peer groups and inadequate facilities and learning materials."  These schools also tend to have less challenging curricula and fewer offerings of Advanced Placement courses. Additionally, in recent years, schools have become dependent on the internet for doing and submitting homework. As a result, 25% of black teens and 17% of Latino teens cannot complete their homework due to a lack of reliable internet connection, as opposed to only 13% of White teens.

A 2009 study determined that attending school with a high proportion of black students negatively affected black academic achievement, even after controlling for school quality, differences in ability, and family background. The effect of racial composition on white achievement was insignificant. However, a 2006 study found that white students are more inclined to take higher level courses at integrated schools to decrease exposure to minorities while the black-white test score gap still decreases with movement from a segregated city to an integrated city.

The categorization of 'at-risk' youth typically defines learning differences as disabilities based on a standardized, non-inclusive curriculum; the label 'at-risk' inherently follows students of color and low-income students as a generalized academic failure. National academic standardization also extends to federal policies like the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), which implemented high-stakes standardized testing across the country in an attempt to address socio-economic disparities in learning outcomes. Schools that were labelled "failures" and faced sanctions under the NCLB Act were typically high poverty schools in segregated districts. Both the standardization of learning outcomes and the implementation of these policies fail to address the structural barriers that created high poverty, highly segregated schools.

Social well-being
Integration has a small beneficial impact on short-term outcomes for black students, and a beneficial impact on long-term outcomes, such as school attainment. Integrated education is positively related to short-term outcomes such as K–12 school performance, cross-racial friendships, acceptance of cultural differences, and declines in racial fears and prejudice. Short-term and long-term benefits of integration are found for minority and white students alike. Students who attend integrated schools are more likely to live in diverse neighborhoods as adults than those students who attended more segregated schools. Integrated schools also reduce the maintenance of stereotypes and prevent the formation of prejudices in both majority and minority students.

Economics
Integration is associated with higher educational and occupational attainment across all ethnic groups, better intergroup relations, greater likelihood of living and working in an integrated environment, lower likelihood of involvement with the criminal justice system, espousal of democratic values, and greater civic engagement. On the other hand, a 2014 study highlights that as segregated schooling increases, the socioeconomic inequalities based on race increases. Billings, Deming, and Rockoff demonstrate how a certain school district focused on the allocation of funds redistributed to schools with a high volume of minority students. Majority-minority schools present areas with high percentages of property that correspond to fewer resources and lower academic capability.

A 1994 study found support for the theory that interracial contact in elementary or secondary school positively affects long-term outcomes in a way that can overcome perpetual segregation against black communities.  The study reviewed previous research and determined that, as compared to segregated Black people, desegregated Black people are more likely to set higher occupational aspirations, attend desegregated colleges, have desegregated social and professional networks as adults, gain desegregated employment, and work in white-collar and professional jobs in the private sector. In schools with a relatively high average income per students, students are more likely to perform better because they feel safer.

Urban high schools reported significantly greater drop-out rates than their suburban counterparts. Nationwide, high school drop-out rates are centered in a few hundred public schools that are overwhelmingly impoverished, urban, and non-white. The 2000 Census noted that roughly 50% of high school dropouts are employed and earning 35% less than the average national income while college graduates make 131% of the mean national income with 85% employment.

Public school teachers
Brown v. Board of Education led to a loss of black teachers. This resulted in racial incongruence between teachers and student population. D'Amico et al. (2017) stated that Brown v. Board of Education "mandated the integration of the nation's schoolchildren but said nothing of the teacher labor force, effectively diminishing the demand for black teachers and thus eliminating these community-supported schools and the teachers who staffed them," (p. 29). This elimination has perpetuated itself into our current day school system, with statistics showing the number of black teachers as disproportionate to the student population. Drawing on a study done by Pew Research center in 2021, they analyzed three decades of the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) survey data, and Pew found that 79% of "U.S. public school teachers identified as non-Hispanic White during the 2017-18 school year. And additionally, "fewer than one-in-ten teachers were either black (7%), Hispanic (9%) or Asian American (2%)".  This suggests that public elementary school teachers are significantly less racially and ethnically diverse and not keeping up with the diversity within their student body.

Proposals
Although the Supreme Court's ruling in Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 limited school districts' ability to take race into account during the school assignment process, the ruling did not prohibit racial considerations altogether. According to the UCLA Civil Rights Project, a school district may consider race when using: "site selection of new schools; drawing attendance zones with general recognition of the racial demographics of neighborhoods; allocating resources for special programs; recruiting students and faculty in a targeted manner; [and] tracking enrollments, performance, and other statistics by race." Districts may use income-based school assignment policies to try to indirectly achieve racial integration, but in practice such policies are not guaranteed to produce even a modest degree of racial integration.

Other researchers argue that, given restrictive court rulings and the increasingly strong relationship between neighborhood and school segregation, integration efforts instead focus on reducing racial segregation in neighborhoods.  This could be achieved, in part, by greater enforcement of the Fair Housing Act and removal of low-density zoning laws. Policy could also set aside low-income housing in new communities with a strong school district based on income.

Policy regarding school choice can ensure greater integration by adopting "civil rights policies" for charter schools. These could require charter schools to recruit diverse faculty and students, provide transportation poor students, and have a racial composition that does not differ greatly from that of public schools. Expanding the availability of magnet schools—which were initially created with school desegregation efforts and civil rights policies in mind—could also lead to increased integration, especially in those instances when magnet schools can draw students from separate (and segregated) attendance zones and school districts. Alternatively, states could move towards county- or region-level school districting, allowing students to be drawn from larger and more diverse geographic areas.

Richard Kahlenberg writes, "Racial integration is a very important aim, but if one's goal is boosting academic achievement, what really matters is economic integration." Kahlenberg refers the low overall socioeconomic status of a school is linked to reduced learning, even after controlling for age, race, and socioeconomic status. The socioeconomic composition of a school may lead to lower student achievement through its effect on "school processes", such as academic climate and teachers' expectations.  If reforms could equalize these school processes across schools, socioeconomic and racial integration policies might not be necessary to close achievement gaps.

See also

 American Indian boarding schools
 Education segregation in Indiana
 Education segregation in the Mississippi Delta
 Education segregation in the Mississippi Red Clay region
 Education segregation in New Jersey
 Education segregation in Wisconsin
 Racial segregation in the United States
 School integration in the United States
 Segregated prom
 Segregation academy
 The Shame of the Nation
Educational inequality in the United States

Footnotes

Further reading
 Brown, Nikki L.M., and Barry M. Stentiford, eds. The Jim Crow Encyclopedia (Greenwood, 2008)

External links

Education in the United States
History of racial segregation in the United States
African-American segregation in the United States
Mexican-American history
Race and education in the United States

School segregation in the United States