Maurice's Balkan campaigns were a series of military expeditions conducted by Roman Emperor Maurice (reigned 582–602) in an attempt to defend the Balkan provinces of the Roman Empire from the Avars and the South Slavs. Maurice was the only East Roman emperor, other than Anastasius I, who did his best to implement determined Balkan policies during Late Antiquity by paying adequate attention to the safety of the northern frontier against barbarian incursions. During the second half of his reign, the Balkan campaigns were the main focus of Maurice's foreign policies, as a favourable peace treaty with Persian Empire in 591 enabled him to shift his experienced troops from the Persian front to the region. The refocusing of Roman efforts soon paid off: the frequent Roman failures before 591 were succeeded by a string of successes afterwards.

Although it is widely believed that his campaigns were only a token measure and that Roman rule over the Balkans collapsed immediately after his overthrow in 602, Maurice was actually well on his way to forestalling the Slavic landfall on the Balkans and nearly preserved the order of Late Antiquity there. His success was undone only over ten years after his overthrow.

Retrospectively, the campaigns were the last in the series of classical Roman campaigns against the Barbarians on the Rhine and Danube, effectively delaying Slavic landfall on the Balkans by two decades. With respect to the Slavs, the campaigns had the typical trait of Roman campaigns against unorganized tribes and of what is now called asymmetric warfare.

Balkan Peninsula before 582

At Maurice's accession, the greatest omissions of his predecessors were to be found in the Balkans. Justinian I had neglected Balkan defences against the Slavs, who had threatened the frontier since 500 and pillaged the Balkan provinces ever since. Although he rebuilt the fortifications of the Danube Limes, he avoided campaigns against the Slavs, in favour of a policy focusing on the eastern and western theatres. His nephew and successor, Justin II, played off the Avars against the Gepids and later against the Slavs, but that only allowed the Avar Khaganate to become a more powerful threat than the Gepids and Slavs. As Justin II let the Avars attack the Slavs from Roman territory, they soon noted where the most booty was to be had. To make matters worse, Justin II started the Roman-Persian War of 572–591, which tied down forces in the east while they were needed in the Balkans. Maurice's predecessor and father-in-law, Tiberius II Constantine, emptied the treasury. For all those reasons, the Slavic incursions in the Balkans continued.

A few months before Maurice's accession  in the winter of 581/2, the Avar Khagan Bayan, aided by Slavic auxiliary troops, took Sirmium, a large fortified settlement south of the Danube. By doing this, Bayan established a new base of operations within Roman territory from where he could raid anywhere in the Balkans unhindered. The Avars were not compelled to leave the territory until the Romans agreed to pay 80,000 solidi annually. The Slavs, partially under Avar rule, were not bound by the treaty and continued to pillage south of the Danube, which made the Avars and Slavs to be quite different threats.

Avar and Slavic incursions (582 to 591)
In 583, the Avars demanded an increase in the tribute to 100,000 solidi. Maurice decided to end all tribute to the Avars, as he concluded that additional concessions would only provoke additional demands. The renewed Avar invasion began in 583 with the capture of Singidunum after stiff resistance. The Avars quickly moved east and captured Viminacium and Augustae, and they began attacking as far southeast as Anchialus after only three months of war. A Roman embassy met the Avars near Anchialus, but negotiations broke down after the Avar Chagan threatened further conquests, provoking an irate response out of Comentiolus, one of the Roman ambassadors. Nevertheless, Maurice established peace in 584 by agreeing to pay the Avars' initial demands of 100,000 solidi. However, the Slavs were unhindered by the treaty and began to raid further south into Greece, as is evidenced by many coin hoards in the region, particularly in Attica near Athens and in the Peloponnese.

As Maurice's forces were tied down in a war against the Persians caused by Justin II, (see Roman-Persian Wars for details), he could muster only a small army against the Avars and Slavs who were marauding in the Balkans. His efforts were hampered by the fact that operations in the Balkans were a completely defensive matter. As opposed to the Persian theatre, the Balkan theatre provided little possibility for a soldier to bolster his pay by pillaging, which made fighting there rather unattractive. Maurice's badly-motivated troops found it difficult to achieve even minor and local success. Rather an exception, a victory won by Comentiolus at Adrianople 584/585 deflected Slavic incursions to southern Greece. The evident destruction of vast parts of old Athens probably happened around then.

Later on, the Balkans deteriorated in such a manner that in 585, the Persian shah, Hormizd IV, could reasonably hope to negotiate a peace treaty that would leave Armenia to the Persians. Maurice rejected the offer and was able to negotiate much more favorable peace terms in 591, after substantial successes on the battlefield. For the time being, however, he had to abide by Avar and Slavic incursions and hope that his forces garrisoned at Singidunum could deter the invaders, who posed a constant threat to the Avar homeland, just on the other side of the Danube. The Roman presence at Singidunum was strong enough to effect constant ends of Avar raids. However, it could not prevent the attacks.

Despite the Roman garrison at Singidunum, the Avars destroyed the fortified towns of Ratiaria and Oescus, on the Danube, and besieged Thessaloniki in 586, which were accompanied by Slavic raids down to the Peloponnese. Under the leadership of Comentiolus, the outnumbered Roman Army avoided any direct confrontation and restricted itself to disturbing the Avar raids by skirmishes and night attacks, a tactical expedient that was advised by Maurice's Strategikon. In 586 and 587, Comentiolus won several victories against the Slavs on the Lower Danube and nearly caught the Avar Khagan Bayan twice. At Tomis, on the shores of the Black Sea, the Khagan escaped via the lagoon-shaped coast, but an ambush on the south slope of the Balkan Mountains was thwarted by miscommunication among the Roman troops:

 "a beast of burden had shucked off his load. It happened as his master was marching in front of him. But the ones who were coming from behind and saw the animal dragging his burden after him, had shouted to the master to turn around and straighten the burden. Well, this event was the reason for a great agitation in the army, and started a flight to the rear, because the shout was known to the crowd: the same words were also a signal, and it seemed to mean "run", as if the enemies had appeared nearby more rapidly than could be imagined. There was a great turmoil in the host, and a lot of noise; all were shouting loudly and goading each other to turn back, calling with great unrest in the language of the country "torna, torna, fratre", as if a battle had suddenly started in the middle of the night."

The following year, Priscus took over command from Comentiolus. His first campaign in Thrace and Moesia turned out to be a fiasco, even encouraging the Avars to advance as far as the Marmara Sea. As the state of the Avar bridges across the Sava river near Sirmium deteriorated, however, Avar pressure decreased.

Even so, Maurice did all he could to reinforce his troops on Balkans, as Slavic pillaging continued. He hoped to acquire more money by cutting the soldiers' payment by a quarter. Announcing the plans led to a mutiny on the Persian front in 588, which forced Maurice to abandon the idea. As a consequence, in the Balkans Maurice had only limited means to keep the Avars and Slavs at bay for the next three years.

Campaigns in 591 to 595

In the late summer of 591, Maurice finally made peace with Persian Shah Khosrau II, who ceded most part of Armenia to the Roman Empire. Finally, the veterans of the Persian wars were at his disposal and so was the recruiting potential of Armenia. Decreasing Avar and Persian pressure enabled the Romans to focus on the Slavs in 590/591. Maurice had already visited Anchialos and other cities in Thrace personally in 590 to oversee their reconstruction and to boost the morale of his troops and the local population. After making peace with Persia, he sped up that development by redeploying troops to the Balkans.

In 592, his troops retrieved Singidunum, but it was to be lost to the Avars again. Smaller Roman units were involved in policing actions against Slavic raiders in Moesia, re-establishing lines of communication between the Roman cities. Maurice aimed to re-establish a sturdy defense line along the Danube River, as Anastasius I had done a century earlier. Furthermore, he intended to keep the Avars and Slavs off Balkan territory by invading their homeland beyond Danube, to enable Roman troops to increase their earnings other than regular pay, by pillaging in hostile territory, which would make such campaigns more attractive.

General Priscus began to hinder the Slavs crossing the Danube in the spring of 593. He routed them several times before he crossed the Danube to carry on the fight in the uncharted swamps and forests of modern-day Muntenia, Romania until autumn. Then, he disobeyed Maurice's order to spend the winter on the northern Danube bank, among the frozen swamps and rivers and the leafless forests. Instead, Priscus retired to winter quarters in Odessos (modern Varna). That led to a new Slavic incursion 593/594 in Moesia and Macedonia, during which the towns of Aquis, Scupi and Zaldapa in Dobruja were destroyed.

In 594, Maurice disposed of Priscus and replaced him by his own rather inexperienced brother Peter. Despite initially failing, Peter maintained his position, defeated the Slavs (Priscus speaks about Bulgars) at Marcianopolis and patrolled the Danube between Novae (modern Svishtov) and the Black Sea. In late August, he crossed the Danube near Securisca west of Novae and fought his way to the Helibacia River, effectively disturbing Slav preparations for new pillaging campaigns.

That success enabled Priscus, who had meanwhile been entrusted with the command of another army upstream to prevent an Avar siege of Singidunum in 595 in a combined action with the Roman Danube fleet. The fact that the Avars retreated and gave up their plans to destroy the city and deport its inhabitants, as opposed to their conquest of 584, showed their lack of confidence and the threat they saw in the border fortress.

Subsequently, the Avars turned off to Dalmatia, where they sacked several fortresses, avoiding direct confrontation with Priscus. Roman commanders were never unduly concerned about barbarian incursions into that remote and impoverished province and so Priscus had to act cautiously. He could not afford to neglect the defence of the Danube and so he dispatched a small force to check the Avar advance. The small force hampered the Avar advance and even retrieved part of the booty.

Quiet interlude (596–597)
After that only moderately successful Avar raid into Dalmatia, there were only minor actions in the Balkans for about one-and-a-half years. Discouraged by the lack of success, the Avars saw more prospect for booty in the West and so raided the Franks in 596. Meanwhile, the Romans used Marcianopolis, near Odessos, as a base of operations on the lower Danube against the Slavs and failed to exploit the Avar absence. No major Slavic raids took place meanwhile.

Renewed campaigns (597–602)
Strengthened by Frankish pay-offs, the Avars resumed their Danubian campaigns in autumn 597, which surprised the Romans. The Avars even managed to besiege Priscus' army in Tomis. On 30 March 598, however, they lifted the siege, as Comentiolus had led an army of rather inexperienced soldiers over the Haemimons and was moving along the Danube up to Zikidiba, near modern-day Medgidia, just  from Tomis. For reasons that remain unknown, Priscus did not pursue the Avars and aid Comentiolus. The latter was forced to retire to Iatrus, where his troops were nonetheless routed and had to fight their way south over the Haemus Range. The Avars used the victory to advance to Drizipera, near Arkadiopolis, between Adrianople and Constantinople, where a large part of their army and seven sons of the Avar Khagan were killed by the plague.

Comentiolus was temporarily relieved of his command and replaced by Philippicus, and Maurice summoned the Circus factions and his own bodyguards to defend the long walls west of Constantinople. For the time being, Maurice had managed to buy off the Avars, and in the same year, a peace treaty was concluded with Bayan, the Avar Khagan, explicitly allowing Roman expeditions in Wallachia. The Romans used the remainder of the year to reorganize their forces and analyze the causes of failure.

Then, the Romans violated the treaty: Priscus advanced in the area surrounding Singidunum and wintered there in 598/599. In 599, the armies of Priscus and Comentiolus moved downstream to nearby Viminacium and crossed the Danube. On the north bank, they defeated the Avars in open battle in their own homeland. That was not only the first Avar defeat in their own homeland, but also saw the death of several more sons of Bayan Khagan. Priscus then thrust north into the Pannonian plain, the Avar homeland. He defeated the Avars deep within their realm, but Comentiolus remained near the Danube. Afterwards, Priscus devastated vast tracts of the land east of the Tisza, much in the same way the Avars and Slavs had done in the Balkans. Several Avar tribes and their Gepid subjects suffered particularly high casualties.  Two other battles on the banks of the Tisza meant further Avar defeats.

Furthermore, the Exarch of Ravenna Callinicus repulsed Slav attacks on Istria in 599.

In autumn 599, Comentiolus reopened the Gate of Trajan pass, near modern-day Ihtiman. The mountain pass had not been used by the Romans for decades. In 601 Peter advanced to the Tisza and kept the Avars away from the Danube cataracts, the latter being vital for the Roman Danube fleet to maintain access to the cities of Sirmium and Singidunum. In 602, Peter inflicted another severe defeat on the Slavs in Wallachia, and the Avar Khaganate was opposed by the Antes and was on the brink of collapse because of the mutiny of several Avar tribes. One of the rebellious tribes even defected to the Roman side. For the time, the Romans had successfully re-established the Danube line, and forward defense in the hostile territories of Wallachia and Pannonia was waged with success. However, when Maurice ordered the army to spend the winter of 602/603 on the northern bank of the Danube to further his success and to save money on quarters, his troops mutinied, as they had done in 593. While Priscus then had used his own judgment and initiative, Peter did not dare disobey the emperor's orders. He, therefore, soon lost control of his army, which marched straight to Constantinople. That led to the overthrow and death of Maurice, the first successful coup d'état in Constantinople.

Balkan Peninsula after 602
Maurice had pacified the Balkan borders, a feat not achieved since the reign of Anastasius I. The Avars and Slavs had been kept sternly at bay. The provinces were at a stage of potential recovery; reconstruction and resettlement were the keys to restoring Roman rule firmly. Maurice had planned to settle Armenian militia peasants within the depopulated areas and to Romanize the Slavic settlers in the area. After his ouster, those plans went astray as well as the campaigns and the possible destruction or submission of the Avar realm. The new Roman emperor, Phocas (602–610), would have to fight against the Persians once more: the eastern enemy occupied Armenia in the first phase of the new war. Therefore, Phocas could neither continue the campaigns on the same scale as before nor settle any Armenians in Balkans. That finally led to the decline of classical Roman rule in the Balkan interior, marking the end of Late Antiquity in that region.

Phocas' unknown Balkan campaigns (602–612/615)
The view that Roman control of Balkans collapsed immediately after his accession is not supported by the evidence.

Phocas indeed continued Maurice's campaigns (albeit with likely much less rigour and discipline) and probably transferred forces to the Persian front after 605. However, even after 605, it is unlikely that he withdrew all forces from the Balkans because of his Thracian heritage. There is no archaeological evidence such as coin hoards or destruction of communities implying Slav or Avar incursions, let alone a total collapse of Roman power during Phocas' reign. On the contrary, there is evidence that refugees from Dardania, Dacia and Pannonia sought protection in Thessalonica only under his successor, Heraclius (610–641).<ref>Maurice's Strategikon: Handbook of Byzantine Military Strategy. Translated by George T. Dennis. Philadelphia 1984, Reprint 2001, page 124 with further references.</ref> Even a moderate recovery under Phocas may have taken place. Evidently, many fortresses were rebuilt either under Maurice or Phocas. However, even so, it was Phocas' inaction, more or less imposed by the deteriorating situation on the Persian front, that paved the way for the massive invasions of Heraclius' first decade as well as the eventual collapse of Roman rule over the Balkans  until the campaigns of the Macedonian Emperors in the late 10th century.

 The great Slav and Avar raid (612–626)
It is likely that Heraclius withdrew all Roman forces from the Balkans, so as to deal with ongoing Persian invasion. The civil war against Phocas led to a deterioration of the Persian front unequalled by anything before. That, as well as their successful campaigns against the Lombards in Friuli in 610 and against the Franks in 611, probably encouraged the Avars and their Slav subjects to renew their incursions some time after 612. Fortunately to them, Persian capture of Jerusalem in 614 was the key event that Roman counterattack was unlikely. To support this view, the chronicles written in the 610s again record wholesale pillaging. Cities like Justiniana Prima and Salona succumbed to such attacks. It is unknown when a certain area was subdued by Slavic tribes but some events clearly stand out: the destruction of Novae after 613, the conquest of Naissus and Serdica and the destruction of Justiniana Prima in 615; three sieges of Thessalonica (c.604, 615 and 617); the battle of Heraclea Perinthus, on the shores of the Marmara Sea in 619; Slavic raids on Crete in 623 and the siege of Constantinople in 626. From 620 onward, archaeological evidence also provides evidence of Slav settlements within the destroyed Balkan regions.

 Slow decline of the Balkans after 626
Some cities survived the Avar and Slav incursions and were able to maintain communications with Constantinople via the sea and rivers. Chronicles mention a Roman commander of Singidunum in the middle of Heraclius' reign. Many Danube tributaries accessible by ship, Roman settlements survived like modern-day Veliko Tarnovo on the Yantra River, which even has a church built in the 7th century. Heraclius made use of the short time between the end of the last war against Persia in 628 and the outbreak of Arab attacks in 634, in order to try to re-establish at least some sort of Roman authority over the Balkans. Clear evidence for that is the construction of the fortress of Nicopolis in 629. Heraclius also allowed the Serbs to settle in the Balkans as foederati against the Avars and the Croats in Dalmatia and Lower Pannonia; the Croats even pushed the frontier to the Sava in 630. Having to fight off the Arabs in the east, however, he could not finish his project. Roman rule in rural areas of the Balkans was limited to the successes attained in short summer campaigns. The cities of the Balkans, traditionally the major centres of Roman civilization, had degenerated from the populous, wealthy and self-sufficient polis of Antiquity to a limited, fortified kastron. They were unable to form a cultural and economic nucleus upon which the Roman state could build. Their population was then assimilated by the Slavic settlers. Even so, some cities along the Danube retained their Romanness until the Proto-Bulgarian invasion of 679, also being under Byzantine rule until then. The fact that the Proto-Bulgarians used a debased form of Greek as their administrative language shows that Roman population and administrative structures existed there even after 679. In Dalmatia, Romance languages (Dalmatian) persisted into the late 19th century, and in Macedonia, the ancestors of modern-day Aromanians survived as transhumant nomads. In Albania, parts of Montenegro, Kosovo and Macedonia, a small ethnic group, unnoticed over centuries of Roman rule, retained its pre-Roman language and also survived Slavic landfall, the ancestors of modern-day Albanians.

In short, the decline of Roman power on the Balkans was a slow affair that took place only because of the lack of Byzantine military presence. Being short on troops in the Balkans, Byzantium could not have provided for safe communication among cities. Byzantium could locally impose a rule over the Balkan Slavs only on a short-term basis, not enough to assimilate them. Byzantium, however, used any opportunity given by pauses of activity on the Arab front to subjugate the Slavs and resettle them en masse to Asia Minor.

After a delay of two centuries, Thrace and Greece were re-Hellenized, while, with the exception of the Albanians and the proto-Romanian Vlachs, but the rest of the former Byzantine Balkans became permanently Slavicized.

 Legacy

In the end, the successes of  Maurice's campaigns were forgone by Phocas. Maurice's hopes for rebuilding the Balkans and resettling Armenian militia peasants in the depopulated areas were not realised. Heraclius could do even less for the Balkans as he was preoccupied with the Eastern front. Therefore, the only immediate consequence was the delay in Slavic landfall on the Balkans. For that reason, it is often assumed that Maurice's Balkan campaigns were a failure.

Probably, Avar defeats in the late part of the campaigns from 599 onward had a long-term impact. The Avars had been bloodily defeated in their own country and had proved to be unable to protect themselves, let alone their subjects. Until the battle of Viminacium in 599, they had been seen as invincible, allowing them to thoroughly exploit their subjects. Once Avar renown had fallen, the first rebellions occurred, to be crushed after 603. The Avars were able to score further successes against the Lombards, Franks and Romans; however, they were unable to restore their former reputation. That can explain the Slavic uprising under the leadership of Samo in 623, three years before the abortive Siege of Constantinople.

Maurice's campaigns put an end to Avar dreams of hegemony over the Balkans and paved the way for an end of the Avar threat. The Khagan's power collapsed only after the unsuccessful Siege of Constantinople in 626, and the Avar Khaganate would be finally destroyed much later, by Charlemagne in (791–803). The Avar Khaganate Empire ceased to exist after 790. The Muslim conquests from the 630s onward led to the loss of all of Rome's long-held eastern provinces as far as the Taurus Mountains. The constant Arab threat over strategically important Asia Minor had a great impact on the Balkans. Several decades were to pass before Constantinople could regain the initiative and reconquer parts of the Slav-controlled areas (Sklavinia). Several centuries were to pass before Basil II restored all of the Balkans to Byzantine control.

See also
 Asia Minor Slavs
 Avar-Byzantine wars

 References

 Sources

 Primary sources
 Maurice's Strategikon: Handbook of Byzantine Military Strategy. translated by George T. Dennis. Philadelphia 1984, Reprint 2001.
 Theophylact Simocatta, Historiae Secondary sources

 Fischer Weltgeschichte, Band 13, "Byzanz''" (pp. 139ff.). Franz Georg Maier, Frankfurt a. M. (1973)

External links
 Excerpt from the 'Historia' of Theophylakt Simokatta (English translation)

6th-century conflicts
7th-century conflicts
Wars involving the Byzantine Empire
6th century in the Byzantine Empire
7th century in the Byzantine Empire
Medieval Romania
Avar–Byzantine wars
Maurice (emperor)
Campaigns of the Byzantine Empire

Maurice's Balkan campaigns


The Buffalo History Museum (founded as the Buffalo Historical Society, and later named the Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society) is located at 1 Museum Court (formerly 25 Nottingham Court) in Buffalo, New York, just east of Elmwood Avenue and off of Nottingham Terrace, north of the Scajaquada Expressway, in the northwest corner of Delaware Park.

History

The building that houses the Buffalo History Museum was constructed in 1901 as the New York State pavilion for that year's Pan-American Exposition, and is the sole surviving permanent structure from the exposition.  As planned, the Buffalo Historical Society moved into the building after the exposition.

Designed by Buffalo architect George Cary (1859–1945), its south portico is meant to evoke the Parthenon in Athens. The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987.

Founded in 1862, the Buffalo Historical Society's first president was Millard Fillmore.  Its exhibits, programs, and events are attended by schoolchildren, families, and students.  It has hosted observances of Lincoln's Birthday for over a century.

From 1879 to 1947, the Society published pioneering scholarship on the people, events, and history of the Niagara Frontier.  Many of those volumes are now online in full text.

In 1960, the Buffalo Historical Society changed its name to the Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society, and on October 25, 2012, the Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society announced it was rebranding itself as The Buffalo History Museum.

Exhibits
All three floors of the building offer exhibits, including the Rotary Gallery (featuring elaborate model trains), the Pioneer Gallery, the Erie County Room, the State Court, the Community Gallery, Native American Gallery, Neighbors, and ICONS.  A recreation of Tim Russert's office opened in October 2014 after having been installed at the Newseum in Washington, D.C.  On view by appointment in the Museum's Resource Center on Forest Avenue is the gun used by Leon F. Czolgosz to shoot President William McKinley at the Exposition's Temple of Music on September 6, 1901.

In November 2017, the Buffalo History Museum opened the Icons: The Makers and Moments of Buffalo Sports exhibit. The new exhibit explores Buffalo New York's rich sports history and investigates the unique connection between fans and the beloved teams and sports idols of the area. Highlights include Ralph Wilson's hall of fame jacket, the only helmet Scott Norwood ever wore during his career as a Buffalo Bill, and a changing exhibit currently featuring the Buffalo Beauts.

Research Library
Of particular interest to historians, genealogists, researchers, and house history buffs are the collections of the Research Library.  Notable collections include:

The Millard Fillmore Papers
The Peter Buell Porter Papers
The Mary Burnett Talbert papers
The Larkin Company records and memorabilia
The Pan-American Exposition collection
Maris B. Pierce's papers

Additional resources include:

100,000 artifacts
20,000 books
200,000 photographs
50,000 plans
Drawings
Maps
Posters
Prints
Broadsides
6,500 microfilms of newspapers
Church records
Cemetery records
Censuses
Pamphlets
Clippings

In addition there is similar ephemera that documents the people, places, architecture, organizations, businesses, and events in the Buffalo and Niagara frontier region.  A number of detailed bibliographies on popular topics are online at WorldCat.

FRANK, the library's growing catalog of 25,000 books and manuscripts, is freely searchable online.

Same-sex wedding memorabilia
In 2011, after the passage of equal marriage in the State of New York, the Research Library became the first known library in the United States to collect wedding memorabilia from legally wed same-sex couples.

Amateis pediment
The left, center, and right sections of the pediment atop the Museum, designed by Edmond Amateis and includes clothed, semi-nude and nude figures.

References

External links

 History Buffs: The YouTube channel of The Buffalo History Museum
 Encyclopedia Americana entry, vol. 3, 1903
 Buffalo Historical Society, 1930: A short pamphlet illustrated with photographs of museum interiors & exhibits, published to commemorate the expansion of the original 1901 building.
 Buffalo Historical Society Publications: A list of essays, pamphlets, annual reports, and scholarship, with links to online editions

National Historic Landmarks in New York (state)
Museums on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Infrastructure completed in 1901
Historical societies in New York (state)
Museums in Buffalo, New York
Architecture of Buffalo, New York
Historical society museums in New York (state)
World's fair architecture in New York (state)
Institutions accredited by the American Alliance of Museums
Photo archives in the United States
National Register of Historic Places in Buffalo, New York
1901 establishments in New York (state)
Research libraries in the United States
Pan-American Exposition
New York State Register of Historic Places in Buffalo

Buffalo History Museum


Jeffrey Lee Herndon (December 16, 1963 – March 26, 2022), known professionally as Jeff Carson, was an American country music artist. Originally a session musician in Branson, Missouri, and later a demo singer, he was signed to Curb Records in 1995, releasing his self-titled debut album that year, followed by Butterfly Kisses in 1998 and Real Life in 2002. He charted 14 singles on the Billboard country charts, including the Number One hit "Not on Your Love", the Top Ten hits "The Car" and "Holdin' Onto Something", and the Top 20 "Real Life (I Never Was the Same Again)". He retired from music in 2009 and became a police officer.

Biography
Jeffrey Lee Herndon was born in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and raised in Gravette, Arkansas. In his childhood, he played harmonica and guitar and sang in church. In high school, he and some friends formed a band. They won second place at a local talent show for performing the song "Seven Bridges Road". After graduating, he attended another talent competition held at a park in Rogers, Arkansas. The winner of that competition then asked Carson to play in his band. The band split up after four years.

Carson later moved on to Branson, Missouri, where he found work playing bass guitar in local bands, in addition to writing songs. While in Branson, he met his then-future wife, who persuaded him to move to Nashville, Tennessee, which he did in 1989. They married in 1989. In Nashville, he found work with a band that played at the Opryland Hotel, before convincing the hotel to book him as a solo act. He eventually recorded demos for other artists, before he was discovered by record producer Chuck Howard in 1994 and signed to Curb Records.

Music career

1995–1996: Jeff Carson
Carson's debut single, "Yeah Buddy", was released in early 1995, peaking at number 69 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. It was followed by "Not on Your Love", which became his only number one later that year. Both singles were included on his debut album, titled Jeff Carson, which produced two more Top Ten hits in "The Car" (number 3) and "Holdin' Onto Something" (number 6), the latter of which was previously recorded by John Michael Montgomery. Between those two singles was a Christmas release called "Santa Got Lost in Texas" (number 70), The album's last single was "That Last Mile" at number 62. In 1996, Carson won the Academy of Country Music's Video of the Year for "The Car". He also co-wrote the song "Whoop-De-Do" on Keith Gattis' 1996 self-titled debut. Jeff Carson received a mixed review from Country Standard Time, whose Larry Stephens said that "Carson's songs are all good, but nothing sticks or grabs the heart strings."

1997–1999: Butterfly Kisses
Carson released his second album in 1997. Entitled Butterfly Kisses, this album produced four singles, none of which reached top 40: "Do It Again" at number 55; the album's title track (number 62), which was also a number 1 Adult Contemporary hit and minor country hit for Bob Carlisle as well as a Top 40 pop and country hit for the Raybon Brothers; "Here's the Deal" (number 64); and "Cheatin' on Her Heart" (number 52). This album also included an alternative mix of "Butterfly Kisses" which combined elements of labelmate Kippi Brannon's then-current single "Daddy's Little Girl", as well as a duet with Merle Haggard on a rendition of his hit "Today I Started Loving You Again".

1998–2002: Real Life
His eleventh single, "Shine On", was released in 1998. After it, too, failed to reach Top 40, Carson's third album was repeatedly delayed. "Scars and All" did not reach the country charts, but was a number 1 on the PowerSource Christian charts. Following it in 2001 was his first Top 40 country single in five years, "Real Life (I Never Was the Same Again)". It reached number 14 at the end of the year, and was followed by the release of his third studio album, also called Real Life. In 2002, Carson suffered a broken vertebra in a sledding accident at home. Although he briefly spent some time in a body cast, he was not seriously injured. Another single from Real Life, entitled "Until We Fall Back in Love Again", peaked at number 47.

2003–2022:  Return to music and police work
Carson charted again in 2003 with his cover of the Christian pop hit "I Can Only Imagine", a cut from a multi-artist compilation called God Bless the USA 2003. He also co-wrote the track "Where Has My Hometown Gone" on Craig Morgan's album I Love It, as well as Elbert West's single "Kimberly Cooper's Eyes". A duet with Lisa Brokop entitled "God Save the World", released in 2005, also failed to chart. His most recent single, "When You Said You Loved Me", was sent to radio in early 2007, as the lead-off single to an upcoming Greatest Hits package. The single failed to chart, however, and his Greatest Hits album was cancelled. In February 2009, he retired from the music business and joined the Franklin, Tennessee, police force as a full-time police officer.

Death
Carson died from a heart attack at a hospital in Franklin, Tennessee, on March 26, 2022, at the age of 58.

Discography

Albums

Studio albums

Compilation albums

Singles

1990s

2000s and 2010s

Other charted songs

Notes

Music videos

Awards and nominations

References

1963 births
2022 deaths
People from Gravette, Arkansas
Musicians from Tulsa, Oklahoma
American country bass guitarists
American country singer-songwriters
Curb Records artists
Country musicians from Oklahoma
Country musicians from Arkansas
American country harmonica players
Singer-songwriters from Oklahoma
Guitarists from Oklahoma
American male bass guitarists
20th-century American bass guitarists
20th-century American male musicians
American male singer-songwriters
Deaths from coronary artery disease

Jeff Carson


Alister Williamson (17 June 1918 – 19 May 1999) was an Australian-born character actor, who appeared in many British films and television series of the 1960s and 1970s. A big, craggy-faced man, he would usually be found playing gruff police inspectors or henchmen in adventure series and police dramas of the period. He was also notable as a supporting player in a number of classic British horror films.

He would typically be found in television series such as Adam Adamant Lives!, The Avengers, Paul Temple, Police Surgeon, Public Eye, The Saint, Softly, Softly, Special Branch, The Third Man and Z-Cars. He also made appearances in many popular sitcoms of the period, such as Please Sir!, Dad's Army, The Galton and Simpson Playhouse, George and Mildred, The Likely Lads, Man About the House and That's My Boy.

In films he often appeared in the horror genre, either as policemen or landlords for companies such as Hammer Studios, Amicus and AIP throughout the 1960s and early 1970s. His credits include The Curse of the Werewolf (1961), The Evil of Frankenstein (1963), The Gorgon (1964) and The Deadly Bees (1966). In 1969 he appeared in Gordon Hessler's The Oblong Box, in which he would have his only leading role opposite stars Vincent Price and Christopher Lee. In a part originally earmarked for Price, he played the disfigured Sir Edward Markham, acting underneath a red velvet hood until the film's climatic unmasking. Unfortunately his voice was deemed unsuitable and he was redubbed for the film's release, after which it was back to a supporting role in his next horror film, The Abominable Dr. Phibes (1971).

Selected filmography
 Hell Is a City (1960) - Sam
 Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960) - Policeman
 The Sundowners (1960) - Shearer (uncredited)
 The Curse of the Werewolf (1961) - Policeman (uncredited)
 The Pot Carriers (1962) - Escorting Prison Officer
 The Brain (1962) - Inspector Pike (uncredited)
 On the Beat (1962) - Detective (uncredited)
 Man in the Middle (1964) - Sgt. Johnson
 The Evil of Frankenstein (1964) - Landlord (uncredited)
 Crooks in Cloisters (1964) - Mungo
 The Gorgon (1964) - Janus Cass
 The Lift (1965) - Mr. Maxwell
 The Return of Mr. Moto (1965) - Maiter d'Hotel
 The Deadly Bees (1966) - Inspector
 The Last Shot You Hear (1969) - CID Man
 The Oblong Box (1969) - Edward
 Battle of Britain (1969) - Air Raid Warden (uncredited)
 The Abominable Dr. Phibes (1971) - 1st Policeman

External links

1918 births
1999 deaths
British male film actors
British male television actors
Male actors from Sydney
20th-century British male actors
Australian emigrants to the United Kingdom

Alister Williamson


Xuyên Mộc is a rural district of Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu province in the Southeast region of Vietnam. As of 2003, the district had a population of 132,117. The district covers an area of 642 km².

Overview
This city is home to primitive forest in which there exists a significant elephant population. Xuyên Mộc is noted for its hot spring in Bình Châu - Phước Bửu natural reserve which is available to tourists. Xuyên Mộc is located by the South China Sea and is known for its white sand, beaches and seafood.

Beaches in the area include Hồ Tràm Beach, which is starting to see numerous new high end developments come up, including The Grand Hồ Tràm Strip (formerly known as MGM Hồ Tràm Casino & Resort), Melia Ho Tram Beach Resort and several additional private developments along the main Hồ Tràm Beach. Hồ Cốc beach is also nearby is a common weekend destination for Ho Chi Minh City residents.

Administrative divisions
The district is divided into one township, the capital of Phước Bửu, and 12 communes: Phước Thuận, Phước Tân, Xuyên Mộc, Bông Trang, Bàu Lâm, Hòa Bình, Hòa Hưng, Hòa Hiệp, Hòa Hội, Bưng Riềng, Tân Lâm and Bình Châu.

References

Districts of Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu province
Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu province

Xuyên Mộc district


Daniel Langlois (born 1957 in Jonquière) is the president and founder of the Daniel Langlois Foundation, Ex-Centris, and Media Principia Inc.

Daniel Langlois also founded Softimage Inc., serving as its president and chief technology officer from November 1986 to July 1998. The company is recognized in the fields of cinema and media creation for its digital technologies and especially its 3-D computer animation techniques. Softimage software was used to create 3-D effects in such films as Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, The Matrix, Titanic, Men in Black, Twister, Jurassic Park, The Mask and The City of Lost Children.

Before establishing Softimage Inc., Langlois earned a bachelor of design degree from the Université du Québec à Montréal. He also worked eight years as a film director and animator for private companies and the National Film Board of Canada. During this time, he made contributions to the film industry and especially to the field of computer graphics. In addition, he has gained recognition for his work on Transitions, first stereoscopic 3-D computer animation in IMAX format (presented at Expo 86). He also had a hand in the 1985 film Tony de Peltrie, which has garnered several international awards.

Mr. Langlois has received many honours throughout his career. In 1994, Ernst & Young chose him as Canada's national entrepreneur of the year. The Université de Sherbrooke bestowed an honorary doctorate degree in administration on Mr. Langlois in 1996. He also received honorary doctorates from McGill University (2002), Concordia University (2004), Université du Québec à Montréal (2005) and University of Ottawa (2008). In 1997, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences presented him with a Scientific and Technical Oscar.

In 1999, he became a Knight of the National Order of Quebec and was named as an Officer of the Order of Canada in 2000, and Great Montrealer in 2004.

In recent years, Daniel Langlois is involved in sustainable development and research projects for the creation of self-sustainability for small communities and some industrial sectors such as the hospitality sector. Coulibri Ridge (coulibriridge.com) which is part of this research process in Dominica, has been awarded Gold and Platinum Winner as well as Grand Winner in the Hotel and Tourism Development category at the 15th Edition of the Grands Prix du Design 2022.

Evaluated by a multidisciplinary international jury made up of professionals, academics and members of the press, Coulibri Ridge was the overall winner in the Hotel and Tourism Development category. The international award recognizes excellence in design and celebrates the talented professionals who inspire through their creative vision.

Daniel Langlois Foundation
The Daniel Langlois Foundation is a non-profit, philanthropic organization endowed by Daniel Langlois and chartered in 1997 with the mission to support artistic and scientific projects and research dedicated to further general human awareness as well as the understanding of human relation with its natural and technological environment.

The purpose of the foundation is to further artistic and scientific knowledge by fostering the meeting of art and science in the field of technologies and the environment. The Foundation seeks to nurture a critical awareness of technology's implications for human beings and their natural and cultural environments, and to promote the exploration of aesthetics suited to evolving human environments. The Foundation Centre for Research and Documentation (CR+D) seeks to document history, artworks and practices associated with electronic and digital media arts and to make this information available to researchers in an innovative manner through data communications.

In 2005, the foundation initiated the development of DOCAM (Documentation and Conservation of the Media Arts Heritage). This international research alliance's primary objective is to develop new methodologies and tools to address the issues of preserving and documenting technological and electronic works of art.

The Daniel Langlois Foundation, DOCAM, and its Centre for Research and Documentation are located in Montreal. In 2011, the entire collection of the foundation was donated to the Cinémathèque québécoise.

Resilient Dominica (RezDM.org) is a Non-Government Organisation (NGO) formed in 2018 shortly after Hurricane Maria by the Daniel Langlois Foundation in an attempt to rebuild and strengthen resilience in Dominica in the communities of Soufriere, Scotts Head, and Gallion.

References

External links
 Softimage company website
 Daniel Langlois Foundation
 DOCAM
 Resilient Dominica (RezDM)
 Coulibri Ridge

1957 births
Living people
Artists from Montreal
Businesspeople from Montreal
Canadian animated film directors
Canadian animated film producers
Canadian company founders
Canadian media executives
Chief technology officers
Film directors from Montreal
Film festival founders
French Quebecers
Knights of the National Order of Quebec
National Film Board of Canada people
Officers of the Order of Canada
Technology company founders
Université du Québec à Montréal alumni

Daniel Langlois


Cresswell  railway station was a railway station located on the Stoke-Derby line at Cresswell, Staffordshire, England. It was opened by the North Staffordshire Railway in 1848 and closed in 1966.

The station was located near the Izaak Walton pub and had a substantial building and a small goods yard. It became the junction station for the Cheadle Branch Line in 1892. When the latter closed to passengers, the sidings remained in occasional use for another 20 years, mainly sand traffic from Cheadle.

The level crossing was converted to automatic barrier operation in 1989, whereupon the signal box was demolished and the junction was lifted.

There is no trace of the station today.

References

Further reading

Disused railway stations in Staffordshire
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1966
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1848
Former North Staffordshire Railway stations

Cresswell railway station


Tristram Edgar Speaker (April 4, 1888 – December 8, 1958), nicknamed "the Gray Eagle", was an American professional baseball player. Considered one of the greatest players in the history of Major League Baseball (MLB), he compiled a career batting average of .345 (sixth all-time). His 792 career doubles represent an MLB career record. His 3,514 hits are fifth in the all-time hits list. Defensively, Speaker holds career records for assists, double plays, and unassisted double plays by an outfielder. His fielding glove was known as the place "where triples go to die."

After playing in the minor leagues in Texas and Arkansas, Speaker debuted with the Boston Red Sox in 1907. He became the regular center fielder by 1909 and led the Red Sox to World Series championships in 1912 and 1915. In 1915, Speaker's batting average dropped to .322 from .338 the previous season; he was traded to the Cleveland Indians when he refused to take a pay cut. As player-manager for Cleveland, he led the team to its first World Series title. In seven of his eleven seasons with Cleveland, he finished with a batting average greater than .350. Speaker resigned as Cleveland's manager in 1926 after he and Ty Cobb faced game-fixing allegations; both men were later cleared. During his managerial stint in Cleveland, Speaker introduced the platoon system in the major leagues.

Speaker played with the Washington Senators in 1927 and the Philadelphia Athletics in 1928, then became a minor league manager and part owner. He later held several roles for the Cleveland Indians. Late in life, Speaker led a short-lived indoor baseball league, ran a wholesale liquor business, worked in sales and chaired Cleveland's boxing commission. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937. He was named 27th  in the Sporting News 100 Greatest Baseball Players (1999) and was also included in the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.

Early life
Speaker was born on April 4, 1888, in Hubbard, Texas, to Archie and Nancy Poer Speaker. As a youth, Speaker broke his arm after he fell from a horse; the injury forced him to become left-handed. In 1905, Speaker played a year of college baseball for Fort Worth Polytechnic Institute. Newspaper reports have held that Speaker suffered a football injury and nearly had his arm amputated around this time; biographer Timothy Gay characterizes this as "a story that the macho Speaker never ." He worked on a ranch before beginning his professional baseball career.

Speaker's abilities drew the interest of Doak Roberts, owner of the Cleburne Railroaders of the Texas League, in . After losing several games as a pitcher, Speaker converted to outfielder to replace a Cleburne player who had been struck in the head with a pitch. He batted .318 for the Railroaders. Speaker's mother opposed his participation in the major leagues, saying that they reminded her of slavery. Though she relented, for several years Mrs. Speaker questioned why her son had not stayed home and entered the cattle or oil businesses.

He performed well for the Texas League's Houston Buffaloes in 1907, but his mother stated that she would never allow him to go to the Boston Americans. Roberts sold the youngster to the Americans for $750 or $800 (equal to $ or $ today). Speaker played in seven games for the Americans in , with three hits in 19 at-bats for a .158 average. In 1908, Boston Americans owner John I. Taylor changed the team's name to the Boston Red Sox after the bright socks in the team's uniform. That year, the club traded Speaker to the Little Rock Travelers of the Southern League in exchange for use of their facilities for spring training. Speaker batted .350 for the Travelers and his contract was repurchased by the Red Sox. He logged a .224 batting average in 116 at-bats.

Major league career

Early years

Speaker became the regular starting center fielder for Boston in 1909 and light-hitting Denny Sullivan was sold to the Cleveland Naps. Speaker hit .309 in 143 games as the team finished third in the pennant race. Defensively, Speaker was involved in 12 double plays, leading the league's outfielders, and had a .973 fielding percentage, third among outfielders. In  the Red Sox signed left fielder Duffy Lewis. Speaker, Lewis and Harry Hooper formed Boston's "Million-Dollar Outfield", one of the finest outfield trios in baseball history. Speaker was the star of the Million-Dollar Outfield. He ran fast enough that he could stand very close to second base, effectively giving the team a fifth infielder, but he still caught the balls hit to center field. In 1910 and 1911, Boston finished fourth in the American League standings.

Speaker's best season came in 1912. He played every game and led the American League (AL) in doubles (53) and home runs (10). He set career highs with 222 hits, 136 runs, 580 at-bats, and 52 stolen bases. Speaker's stolen base tally was a team record until Tommy Harper stole 54 bases in 1973. He batted .383 and his .567 slugging percentage was the highest of his dead-ball days. Speaker set a major league single-season record with three hitting streaks of 20 or more games (30, 23, and 22). He also became the first major leaguer to hit 50 doubles and steal 50 bases in the same season. In August, Speaker's mother unsuccessfully attempted to convince him to quit baseball and come home. In Fenway Park's first game, Speaker drove in the winning run in the 11th inning, giving Boston the 7–6 win.

The 1912 Red Sox won the AL pennant, finishing 14 games ahead of the Washington Senators and 15 games ahead of the Philadelphia Athletics. In the 1912 World Series, Speaker led the Red Sox to their second World Series title by defeating John McGraw's New York Giants. After the second game was called on account of darkness and ended in a tie, the series went to eight games. The Red Sox won the final game after Fred Snodgrass dropped an easy fly ball and later failed to go after a Speaker pop foul. After the pop foul, Speaker tied the game with a single. The Red Sox won the game in the bottom of the tenth inning. He finished the series with a .300 batting average, nine hits and four runs scored. Speaker was named the AL Most Valuable Player (MVP) for 1912. Though he did not lead the league in any offensive categories in 1913, Speaker finished fourth in AL MVP voting. Speaker batted .338 and tied his career high of 12 double plays as an outfielder in . He hit .322 in . The Red Sox beat the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1915 World Series. The Red Sox were led by pitcher Babe Ruth, who was playing in his first full season. Ruth won 18 games and hit a team-high four home runs. Speaker got five hits, including a triple, in 17 at-bats during the series. He scored twice but did not drive in any runs.

Traded to the Indians

After 1915, Red Sox president Joseph Lannin wanted Speaker to take a pay cut from about $15,000 (equal to $ today) to about $9,000 (equal to $ today) because of the drop in his batting average; Speaker refused and offered $12,000 ($ today). On April 8, 1916, Lannin traded Speaker to the Cleveland Indians. In exchange, Boston received Sad Sam Jones, Fred Thomas and $50,000 ($ today). The angry Speaker held out until he received $10,000 (equal to $ today) of the cash that Boston collected.

For many years, this was considered the worst trade in Red Sox history, and was thought to be far more damaging to the Red Sox than the sale of Babe Ruth more than four years later, even though the Red Sox won the World Series in 1916 and 1918. In his book about the Red Sox-Yankees rivalry, Emperors and Idiots, Mike Vaccaro recalled that for some time, "Red Sox fans shook their head(s) in fury" when recalling the trade. Vaccaro recalled that no one knew in the winter of 1919-20 that Ruth would blossom into a superstar. In contrast, Speaker had established himself as "indisputably the best player in the American League" by 1916.

With an annual salary of $40,000 (equal to $ today), Speaker was the highest paid player in baseball. Speaker hit over .350 in nine of his eleven years with Cleveland. In , he led the league in hits, doubles, batting average, slugging percentage and on-base percentage. Cobb had won the previous nine consecutive AL batting titles; Speaker outhit him with a .386 batting average compared to Cobb's .371. The center field fence at Cleveland's Dunn Field was  from home plate until it was shortened to  in 1920. Even so, Speaker played so shallow in the outfield that he was able to execute six career unassisted double plays at second base, catching low line drives on the run and then beating baserunners to the bag. At least once he was credited as the pivot man in a routine double play. He was often shallow enough to catch pickoff throws at second base. At one point, Speaker's signature move was to come in behind second base on a bunt and make a tag play on a baserunner who had passed the bag.

While in Cleveland, Speaker participated in diverse activities off the baseball field. Speaker enrolled in an aviator training program in 1918. Though World War I ended less than two months after he enrolled, Speaker completed his training and served in the naval reserves for several years. He also owned a ranch in Texas and competed in roping events during the baseball offseason.

Stint as player-manager
From the day that Speaker arrived in Cleveland, he was effectively assistant manager to Lee Fohl, who rarely made an important move without consulting him. George Uhle recalled an incident from 1919 during his rookie year with the Indians. Speaker often signaled to Fohl when he thought that a pitcher should be brought in from the bullpen. One day, Fohl misread Speaker's signal and brought in a different pitcher than Speaker had intended. To avoid the appearance of overruling his manager, Speaker let the change stand. Pitcher Fritz Coumbe lost the game, Fohl resigned that night and Speaker became manager. Uhle said that Speaker felt bad for contributing to Fohl's departure.

Speaker guided the 1920 Indians to their first World Series win. In a crucial late season game against the second-place White Sox, Speaker caught a hard line drive hit to deep right-center field by Shoeless Joe Jackson, ending the game. On a dead run, Speaker leaped with both feet off the ground, snaring the ball before crashing into a concrete wall. As he lay unconscious from the impact, Speaker still held the baseball. In the 1920 World Series against Brooklyn, Speaker hit an RBI triple in the deciding game, which the Indians won 3–0. Cleveland's 1920 season was also significant due to the death of Ray Chapman on August 17. Chapman died after being hit in the head by a pitch from Carl Mays. Chapman had been asked about retirement before the season, and he said that he wanted to help Speaker earn Cleveland's first World Series victory before thinking of retirement.

During that championship season, Speaker is credited with introducing the platoon system, which attempted to match right-handed batters against left-handed pitchers and vice versa. Sportswriter John B. Sheridan was among the critics of the system, saying, "The specialist in baseball is no good and won't go very far... The whole effect of the system will be to make the players affected half men... It is farewell, a long farewell to all that player's chance of greatness... It destroys young ball players by destroying their most precious quality — confidence in their ability to hit any pitcher, left or right, alive, dead, or waiting to be born." Baseball Magazine was supportive, pointing out that Speaker had results that backed up his system.

The 1921 Indians remained in a tight pennant race all year, finishing  games behind the Yankees. The Indians did not seriously contend for the pennant from 1922 through 1925. Speaker led the league in doubles eight times, including every year between 1920 and 1923. He led the league's outfielders in fielding percentage in 1921 and 1922. On May 17, 1925, Speaker became the fifth member of the 3,000 hit club when he hit a single off pitcher Tom Zachary of the Washington Senators. Only Napoleon Lajoie had previously accomplished the feat as a member of the Indians. AL President Ban Johnson asked Speaker and Detroit manager Cobb to resign their posts after a scandal broke in . Pitcher Dutch Leonard claimed that Speaker and Cobb fixed at least one game between Cleveland and Detroit. In a newspaper column published shortly before the hearings were to begin, Billy Evans characterized the accusations as "purely a matter of personal revenge" for Leonard. The pitcher was said to be upset with Cobb and Speaker after a trade ended with Leonard in the minor leagues. When Leonard refused to appear at the January 5, 1927, hearings to discuss his accusations, Commissioner Landis cleared both Speaker and Cobb of any wrongdoing. Both were reinstated to their original teams, but each team declared its manager free to sign elsewhere. Speaker did not return to big league managing and he finished his MLB managerial career with a 617–520 record.

At the time of his 1926 resignation, news reports described Speaker as permanently retiring from baseball to pursue business ventures. However, Speaker signed to play with the Washington Senators for . Cobb joined the Philadelphia Athletics. Speaker joined Cobb in Philadelphia for the  season; he played part time and finished with a .267 average. Prior to that season, Speaker had not hit for a batting average below .300 since 1908. Speaker's major league playing career ended after 1928. He retired with 792 doubles, an all-time career record. Defensively, Speaker holds the all-time career records for assists as an outfielder and double plays as an outfielder. He remains the last batter to hit 200 triples in a career.

Later life

In  Speaker replaced Walter Johnson as the manager of the Newark Bears of the International League. In two seasons with Newark, he also appeared as a player in 59 games. When Speaker resigned during his second season, the Bears were in seventh place after a sixth-place finish in 1929. In January 1933 he became a part owner and manager of the Kansas City Blues. By May, Speaker had been replaced as manager but remained secretary of the club. By 1936, he had sold his share of the team. In 1937, Speaker was voted into the Baseball Hall of Fame during its second year of balloting. He was honored at the hall's first induction ceremony in 1939.

After his playing and managing days, Speaker was an entrepreneur and salesman. By 1937, Speaker had opened a wholesale liquor business and worked as a state sales representative for a steel company. He chaired Cleveland's boxing commission between 1936 and 1943. Newspaper coverage credited Speaker with several key reforms to boxing in Cleveland, including the recruitment of new officials and protections against fight fixing. Under Speaker, fight payouts went directly to boxers rather than managers. Speaker sorted out a scheduling conflict for a 1940 boxing match in Cleveland involving former middleweight champion Teddy Yarosz. Yarosz defeated Jimmy Reeves in ten rounds and the fight attracted over 8,300 spectators.

In 1937, Speaker sustained a 16-foot fall while working on a flower box near a second-story window at his home. Upon admission to the hospital, he underwent facial surgery. He was described as having "better than an even chance to live" and was suffering from a skull fracture, a broken arm and possible internal injuries. He ultimately recovered.

In 1939, Speaker was president of the National Professional Indoor Baseball League. The league had teams in New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Boston, Cleveland, Chicago, Cincinnati and St. Louis. The league shut down operations due to poor attendance only two months after its formation. Speaker was one of the founders of Cleveland's Society for Crippled Children and he helped to promote the society's rehabilitation center, Camp Cheerful. Speaker served as vice president of the society, ran fundraising campaigns and received a distinguished service award from the organization. He became seriously ill with pneumonia in 1942. Speaker ultimately recovered, but Gay characterized Speaker's condition as "touch-and-go for several days". In 1947, Speaker returned to baseball as "ambassador of good will" for Bill Veeck and the Cleveland Indians. He remained in advisory, coaching or scouting roles for the Indians until his death in 1958. In an article in the July 1952 issue of SPORT, Speaker recounted how Veeck hired him in 1947 to be a coaching consultant to Larry Doby, the first black player in the AL and the second in the major leagues. Before the Indians had signed Doby, he was the star second baseman of the Newark Eagles of the Negro leagues. A SPORT photograph that accompanied the article shows Speaker mentoring five members of the Indians: Luke Easter, Jim Hegan, Ray Boone, Al Rosen and Doby. Speaker was inducted into the Texas Sports Hall of Fame in 1951. Texas was the first state to establish a state sports hall of fame and Speaker was in its inaugural induction class.

Death
Speaker died of a heart attack on December 8, 1958, at the age of 70, at Lake Whitney, Texas. He collapsed as he and a friend were pulling their boat into the dock after a fishing trip. It was his second heart attack in four years. Speaker was buried at Fairview Cemetery in Hubbard, Texas.

After Speaker's death, Cobb said, "Terribly depressed. I never let him know how much I admired him when we were playing against each other... It was only after we finally became teammates and then retired that I could tell Tris Speaker of the underlying respect I had for him." Lajoie said, "He was one of the greatest fellows I ever knew, both as a baseball player and as a gentleman." Former Boston teammate Duffy Lewis said, "He was a team player. As great a hitter as he was, he wasn't looking out for his own average ... Speaker was the bell cow of our outfield. Harry Hooper and I would watch him and know how to play the hitters."

Legacy

Immediately after Speaker's death, the baseball field at the city park in Cleburne, Texas, was renamed in honor of Speaker. In 1961, the Tris Speaker Memorial Award was created by the Baseball Writers' Association of America to honor players or officials who make outstanding contributions to baseball. In 1999, he ranked number 27 on the Sporting News''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players. He was named to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. Speaker is mentioned in the poem "Line-Up for Yesterday"'' by Ogden Nash.

In 2008, former baseball players' union chief Marvin Miller, trying to defend the recently retired catcher Mike Piazza against claims that he should not be elected to the Hall of Fame because of association with the use of steroids, on the basis that the Hall of Fame has various unsavory people in it, opined that Speaker should be removed from the Hall of Fame because of alleged membership in the Ku Klux Klan. Miller said, "Some of the early people inducted in the Hall were members of the Ku Klux Klan: Tris Speaker, Cap Anson, and some people suspect Ty Cobb as well. I think that by and large, the players, and certainly the ones I knew, are good people. But the Hall is full of villains." Miller's comment about Anson has no basis, other than speculating that he could have been a Klansman since he was a racist during his playing career, which ended in 1897, although he was umpiring games with black players by 1901, including featuring the all-black Columbia Giants. Miller, age 91 at the time the 2008 article appeared, is the earliest source for declaring that it is factual that Anson was a member of the Klan, based purely on an Internet search of sources that try to link Anson to the Klan. By contrast, Speaker-Cobb-Rogers Hornsby biographer Charles C. Alexander, a Klan expert in his general history writings, told fellow baseball author Marty Appel, apparently referring to the 1920s (Anson died in 1922), "As I've suggested in the biographies, it's possible that they [Speaker, Cobb and Hornsby] were briefly in the Klan, which was very strong in Texas and especially in Fort Worth and Dallas. The Klan went all out to recruit prominent people in all fields, provided they were native born, Protestant and white."

Baseball historian Bill James does not dispute this claim in apparently referring to Speaker and possibly Cobb, but says that the Klan had toned down its racist overtures during the 1920s and pulled in hundreds of thousands of men, including Hugo Black. James adds that Speaker was a staunch supporter of Doby when he broke the American League color barrier, working long hours with the former second baseman on how to play the outfield.

Regular season statistics

Managerial record

See also

 Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame
 List of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle
 List of Major League Baseball batting champions
 List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders
 List of Major League Baseball doubles records
 List of Major League Baseball hit records
 List of Major League Baseball annual home run leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
 List of Major League Baseball player-managers
 List of Major League Baseball career triples leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders
 List of Major League Baseball triples records

Notes

References

Further reading

 Tris Speaker at the Encyclopedia of Cleveland History

External links

1888 births
1958 deaths
American League batting champions
American League home run champions
Baseball players from Texas
Boston Americans players
Boston Red Sox players
Cleburne Railroaders players
Cleveland Indians coaches
Cleveland Indians managers
Cleveland Indians players
Houston Buffaloes players
Kansas City Blues (baseball) managers
Little Rock Travelers players
Major League Baseball player-managers
Major League Baseball center fielders
Minor league baseball managers
National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
Newark Bears (International League) players
People from Hubbard, Texas
Philadelphia Athletics players
Texas Wesleyan Rams baseball players
Washington Senators (1901–1960) players
Sp
Baseball coaches from Texas

Tris Speaker


Diana Gordon, previously known by her stage name Wynter Gordon (born August 25, 1985), is an American singer and songwriter. She began her career writing music for other artists, later signing with Atlantic Records where she started to work on her own album. Her debut album With the Music I Die was released in 2011, with its lead single "Dirty Talk" receiving triple platinum and gold certifications in Australia and the United Kingdom. She began going by her birth name in 2016, and released the extended plays Pure (2018) and Wasted Youth (2020)

Gordon has performed backing vocals in the studio and continues to collaborate on writing, with "Sorry" by Beyoncé, "Electricity" by Silk City and Dua Lipa, "Bad Habit" by Steve Lacy and various tracks on Lil Yachty's 2023 studio album Let's Start Here, among her best-known co-credits.

Early life
Gordon was born in Queens, New York City, and was brought up in South Jamaica, where she was the middle child of six siblings.

Gordon began singing at a young age. She and her siblings would perform together in church. It was during high school that Gordon decided that she was going to pursue a music career. She was later accepted to the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts and interned at a record company. Gordon wrote her first complete song, "Daddy's Song", at the age of 15. She has described song writing as an "escape from poverty"

Career

2004–2010: Career beginnings
Gordon worked closely with the producer D'Mile since 2004; her first track to fame, "Gonna Breakthrough", written by Gordon and produced by D'Mile, was used as the title track to Mary J. Blige's 2005 album The Breakthrough. Soon after, Wynter was given an opportunity to sign with Atlantic Records, through Don Pooh Music Group, where she began work on her debut album in 2004.

In 2008, Gordon wrote two tracks for Danity Kane's second album Welcome to the Dollhouse, "2 of You" and "Do Me Good". She co-wrote the single "Sugar", a track that she was featured on with rapper Flo Rida on his album R.O.O.T.S. (2009) after laying down a reference vocal. The track became an international hit and peaked at number five on the US Billboard Hot 100. Gordon also co-wrote and sang on the dance track "Toyfriend" from French DJ David Guetta's album One Love (2009). She worked closely with Jennifer Lopez, writing four tracks including "What Is Love", "What Is Love Part II", "Starting Over" and "Everybody's Girl" for her seventh studio album Love? (2011).

2011–2013: With the Music I Die and Human Condition EPs
Gordon released her debut album, With the Music I Die, on June 17, 2011. The lead single from the album, "Dirty Talk", topped the US Hot Dance Club Songs. "Dirty Talk" also topped the charts in Australia, where it was certified 3× Platinum. The song was released in the UK and Ireland on February 18, 2011, where it peaked at No. 25 in the UK and No. 8 in Ireland. The song spent a total of eleven weeks inside the UK Top 40. The second single, "Til Death", peaked at No. 3 on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart, and No. 16 on the ARIA Singles Chart. The album later produced a further two singles, "Buy My Love" and "Still Getting Younger". In August 2011, Wynter began a two-month stint as the supporting act for Patrick Stump's second US tour.

On June 20, 2012, she premiered a new song, "Stimela", the first promotional single from her collection of Human Condition extended plays, which she decided to self-release to avoid label control. The first EP, Human Condition: Doleo, was released on July 9, 2012. The second EP, Human Condition: Sanguine, was released on January 15, 2013.

2011–2015: The Righteous Young and Five Needle EP
In early 2014, Gordon formed a quintet called The Righteous Young, of which she is the lead singer. However, she clarified in a Q&A on Facebook that The Righteous Young does not mean the end of Wynter Gordon as a solo act, but is rather an extension of her own music. "The Righteous Young is my band ... My music, WYNTER and THE RIGHTEOUS YOUNG". She released her first single with The Righteous Young, "Everything Burns", on June 3, 2014. The music video, directed by Harrison Boyce, was exclusively released on Idolator and Vevo on the same day. Wynter embarked on a tour with the band in July 2014, and they were revealed to have been working on their first album alongside producer Mike Elizondo, however, no further music ever eventuated. On July 29, a new solo Wynter track, "The Hard Way", was released on Kitty Cash's "Love the Free Vol. II" mixtape. The song was later released as a promotional single from the mixtape, with a music video being released on April 23, 2015. On May 5, 2015, Wynter released "Bleeding Out", the lead single from her Five Needle EP. The EP itself was later released on June 2, 2015.

2016: Co-writing and producing with Beyoncé
On April 23, 2016, Beyoncé released her sixth album Lemonade featuring several tracks where Diana Gordon (credited with her real name, and not her stage name) received a writing and producing credit, including "Don't Hurt Yourself" (which also samples Led Zeppelin's "When the Levee Breaks"), "Sorry", and "Daddy Lessons". A few months after the release of Lemonade, on July 22, 2016, Gordon announced that she was no longer using her stage name Wynter Gordon. Instead, she decided to be going by her birth name, Diana Gordon. On July 25, 2016, Diana Gordon shared her first single under her own name, "The Legend Of". Her first EP released under her own name and titled, Pure, was released on August 3, 2018. In a capsule review for Vice, Robert Christgau gave the EP a three-star honorable mention () and summed it up as "five proofs of a Beyoncé cowriter's hard-won, unembittered self-reliance—too modest to be 'inspirational,' and stronger for it"; the tracks "Wolverine" and "Too Young" were cited as highlights. On April 3, 2020, Gordon released a new eight track EP called Wasted Youth featuring acoustic versions of "Rollin" and "Once A Friend."

Discography

Studio albums
 With the Music I Die (2011)

Extended plays
 The First Dance (2010)
 Human Condition: Doleo (2012)
 Human Condition: Sanguine (2013)
 Five Needle (2015)
 Pure (2018)
 Wasted Youth (2020)

Awards and nominations

References

Living people
21st-century American singer-songwriters
21st-century American women singers
African-American women singer-songwriters
American dance musicians
American women pop singers
American hip hop singers
American house musicians
American rhythm and blues singer-songwriters
American women in electronic music
Singers from New York City
Musicians from Jamaica, Queens
Atlantic Records artists
1985 births
21st-century African-American women singers
20th-century African-American people
Singer-songwriters from New York (state)
20th-century African-American women

Diana Gordon (singer)


William George Pickel (born November 5, 1959) is a former defensive tackle who played for twelve seasons in the National Football League (NFL) with the Los Angeles Raiders (1983–1990) and the New York Jets (1991–1994). Pickel attended St. Francis Prep. He played college football for Rutgers University. As a second round draft pick of the Raiders in 1983, Pickel overcame injuries to win a Super Bowl as a rookie, and was a sack threat during the early part of his career with the Raiders, making the 1985 All-Pro team. He is currently 98th in career sacks with 56. A standout player, Pickel played nearly every Raider defensive snap in 1984 and 1985. He had a distinctive 4-point stance, placing two hands down instead of the usual one, as was the case with other quick defensive tackles such as Bob Lilly and Tom Keating.

Pickel guest starred in a 1994 episode of Home Improvement. He is noted for his volunteer work with the Joshua Frase Foundation, a non-profit group that supports research for centronuclear myopathy.

See also
List of Rutgers University people

External links
NFL.com player page

1959 births
Living people
Players of American football from Queens, New York
American football defensive tackles
Rutgers Scarlet Knights football players
Los Angeles Raiders players
New York Jets players
St. Francis Preparatory School alumni

Bill Pickel


The Pelopion was a structure at the ancient site of Olympia, Greece. It was the alleged tomb of Pelops, a figure in Greek mythology. It was a monument surrounded by a pentagonal structure. The tomb became an altar for animal sacrifices in Archaic Greece and continued to serve as an altar into the Roman era, until it fell into disuse with the advent of Christianity. It consisted of a mound of ashes and compacted earth, at the peak of which the sacrifice would take place – a black ram was sacrificed here every year in honor of Pelops. In order to get to the top of the altar, priests would carve steps into the mound. This packed earth form of altar was a particularly ancient one, quite unlike the more modern stone altars such as those evidenced at Delphi and the Acropolis of Athens.

References

External links

Ancient Greek buildings and structures
Ancient Olympia

Pelopion


Charles Darwin wrote about twenty books, including the most famous book in biology, the Origin of Species. The books covered the natural history sciences, now called geology, palaeontology, zoology, botany, anthropology, psychology and evolutionary biology.

The Origin of Species is the most important single book in the biological sciences, and its main ideas are well-supported by modern research.

The Voyage of the Beagle (1839) and The Descent of Man (1871) are also highly important.

Several of the other books were also ground-breaking.

List of books
 1838-43: Zoology of the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle: published between 1839 and 1843 in five Parts (and nineteen numbers) by various authors, edited and superintended by Charles Darwin, who contributed sections to two of the Parts:
 1838: Part 1 No. 1 Fossil Mammalia, by Richard Owen (Preface and Geological introduction by Darwin)
 1838: Part 2 No. 1 Mammalia, by George Robert Waterhouse (Geographical introduction and A notice of their habits and ranges by Darwin)
 1839: Journal and Remarks (The Voyage of the Beagle)
 1842: The structure and distribution of Coral Reefs
 1844: Geological observations of volcanic islands
 1846: Geological observations on South America
 1849: Geology from A manual of scientific enquiry; prepared for the use of Her Majesty's Navy: and adapted for travellers in general. ed. John Herschel.
 1851: A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with figures of all the species. The Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes. Living barnacles.
 1854: A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with figures of all the species. The Balanidae (or Sessile Cirripedes); the Verrucidae, etc.
 1851: A Monograph on the Fossil Lepadidae, or, Pedunculated Cirripedes of Great Britain. Fossil barnacles.
 1854: A Monograph on the Fossil Balanidæ and Verrucidæ of Great Britain
 1859: On the Origin of Species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life
 1862: On the various contrivances by which British and foreign Orchids are fertilised by insects (Fertilisation of Orchids)
 1865: On the movements and habits of climbing plants (Linnean Society paper, published in book form in 1875)
 1868: The variation of animals and plants under domestication
 1871: The Descent of Man, and selection in relation to sex
 1872: The expression of emotions in Man and animals
 1875: Insectivorous plants
 1876: The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom
 1877: The different forms of flowers on plants of the same species
 1880: The power of movement in plants
 1881: The formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms

References

Science books
19th-century books

Charles Darwin's books


The Flower Queen's Daughter (German: Die Tochter der Blumenkönigin) is a Bukovinian fairy tale collected by Dr Heinrich von Wlislocki in Märchen Und Sagen Der Bukowinaer Und Siebenbûrger Armenier. Andrew Lang included it in The Yellow Fairy Book.

Synopsis

A prince helped an old woman who was caught in a ditch.  She told him that the most beautiful woman in the world was the daughter of the Flower Queen, who had been kidnapped by dragons.  He could save her and marry her.  To help, she gave him a bell:  to ring it once would bring the King of the Eagles; twice, the King of the Foxes; and thrice, King of the Fishes.

He told his father he meant to rescue the daughter and set out.  After a year, he met a very old man, who did not know where the dragon was, but if he traveled a year, the prince might meet his father who might know.  At the end, the father could not tell him, but directed him on to his father.  That man told him that the dragon had just gone to sleep—it slept one year and woke the next—but the princess was held by his mother in the next mountain, and the Mother Dragon held a ball every night, at which the daughter would be.

He entered the Mother Dragon's service, saying that he had heard of her beauty and goodness.  She was an ugly woman with three heads.  She told him that he had to take her mare out to pasture for three days and always return with it.  The first day, it vanished, and he rang the bell.  The king of the eagles found the mare racing among the clouds and brought it back.  He brought it back to the Mother Dragon, who, as a reward, gave him a cloak of copper and let him come to the ball, where he-dragons and she-dragons were dancing.  He met the Flower Queen's daughter, who told him to ask for the mare's foal as reward.

The second day, the mare vanished again, he rang the bell twice, and the king of foxes brought the mare back from the hill; the Mother Dragon gave him a silver cloak and let him go to the ball again.

The third day, the mare vanished again, he rang the bell thrice, and the king of the fishes brought the mare back from the river.  The Mother Dragon gave him a golden cloak, said she would make him her body servant, and when he asked for the foal, gave it; she was pleased with him because he had flattered her beauty.  The Flower Queen's daughter told him they would meet in the meadow if he succeeded.

The Mother Dragon let him go to the ball, but he went to the stables instead.  At midnight, he and the Flower Queen's daughter fled on the foal.  The dragons woke their brother, but they got to the Flower Queen, who protected them.

The queen agreed to a wedding, as long as her daughter came and lived with her in the winter.  The prince agreed, and despite it, was happy with his bride their entire lives.

Analysis
The conclusion is, obviously, a reversal of the Persephone myth:  the daughter lives with her mother in the winter, and her husband during the growing seasons.

Editors of Jahresbericht über die Erscheinungen auf dem Gebiete der germanischen Philologie, in a review of Wlislocki's book, noted that the tale was "an interesting variant" of the tale Die Rosenmädchen ("The Rose Maiden"), collected by  from the Transylvanian Saxons.

See also
Kate Crackernuts
The Twelve Dancing Princesses
The Nine Peahens and the Golden Apples
The Death of Koschei the Deathless
The Young King Of Easaidh Ruadh
The Grateful Prince

References

Flower Queen's Daughter
Female characters in fairy tales

The Flower Queen's Daughter


Kamala Khan (Ms. Marvel) is a fictional character appearing in comic books published by Marvel Comics. She first appeared in Captain Marvel #17 (November 2013). Khan is a 16-year-old Pakistani-American Muslim. She is from the suburbs of New Jersey. She can shapeshift. She was made by Sana Amanat, Steve Wacker, and G. Willow Wilson.

Marvel Comics superheroes

The character is played by actress Iman Vellani in the Marvel Cinematic Universe series Ms. Marvel and in the upcoming movie The Marvels.

Kamala Khan


The South Korean won (Symbol: ₩; Code: KRW; Korean: 대한민국 원) is the official currency of South Korea. A single won is divided into 100 jeon, the monetary subunit. The jeon is no longer used for everyday transactions, and it appears only in foreign exchange rates. The currency is issued by the Bank of Korea, based in the capital city of Seoul.

Etymology

The old "won" was a cognate of the Chinese yuan and Japanese yen, which were both derived from the Spanish-American silver dollar. It is derived from the hanja  (, ), meaning "round", which describes the shape of the silver dollar.

The won was subdivided into 100  (), itself a cognate of the Chinese unit of weight mace and synonymous with money in general. The current won (1962 to present) is written in hangul only and does not officially have any hanja associated with it.

First South Korean won

History
The Korean won, Chinese yuan and Japanese yen were all derived from the Spanish-American silver dollar, a coin widely used for international trade between Asia and the Americas from the 16th to 19th centuries.

During the colonial era under the Japanese (1910–45), the won was replaced by the Korean yen which was at par with the Japanese Yen.

After World War II ended in 1945, Korea was divided, resulting in two separate currencies, both called won, for the South and the North. Both the Southern won and the Northern won replaced the yen at par. The first South Korean won was subdivided into 100 jeon.

The South Korean won initially had a fixed exchange rate to the U.S. dollar at a rate of 15 won to 1 dollar. A series of devaluations followed, the later ones, in part, due to the Korean War (1950–53). The pegs were:

The first South Korean won was replaced by the hwan on February 15, 1953, at a rate of 1 hwan = 100 won.

Banknotes
In 1946, the Bank of Joseon introduced 10 and 100 won notes. These were followed in 1949 by 5 and 1,000 won notes.

A new central bank, the Bank of Korea, was established on 12 June 1950, and assumed the duties of Bank of Joseon. Notes were introduced (some dated 1949) in denominations of 5, 10 and 50 jeon, and 100 and 1,000 won. The 500 won notes were introduced in 1952. In 1953, a series of banknotes was issued which, although it gave the denominations in English in won, were, in fact, the first issues of the hwan.

Second South Korean won

History
The won was reintroduced on June 10, 1962, at a rate of 1 won = 10 hwan. It became the sole legal tender on March 22, 1975, with the withdrawal of the last circulating hwan coins. Its ISO 4217 code is KRW. At the reintroduction of the won in 1962, its value was pegged at 125 won = US$1. The following pegs operated between 1962 and 1980:

On February 27, 1980, efforts were initiated to lead to a floating exchange rate. The won was finally allowed to float on December 24, 1997, when an agreement was signed with the International Monetary Fund. Shortly after, the won was devalued to almost half of its value, as part of the 1997 Asian financial crisis.

Coins
Until 1966, 10 and 50 hwan coins, revalued as 1 and 5 won, were the only coins in circulation. New coins, denominated in won, were introduced by the Bank of Korea on August 16, 1966, in denominations of 1, 5 and 10 won, with the 1 won struck in brass and the 5 and 10 won in bronze. These were the first South Korean coins to display the date in the common era, earlier coins having used the Korean calendar. The 10 and 50 hwan coins were demonetized on March 22, 1975.

In 1968, as the intrinsic value of the brass 1 won coin far surpassed its face value, new aluminium 1 won coins were issued to replace them. As an attempt to further reduce currency production costs, new 5 and 10 won coins were issued in 1970, struck in brass. Cupronickel 100 won coins were also introduced that year, followed by cupronickel 50 won coins in 1972.

In 1982, with inflation and the increasing popularity of vending machines, 500 won coins were introduced on June 12, 1982. In January 1983, with the purpose of standardizing the coinage, a new series of 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 won coins was issued, using the same layout as the 500 won coins, but conserving the coins' old themes.

The Bank of Korea announced in early 2006 its intention to redesign the 10 won coin by the end of that year. With the increasing cost of production, then at 38 won per 10 won coin, and rumors that some people had been melting the coins to make jewelry, the redesign was needed to make the coin more cost-effective to produce. The new coin is made of copper-coated aluminium with a reduced diameter of 18 mm, and a weight of 1.22 g. Its visual design is the same as the old coin. The new coin was issued on December 18, 2006.

The 1 and 5 won coins are rarely in circulation since 1992, and prices of consumer goods are rounded to the nearest 10 won. However, they are still in production, minting limited amounts of these two coins every year, for the Bank of Korea's annual mint sets.
In 1998, the production costs per coin were: 10 won coins each cost 35 won to produce, 100 won coins cost 58 won, and 500 won coins cost 77 won.

Banknotes
The Bank of Korea designates banknote and coin series in a unique way. Instead of putting those of similar design and issue dates in the same series, it assigns series number X to the Xth design of a given denomination. The series numbers are expressed with Korean letters used in alphabetical order, e.g. . Therefore, ₩1,000 issued in 1983 is series II () because it is the second design of all ₩1,000 designs since the introduction of the South Korean won in 1962.

In 1962, 10 and 50 jeon, 1, 5, 10, 50, 100 and 500 won notes were introduced by the Bank of Korea. The first issue of 1, 5, 10, 50, 100 and 500 won notes was printed in the UK by Thomas De La Rue. The jeon notes together with a second issue of 10 and 100 won notes were printed domestically by the Korea Minting and Security Printing Corporation.

In 1965, 100 won notes (series III) were printed using intaglio printing techniques, for the first time on domestically printed notes, to reduce counterfeiting. Replacements for the British 500 won notes followed in 1966, also using intaglio printing, and for the 50 won notes in 1969 using lithoprinting.

With the economic development from the 1960s, the value of the 500 won notes fell, resulting in a greater use of cashier's checks with higher fixed denominations as means of payment, as well as an increased use of counterfeited ones. In 1970, the 100 won notes were replaced by coins, with the same happening to the 50 won notes in 1972.

Higher-denomination notes of 5,000 and 10,000 won were introduced in 1972 and 1973, respectively. The notes incorporated new security features, including watermark, security thread, and ultraviolet response fibres, and were intaglio printed. The release of 10,000 won notes was planned to be at the same time as the 5,000 won notes, but problems with the main theme delayed it by a year. Newly designed 500 won notes were also released in 1973, and the need for a medium denomination resulted in the introduction of 1,000 won notes in 1975.

In 1982, the 500 won note was replaced by a coin. The following year, as part of its policy of rationalizing the currency system, the Bank of Korea issued a new set of notes, as well as a new set of coins. Some of the notes' most notable features were distinguishable marks for the blind under the watermark and the addition of machine-readable language in preparation for mechanization of cash handling. They were also printed on better-quality cotton pulp to reduce the production costs by extending their circulation life.

To cope with the deregulation of imports of color printers and the increasing use of computers and scanners, modified 5,000 and 10,000 won notes were released between 1994 and 2002 with various new security features, which included color-shifting ink, microprint, segmented metal thread, moiré, and EURion constellation. The latest version of the 5,000 and 10,000 won notes are easily identifiable by the copyright information inscribed under the watermark: "" and year of issue on the obverse, "© The Bank of Korea" and year of issue on the reverse.

The plates for the 5,000 won notes were produced in Japan, while the ones for the 1,000 and 10,000 won notes were produced by the Korea Minting and Security Printing Corporation. They were all printed in intaglio.

New security features

In 2006, it became a major concern that the South Korean won banknotes were being counterfeited/forged. This led the government to issue a new series of banknotes, with the 5,000 won note being the first one to be redesigned. Later in 2007, the 1,000 and 10,000 won notes were introduced.

On June 23, 2009, the Bank of Korea released the 50,000 won note. The obverse bears a portrait of Shin Saimdang, a prominent 16th-century artist, calligrapher, and mother of Korean scholar Yulgok, also known as Yi I, who is on the 5,000 won note. This note is the first Korean banknote to feature the portrait of a woman. The release of the 50,000 won note stirred some controversy among shop owners and those with visual impairments due to its similarity in color and numerical denomination with the 5,000 won note.

New 100,000 won notes were also announced, but their release was later cancelled due to the controversy over the banknote's planned image, featuring the Daedongyeojido map, and not including the disputed Dokdo islands.

The banknotes include over 10 security features in each denomination. The 50,000 won note has 22 security features, the 10,000 won note 21, the 5,000 won note 17, the 2,000 won note 10 and the 1,000 won note 19. Many modern security features that can be also found in euros, pounds, Canadian dollars, and Japanese yen are included in the banknotes.
Some security features inserted in won notes are:
 Holograms with three-dimensional images that change colors within the metallic foil on the obverse side of the notes (except ₩1,000)
 Watermark portraits of the effigy of the note are visible when held to the light in the white section of the note.
 Intaglio printing on words and the effigy give off a raised feeling, different from ordinary paper
 Security thread in the right side of the obverse side of the note with small lettering " Bank of Korea" and its corresponding denomination
 Color-shifting ink on the value number at the back of the note:
For the first time in the world, KOMSCO, the Korean mint, inserted a new substance in the notes to detect counterfeits. This technique is being exported to Europe, North America, etc.

Future

Coinless trials
As the South Korean economy is evolving through the use of electronic payments, coins of the South Korean won are becoming less used by consumers. The Bank of Korea began a trial which would result in the total cessation of the production of coins by depositing change into prepaid cards. As of 2019, however, public participation in this program has decreased.

Redenomination proposals
There have been recurring proposals in the South Korean National Assembly to redenominate the won by introducing a new won or new unit, equal to 1,000 old won, and worth nearly one U.S. dollar. While proponents cite a more valuable currency unit better projects the strength of the nation's economy, a majority remain opposed to the idea. Reasons cited are: economic harm if done immediately, no issues on public confidence in the won and its inflation rate, limited cost savings, and the presence of more urgent economic issues.

Currency production
The Bank of Korea is the only institution in South Korea with the right to print banknotes and mint coins. The banknotes and coins are printed at the KOMSCO, a government-owned corporation, under the guidance of the Bank of Korea.
After the new banknotes and coins are printed/minted, they are bundled or rolled and shipped to the headquarters of the Bank of Korea. When delivered, they are deposited inside the bank's vault, ready to be distributed to commercial banks when requested.
Every year, around Seollal and Chuseok, two major Korean holidays, the Bank of Korea distributes large amounts of its currency to most of the commercial banks in South Korea, which are then given to their customers upon request.

Current exchange rates

See also

References

External links

 New South Korean won banknotes, information page of BOK's new notes
 Pronunciation of Won at freedictionary.com

1962 in South Korea
1962 establishments in South Korea
Currencies of South Korea
Government of South Korea
Cultural depictions of Yi Sun-sin
Currencies introduced in 1962

South Korean won


In Greek mythology, the name Alke or Alce  (, "prowess, courage") may refer to:

Alke, the spirit and personification of the abstract concept of courage and battle-strength. In the Iliad, she was depicted on Athena's aegis alongside Ioke, Eris and Phobos.
Alke, daughter of Cybele and Olympus. She was given a second name, Cybele, after her mother.
Alke, an Amazon.
Alke, one of Actaeon's dogs.

Notes

References

 Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site
 Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888-1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
 Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
 Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
 Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
 Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
 Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.

Personifications in Greek mythology
Cybele
Amazons (Greek mythology)
Greek war deities

Alke


Carl Axel Fredrik Pettersson (13 April 1874 – 31 May 1962) was a Swedish curler who won a silver medal at the 1924 Winter Olympics.

Pettersson was a manager of a clothing company and chairman of the Swedish association of the clothing industry. He was also Consul General for Hungary in Sweden and member of the Stockholm's Council of the 50 Elders. He was awarded the Order of the Polar Star, the Order of Vasa and the Royal Hungarian Order of Merit, among other decorations. He was married to Kerstin, who died 17 years before him; they had three children.

References

External links

1874 births
1962 deaths
Swedish male curlers
Olympic curlers for Sweden
Olympic silver medalists for Sweden
Curlers at the 1924 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 1924 Winter Olympics
Swedish curling champions

Carl Axel Pettersson