Antoinette Spaak (27 June 192828 August 2020) was a Belgian politician and leading figure within Francophone and regionalist politics in Brussels. She was born into a noted political family and entered politics as part of the regionalist Democratic Front of Francophones (, FDF) in 1972. She held the presidency of the FDF from 1977 to 1982 and later advocated conciliation between Francophone centrist political parties. This brought the FDF into an electoral coalition ahead of the 1999 election and paved the way for its absorption into the Reformist Movement (, MR) in 2002. Spaak held various political offices in Belgium and the European Communities until retiring from politics in 2009.

Early life
Spaak was born in the Brussels suburb of Etterbeek in Belgium on 27 June 1928 into a noted political dynasty affiliated with liberal and socialist parties. Her father was Paul-Henri Spaak, a socialist politician and statesman who served several terms as prime minister and who played a notable role in the early years of the European Economic Community (EEC) as well as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). She was also the granddaughter of Marie Janson, the first female member of the Belgian Senate, and the grand-niece of Paul-Émile Janson, a liberal politician who would also serve as prime minister. Paul Janson, an influential liberal politician, was her great-grandfather. Spaak studied at the Free University of Brussels and graduated with a doctorate in philosophy and letters. She was the long-time partner of Étienne Davignon, a businessman and European functionary, who had been her father's .

Political career
Spaak entered politics after her father's death in 1972 within the regionalist Democratic Front of Francophones (, FDF), which purported to represent the interests of French-speakers in Brussels amid the ongoing political struggles between linguistic groups in Belgium which had emerged in the 1960s. She was elected to the Chamber of Representatives in the 1974 elections and became president of the FDF in 1977, becoming the first woman in Belgian history to lead a political party. She retained the FDF leadership until 1982 and presided over much of the party's greatest electoral success in the 1970s, when regionalist sentiment in Brussels was at its height. She presided over the Council of the French Community from 1988 to 1992. An advocate of European integration, she was voted into the European Parliament in its first direct elections from 1979 to 1984 and again from 1994 to 1999. She was granted the honorary title of Minister of State in 1983.

As the FDF's electoral fortunes declined in the 1980s, Spaak played a leading role alongside Jean Gol in arguing for conciliation between the FDF and the Liberal Reformist Party (, PRL). This led to an electoral alliance in 1995 between the FDF and the PRL, which was later joined by the Citizens' Movement for Change (, MCC). The FDF-PRL-MCC stood a joint list in the 1999 election, which paved the way for the formation of the Reformist Movement (, MR) in 2002 as a single political party. Spaak was a candidate for the MR in the 2007 elections at the bottom of the list and was not elected. However, she was elected to the Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region in 2009 but resigned after less than a year. The coalition of interests within the MR collapsed in 2011 amid a dispute on the linguistic status of the region dubbed Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde, and the FDF seceded, rebranding as DéFI in 2016.

Death
Spaak died at her home in Brussels, Belgium, on 28 August 2020, aged 92. Sophie Wilmès, the incumbent prime minister and MR member, described Spaak on Twitter as a "grande dame". L'Echo said in its obituary that Spaak had "epitomised a certain idea of feminism, of francophone struggle, and European engagement" during her political career but noted that she had never held a ministerial portfolio.

Books

References

1928 births
2020 deaths
Belgian Ministers of State
MEPs for Belgium 1994–1999
20th-century women MEPs for Belgium
Mouvement Réformateur MEPs
21st-century Belgian politicians
21st-century Belgian women politicians
Reformist Movement politicians
Free University of Brussels (1834–1969) alumni
Members of the Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)
DéFI politicians
Members of the Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region
People from Etterbeek
20th-century Belgian women politicians
20th-century Belgian politicians
Children of prime ministers

Antoinette Spaak


Europium compounds are compounds formed by the lanthanide metal europium (Eu). In these compounds, europium generally exhibits the +3 oxidation state, such as EuCl3, Eu(NO3)3 and Eu(CH3COO)3. Compounds with europium in the +2 oxidation state are also known. The +2 ion of europium is the most stable divalent ion of lanthanide metals in aqueous solution. Many europium compounds fluoresce under ultraviolet light due to the excitation of electrons to higher energy levels. Lipophilic europium complexes often feature acetylacetonate-like ligands, e.g., Eufod.

Properties of europium compounds

Chalcogenides

Oxides

Europium(II) oxide can be obtained by the reduction of europium(III) oxide with metallic europium at high temperatures. It has a rock-salt structure, is a deep red solid, and is ferromagnetic at 77 K. It has the potential to become a magnetic refrigeration material (ΔSmag=−143 mg/cm3 K,50 kOe). Europium(II) sulfide is also ferromagnetic, but europium(II) telluride is antiferromagnetic. The mixed valence oxide Eu3O4 of europium can be obtained by reducing europium(III) oxide with a reducing agent in a hydrogen atmosphere, such as:

 2 Eu2O3 + 2 EuOCl + 2 LiH → 2 Eu3O4 + 2 LiCl + H2↑

Europium(III) oxide is the most stable oxide of europium, a light pink solid with a high melting point, which can be obtained by the thermal decomposition of europium(III) nitrate. It reacts with water to give EuOOH. The reaction of soluble europium salts with ammonia or sodium hydroxide can precipitate hydroxide Eu(OH)3, but in the presence of polyhydroxyl compounds (such as glucose), the precipitation is incomplete.

Eu(H2O) and Eu(H2O)2 complexes can be obtained by the reaction of metallic europium in solid argon with water. Eu(H2O) is rearranged to obtain HEuOH, which is further decomposed into EuO and H2; Eu(H2O)2 is decomposed into Eu(OH)2 and H2.

Other chalcogenides

Europium(III) sulfide can be obtained by the decomposition of Eu(Et2NCS2)3 then at 500~600 °C. Europium(III) sulfide can also be obtained by the decomposition of the thiocyanate Eu(NCS)3; Its two crystal forms, α-type and γ-type, belong to orthorhombic and cubic crystal systems, respectively. Europium(II) sulfide is prepared by sulfiding the oxide at temperatures sufficiently high to decompose europium(III) oxide:

Eu2O3 + 3 H2S → 2 EuS + 3 H2O + S

The selenides, europium(III) selenide and europium(II) selenide, and tellurides, europium(II) telluride and europium(III) telluride, are also known. They can generally be prepared by reacting europium with selenium or tellurium in a vacuum ampoule at a high temperature. Europium(II) selenide can also be obtained by heating europium(II) oxalate with an excess of selenium.

Europium oxysulfide is obtained by reacting europium(III) oxide in a carbon disulfide/argon/low-pressure oxygen stream. It is a solid of the triclinic crystal system, with the space group Pm1, and its optical band gap is 4.4 eV. Europium oxyselenide and europium oxytelluride can be prepared by reacting europium(III) oxide with selenium or tellurium at 600 °C. The oxyselenide is heated in air and oxidized to oxyselenite. A similar reaction occurs with oxytelluride to give Eu2TeO6.

Halides

Europium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Eu + 3 X2 → 2 EuX3 (X = F, Cl, Br, I)
This route gives white europium(III) fluoride (EuF3), yellow europium(III) chloride (EuCl3), gray europium(III) bromide (EuBr3), and colorless europium(III) iodide (EuI3). Europium also forms the corresponding dihalides: yellow-green europium(II) fluoride (EuF2), colorless europium(II) chloride (EuCl2) (although it has a bright blue fluorescence under UV light), colorless europium(II) bromide (EuBr2), and green europium(II) iodide (EuI2).

Europium can form all four trihalides. They are strong electrolytes in water, and all but the fluoride are soluble in water. Anhydrous europium trihalides can be prepared by reacting oxides or the halides' hydrates:
 Eu2O3 + 6 NH4Cl → 2 EuCl3 + 3 H2O + 6 NH3↑
 EuCl3·6H2O + 6 SOCl2 → EuCl3 + 6 SO2↑ + 12 HCl↑
Among them, europium(III) iodide can only be obtained by reacting europium(III) oxide and hydroiodic acid.

In addition, europium can also form all four dihalides. They can generally be prepared by reducing the corresponding europium trihalide with hydrogen gas or europium:

 2 EuX3 + H2 → 2 EuX2 + 2 HX

Europium(II) iodide can also be obtained by direct treating the reagent with ammonium iodide. Of the dihalides, EuF2 and EuI2 are yellow, and EuCl2 and EuBr2 are white, although when irradiated by ultraviolet lite, EuCl2 has a bright blue fluorescence.

Pnictides

Europium(III) nitride is a black solid that can be prepared by the reaction of metallic europium in a stream of ammonia in corundum boats in fused quartz tubes at 700 °C:

 2 Eu +2 NH3 → 2 EuN + 3 H2

In this reaction, the europium is oxidized and the hydrogen in the ammonia is reduced. Europium(III) nitride shows Van Vleck paramagnetism and crystallises in the rock salt structure. Thin films of rare earth nitrides, including europium(III) nitride, tend to form oxides in the presence of oxygen. Europium(III) phosphide can be produced from a solution of europium metal in liquid ammonia with phosphine at -78 °C. This produces hydrogen and first Eu(PH2)2 is formed, but it then decomposes to EuP and PH3. It crystallises cubically like NaCl. Pure europium(III) phosphide also shows Van Vleck paramagnetism. Europium(II) diarsenide, Eu2As2, is unique which it contains the  ion instead of the As3- ion, unlike other lanthanide arsenides. It crystallizes in the distorted Na2O2 structure, similar to nickel arsenide, and is produced from reacting europium and arsenic at 600 °C. Other arsenides, antimonides and bismuthides of europium are also known.

Organoeuropium compounds

Organoeuropium compounds are a class of organic metal compounds containing Eu-C bonds. The cyclopentadienyl complexes of europium were studied in the early stage. They can be prepared by the reaction of sodium cyclopentadienide and anhydrous europium halide in tetrahydrofuran, such as:
 EuCl3 + 3 C5H5Na → (C5H5)3Eu + 3 NaCl
 EuI2 + 2 (C5HiPr4)Na → (C5HiPr4)2Eu + 2 NaI
Europium bis(tetraisopropylocene) is an orange-red solid that can be melted at 165 °C. The complex of cyclononatetraene and europium(II) can be prepared by a similar method, and its toluene solution emits blue-green fluorescence at 516 nm, compared with other organic europium(II) sandwich complexes (about 630 nm) with a clear blue shift.

In addition to the preparation of organo-europium compounds by metathesis reaction, metal europium can also be directly involved in the reaction, such as the reaction of europium and pentamethylcyclopentadiene to generate light orange bis(pentamethylcyclopentadiene) europium; and the reaction between cyclooctatetraene and europium gives the pale green cyclooctatetraene europium.

Other compounds

Europium(II) sulfate is the sulfate of divalent europium, which can be obtained by electrolysis of europium sulfate solution with mercury as the cathode, or by reducing europium(III) chloride with zinc amalgam, and then reacting with sulfuric acid. It reacts with sodium carbonate or ammonium oxalate to obtain europium(II) carbonate and europium(II) oxalate, respectively:

 EuSO4 + Na2CO3 + xH2O → EuCO3·xH2O + Na2SO4
 EuSO4 + (NH4)2C2O4(saturated) + H2O → EuC2O4·H2O + (NH4)2SO4

Europium(III) sulfate can be directly obtained by reacting europium(III) oxide and dilute sulfuric acid, and crystallized, and dehydration of hydrate can obtain the anhydrous form. Europium(III) sulfate is soluble in water, and its octahydrate has a solubility of 2.56 g at 20 °C. Europium(III) sulfite (Eu2(SO3)3·nH2O,n=0, 3, 6) and its basic salt (EuOHSO3·4H2O) are known, and heating the sulfite in a carbon monoxide atmosphere will dehydrate to obtain the anhydrous form, and after Eu2O2SO4, finally obtain the oxysulfide Eu2O2S.

Europium(II) hydroxide can be obtained by reacting metallic europium with sodium hydroxide. Europium(II) hydroxide belongs to the orthorhombic crystal system. It decomposes to form europium(III) hydroxide, a pale pink solid that reacts with acids and produces europium(III) salts. It can be prepared by reacting europium with water, or by reacting europium(III) nitrate with hexamethylenetetramine at 95 °C or with ammonium hydroxide.

Europium(III) nitrate can be obtained by reacting europium(III) oxide and nitric acid and crystallizing. The crystal is dried with 45~55% sulfuric acid to obtain hexahydrate. Its anhydrous form can be obtained by the reaction of europium oxide and dinitrogen tetroxide, while heating the hydrate can only obtain the basic salt EuONO3. Europium(III) phosphate can be obtained by reacting europium(III) chloride and diammonium hydrogen phosphate (or europium(III) oxide and 5 mol/L phosphoric acid), and its white monohydrate precipitates from solution. It loses water at 600~800 °C, and changes from a hexagonal phase with water to an anhydrous monoclinic phase. Europium(III) oxide reacts with arsenic pentoxide to obtain europium(III) arsenate, which is a colorless crystal with a xenotime structure.

Europium(III) carbonate is one of the carbonates of europium, which can be obtained by reacting a dilute solution of sodium bicarbonate saturated with carbon dioxide with a soluble europium salt. It is heated and decomposed to generate europium(III) oxide and carbon dioxide. Its basic salts and double salts are known. Europium(III) acetate is a pale pink solid that can crystallize from an aqueous solution as the tetrahydrate, which is dried with sulfuric acid to give the trihydrate. The reaction of europium(III) nitrate and oxalic acid gave europium oxalate decahydrate, which was converted to pentahydrate at 100 °C. Using potassium oxalate as raw material can only get double salt KEu(C2O4)2·2H2O. The coordination polymer [Eu(C2O4)(HCOO)]n can be obtained by reacting europium oxalate and oxalic acid with oxalic acid at 200 °C. Europium(III) oxalate is heated to 320 °C in a carbon dioxide atmosphere to obtain europium oxalate:

 Eu2(C2O4)3 → 2 EuC2O4 + 2 CO2↑

Applications
Compounds of Eu3+ can emit red light under excitation. For example, europium(III) oxide can be used in picture tube televisions and europium-doped yttrium oxysulfide (Y2O2S:Eu3+) can be used as phosphors. In addition, europium compounds can also be used in the manufacture of anti-counterfeiting materials.

Based on the properties of europium(II) oxide, thin layers of europium(II) oxide deposited on silicon are being studied for use as spin filters. Spin filter materials only allow electrons of a certain spin to pass, blocking electrons of the opposite spin. The synthesis of europium(II) oxide, as well as its europium(II) sulfide, because of their potential as laser window materials, insulating ferromagnets, ferromagnetic semiconductors, and magnetoresistant, optomagnetic, and luminescent materials. Europium(II) sulfide was used in an experiment providing evidence of Majorana fermions relevant to quantum computing and the production of qubits.

Eu(OCC(CH3)3CHCOC3F7)3 (abbreviated Eu(fod)3, where the fod ligand is the anion of the commercially available 6,6,7,7,8,8,8-heptafluoro-2,2-dimethyl-3,5-octanedione) serves as a Lewis acid catalyst in organic synthesis including stereoselective Diels-Alder and aldol addition reactions. For example, Eu(fod)3 catalyzes the cyclocondensations of substituted dienes with aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes to yield dihydropyrans, with high selectivity for the endo product.

Gallery

See also
 Samarium compounds
 Terbium compounds

References

External reading

Yi Xianwu, Huang Chunhui, Wang Wei, Liu Yujiu, Wu Jinguang. Inorganic Chemistry Series Vol.7 Scandium and Rare Earth Elements. Beijing: Science Press, 1992. ISBN 9787030305749.
The Handbook of Synthesis of Inorganic Compounds Vol.2. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press, 1986. CSBN 15063·3726 (Synthesis of Inorganic Compounds II. Tokyo: Maruzen Co., Ltd., 1977) Edited by the Chemical Society of Japan. Translated by An Jiaju and Chen Zhichuan.

Chemical compounds by element

Europium compounds


is the former president and CEO of Honda Motor Co., Ltd.  He is from Tokyo, Japan, though his mother gave birth to him in Hiroshima to escape intensifying air raids during World War II. He graduated from Waseda University with a bachelor's degree in Applied Chemistry. He began working at Honda in April 1969.

Career
Fukui worked on the CVCC (Compound Vortex Controlled Combustion) engine as his first project at Honda to reduce toxic exhaust emissions. The CVCC, which became the base for the Honda Civic car, became the first vehicle to comply with the 1975 U.S. Clean Air Act without a catalytic converter. A motorsports fan, he joined Honda for its participation in the Formula One races, and many years later served as the representative for the Honda works team upon their first, and only, victory at the 2006 Hungarian Grand Prix.

Positions
 Honda Motor Company, 1969–1979, engineer;
 Honda R&D Company, 1979–1982, chief engineer;
 Honda Racing Corporation, 1982–1983, chief engineer; 1983–1985, director; 1985–1987, executive vice president;
 Honda R&D Company, 1987–1988, managing director;
 Honda Racing Corporation, 1987–1988, president;
 Honda Motor Company, 1988–1990, director;
 Honda R&D Company, 1990–1991, senior managing director;
 Honda Motor Company, 1991–1992, general manager of Motorcycle Development; 1992–1994, general manager of Hamamatsu Factory, Motorcycle Operations;
 Honda of America Manufacturing, 1994–1996, executive vice president and director;
 Honda Motor Company, 1996–1998, managing director;
 Honda of America Manufacturing, 1996–1998, president and director;
 Honda R&D Company, 1998–2003, president;
 Honda Motor Company, 1999–2003, senior managing and representative director; 2003–February 2009, president and CEO.

References
 Profile at grandprix.com

1944 births
Living people
Honda people
Japanese chief executives
Formula One people
Japanese motorsport people
Businesspeople from Tokyo
Waseda University alumni
20th-century Japanese businesspeople
21st-century Japanese businesspeople

Takeo Fukui


The personal name Duncan can be foond in Scotland's auldest records in its Gaelic form Dunchad/Donchadh/Donachie/Donnchadh an ither spellin variants.

Origins
(Dunchad) Duncan, oreeginally a forename is doubtless ane o the earliest names in Scotland – surnames bein introduced bi the Normans aroun 1120 AD – an oreeginates frae the Dalriadan Celtic Celtic Scotii (Scots) frae Ireland wha colonised the sooth wast o Scotland frae aboot the 4t century AD. Dúnchad (Duncan mac Conaing co-ruled Dalriada wi Conall II (c.650 - 654).

Ither early accounts o the name include the 9 ft inscribed 'Turpillian Stone' o the 4t century AD at Crickhowell, Wales, a parteecularly early mention o the name Duncan. Inscribed in Ogham (an early form of Celtic writing) the stane an aa carried the Latin translation "TURPILLI IC IACIT PUUERI TRILUNI DUNOCATI" that roughly translates as The Fort Warrior.

Records frae this time are scant an it isnae til efter the unification bi Kenneth MacAlpin aroun 843 AD o the Celtic Scots o Dál Riata (Dalriada) an the aboriginal Picts o northren Britain that we stairt tae see the name significantly bein uised in ither pairts o Scotland. Ane o the earliest references tae Dunchad/Donchad, is foun in the margins o the 11t century 'Book of Deer the auldest writings in Scots Gaelic kent in Scotland thir days, Thir manuscript war written bi the early Christian Monks o the Abbey of Deer in Aberdeenshire.

Whan Duncan I tuik the Scots throne, Unlik the "King Duncan" o Shakespeare's Macbeth, the historical Duncan appears tae hae been a young man. He follaed his gutcher Malcolm II as king efter the latter's daith on 25 Nov. 1034, athoot apparent opposition. He mey hae been Malcolm's acknowledged successor or tánaise as the succession appears tae hae been uneventful. Duncan wad hae been gash tae pacify his remainin faimily, inspecially his senior cousin Thorfinn the Mighty, Earl o Orkney; his uncle, MacBeth; an the person closest tae his throne, Queen Gruoch, MacBeth's wife. Bi 1040, housamever, Duncan haed been murthert an the croun wis in the hauns o MacBeth.

Fifty-fower years later,maugre his bein the son o Malcolm Canmore, Duncan II wis deid at the haunds of his faimily an aw. Awbesit Duncan haed laed a son ahint him, the throne wis seized bi his younger hauf-brither, ane o the childer o Inglis Queen Margaret.

Ewyn (Ewan) fitz Duncan wis ane o the signatories on 'The Ragman Rolls', the deed o homage draughted bi Edward I o Ingland tae bind the King an nobles o Scotland.

John Duncan wis the awner o property in Berwick in 1367. The mayor o this Border port is recorded as John Duncanson, in aw likelihood the umwhile's son.

Accordin tae ane accoont, a Clan Donachie/Donnachadh haed emerged in the stairt o 14t century frae the Earls o Athole. The clan name is said tae come frae Donnachadh Reamhar -'Stout Duncan'. Legend haes it that this chief led the clan intae Battle at Bannockburn in 1314. Housamever, recent genealogical research suggests that this isnae lik as tae be. Baith the Duncans an the Robertsons descend frae the 4t Donachie/Donnachadh Chief.

The predominant Duncans o the Aest o Scotland war the Duncans o Lundie in Forfarshire. Thair extensive property included nae anly the barony o Lundie but an aa the estate o Gourdie. In 1764, George III's physician, Sir William Duncan wis creatit a Baronet. The 1st an last Baronet. Bi 1795, Adam Duncan o Lundie haed acome Commander o the Fleet in the North Sea an Admiral o the Blue. Wi a glorious career o victories he wis creatit 1st Viscount Duncan of Camperdown in 1797 an his son wis made the 2nt Earl of Camperdown in 1831. The title became extinct in 1933 wi the daith of George Alexander Philips Haldane Haldane-Duncan, 4t Earl o Camperdown (1845–1933) in Boston, Massachusetts. The Duncan name in Scotland is maist prominent in Aberdeenshire, Dundee & Angus, an Fife.

Duncan
Duncan

Clan Duncan


Grit is the third album by Norwegian band Madrugada.  The album saw the band once again taking a vastly different approach to their previous release featuring a much rawer and at times more experimental sound with Krautrock and garage rock influences taking precedence.  The album also featured one of the band's most well known songs in the softly atmospheric ballad "Majesty".

Track listing

References

Madrugada (band) albums
2002 albums
Virgin Records albums

Grit (Madrugada album)


GreenBrowser is a discontinued freeware web browser based on Internet Explorer's core.  GreenBrowser is based upon the Trident rendering engine used in Internet Explorer.

GreenBrowser is a full-featured browser, highly customizable but compact in size and low in memory requirements.  GreenBrowser is similar to Maxthon, and closely related to the MyIE browser.  Some addons and plugins designed for Maxthon will also work with GreenBrowser.  GreenBrowser features many automation features as standard, such as an ad filter, auto form fill, auto scroll, auto save, auto refresh.

GreenBrowser is a product from morequick, a software organization based in China. Simplified Chinese language is built into the browser. The browser also has certain idiosyncrasies such as many toolbars and icons are enabled by default. When GreenBrowser is running, the green G logo floats over all pages but can be turned off by right-clicking on it and unchecking the "Monitor" option.

GreenBrowser was one of the twelve browsers offered to European Economic Area users of Microsoft Windows in 2010 at BrowserChoice.eu.

References

External links

Portable software
Windows-only freeware
Web browsers
Discontinued web browsers

GreenBrowser


David Lane Johnson (born May 8, 1990) is an American football offensive tackle for the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League (NFL). He was drafted by the Eagles fourth overall in the 2013 NFL Draft. He played college football at Kilgore College before transferring to Oklahoma.

Early years
Johnson was born in Groveton, Texas, and attended Groveton High School, where he played football and competed in track. In football, he was an honorable mention All-state selection as a quarterback, and was named All-district.

In track & field, Johnson competed in the throwing events. He earned a fourth-place finish in the shot put event at the 2008 UIL 1A State Championships, with a top-throw of 15.21 meters (49 ft 7 in).

College career
Johnson attended Kilgore College, a junior college in east Texas, and played quarterback and tight end for the Kilgore Rangers football team for the 2008 season. In his sole year at Kilgore, Johnson amassed 584 passing yards for 7 touchdowns and 3 interceptions with a 52.4% completion rate while at quarterback.

After his freshman year, he transferred to the University of Oklahoma, where he played for the Oklahoma Sooners football team from 2009 to 2012.  Originally serving as a practice squad quarterback during his redshirt season, he transitioned to tight end in the fall of 2010 and switched again to defensive end for the spring of 2011. After two starting linemen went down with injuries at the beginning of the 2011 fall season, offensive line coach Bruce Kittle asked multiple players, including Johnson, to try out as back-up linemen to fill in the missing roster depth. Kittle was amazed by Johnson's footwork and natural pass blocking abilities and immediately switched him to offensive tackle. Two games later, Johnson would be named the Sooners' starting right tackle, and he would start the remaining 12 games of the season. As a senior in 2012, he switched to left tackle and started 11 of 13 games. and was named a third-team All-American by CBSSports.com. He was inducted into the Senior Bowl Hall of Fame on June 25, 2023.

Professional career
On December 21, 2012, it was announced that Johnson and teammate Landry Jones had accepted their invitations to the 2013 Senior Bowl. Throughout Senior Bowl practices, Johnson demonstrated impressive footwork, body control, and balance while diagnosing pass rushes and disrupting them. He was named a top standout during practice by NFL analyst Bucky Brooks and immensely helped his draft stock to put himself in the first round discussion. On January 26, 2013, he played offensive tackle in the Reese's Senior Bowl and was part of Detroit Lions' head coach Jim Schwartz's South team that defeated the North 21-16. Johnson was one of 57 collegiate offensive linemen that attended the NFL Scouting Combine in Indianapolis, Indiana. He completed all of the combine drills and finished first in the vertical jump and second amongst all offensive linemen in the 40-yard dash and broad jump. On March 13, 2013, Johnson attended Oklahoma's pro day, along with Landry Jones, Tony Jefferson, Demontre Hurst, Kenny Stills, Stacy McGee, and 19 other prospects. During the draft process, Johnson attended multiple private workouts and visits, including the Carolina Panthers, New York Jets, and Philadelphia Eagles. At the conclusion of the pre-draft process, Johnson was projected to be a guaranteed first round pick by NFL draft experts and scouts and was projected be a top ten selection. He was ranked the third best offensive tackle prospect in the draft by NFLDraftScout.com, NFL analyst Mike Mayock, and NFL analyst Josh Norris.

2013
The Philadelphia Eagles selected Johnson in the first round (fourth overall) of the 2013 NFL Draft. He was the third offensive tackle selected in 2013, behind Central Michigan's Eric Fisher and Texas A&M's Luke Joeckel. On July 20, 2013, the Eagles signed Johnson to a four-year, $19.85 million contract with a signing bonus of $12.81 million.

He entered training camp behind veteran Dennis Kelly on the Eagles depth chart. He competed against Kelly for the starting right tackle role throughout training camp. He became the apparent starting right tackle during training camp when it was reported that Kelly would miss the majority of the season after undergoing back surgery.

He made his first career start and professional regular season debut in the Philadelphia Eagles' season-opening 33-27 victory at the Washington Redskins. He started all 16 regular season games as a rookie and helped the Philadelphia Eagles finish first in the NFC East with a 10-6 record. On January 4, 2014, Johnson started his first career playoff game as the Philadelphia Eagles lost to the New Orleans Saints 26-24 in the NFC Wildcard game. He was ranked as the 26th best right tackle by Pro Football Focus in 2013.

2014
On June 30, 2014, it was reported that Johnson had tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs and would be suspended for the first four games of the 2014 season. Although Johnson missed the first four games of the season, he allowed only one sack in the remainder of the year and started 14 consecutive games while being graded as the second best right tackle and was ranked the 13th overall offensive linemen by Pro Football Focus. Pro Football Focus named Johnson to the 2014 PFF All-Pro Team. The Philadelphia Eagles finished second in the NFC East with a 10-6 record and did not qualify for the playoffs.

2015
Johnson played through numerous injuries, but started all 16 games, including two games at left tackle after Jason Peters was inactive after suffering a back injury. Pro Football Focus ranked Johnson tenth best right tackle in 2015 with an overall grade of +14.5. Offensive coordinator Pat Shurmur was named interim head coach for Week 17 after head coach Chip Kelly was fired after Week 16 with the Eagles finishing 7-9.

2016
On January 29, 2016, Johnson signed a six-year, $63 million extension with $35.5 million guaranteed. This contract made Johnson the highest paid right tackle in the NFL. Johnson entered training camp slated as the Eagles' starting right tackle, opposite Jason Peters.

On August 9, 2016, it was reported that Johnson would face a ten-game suspension due to PED violations. Johnson stated that he was unaware the substance he failed for was banned and that the NFLPA's player app didn't have the banned substance listed. On October 11, 2016, his ten-game suspension was upheld. The suspension voided the last year of his contract and also voided all remaining base salary guarantees that totaled $7.74 million. Allen Barbre replaced Johnson during his absence.

Johnson returned to the team for their Week 16 game against the New York Giants on December 22, 2016. Johnson has an ongoing lawsuit against the NFL and the NFL Players Association stemming from his 10-game suspension for his second failed drug test.

The Philadelphia Eagles' offensive line was ranked eighth in the league by Pro Football Focus. They also gave Johnson a run blocking grade of 86.7 and he was ranked sixth among all right tackles. Due to the suspension, Johnson only started six games in 2016 (Week 1-5, 16-17). The Philadelphia Eagles finished fourth in the NFC East with a 7-9 record in their first season under head coach Doug Pederson.

2017

Johnson remained the Eagles' starting right tackle in 2017. He suffered a concussion during a Week 5 victory over the Arizona Cardinals. Johnson remained in the concussion protocol and missed the Eagles' next game that took place five days later on Thursday Night Football. He started 15 games to help the Eagles achieve a 13-3 record and go from worst to first, finishing atop the NFC East division after finishing last in 2016.

On December 19, 2017, Johnson was named to his first Pro Bowl along with right guard Brandon Brooks. Near the end of the season, Johnson received an overall grade of 85.2 and ranked fifth amongst all offensive tackles by Pro Football Focus. He was ranked the top right tackle and received a $250,000 bonus for making the Pro Bowl. Johnson did not attend the Pro Bowl as the Eagles would play in Super Bowl LII. He was ranked 95th by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2018.

Johnson and Chris Long wore rubber masks of a German Shepherd (symbolic of the team's underdog status) after the 2017 Divisional playoff game versus the Atlanta Falcons, as the Falcons were considered favorites to win. Following the game, Philadelphia Eagles fans bought so many dog masks from Amazon that they were sold out. In Super Bowl LII, the Eagles defeated the New England Patriots 41–33 to give Johnson his first Super Bowl ring.

2019–2020
On November 29, 2019, Johnson signed a four-year, $72 million contract extension with the Eagles with $54.595 million guaranteed, making him the highest-paid offensive lineman in the NFL.

Johnson was placed on the reserve/COVID-19 list by the Eagles on July 29, 2020. He was activated on August 11, 2020. He was placed on injured reserve on December 2, 2020.

2021

In the middle of the season, Johnson sat out 3 games due to a battle with depression.

In the December 26th division match vs the New York Giants, Johnson was declared an eligible receiver for a play and caught a pass from Jalen Hurts for a 5 yard touchdown, his first ever touchdown catch.

The Associated Press named him a second-team All Pro for the 2021 season.

2022
On December 11, 2022, Johnson set an NFL record of not allowing a sack in 26 consecutive games. On December 26, it was announced that Johnson would miss the remainder of the regular season after suffering a torn tendon in his abdomen. Johnson and the Eagles reached Super Bowl LVII, which they lost to the Kansas City Chiefs, 38–35.

2023
On March 24, 2023, the Eagles signed Johnson to a 1 year contract extension through the 2026 season with $30 million guaranteed.

Personal life
Johnson married his wife Chelsea Goodman in January 2013 and they have three children together. She attended the NFL Draft with him and they met at Oklahoma where Chelsea was a high jumper. His father-in-law is John Goodman, who played defensive end for the Pittsburgh Steelers from –.

On May 22, 2019, Johnson donated $500,000 to Kilgore College for the development of "The Lane" Athletic Performance Center, a 3,800 square-foot training facility that opened March 3, 2021 on the Kilgore College campus. Johnson was on campus that day for a grand opening of the facility.

Johnson and Eagles teammates Jason Kelce and Jordan Mailata released the Christmas album A Philly Special Christmas in 2022.

References

External links

 Philadelphia Eagles bio
 Oklahoma Sooners bio

1990 births
Living people
People from Groveton, Texas
Players of American football from Texas
American football offensive tackles
Kilgore Rangers football players
Oklahoma Sooners football players
Philadelphia Eagles players
National Conference Pro Bowl players

Lane Johnson


Victor Emil Gardthausen (26 August 1843 – 27 December 1925) was a German ancient historian, palaeographer, librarian, and Professor from Leipzig University. He was author and co-author of some books; editor of ancient texts.

Life
Gardthausen was born on 26 August 1843 at Copenhagen.

Between 1865 and 1869 Gardthausen studied philology in Kiel and Bonn. In Kiel Alfred von Gutschmid was his professor. After the Franco-Prussian War he was sent to Italy and Greece for palaeographical research. In 1873 he started work at the Leipziger Stadtbibliothek and from 1875 at the Leipzig University Library. From 1877 he was an extraordinary professor for ancient history. In 1887/1888 he was active again as a university librarian, becoming the main librarian in 1901. In 1907 he left the library service.

Gardthausen died on 27 December 1925 in Leipzig.

He examined Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Boernerianus, Uspenski Gospels, manuscripts housed in the monastery at Sinai among many others. According to him, the Codex Sinaiticus was written in Alexandria and is younger than the Codex Vaticanus by at least fifty years. According to him, the Uspenski Gospels were seen by Johann Martin Augustin Scholz when he visited Mar Saba. Gardthausen dated Codex Boernerianus to the years 850-900 A.D. The evidence for this date range includes the style of the script, the smaller uncial letters in Greek, the Latin interlinear written in Anglo-Saxon minuscule and the separation of words.
He investigated the nomina sacra.
Gardthausen stated: "Ist die Handschrift gefunden, so orientiert man durch eine detaillierte Beschreibung, die im Verlaufe der Arbeit durch Beispiele vervollständigt wird" (Any intensive study of a manuscript begins with a detailed description, which in the course of its study is completed through illustration).
The main work of Gardthausen is "Griechische Paläographie" (Greek palaeography); the first edition appeared in 1879, the second in 1911/1913. It was the most important work since the time of Bernard de Montfaucon. It remains a standard work until the present day.

Works
Die geographischen Quellen Ammians Probevortrag; Montag den 20. Januar 1873, Leipzig, 1873.

 Mastara oder Servius Tullius: Mit einer Einleitung über die Ausdehnung des Etruskerreiches, Leipzig, 1882.
 Augustus und seine zeit, 2 vol., Leipzig, 1861–1904.

Sammlungen und Cataloge griechischer Handschriften, Leipzig, 1903.
Der Altar des Kaiserfriedens, Ara Pacis Augustae, Leipzig, 1908.
 M. Vogel − V. Gardthausen, Die griechischen Schreiber des Mittelalters und der Renaissance, Leipzig, 1909.
Amtliche Zitate in römischen Urkunden, Berlijn – e.a., 1910.
 Griechische Paleographie, 1 vol., 2 vol., Leipzig, 1911–1913.
Die Schrift, Unterschriften, und chronologie im Altertum und im byzantinischen Mittelalter, Leipzig, 1913.
Handbuch der wissenschaftlichen Bibliothekskunde, 2 vol., Leipzig, 1920.
Die Alexandrinische Bibliothek, ihr Vorbild, Katalog und Betrieb, Leipzig, 1922.
Das alte Monogramm, Leipzig, 1924.
Autobiographie, [Leipzig, 1926].

References

Further reading

 Alexandra Habermann, Rainer Klemmt, Frauke Siefkes: Lexikon deutscher wissenschaftlicher Bibliothekare 1925–1980. Klostermann, Frankfurt 1985, , S. 90.
Nachruf von August Heisenberg, in: Byzantinische Zeitschrift, Band 26 (1926), S. 251.

External links
 Literatur von und über Victor Gardthausen in Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek (DNB)
 Bücher und Aufsätze von Victor Gardthausen im Opac der Regesta Imperii
 Gardthausen, Victor Emil at the Universität Leipzig
 Victor Gardthausen at the Professorenkatalog der Universität Leipzig

1843 births
1925 deaths
Historians of antiquity
German palaeographers
German librarians
Academic staff of Leipzig University
19th-century German historians
German male non-fiction writers

Victor Gardthausen


A gluten-free diet is a diet that excludes foods that have gluten. Gluten is a protein found in wheat, barley, rye, and possibly oats. Most breads, cakes, pastas/noodles, beers and pizzas are made with gluten. Gluten is used as a food additive in the form of a flavoring, stabilizing or thickening agent. It is often called "dextrin". Some non-foods, such as medications and vitamin supplements, especially those in tablet form, may contain gluten as a binding agent.

A gluten-free diet is the only medically accepted treatment for wheat allergy and coeliac disease (in North America, it is usually spelled "celiac disease").

Some gluten-free diets also exclude oats. Doctors do not agree on whether oats affect coeliac disease sufferers.
Many alcoholic beverages are gluten free, but many types of whiskey and beer contain gluten, because using grains is a necessary part of their production.
Gluten-free diets have become popular worldwide. Some say that such a diet can cause problems with Vitamin B and magnesium intake by the body, because wheat improves the rate in which humans body can use them.
Gluten-containing ingredients sometimes are used as colorants, preservatives and thickeners in products such as ice cream and ketchup.
Even some cosmetics like lip balm and lipsticks can contain gluten, so persons wanting to follow such a diet need to learn about which products contain wheat and its byproducts.

References

Other websites
  2015. BBC News Magazine. The great gluten-free diet fad - BBC News
Diets

Gluten-free diet


Multicritical points are special points in the parameter space of thermodynamic or
other systems with a continuous phase transition. At least two thermodynamic or other
parameters must be adjusted to reach a multicritical point. At a multicritical point the system belongs to a universality class different from the "normal" universality class.

A more detailed definition requires concepts from the theory of critical phenomena,
a branch of physics that reached a very satisfying state in the 1970s.

Definition
The union of all the points of the parameter space for which the system is critical is
called a critical manifold.

As an example consider a substance ferromagnetic below a
transition temperature , and paramagnetic above . The parameter space here is
the temperature axis, and the critical manifold consists of the point . Now add
hydrostatic pressure  to the parameter space. Under hydrostatic pressure the substance
normally still becomes ferromagnetic below a temperature ().

This leads to a
critical curve in the () plane - a -dimensional critical manifold. Also taking into account
shear stress  as a thermodynamic parameter leads to a critical surface () in the
() parameter space - a -dimensional critical manifold.
Critical manifolds of dimension  and  may have physically reachable borders of dimension
 which in turn may have borders of dimension .  The system still is critical at
these borders. However, criticality terminates for good reason, and the points on the
borders normally belong to another universality class than the universality class realized
within the critical manifold. All the points on the border of a critical manifold are
multicritical points.
Instead of terminating somewhere critical manifolds also may branch or intersect.
The points on the intersections or branch lines also are multicritical points.

At least two parameters must be adjusted to reach a multicritical point.
A -dimensional critical manifold may have two -dimensional borders intersecting at a point. Two parameters must be adjusted to reach such a border, three parameters must be  adjusted to reach the intersection of the two borders. A system of this type represents up to four universality classes: one within the critical manifold, two on the borders and one on the intersection of the borders.

The gas-liquid critical point is not multicritical, because the phase transition at
the vapour pressure curve () is discontinuous and the critical manifold thus consists of a single point.

Examples

Tricritical Point and Multicritical Points of Higher Order
To reach a tricritical point the parameters must be tuned in such a way that the renormalized counterpart of the -term of the Hamiltonian vanishes. A well-known experimental realization is found in the mixture of Helium-3 and Helium-4.

Lifshitz Point
To reach a Lifshitz point the parameters must be tuned in such a way that the renormalized counterpart of the -term of the Hamiltonian vanishes. Consequently, at the Lifshitz point phases of uniform and modulated order meet the disordered phase. An experimental example is the magnet
MnP. A Lifshitz point is realized in a prototypical way in the ANNNI model. The Lifshitz point has been introduced by R.M. Hornreich, S. Shtrikman and M. Luban in 1975, honoring the research of
Evgeny Lifshitz.

Lifshitz Tricritical Point
This multicritical point is simultaneously tricritical and Lifshitz. Three parameters must be adjusted to reach
a Lifshitz tricritical point. Such a point has been discussed to occur in non-stoichiometric ferroelectrics.

Lee-Yang edge singularity

The critical manifold of an Ising model with zero external magnetic field consists of the point at the critical temperature  on the temperature axis . In a purely imaginary external magnetic field  this critical manifold ramifies into the two branches of the Lee-Yang type, belonging to a different universality class. The Ising critical point plays the role of a multicritical point in this situation (there are no imaginary magnetic fields, but there are equivalent physical situations).

References

Renormalization group

Multicritical point


In the history of Portugal, the Janeirinha (Portuguese – Little January) was the name of the movement which on 1 January 1868 to protest against the tax on consumables and went on to carry out administrative reform of the country. With great support in the cities of Lisbon, Porto and Braga (a large demonstration in Porto on 1 January 1868 as part of this movement led to the local paper being called O Primeiro de Janeiro), the movement immediately caused the fall of the government on 4 January. This discontent caused the formation of a new government presided by António José d'Ávila and, for some historians, marks the end of the Regeneration. For, besides the fall of the government, the Janeirinha also brought about a new arrangement of Portugal's political forces, leading to the formation of a new political party, the Reformist Party, opening the doors to a new and prolonged period of governmental instability, and putting an end to the stability imposed by the "regenerador" movement.

Context

Consequences

References

External links
  Political timeline of 1868
  State and Society in conflict: the Código of Mártens Ferrão of 1867. A closed political reform
  O Primeiro de Janeiro homepage

1868 in Portugal
Conflicts in 1868

Janeirinha


Aldo Romeo Luigi Moro (; 23 September 1916 – 9 May 1978) was an Italian statesman and prominent member of Christian Democracy (DC) and its centre-left wing. He served as prime minister of Italy in five terms from December 1963 to June 1968 and from November 1974 to July 1976.

Moro served as Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs from May 1969 to July 1972 and again from July 1973 to November 1974. During his ministry, he implemented a pro-Arab policy. Moreover, he was appointed Italy's Minister of Justice and of Public Education during the 1950s. From March 1959 until January 1964, he served as secretary of the DC. On 16 March 1978, the kidnapping of Moro by the far-left armed group Red Brigades took place; he was killed after 55 days of captivity.

Moro was one of Italy's longest-serving post-war prime ministers, leading the country for more than six years. Moro implemented a series of social and economic reforms that modernized the country. Due to his accommodation with the Italian Communist Party leader Enrico Berlinguer, known as the Historic Compromise, Moro is widely considered to be one of the most prominent fathers of the modern Italian centre-left. He governed Italy through the Organic centre-left.

Early life
Aldo Romeo Luigi Moro was born on 23 September 1916 in Maglie, near Lecce, into a family from Ugento in the Apulia region of the Kingdom of Italy. His father, Renato Moro, was a school inspector, while his mother, Fida Sticchi, was a teacher. At the age of 4, he moved with his family to Milan; they soon moved back to Apulia, where he gained a classical high school degree at Archita lyceum in Taranto. In 1934, his family moved to Bari. There, he studied law at the University of Bari and graduated in 1939. After graduation, he became a professor of philosophy of law and colonial policy (1941) and of criminal law (1942) at the University of Bari.

In 1935, Moro joined the Italian Catholic Federation of University Students (FUCI) of Bari. In 1939, under the approval of Giovanni Battista Montini, the future Pope Paul VI, whom he had befriended, Moro was chosen as president of the association. He kept the post until 1942, when he was forced to fight in the World War II and was succeeded by Giulio Andreotti, who at the time was a law student from Rome. During his university years, Italy was ruled by the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, and Moro took part in students competitions known as Lictors of Culture and Art organized by the local fascist students' organization, the University Fascist Groups. In 1943, along with other Catholic students, he founded the periodical La Rassegna, which was published until 1945.

In July 1943, Moro contributed, along with Andreotti, Mario Ferrari Aggradi, Paolo Emilio Taviani, Guido Gonella, Giuseppe Capogrossi, Ferruccio Pergolesi, Vittore Branca, Giorgio La Pira, and Giuseppe Medici, to the creation of the Code of Camaldoli, a document planning of economic policy drawn up by members of the Italian Catholic forces. It served as inspiration and guideline for economic policy of the future Christian democrats. In 1945, he married Eleonora Chiavarelli (1915–2010), with whom he had four children: Maria Fida (born 1946), Anna (born 1949), Agnese (born 1952), and Giovanni (born 1958). In 1963, Moro was transferred to La Sapienza University of Rome as a professor of the institutions of law and criminal procedure.

Early political career
Moro developed his interest in politics between 1943 and 1945. Initially, he seemed to be very interested in the social-democratic component of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) but then started cooperating with other Christian-democratic politicians in opposition to the Italian fascist regime. During these years, he met Alcide De Gasperi, Mario Scelba, Giovanni Gronchi, and Amintore Fanfani. On 19 March 1943, the group reunited in the house of Giuseppe Spataro officially formed the Christian Democracy (DC) party. In the DC, he joined the left-wing faction led by Giuseppe Dossetti, of whom he became a close ally. In 1945, he became director of the magazine Studium and president of the Graduated Movement of Catholic Action (Azione Cattolica, AC), a widespread Roman Catholic lay association.

After being appointed vice-president of the DC, Moro was elected in the 1946 Italian general election a member of the Constituent Assembly of Italy, where he took part in the work to redact the Italian Constitution. It was during this period that his relations with the Italian Socialist Democratic Party (PSDI) and Italian social-democrats began. In 1946, Moro ran for the Bari–Foggia constituency, where he received nearly 28,000 votes. In the 1948 Italian general election, he was elected with 63,000 votes to the newly formed Chamber of Deputies, and was appointed Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs in the fifth De Gasperi government from 23 May 1948 to 27 January 1950. After Dossetti's retirement in 1952, Moro founded, along with Antonio Segni, Emilio Colombo, and Mariano Rumor, the Democratic Initiative faction, which was led by his old friend Fanfani.

In government

In the 1953 Italian general election, Moro was re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies, where he held the position of chairman of the DC parliamentary group. In 1955, was appointed as Italian Minister of Grace and Justice in the first Segni government led by Segni as Prime Minister of Italy. In 1956, he was among the most popular candidates, receiving the most votes during the party's congress. In May 1957, the PSDI withdrew its support to the government and Segni resigned on 6 May 1957.

On 20 May 1957, Adone Zoli was sworn in as the new head of government and Moro was appointed Italian Minister of Education. After the 1958 Italian general election, Zoli resigned. On 1 July 1958, Fanfani was sworn in as the new prime minister at the head of a coalition government with the PSDI and case-by-case support by the Italian Republican Party (PRI). Moro was confirmed as the head of Italian education and remained in office until February 1959. During his tenure, he introduced the study of civic education in schools.

In March 1959, after Fanfani's resignation as prime minister, a new congress was called. The leaders of the Democratic Initiative faction reunited themselves in the Convent of Dorothea of Caesarea, where they abandoned the leftist policies promoted by Fanfani and founded the Dorotei (Dorotheans) faction. In the party's national council, Moro was elected secretary of the DC and was then confirmed in the October's congress held in Florence. After the brief right-wing government led by Fernando Tambroni in 1960, supported by the decisive votes of the neo-fascist Italian Social Movement (MSI), the renovated alliance between Moro as secretary and Fanfani as prime minister led the subsequent National Congress, held in Naples in 1962, to approve with a large majority a line of collaboration with the Italian Socialist Party (PSI).

The 1963 Italian general election was characterized by a lack of consensus for the DC; in fact, the election was held after the launch of the centre-left formula by the DC, a coalition based upon the alliance with the PSI, which had left their alignment with the Soviet Union. Some rightist electors abandoned the DC for the Italian Liberal Party (PLI), which was asking for a centre-right government and received votes also from the quarrelsome monarchist area. Moro refused the office of Prime Minister, preferring to provisionally maintain his more influential post at the head of the party. Initially, the DC decided to replace Fanfani with a provisional administration led by an impartial president of the Chamber of Deputies, Giovanni Leone. When the congress of the PSI in autumn authorized a full engagement of the party into the government, Leone resigned and Moro became the new prime minister.

First term as prime minister

Moro's first government was unevenly supported by the DC but also by the PCI, along with the PSDI and the Italian Republican Party (PRI). The coalition, which replaced the previous Centrism system, was known as the Organic centre-left and was characterized by consociationalist and social corporatist tendencies.

Social reforms
During Moro's premiership, a wide range of social reforms was carried out. The 1967 Bridge Law (Legge Ponte) introduced urgent housing provisions as part of an envisioned reform of the entire sector, such as the introduction of minimum standards for housing and the environment. A reform, which was promulgated on 14 December 1963, introduced an annual allowance for university students with income below a given level. Another law, which was promulgated on 10 March 1968, introduced voluntary public pre-elementary education for children aged three to five years. A bill approved on 21 July 1965 extended the program of social security.

Despite mistrust and opposition, particularly when the Italian economic miracle came to an end and the government had to control the rise of inflation, the reforms continued. The legal minimum wage was raised, all then current pensions were revalued, seniority pensions were introduced (after 35 years of contributions workers could retire even before attaining pensionable age), and within the National Institute for Social Security (INPS), a social fund (fondo sociale) was established, ensuring to all members pensioners a basic uniform pension largely financed by the state, known as the social pension. A law, which was approved on 22 July 1966, extended social security insurance to small traders, while the law of 22 July 1966 extended health insurance to retired traders. Another important reform was implemented with a bill that was approved on 29 May 1967. It extended compulsory health insurance to retired farmers, tenant farmers, and sharecroppers, and extended health insurance to the unemployed in receipt of unemployment benefits. Moreover, a law of 5 November 1968 extended family allowances to the unemployed who received unemployment benefits.

Vajont Dam disaster

During his premiership, Moro had to face the outcome of one of the most tragic events in Italian republican history, the Vajont Dam disaster. On 9 October 1963, a few weeks before his oath as Prime Minister, a landslide occurred on Monte Toc, in the province of Pordenone. The landslide caused a megatsunami in the artificial lake in which 50 million cubic metres of water overtopped the dam in a wave of , leading to the complete destruction of several villages and towns, and 1,917 deaths. In the previous months, the Adriatic Society of Electricity (SADE) and the Italian government, which both owned the dam, dismissed evidence and concealed reports describing the geological instability of Monte Toc on the southern side of the basin and other early warning signs reported prior to the disaster.

Immediately after the disaster, government and local authorities insisted on attributing the tragedy to an unexpected and unavoidable natural event. Numerous warnings, signs of danger, and negative appraisals had been disregarded in the previous months and the eventual attempt to safely control the landslide into the lake by lowering its level came when the landslide was almost imminent and was too late to prevent it. The PCI newspaper L'Unità was the first to denounce the actions of management and government. The DC accused the PCI of political profiteering from the tragedy, promising to bring justice to the people killed in the disaster.

Differently from Leone, who was his predecessor and became the head of SADE's team of lawyers, Moro acted strongly to condemn the managers of the society. He immediately dismissed the administrative officials who had supervised the construction of the dam.

Coalition crisis and presidential election

On 25 June 1964, the government was beaten on the budget law for the Italian Ministry of Education concerning the financing of private education. On the same day, Moro resigned. During the presidential consultations for the formation of a new cabinet, Segni, the then moderate DC member and president of Italy, asked the PSI leader Pietro Nenni to exit from the government majority.

On 16 July 1964, Segni sent the Carabinieri general Giovanni de Lorenzo to a meeting of representatives of DC, in order to deliver a message in case the negotiations around the formation of a new centre-left government would fail. According to some historians, De Lorenzo reported that Segni was ready to give a subsequent mandate to the president of the Senate of the Republic, Cesare Merzagora, and would ask him to form a president's government composed by all the conservative forces in the Italian Parliament. This attempted coup, which came to be known as the Piano Solo, only became public in 1967 through the investigative reporting of L'Espresso. Ultimately, Moro managed to form another centre-left majority. During the negotiations, Nenni had accepted the downsizing of his reform programs. On 17 July 1964, Moro went to the Quirinal Palace, with the acceptance of the assignment and the list of ministers of his second government.

In August 1964, Segni had a serious cerebral hemorrhage and resigned after a few months. In the 1964 Italian presidential election, which was held in December, Moro and his majority tried to elect a leftist politician at the Quirinal Palace. On the twenty-first round of voting, the leader of the PSDI and former president of the Constituent Assembly, Giuseppe Saragat, was elected with 646 votes out of 963. Saragat was the first left-wing politician to become president of Italy.

Resignation
Despite the opposition by Segni and other prominent rightist members of the DC, the centre-left coalition, the first one for the Italian post-war political life, stayed in power for nearly five years until the 1968 Italian general election, which was characterized by a defeat for DC's centre-left allies. The PSI and PSDI ran in a joint list named Unified Socialist Party (PSU), which lost many votes compared to the previous election, while the PCI gained ground, achieving 30% of votes in the Senate. The PSI and PSDI decided to exit from the government and Saragat appointed Leone at the head of the new cabinet composed only by DC members.

Minister of Foreign Affairs

In the 1968 DC congress, Moro yielded the secretariat and passed to internal opposition. On 5 August 1969, he was appointed Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs by the then prime minister Mariano Rumor, a position that he also held under the premierships of Emilio Colombo and Giulio Andreotti.

Pro-Arab policies
During his ministry, Moro continued the pro-Arab policy of his predecessor Fanfani. He forced Yasser Arafat to promise not to carry out terrorist attacks in Italian territory, with a commitment that was known as the Moro pact (lodo Moro). The existence of this pact and its validity was confirmed by Bassam Abu Sharif, a long-time leader of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP). Interviewed by Italian newspapers, such as Corriere della Sera and La Stampa, he confirmed the existence of an agreement between Italy and the PFLP, thanks to which the PFLP could "transport weapons and explosives, guaranteeing immunity from attacks in return".

About the pact, Abu Sharif commented: "I personally followed the negotiations for the agreement. Aldo Moro was a great man, a true patriot, who wanted to save Italy some headaches, but I never met him. We discussed the details with an admiral and agents of the Italian secret service. The agreement was defined and since then we have always respected it; we were allowed to organize small transits, passages, and purely Palestinian operations, without involving Italians. After the deal, every time I came to Rome, two cars were waiting for me to protect myself. For our part, we also guaranteed to avoid embarrassment to your country, that is attacks which started directly from the Italian soil." This version was confirmed by former president Francesco Cossiga, who stated that Moro was the real and only creator of the pact. Moro also had to cope with the difficult situation which erupted following the coup of Muammar Gaddafi in Libya, a very important country for Italian interests not only for colonial ties but also for its energy resources and the presence of about 20,000 Italians.

1971 presidential election
In the 1971 Italian presidential election, Fanfani was proposed as the DC candidate for the office. His candidacy was weakened by the divisions within his own party and the candidacy of the PSI member Francesco De Martino, who received votes from PCI, PSI, and some PSDI members. Fanfani retired after several unsuccessful ballots and Moro was then proposed as a candidate by the left-wing faction. The right-wing strongly opposed him and the moderate conservative Leone was slightly preferred to him. At the twenty-third round, Leone was finally elected with a centre-right majority, with 518 votes out of 996, including those of the MSI.

Italicus Express bombing
On 4 August 1974, a bomb exploded on the Italicus Express, killing 12 people and injuring 48. The train was travelling from Rome to Munich; having left Florence about 45 minutes earlier, it was approaching the end of the long San Benedetto Val di Sambro tunnel under the Apennines. The bomb had been placed in the fifth passenger carriage and exploded at 01:23, while the train was reaching the end of the tunnel. The effects of the explosion and subsequent fire would have been even more terrible if the train had remained inside the tunnel. According to what his daughter Maria Fida stated in 2004, Moro should have been on board. A few minutes before departure, he was joined by some officials of the ministry who made him get off to sign some important documents. According to some reconstructions, Moro would have been the real target of the Italicus Express bombing.

Second term as prime minister
In October 1974, Rumor resigned as prime minister after failing to come to an agreement on how to deal with rising economic inflation. In November, Leone gave Moro the task of forming a new cabinet; he was sworn in on 23 November 1974, at the head a cabinet composed by DC and PRI, and externally supported by PSI and PSDI.

During Moro's second term as prime minister, the government implemented a series of another important social reforms. A law, which was approved on 9 June 1975, increased the number of occupational diseases and extended the duration of linked insurance and benefit; while a bill, approved on 3 June 1975, introduced various improvements for pensioners. Moreover, the multiplying coefficient was raised to 2% and it was applied to average earnings of the best three years in the last ten years of work and automatic annual adjustment of minimum pensions. A law of 27 December 1975 implemented ad hoc upgradings of cash benefits for certain diseases.

Osimo Treaty

During his premiership, Moro signed the Osimo Treaty with the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, defining the official partition of the Free Territory of Trieste. The port city of Trieste with a narrow coastal strip to the northwest (Zone A) was given to Italy, while a portion of the north-western part of the Istrian peninsula (Zone B) was given to Yugoslavia. The Italian government was harshly criticized for signing the treaty, particularly for the secretive way in which negotiations were carried out, skipping the traditional diplomatic channels. Since Istria had been an ancient Italian region, dating back to Roman Italy, together with the Venetian region of the Roman Empire, as Venetia et Histria, Italian nationalists of the MSI rejected the idea of giving it up.

Between World War I and the end of World War II, Istria had belonged to Italy for twenty-five years, and the west coast of Istria had long had a sizeable Italian minority population. Some nationalist politicians called for the prosecution of Moro and Rumor, his long-time friend who was the then foreign affairs minister, for the crime of treason, as stated in Article 241 of the Italian Criminal Code, which mandated a life sentence for anybody found guilty of aiding and abetting a foreign power to exert its sovereignty on the national territory.

Resignation
Despite the tensions within the government's majority, the close relations between Moro and the PCI leader Enrico Berlinguer guaranteed a certain stability to Moro's governments, allowing them a capacity to act that went beyond the premises that had seen them born. The fourth Moro government, with Ugo La Malfa as Deputy Prime Minister of Italy, started the first dialogue with the PCI, with the aim of beginning a new phase to strengthen the Italian democratic system. In 1976, the PSI secretary Francesco De Martino withdrew the external support to the government and Moro was forced to resign.

Historic Compromise

After the 1976 Italian general election, the PCI gained a historic 34% votes and Moro became a vocal supporter of the necessity of starting a dialogue between DC and PCI. Moro's main aim was to widen the democratic base of the government, including the PCI in the parliamentary majority, in which the cabinets should have been able to represent a larger number of voters and parties. According to him, the DC should have been as the centre of a coalition system based on the principles of consociative democracy. This process was known as Historic Compromise.

Between 1976 and 1977, Berlinguer's PCI broke with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, implementing, together with the Spanish and French Communist parties, a new political theory and strategy known as Eurocommunism. Such a move made eventual cooperation more acceptable for DC voters, and the two parties began an intense parliamentary debate in a moment of deep social crises. In 1977, Moro was personally involved in international disputes. He strongly defended Rumor during the parliamentary debate on the Lockheed scandal, and some journalists reported that Moro himself might have been involved in the bribery. The allegation, with the aim of politically destroying Moro and avoiding the risk of a DC–PCI–PSI cabinet, failed when Moro was cleared on 3 March 1978, thirteen days before his kidnapping.

The early-1978 proposal by Moro of starting a cabinet composed of DC and PSI members, externally supported by the PCI was strongly opposed by both superpowers of the Cold War era. The United States feared that the cooperation between PCI and DC might have allowed the PCI to gain information on strategic NATO military plans and installations. Moreover, the participation in the government of communists in a Western country would have represented a cultural failure for the United States. On the other hand, the Soviets considered the potential participation by the PCI in a cabinet as a form of emancipation from Moscow and rapprochement to the Americans.

Kidnapping and death

On 16 March 1978, on via Fani, in Rome, a unit of the militant far-left organization known as Red Brigades (BR) blocked the two-car convoy that was carrying Moro and kidnapped him, murdering his five bodyguards. On the day of his kidnapping, Moro was on his way to a session of the Chamber of Deputies, where a discussion was to take place regarding a vote of confidence for a new government led by Andreotti, that would for the first time have the support of the PCI. It was to be the first implementation of Moro's strategic political vision. Additionally, he was considered to be the frontrunner for the 1978 Italian presidential election.

In the following days, trade unions called for a general strike, while security forces made hundreds of raids in Rome, Milan, Turin, and other cities searching for Moro's location, as places linked to Moro and the kidnapping became centres of minor pilgrimage. An estimate 16 million Italians took part in the mass public demonstrations. After a few days, even Pope Paul VI, a close friend of Moro's, intervened, offering himself in exchange for Moro. Despite the 13,000 police officers mobilized, 40,000 house searches, and 72,000 road blocks, the police did not carry out any arrests.

The event has been compared to the assassination of John F. Kennedy, and referred to as Italy's 9/11. Although Italy was not the sole European country to experience terrorism, the list including France, Germany, Ireland, and Spain, the murder of Moro was the apogee of Italy's Years of Lead. Many details of Moro's kidnapping remain heavily disputed and unknown. This has led to the promotion of a number of alternative theories about the events, including conspiracy theories, which remain popular in Italy, where the judicial truth, which attributes responsibility for the operation exclusively to the Red Brigades, has failed to take root in the collective memory of Italians. In August 2020, about sixty individuals from the world of historical research and political inquiry signed a document denouncing the growing weight that the conspiratorial view on the kidnapping and killing of Moro has in public discourse.

Negotiations and captivity letters
The Red Brigades proposed exchanging Moro's life for the freedom of several prisoners. There has been speculation that during his detention many government officials, including the then interior minister Francesco Cossiga, knew where he was being held. Italian politicians were divided into two factions: one favourable to negotiation (linea del negoziato) and the other totally opposing the idea of a negotiated settlement (linea della fermezza). The government immediately took a hardline position, namely that the state must not bend to terrorist demands. This position was openly criticized by prominent DC party members, such as Amintore Fanfani and Giovanni Leone, who at the time was serving as president of Italy. All major political forces followed this hardline stance. This included the PCI, which supported democracy and was part of the Italian Parliament; the PCI was accused by the Red Brigades of being a pawn of the bourgeoisie. Exceptions were the Italian Socialist Party led by Bettino Craxi and the extra-parliamentary left.

On 2 April 1978, Romano Prodi, Mario Baldassarri, and Alberto Clò, three professors of the University of Bologna, passed on a tip about a safe-house where the Red Brigades might be holding Moro. Prodi stated he had been given the tip by the DC founders from beyond the grave in a séance through the use of a Ouija board, which gave the names of Viterbo, Bolsena, and Gradoli. During the investigation of Moro's kidnapping, some members of law enforcement in Italy and of the secret services advocated for the use of torture against terrorists; prominent military members and generals, such as Carlo Alberto dalla Chiesa, were against this. Dalla Chiesa once stated: "Italy is a democratic country that could allow itself the luxury of losing Moro, [but] not of the introduction of torture."

During his kidnapping, Moro wrote several letters to the DC leaders and to Pope Paul VI. Some of those letters, including one that was very critical of Andreotti, were kept secret for more than a decade and published only in the early 1990s. In his letters, Moro said that the state's primary focus should be saving lives and that the government should comply with his kidnappers' demands. Most of the DC's leaders argued that the letters did not express Moro's genuine wishes, arguing they were written under duress, and thus refused all negotiations. This position was held in stark contrast to the requests of Moro's family. In his appeal to the terrorists, Pope Paul VI asked them to release Moro "without conditions". The specified "without conditions" is controversial; according to some sources, it was added to Paul VI's letter against his will, and that the Pope wanted to negotiate with the kidnappers to secure the safety of Moro. According to Antonio Mennini, Pope Paul VI had saved ₤10 billion to pay a ransom in order to save Moro.

Murder
When it became clear that the government would continue to refuse to negotiate, the Red Brigades held a summary trial, known as "the people's trial", in which Moro was found guilty and sentenced to death. They then sent a last demand to the Italian authorities, stating that if 16 Red Brigades prisoners were not released, Moro would be killed. The Italian authorities responded with a large-scale manhunt, which was unsuccessful. On 7 May 1978, Moro sent a farewell letter to his wife. He wrote: "They have told me that they are going to kill me in a little while, I kiss you for the last time."

On 9 May 1978, after 55 days of captivity, the terrorists placed Moro in a car and told him to cover himself with a blanket, saying that they were going to transport him to another location. After Moro was covered, they shot him ten times. According to the official reconstruction after a series of trials, the killer was Mario Moretti. Moro's body was left in the trunk of a red Renault 4 on Via Michelangelo Caetani towards the Tiber River near the Roman Ghetto. After the recovery of Moro's body, Cossiga resigned as interior minister. Pope Paul VI personally officiated at Moro's funeral mass.

New theories, revelations, and controversies
On 23 January 1983, an Italian court sentenced 32 members of the BR to life imprisonment for their role in the kidnapping and murder of Moro, among other crimes. Many elements and facts have never been fully cleared up, despite a series of trials, and this led to a number of other alternative theories about the events to become popularized. In 1993, historian  expressed doubts about what was said by the Mafia pentiti in relation to the Moro affair because, comparing the two memorials (the amputee of 1978 and the complete of 1990), he said that Moro's allegations addressed to Andreotti were the same, so Andreotti had no interest to order the murder of Carmine Pecorelli, who could not threaten him to publish things already known and publicly available. Andreotti underwent a trial for his role in the assassination of Pecorelli. He was acquitted in the first instance trial (1999), convicted in the second (2002), and acquitted by Italy's Supreme Court of Cassation (2003). In a 2012 interview with Ulisse Spinnato Vega of Agenzia Clorofilla, the BR co-founders Alberto Franceschini and Renato Curcio remembered Pecorelli. Franceschini stated: "Pecorelli, before dying, said that both the United States and the Soviet Union wanted Moro's death." Additionally, that Moro was suffering from Stockholm syndrome was questioned by the two reports of the Italian Parliament's inquiry about the Moro affair. According to this view, Moro was at the height of his faculties, he was very recognizable, and at some point it was him who was leading the negotiation for his own liberation and salvation. This position was supported by Leonardo Sciascia, who discussed it in the minority report he signed as a member of the first parliamentary commission and in his book L'affaire Moro.

In 2005, Sergio Flamigni, a leftist politician and writer who had served on a parliamentary inquiry on the Moro case, suggested the involvement of the Operation Gladio network directed by NATO. He asserted that Gladio had manipulated Moretti as a way to take over the Red Brigades to effect a strategy of tension aimed at creating popular demand for a new, right-wing law-and-order regime. In 2006, Steve Pieczenik was interviewed by Emmanuel Amara in his documentary film Les derniers jours d'Aldo Moro ("The Last Days of Aldo Moro"). In the interview, Pieczenik, an expert on international terrorism and negotiating strategies who had been brought to Italy as a consultant to Cossiga's Crisis Committee, stated: "We had to sacrifice Aldo Moro to maintain the stability of Italy." Pieczenik maintained that the United States had to "instrumentalize the Red Brigades". According to him, the decision to have Moro killed was taken during the fourth week of his detention, when Moro was thought to be revealing state secrets in his letters, namely the existence of Gladio. In another interview, Cossiga revealed that the Crisis Committee had also leaked, in a form of black propaganda, a false statement attributed to the Red Brigades that Moro was already dead. This was intended to communicate to the kidnappers that further negotiations would be useless since the government had written Moro off.

Legacy

As a Christian democrat with social-democratic tendencies, Moro is widely considered one of the ideological fathers of modern Italian centre-left, having led the first centre-left government in the history of the Italian Republic, the Organic centre-left. He was the leading figure of the left wing of the DC, which he steered towards the left as the party's secretary-general from 1959 to 1964. While he was prime minister, a land reform was implemented in 1964; it has been described as the first steps towards abolishing sharecropping. Landless tenants were given cheap credit in order to allow them to own the land. Economically, Moro's policies are seen as a response to socialist influence. Although central planning instruments were never used, a five-year economic programme was established in 1965.

During all his political life, Moro implemented numerous reforms that deeply changed Italian social life; along with his long-time friend and at the same time opponent, Amintore Fanfani, he was the protagonist of a long-standing political phase, which brought the DC towards more left-wing politics through a cooperation with the Italian Socialist Party first and the Italian Communist Party later. Due to his reformist stances but also for his tragic death, Moro has often been compared to John F. Kennedy and Olof Palme.

According to media reports on 26 September 2012, the Holy See received a file on beatification for Moro; this is the first step to becoming a saint in the Roman Catholic Church. In April 2015, it was reported that the process of beatification might be suspended or closed following the recent controversies. The postulator stated that the process would continue when the discrepancies were cleared up. The halting of proceedings was due to Mennini, the priest who heard his last confession, being allowed to provide a statement to a tribunal in regards to Moro's kidnapping and confession. Following this, the beatification process was resumed. In January 2022, a note claiming responsibility for the abduction of Moro was auctioned despite widespread condemnation.

Electoral history

Cinematic adaptations
A number of films have portrayed the events of Moro's kidnapping and murder with varying degrees of fictionalization. They include the following:
 Todo modo (1976), directed by Elio Petri, based on a novel by Leonardo Sciascia, and made before Moro's kidnapping.
 Il caso Moro (1986), directed by Giuseppe Ferrara and starring Gian Maria Volonté as Moro.
 Year of the Gun (1991), directed by John Frankenheimer.
 Broken Dreams (Sogni infranti, 1995), a documentary directed by Marco Bellocchio.
 Five Moons Plaza (Piazza Delle Cinque Lune, 2003), directed by Renzo Martinelli and starring Donald Sutherland.
 Good Morning, Night (Buongiorno, notte, 2003), directed by Marco Bellocchio, portrays the kidnapping largely from the perspective of one of the kidnappers.
 Romanzo Criminale (2005), directed by Michele Placido, portrays the authorities finding Moro's body.
 Les derniers jours d'Aldo Moro (The Last Days of Aldo Moro, 2006).
 Il Divo (2008): La Straordinaria vita di Giulio Andreotti, directed by Paolo Sorrentino, highlighting the responsibility of Andreotti.
 Piazza Fontana: The Italian Conspiracy (Romanzo di una strage, 2012), directed by Marco Tullio Giordana, with Moro portrayed by actor Fabrizio Gifuni.
 Exterior Night (2022), also directed by Marco Bellocio, with Fabrizio Gifuni repeating cast as Moro. Released as a film and a six-part miniseries, it was awarded at the 35th European Film Awards and at the São Paulo International Film Festival.

See also
 List of prime ministers of Italy by time in office
 List of secretaries of the Christian Democracy
 Propaganda Due – Italian criminal secret organization that opposed Moro's Historical Compromise
 La Cagoule – far-right criminal organization that committed acts of terrorism to inculpate the political left

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

 Ma la verità vera ancora non c'è – interview with Giovanni Moro (Aldo Moro's son) at La Repubblica (in Italian), 16 March 1998.

1916 births
1970s assassinated politicians in Europe
1978 deaths
1978 murders in Italy
Assassinated former national legislators in Europe
Assassinated Italian politicians
Christian Democracy (Italy) politicians
Deaths by firearm in Italy
Deaths related to the Years of Lead (Italy)
Deputies of Legislature I of Italy
Deputies of Legislature II of Italy
Deputies of Legislature III of Italy
Deputies of Legislature IV of Italy
Deputies of Legislature V of Italy
Deputies of Legislature VI of Italy
Deputies of Legislature VII of Italy
Education ministers of Italy
Foreign ministers of Italy
Italian Roman Catholics
Italian military personnel of World War II
Italian terrorism victims
Kidnapped Italian people
Kidnapped politicians
Male murder victims
Members of the Constituent Assembly of Italy
Missing person cases in Italy
People from Maglie
People murdered in Lazio
Politicians of Apulia
Pope Paul VI
Prime Ministers of Italy

Aldo Moro


In Greek mythology, Hermus or Hermos (Ancient Greek: Ἕρμος) is a name attributed to multiple characters:

 Hermus, god of the river Hermus (modern Gediz river) located in the Aegean region of Lydia (modern Turkey). Like most of the river-gods, he was the son of Oceanus and Tethys. Hermus was the father of the Lydian nymphs.
 Hermus, an Egyptian prince as one of the sons of King Aegyptus. His mother was the naiad Caliadne and thus full brother of Eurylochus, Phantes, Peristhenes, Dryas, Potamon, Cisseus, Lixus, Imbrus, Bromius, Polyctor and Chthonius. In some accounts, he could be a son of Aegyptus either by Eurryroe, daughter of the river-god Nilus, or Isaie, daughter of King Agenor of Tyre. Hermus suffered the same fate as his other brothers, save Lynceus, when they were slain on their wedding night by their wives who obeyed the command of their father King Danaus of Libya. He married the Danaid Cleopatra, daughter of Danaus and the naiad Polyxo.
 Hermus, a nobleman of Athens and a companion of Theseus. When Theseus founded the city of Pythopolis, he left Hermus there. A place in Pythopolis called the House of Hermes was named after him, incorrectly changing the name to that of a god.

Notes

References

 Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
 Claudius Claudianus, The Rape of Proserpine translated by Platnauer, Maurice. Loeb Classical Library Volumes 135 & 136. Cambridge, MA. Harvard Univserity Press. 1922.  Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site
 Hesiod, Theogony from The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
 Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, Lives with an English Translation by Bernadotte Perrin. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. 1. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Tzetzes, John, Book of Histories, Book VII-VIII translated by Vasiliki Dogani from the original Greek of T. Kiessling's edition of 1826. Online version at theio.com

Potamoi
History of Turkey

Hermus


In Ukraine, a 2007 law requires open access publishing of research created through public funding. In January 2008, Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Russian academics issued the "Belgorod Declaration on open access to scientific knowledge and cultural heritage." Ukrainian academics issued another statement in June 2009 in support of open access.

Repositories
There are a number of collections of scholarship in Ukraine housed in digital open access repositories. They contain journal articles, book chapters, data, and other research outputs that are free to read.

See also
 Internet in Ukraine
 Education in Ukraine
 List of universities in Ukraine
 Media of Ukraine
 Science and technology in Ukraine
 Access to public information in Ukraine
 Open access in other countries

References

Further reading

External links

Academia in Ukraine
Communications in Ukraine
Ukraine
Science and technology in Ukraine

Open access in Ukraine


Pwlldu Bay or Pwll Du Bay () is a small beach on the south Gower Peninsula coast in south Wales.  It is one of the more remote beaches and is not easily accessible by car, but there are several good footpaths leading to it.

There is a nearby gully called Grave's End marked by a circle of limestone rocks.  A number of people from a shipwreck that was found on the bay were buried in this gully.  The ship was the Caesar which was wrecked on the beach on 28 November 1760.

Pwlldu means "Black Pool" in Welsh

External links
Welcome to Gower: Pwlldu Bay
Enjoy Gower: Pwlldu Bay

Bays of the Gower Peninsula
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in West Glamorgan

Pwlldu Bay


The Two Faces of Dr. Jekyll is a 1960 British horror film produced by Hammer Film Productions. It was directed by Terence Fisher, and stars Paul Massie as Dr. Jekyll, and co-stars Dawn Addams, Christopher Lee and David Kossoff. The screenplay was written by Wolf Mankowitz, based on the 1886 novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson.

In contrast to other film versions, Jekyll was portrayed as a rather bland and faceless person, while Hyde was presented as suave and handsome. This reflects director Fisher's belief in what critics (such as biographer Wheeler Winston Dixon) called "the charm of evil". The film is unusual in that it was one of the few adaptations of the story where the Jekyll/Hyde character does not die in the story's conclusion. It is also set 12 years before the publication of Stevenson's novella.

The Two Faces of Dr. Jekyll was released in North America to theaters by American International Pictures under the titles House of Fright and Jekyll's Inferno and on American TV under its original British title.

Plot
In London in 1874, Dr. Henry Jekyll's wife, Kitty, is secretly involved with his friend Paul Allen (who hounds money from Jekyll). Ignoring the warnings of his colleague and friend Dr. Ernst Littauer, the middle-aged, mild-mannered Jekyll concocts a chemical potion which he hopes will help him learn the depths of the human mind.

By testing the potion on himself, he transforms into Mr. Edward Hyde, a young and handsome but also murderous and lecherous man. Soon, Hyde becomes bored with conventional debauchery and when he sets his eyes on Kitty, he decides he must have her. When Kitty rejects him, Hyde rapes her and leaves her unconscious. When Kitty wakes up in the bed, she immediately notices that Hyde has scratched her neck in various places. Distressed, Kitty walks over to the table, where she finds a note written to her. When Kitty goes into the other room looking for Paul, she looks in to find out that her lover has been bitten by a venomous snake. To Kitty's misfortune, Paul is dead. Kitty walks over to the patio, puts her leg over the balcony, covers her ears in response to the loud music playing from the party and allows herself to fall off the balcony and through the glass roof covering the party guests. Hyde frames his other self for these crimes.

The next day, Jekyll is horrified to learn of what Hyde has done. After speaking to his other half via a mirror, Jekyll turns uncontrollably into Hyde. Hyde then kills a man in Jekyll's laboratory by shooting him in the back and sets his body up on a desk. Hyde then sets fire to the laboratory as the police arrive. Via a window, Hyde pretends that Jekyll is trying to kill him as the building burns. After escaping the building, Hyde claims Jekyll tried to kill Hyde and ended up shooting himself due to madness as the innocent man and Jekyll's laboratory burns.

A few hours later, Hyde is summoned to the police station where he and some officers discuss the crime. After declaring Dr. Jekyll responsible for the crimes, Hyde tries to leave the building, but at the last minute Jekyll fights him from the inside and takes over again. As Dr. Jekyll sits on a bench, he is surrounded by astonished people and arrested for his alleged crimes.

Cast
Paul Massie as Dr. Henry Jekyll/Mr. Edward Hyde
Dawn Addams as Kitty Jekyll
Christopher Lee as Paul Allen
David Kossoff as Dr. Littauer
Francis de Wolff as Inspector
Norma Marla as Maria
Magda Miller as Sphinx Girl (uncredited)
Oliver Reed as Nightclub Bouncer (uncredited)
William Kendall as Clubman (uncredited)
Helen Goss as Nanny (uncredited)
Pauline Shepherd as Prostitute (uncredited)
Percy Cartwright as Coroner (uncredited)
Joe Robinson as Corinthian (uncredited)
Arthur Lovegrove as Cabby (uncredited)
Felix Felton as First Gambler (uncredited)

Production
The film was to star Louis Jourdan. Argentinian actress Isabel Sarli was offered a role in the film. Filming occurred at Bray Studios in Berkshire.

Dr. Jekyll has brown eyes and wears a full beard with rather long hair and bushy eyebrows, whereas Mr. Hyde is blue-eyed, clean shaven and has a shorter haircut --beyond this, their physical appearance is nearly identical, making this portrayal different than the bulk of film adaptations of the novel. However, the story is presented as though Hyde looks different enough from Jekyll that even Mrs. Jekyll notices no resemblance.

Reception
Reviews were mixed to negative. The Monthly Film Bulletin of the U.K. wrote that the film "may be forgiven for tampering with a classic, but not for doing so with such a depressing lack of either wit or competence...Silliness, in fact, has got the better of the film to such an extent that even its most calculatedly vicious episodes appear only mildly grotesque. The production, which uses up colour film lavishly on such episodes as a cancan sequence, is otherwise hard-up for ideas." Variety gave the film a good review, praising Paul Massie for an "interesting performance" and Jack Asher for "colorful and sure" camerawork. Eugene Archer of The New York Times called the film "lurid", and Massie "frankly ridiculous." Harrison's Reports graded the film as "Fair", adding, "Horror fans will hardly be scared by this well-mounted British import...Paul Massie does the best he can in the poorly written twin role."

The film lost Hammer an estimated £30,000.

Potential Remake
In the mid-nineties, writer Denis Meikle wrote a potential remake under the suggestion of producer Michael Carreras. The script, titled Hyde: Monster of Desire, was briefly considered at 20th Century Fox before being revived at Dreamscape Pictures, with the idea of it being a $50 million picture with Sean Connery as Jekyll/Hyde. Ultimately, the critical and commercial flop of Mary Reilly, TriStar Picture's own Jekyll and Hyde film, and the dissolution of Dreamscape ended the project. The script is currently available on Meikle's website.

See also
The Face of Another (1966), another film about a man who has an affair with his estranged wife by changing his face

References

External links

1960s English-language films
1960 horror films
1960 films
Hammer Film Productions horror films
Films shot at Associated British Studios
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde films
Films based on horror novels
Films directed by Terence Fisher
Films with screenplays by Wolf Mankowitz
Films shot at Bray Studios
Films scored by Monty Norman
1960s British films

The Two Faces of Dr. Jekyll


The Filipino American National Historical Society (FANHS) is a nonprofit organization that documents Filipino American history.

History

Filipino American National Historical Society (FANHS) was founded on 26 November 1982 in Seattle, Washington, by Dorothy Laigo Cordova and her husband Fred Cordova. The organization states that its mission is "to promote understanding, education, enlightenment, appreciation, and enrichment through the identification, gathering, preservation, and dissemination of the history and culture of Filipino Americans in the United States" with the goal of preserving and documenting Filipino American history.

FANHS was first chartered in Washington on 7 January 1985. The national office and archives are housed in Seattle. The first board of trustees was elected with 27 members from 12 states on 1 November 1986. In the same year, Fred Cordova created the National Pinoy Archives. Dorothy Cordova served as executive director.

Past projects include the video Filipino Americans Discovering Their Past for the Future, the pictorial essay Filipinos: Forgotten Asian Americans; and various regional publications and photo exhibits. FANHS also contributed significantly to the Smithsonian traveling exhibit Singgalot: The Ties That Bind, which documents the history of Filipino Americans in the US.

Filipino American History Month
Under the leadership of Fred Cordova, FANHS established Filipino American History Month (FAHM) in 1992. Since then, FAHM has been recognized by several states including New York, California, Hawaii, Minnesota, and Arkansas. In 2009, the U.S. Senate and Congress proclaimed October as Filipino-American History Month. In 2015 and 2016, President Obama officially recognized FAHM in October with a celebration in the White House.

Biennial National Conferences

Since 1987, FANHS has sponsored national conferences (later ratified as a biennial event) where people gather to share and present research, network with other Filipino Americans, and honor those who have produced innovative work in the field of historical research and analysis. Past conference host cities include: Seattle (1988), New Orleans (1990), Sacramento (1992), Chicago (1994), San Francisco (1996), and New York City (1998).

The 2000 conference was hosted by the Hampton Roads Chapter of FANHS in Virginia Beach, Virginia. The theme was "Forever Pinay/Pinoy: Legacies of the Filipino American Experience".

The 2002 conference was hosted at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles, California. Keynote speakers included Vicki Manalo Draves, the first Filipina/Asian-American Olympian and gold medalist.

The 2004 conference was hosted in St. Louis, Missouri.

The 2006 conference was hosted by the Filipino American Historical Society of Hawaii in Honolulu, Hawaii. It included a centennial celebration as it was in 1906 when the first wave of sakadas (farm workers) landed in Hawaii.

The 2008 conference was hosted by the Alaska Chapter of the organization, in Anchorage, Alaska. The theme was "Lure of the Salmon Song" referring to the tens of thousands of Filipino Alaskeros who worked in the Alaskan canneries since 1915.

The 2010 conference was held in Seattle, Washington, with the theme, "A Quest for Emergence: A Retrospective."

The 2012 conference was held in Albuquerque, New Mexico, with the theme "Resilience: A Filipino Legacy in a Global Community."

The 2014 conference was held in San Diego, California with the theme "Kapwa: Moving Forward in Unity." A memorial service was held to honor FANHS Founding President Fred Cordova who had died several months prior.

The 2016 conference was coordinated by Dr. Kevin Nadal and was held in New York City. The theme was "A Pinoy State of Mind: Building with Our Roots." Speakers included Jose Antonio Vargas, Ali Ewoldt, Paolo Montalban, Joe Bataan, Lorna G. Schofield, Geena Rocero, Ernabel Demillo, and Mia Alvar, among others.

As of 2018, FANHS has 35 chapters across the country. Each chapter is responsible for collecting historical documentation, memorabilia, and artifacts in their respective areas.

FANHS National Museum

The city of Stockton was chosen as the future site for the Filipino American National Historical Museum by the FANHS Board of Trustees at the 1994 Conference held in San Francisco. In 2015, the museum opened in Stockton's Little Manila.

See also

 Manilatown
 Overseas Filipino
 Filipino American History Month
 Filipinos of American descent

References

External links

 Interview with Fred and Dorothy Cordova, from the Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project
 Maria Schenk Papers. 1975. Includes interview with Fred Cordova.

Asian-American organizations
Filipino-American culture

History