The Ugashik Lakes are two adjacent lakes along the Ugashik River on the Alaska Peninsula in the U.S. state of Alaska.

The lakes are world-renowned for trophy Arctic grayling fishing. The lakes also support large concentrations of lake trout, provide key feeding habitat for large numbers of sockeye and coho salmon.

Upper Ugashik Lake is 17 miles (27 km) long and located at the head of the river, south of Becharof Lake and 22 miles (35 km) northeast of Ugashik, at .
Lower Ugashik Lake is 11 miles (18 km) long and located south of Upper Ugashik Lake, 14 miles (23 km) east of Ugashik, at .

Lakes of Alaska
Lakes of Lake and Peninsula Borough, Alaska

Ugashik Lakes


The Carnegie Museum of Natural History (abbreviated as CMNH) is a natural history museum in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It was founded by Pittsburgh-based industrialist Andrew Carnegie in 1896.
Housing some 22 million specimens, the museum features one of the finest paleontological collections in the world.

Description and history
The museum consists of  organized into 20 galleries as well as research, library, and office space. It holds some 22 million specimens, of which about 10,000 are on view at any given time and about 1 million are cataloged in online databases. In 2008 it hosted 386,300 admissions and 63,000 school group visits. Museum education staff also actively engage in outreach by traveling to schools all around western Pennsylvania.

The museum gained prominence in 1899 when its scientists unearthed the fossils of Diplodocus carnegii. Notable dinosaur specimens include one of the world's very few fossils of a juvenile Apatosaurus, the world's first specimen of a Tyrannosaurus rex, and a recently identified species of oviraptorosaur named Anzu wyliei.

Research teams including former Carnegie scientists made critical discoveries such as Puijila darwini, Castorocauda lutrasimilis, and Hadrocodium wui.

Other major exhibits include Hillman Hall of Minerals and Gems, Alcoa Foundation Hall of American Indians, Polar World: Wyckoff Hall of Arctic Life, Walton Hall of Ancient Egypt, Benedum Hall of Geology, Dinosaurs in Their Time, and Powdermill Nature Reserve, established by the museum in 1956 to serve as a field station for long-term studies of natural populations.

The museum's active curatorial departments are: Anthropology, Birds, Botany, Herpetology (Amphibians & Reptiles), Invertebrate Paleontology, Invertebrate Zoology, Mammals, Minerals, Mollusks (Malacology), and Vertebrate Paleontology. These departments work collaboratively under strategic centers created to re-frame how the museum leverages its research, exhibitions, and public programming to meet the challenges and issues of today. In late 2013, however, the museum's parent organization and interim administration eliminated multiple scientific positions, seriously reducing its capacity to conduct original research.

Scientific publications

Carnegie Museum of Natural History publishes scholarly journals and books including Annals of Carnegie Museum, which offers peer-reviewed articles in organismal biology, earth sciences, and anthropology; Bulletin of Carnegie Museum of Natural History, offering monographs or collections of related papers from symposia; and Special Publications of Carnegie Museum, documenting special topics or areas of research.

See also
 Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh
 Carnegie Collection
 List of museums in Pennsylvania
 Andrey Avinoff
 Rudyerd Boulton
 Andrew Carnegie
 Benjamin Preston Clark
 Mary R. Dawson
 Carl H. Eigenmann
 John Bell Hatcher
 William Jacob Holland
 Lion Attacking a Dromedary
 Bradley C. Livezey
 M. Graham Netting
 Arnold Edward Ortmann
 Albert Schwartz
 Richard Shine
 James L. Swauger
 Walter Edmond Clyde Todd
 Richard Vogt

References

External links

 Carnegie Museums
 Coleman J. Goin
 LeRoy Kershaw Henry
 Kenneth C. Parkes

Andrew Carnegie
Dinosaur museums in the United States
Egyptological collections in the United States
Institutions accredited by the American Alliance of Museums
Museums established in 1896
1896 establishments in Pennsylvania
Museums in Pittsburgh
Natural history museums in Pennsylvania
Paleontology in Pennsylvania
Tourist attractions in Pittsburgh

Carnegie Museum of Natural History


Vista Alegre is a Portuguese porcelain manufacturer located in Ílhavo in the district of Aveiro, Portugal.

By May 2001, Grupo Vista Alegre joined with the Atlantis group and created the largest national tableware Group and the sixth in the world in this speciality: the Grupo Vista Alegre Atlantis. Fabrica de Porcelana Vista Alegre, with its historical background and tradition is the most representative industrial unit of the eleven ones of the Group, producing around 10 million pieces a year, in decorative and domestic porcelain. In 2002 it finished an industrial re-engineering process to increase both its capacity and production volume. An integration project was also under way for the two porcelain production centres of the Group, (FPVA and Chousa Nova).

History
Influenced by the success of the Marinha Grande glass factory, Pinto Basto decided to create a "porcelain, glass and chemical processes" factory. He started, in 1815, by acquiring the mansion Quinta da Ermida, a beautiful place near Ílhavo town and by the Aveiro estuary, in a region rich in the essential manufacturing elements of porcelain and glass, such as fuels, clay, white and thin sands and crystallized pebbles. Later on he also bought the surrounding 100 acre (0.4 km²) premises, where he launched his project. The patent authorising the operation of the Vista Alegre Factory was granted in 1824 by King D. João VI, benefiting of "all graces, privileges and exceptions enjoyed, or to be enjoyed in the future, by the National Factories". The, just five years later, Vista Alegre was granted the title of Royal Factory, to honor its art and industrial success.

From 1832 on, the Factory intensified its work and concentrated on perfecting porcelain, reaching a golden period that culminated late in the 19th century. The contribution from foreign artists such as Victor C. Rousseau was important, mainly for the creation of a painting school. There were very relevant facts during this period of Vista Alegre's history such as the development of a social work; the introduction of golden decorations, landscape motifs and delicate flowers; the involvement in contests (Paris, Palácio de Cristal in Porto) and, finally, in 1880, the end of glass production.

During the following years and until the end of World War I, the brilliant previous period tarnished by social unrest led the firm to harsh difficulties. Nevertheless, the spirit bred by the founder as well as the support of the drawing and painting school by artist Duarte José de Magalhães boosted the reorganization and modernization of the firm. And so, Vista Alegre, while celebrating its first centennial, began restructuring itself that was a landmark in the company as it became an incorporated firm, updated the Factory's structures, inaugurated two stores and boosted the design workshops. As of 1947 and until 1968, the international contacts, the formation of specialized technical teams, the purchase of both Empresa Electro-Cerâmica (its main competitor so far) and Sociedade de Porcelanas, sent Vista Alegre on the technological development and industrial path, as well as opening new markets.

By the 1970s, Fábrica de Porcelana de Vista Alegre took important measures to update its technological segment and enhanced the formation of new young painters. By 1983 it created the Artistical Orientation Board, GOA in Portuguese, as for Gabinete de Orientação Artística, and in 1985, the CADE - Centro de Arte e Desenvolvimento da Empresa, to encourage creativity and to contribute to the formation in the design, painting and sculpting areas, support the Factory technically and artistically by promoting its development. The company was bought by Visabeira in 2009.

External links
Vista Alegre
mix4max

Belgian Royal Warrant holders
Companies established in 2001
Manufacturing companies of Portugal
Porcelain
Portuguese brands
Portuguese pottery
2009 mergers and acquisitions

Vista Alegre (company)


Battle Picture Weekly (at various times also known as Battle and Valiant, Battle Action, Battle Action Force, Battle and Battle with Storm Force) was a British weekly boys' war comic published by IPC Magazines from 8 March 1975 to 23 January 1988, when it merged with the new incarnation of Eagle after 644 issues. Most stories were set in World War II, with some based on other conflicts, while factual features also focused on warfare.

Devised by Pat Mills and John Wagner in response to rival DC Thomson's similarly-themed Warlord, the title was an instant success. Many of the stories printed in the comic have since received critical acclaim and been published in collected editions, notably "Charley's War". Since 2016 Rebellion Developments have owned the majority of Battle Picture Weekly'''s characters and material, and have published revival publications.

Creation

By the 1970s, IPC Magazines were one of the largest comics publishers in Britain, their portfolio centred around a stable of weekly anthologies that sold around a quarter of a million copies each. However, since being appointed Editorial Director, John Sanders became increasingly aware the market as a whole was shrinking, with television the main threat. He found many of his attempts frustrated by the structure of the company; many of the company's staff (including board members) had been with the company for decades since their days as Amalgamated Press and Fleetway Publications, and were strict traditionalists. IPC launched a slew of titles from 1969 to 1971, but few survived for long.

There was also an archaic internal structure where the company's titles were divided into various departments - boy's adventure, humour, girls and so forth - which rarely exchanged staff between each other. Having left staff jobs at IPC's largest rival DC Thomson, Pat Mills and John Wagner began working as freelancers and submitting scripts for the London company's girls comics. Their work for the likes of Tammy, Jinty and Princess Tina featured a degree of social realism and freshness that stood out to Sanders, who looked for an opportunity to work with the pair further. Mills interviewed for IPC's vacant position of Managing Editor, but his forthright criticism of the company's failings went down poorly with the board, but reaffirmed Sanders' belief that fresh blood was needed.

An opportunity to recruit Mills and Wagner came in 1974, when DC Thomson launched Warlord. While war comics had been a staple of British boys' titles since the fifties - both as features in anthologies and as a staple of picture library titles like Commando and War Picture Library - Warlord was the first ongoing weekly to centre on the genre entirely. The variety was instead provided by the stories being spread between different theatres and services; the result was a smash hit. IPC had a firm policy of responding to any new hit by DC Thomson or any other rival by launching a similar title of their own in response, even keeping an inventory of unpublished strips in various genres to speed up the process. However, Sanders wanted a different approach for IPC's answer to Warlord, turning to Mills and Wagner.

Despite initial reluctance to work in the genre, Mills and Wagner took the offer. One of their key aims was to provide a more working class makeup to the characters, something they felt was sorely lacking in other boys' comics. With a tight lead-in of between 6 to 8 weeks the pair started assembling the new title. To keep friction with other staff to a minimum the pair were placed in an office in the girls' department, and told any staffers who asked they were working on a comic for the blind. When word did get out the decision was not popular with the IPC staffers, not least because as freelancers Mills and Wagner were paid better. However, Sanders stuck to his guns.

The plan was the pair would set up an initial round of stories and edit the opening issues before handing over to a staff editor. However, slow progress meant the more experienced Dave Hunt was assigned to help. He was one of the more flexible staffers however and largely tried to curb the pair's perfectionism rather than resisting their ideas. Other important figures in the creation of what would become Battle Picture Weekly were writer Gerry Finley-Day (who Mills and Wagner had worked with on girls' comics); sub-editor Steve MacManus; Eric Hebden, a military veteran who served as technical advisor; and art director Doug Church, who used the web offset printing method to give the comic a clean, detailed look. Mills meanwhile insisted on the use of machine lettering for the strips, a trademark of DC Thomson, as he felt it was superior to the hand lettering available from the time. The only thing they were refused revolved around the free gift cover-mounted on the first issue - a set of transfers depicting military emblems, Mills and Wagner had requested it include German insignia. IPC's competitions editor Peter Lewis, responsible for sourcing the items and a decorated World War II veteran, threatened to resign if they were included; the pair backed down, and Wagner later admitted they had been insensitive.
Publishing history
Battle Picture Weekly
Despite the meticulous approach of Mills and Wagner, the first issue of Battle Picture Weekly met its launch date, appearing on 2 March 1975. It contained eight initial stories. "D-Day Dawson" featured a British soldier with an inoperable bullet lodged near his heart; according to Finley-Day, the strip's title was chosen due to prominent coverage of D-Day's 30th anniversary in 1974. "Rat Pack" featured a group of four convict soldiers given suicide missions, which Finley-Day acknowledged was heavily influenced by film The Dirty Dozen; art was provided by Spaniard Carlos Ezquerra, initially on a part-time basis while he worked through commitments to DC Thomson. "The Bootneck Boy" featured the travails of an aspiring Royal Marine; it was again written by Finley-Day, who based the protagonist's attitude on that of Alf Tupper from DC Thomson's "The Tough of the Track" story in Victor. "Lofty's One-Man Luftwaffe" featured a bilingual Allied pilot mistaken for a German counterpart and working to sabotage the Luftwaffe from within. The Day of the Jackal-influenced "Day of the Eagle" introduced Special Operations Executive agent Mike Nelson, whose first mission was to kill Adolf Hitler. "The Flight of the Golden Hinde" concerned an obsessive captain trying to complete a voyage in a replica of the Golden Hind during wartime and "The Terror Behind the Bamboo Curtain" was set in a Japanese prisoner-of-war camp in occupied Burma, which Hunt recalled was constantly rewritten by Mills and Wagner in an attempt to get it right.. The title was a strong seller from the start, and with the setup done Mills and Wagner moved on, the former to begin work on all-new boys' comic Action and the latter to work as editor on the flagging Valiant.

The contents of the comic saw their first shake-up in May 1975, decided by the standard IPC research of requesting readers write in ranking the stories and dropping the least popular. "The Terror Behind the Bamboo Curtain" and "Flight of the Golden Hinde" were the two dropped, making way for "Coward's Brand on Bradley" and "The Fortrose Falcon"; the latter was the first Battle Picture Library strip to not entirely revolve around World War II. However, the new arrivals were based on Mills and Wagner ideas bumped from the launch issue, and neither lasted long. Another thing thrown up by the research was that while Battle attempted to split stories between land, sea and air forces, readers far preferred those about the army to the rest. It wasn't until January 1976 that Battle found another enduring character in the form of Major Eazy - a laconic cheroot-smoking soldier modelled on Britt, James Coburn's character in classic Western film The Magnificent Seven. Drawn by Ezquerra and written by Alan Hebden (son of Eric), the Bentley-driving British officer was instantly popular with readers. Three months later IPC changed printers and Battle was forced to switch from web offset to letterpress. Another popular new arrival was "The Team That Went To War" by writer Tom Tully and artist Mike Western, which featured football team Barchester United enlisting - and getting butchered - en masse in 1940.

IPC meanwhile had launched Mills' brainchild Action to strong sales and critical reaction. The comic's increased level of violence and nihilism spurred Hunt on; he was particularly envious of the title's war strip "Hellman of Hammer Force", launching "Fighter from the Sky" (with a German paratrooper as the protagonist) in response, as well as the experimental "Hold Hill 109", featuring a unit of thirteen Desert Rats whittled down over the course of a defensive action. More whimsical was "Rattling Rommel", which centred on a sentient scout car. August 1976 saw an overhaul of the title caused by the availability of Wagner, who had quit as editor of Valiant in frustration over the resistance he found to his radical changes. His contribution was the brutal "Darkie's Mob", featuring a rogue unit behind Japanese lines in Burma led by the fearsome Captain Joe Darkie. The strip was one of four new stories in the 14 August 1976 edition, which featured a cover by Don Lawrence. The other debutants were "Operation Shark" (young boys in the Channel Islands begin resistance efforts against the German occupation forces), "Yellow Jack" (about a greedy British soldier who fought like a demon for the chance to loot) and "The Unknown Soldier" (about an amnesiac Tommy unaware he's marked for death).

Battle and Valiant
Despite the public campaign that forced Action out of circulation in the autumn, Battle Picture Weekly remained relatively untouched despite its violence. Hunt would recall receiving a letter of complaint about an episode of "Darkie's Mob", but replied that the content was based on a real-life incident and received no further censure. Instead the next change to Battle would come in October when the flagging Valiant was absorbed into the comic. Three strips were continued from the cancelled title from 23 October 1976 - two were war-themed, "Soldier Sharp: The Rat of the Rifles" and "The Black Crow", while Wagner's Clint Eastwood-inspired Judge Dredd-prefiguring maverick cop One-Eyed Jack wasn't. Hunt was not in favour of diluting Battle's all-war content; nevertheless the merger considerably boosted the comic's sales. The other new arrival was Valiants long-running flagship character Captain Hurricane; however his action-comedy would have fit badly with the rest of the comic, and he was instead assigned as host of the letters page. The unexpected merger saw three stories - "Operation Shark", "The Unknown Soldier" and "Yellow Jack" - cut short to make space. Battle and Valiant also received the Airfix Modeller's Club page, hosted by club president and comedian Dick Emery. The manufacturer paid a £100 a week for the page, a sum which Hunt recalled paid for around half of the scripts in the issue.

D-Day Dawson finally met his end in the 22 January 1977 edition. The following week three new stories debut in the hundredth issue - "Johnny Red" followed pilot Johnny "Red" Reburn, who seized an opportunity to fly a Hurricane in support of the Red Air Force's Falcon squadron on the Eastern Front, by Tully and his frequent Roy of the Rovers collaborator Joe Colquhoun. The series was a then-rare positive portrayal of Russian characters in a British comic of the time. "Joe Two Beans" followed a taciturn Native American fighting for the US in the Pacific War, while a rare crossover saw Major Eazy take command of the Rat Pack. Mills and Wagner meanwhile were working on new science fiction title 2000 AD. Hunt was wary of the pair poaching Ezquerra, and had Alan Hebden create the American Civil War-set "El Mestizo" specifically to keep the artist on Battle. As it was, Ezquerra was overlooked for "Judge Dredd" in favour of Mike McMahon, a snub he took with considerable umbrage. "Darkie's Mob" meanwhile came to a violent end, and was replaced by "The Sarge", a similarly gritty collaboration between Finley-Day and Western, from the 25 June 1977 issue.

Battle Action
Meanwhile, Action had returned from its six week 1976 sabbatical heavily sanitised under the direct supervision of Sanders, himself under strict orders from IPC's board. The resulting bowdlerised version rapidly lost sales, and in November 1977 Action was folded into Battle. "Hellman of Hammer Force" was a suitable addition, while secret agent Dredger was reassigned to military intelligence. However, "Spinball" - a watered down version of Action'''s Rollerball-inspired "Death Game 1999" - was unconvincingly reworked into "Spinball Wars". The new arrivals meant the long-running "The Bootneck Boy" was among those to make way. Further change came when MacManus left his post of assistant editor to set up Starlord, a new IPC science fiction weekly. Ezquerra, still smarting from being overlooked for Judge Dredd, followed to work on Strontium Dog. He was replaced by Jim Storrie, and a fresh round of new features began in July 1978. "Operation Shark" returned, Hunt having never been pleased with the rushed conclusion ahead of the Valiant merger. Following the successful launch of 2000 AD Mills was free and returned to contribute "Samurai", which featured a Japanese protagonist; however, the writer quickly drew tired of the strip and ended it swiftly before beginning work on his next project. Storrie's tenure on Battle Action was short-lived as he was reassigned and replaced by Nick Landau - who lasted little longer, quitting IPC after feeling he was being misled about being granted editorship of 2000 AD.

January 1979 saw the debut of three new stories, as well as factual feature "True Life Heroes". "Glory Rider" focused on a reckless American tank commander, while "HMS Nightshade" by Wagner was an attempt to make a successful naval story, something he and Mills had found difficult. With John Cooper taking over "Johnny Red", Mills meanwhile worked with Colquhoun on a new strip, "Charley's War". Mills wanted to do an anti-war strip and found the trenches of World War I a perfect backdrop. He researched the conflict extensively to avoid repeating mainstream histories, notably consulting huge archives of soldiers' letters home which left him greatly moved. Hunt was highly impressed, and swore to keep the strip in the comic "whether the readers like it or not". However, the comic's most significant editorial change to date came in September 1979, when Hunt was moved over to work on new title Tornado as part of a reshuffle that saw Barrie Tomlinson appointed as group editor. Hunt's place was taken by Terry Magee, who responded to falling sales by returning the Rat Pack to service.

Battle
In July 1980 the comic underwent a significant redesign, with a new logo (with Action disappearing from the title, which was now simply Battle) and - for the first time - a front cover strip (typically rotated between "Johnny Red" and "Charley's War"), as well as switching to hand lettering. Another change was the appearance of creator credits, fruit of Mills and others' lobbying of Sanders to reverse IPC policy. However, sales continued to dip - not helped by the 1980 NUJ strike - and to keep profitability the title was forced to use reprints, beginning with "Darkie's Mob" in March 1981. Tomlinson and Magee also broke away from the all-war approach and commissioned works from other genres - "The Fists of Jimmy Chang" cashed in on the Bruce Lee-instigated  martial arts craze, "Truck Turpin" was based to the boom in interest in trucking and CB radio, while "The Hunters S.I.6" was effectively an unlicensed version of ITV hit The Professionals.

The editorial team were met with a quandary when war broke out in the Falkland Islands in 1982, causing a groundswell in British patriotism and increased interest in warfare. After some debate, the editorial team decided not to refer to the conflict until it was concluded. After the end of hostilities Wagner's "Fight for the Falklands" began. The writer would later admit a degree of embarrassment at the story, confessing he had got caught up in the jingoistic mood of the time and followed the initial government accounts of the fighting too closely. He was similarly unhappy with science fiction-tinged "Invasion 1984!", which he co-wrote with Alan Grant; the pair were so prolific at the time that Sanders insisted they use a pseudonym.

Battle Action Force

July 1983 saw a four-week strip based on Palitoy's Action Force toyline - based on 3 3/4" versions of the company's famous Action Man action figure. The strip was popular, and after a run of five free cover-mounted mini-comics, Battle was renamed Battle Action Force in October 1983. Three strips would be given over to the struggle of the multinational Action Force (consisting of infantry arm Z Force, special operations unit SAS Force, naval service Q-Force and space force Space Force)
against terrorist Baron Ironblood and his endless, fanatical Red Shadows. The new arrival was a mixed blessing for the creators; Mills disliked the idea of appealing to younger readers, while others hated the silliness; John Cooper would describe the helmeted Ironblood as "having a bucket on his head - like Ned Kelly gone mad". Tomlinson meanwhile recalled each page of "Action Force" required approval from the manufacturer, complicating the production process. However it did bring an increase in sales, and as Palitoy underwrote the costs of the Action Force material it both allowed a steady stream of work and effectively halved the production costs of Battle at a time when the British comic industry as a whole was suffering declining sales. Palitoy also provided money for several circulation-boosting Action Force themed free gifts, the most remarkable of which was a bagged figure.

As a result of the Action Force arrival, the rest of the comic was reduced to just four other strips - "Johnny Red", "Charley's War" (which had undergone a 10-week hiatus in 1982 while Colquhoun recovered from a heart attack), "The Hunters S.I.6" and the reprint slot. The latter was running "Major Eazy";  as a result of Sanders declaring a no-smoking policy across all IPC publications, Eazy's cheroot had to be whited out of every frame, a process that Tomlinson wryly noted to many instances where the character appeared to be giving the V sign to readers.

One of the pitfalls of a licensed comic were shown in 1985, when Palitoy licensed American giant Hasbro's G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero line (a similar 3 3/4 downsizing of G.I. Joe) and issued them under the Action Force brand. Not only did the strip suddenly have to integrate a score of new Action Force personnel, but in the toyline terrorist organisation Cobra simply replaced the Red Shadows as the villains, leaving the comic with the unenviable task of providing a fictional transition. The same year, "Charley's War" also suffered upheaval. Having always envisioned the strip as a multi-generational epic that would follow Charley's descendants to the Troubles, Mills requested a research budget that would allow him to interview veterans ahead of the planned World War II arc, wanting to get the same fresh view beyond mainstream history books. He was refused, and quit; to Mills' chagrin the World War II story was written along traditional lines by Scott Goodall.

Richard Burton took over as editor in 1986, but was unable to halt the slide in sales. The title at least outlived Warlord, which was cancelled in September 1986, but October saw the end of "Charley's War", the strip's popularity having nosedived after Mills' departure and encountering further problems as Colquhoun's health declined. A hammer blow to Battle's hopes came in 1987, when Hasbro bought Palitoy. While they planned to continue the toyline, Hasbro had established a highly successful relationship with Marvel UK to promote their Transformers figures, and switched their backing as soon as possible. This not only greatly reduced Battles profit margins but also left Burton and Tomlinson scrambling to fill half the comic.

Battle with Storm Force
Their response was to replace Action Force with the similar anti-terrorist organisation called Storm Force. To make up the budget shortfall, "Johnny Red" was switched to reprints; by May 1987 Battle contained four reprints - noticeably stretched out of proportion to fit a change in page size - from seven features, new material consisted of just two "Storm Force" strips" - the latter was not popular and was reduced to a single strip, but the replacement for the dropped episode was another reprint. An attempt to find a new source of funding by producing a licensed strip based on Acamas' X-Changers toyline was little help, as neither the toys nor the strip were popular. In Tomlinson's words "the end was inevitable", and in January 1988 the title was merged into Eagle, which it bequeathed "Storm Force" and reprints of "Johnny Red" and "Charley's War".

Legacy
Preacher creator Garth Ennis was a loyal reader of Battle, and won a £2 prize in the 20 January 1979 edition after writing in to point out an error in tank identification in "Crazy Keller". He would later credit Mills, Wagner and Battle in general a major influence on his own writing.

Titan Comics
The rights to the original material in Battle were among the IPC Youth Group properties consolidated into the resurrected Fleetway Publications and sold to Persimmon BPCC Publishing on 6 July 1987, and were later purchased by Egmont Publishing.  From 1 April 2009, Egmont UK in conjunction with W H Smith announced 4 special reprint collections from their stable, including a collection of Battle strips.
Titan Comics subsequently licensed various titles from Egmont for reprint collections, beginning with The Best of Battle in 2009. Collections of "Charley's War", "Rat Pack", "Johnny Red", "Darkie's Mob" and two volumes of Ennis-curated Battle Classics followed. In November 2015, the character of Johnny Red was revived by Ennis and illustrator Keith Burns for a new 8-part mini-series Johnny Red: Hurricane, published by Titan Comics.

Rebellion Developments
In 2016 Rebellion Developments purchased the rights owned by Egmont. Two years later in August 2018, they issued a new 3-part comic series Sniper Elite: Resistance by Keith Richardson and Patrick Goddard, a spin-off from the PS-4 game Sniper Elite. The story, set in German-occupied France in 1941, included an appearance by the Rat Pack. "Darkie's Mob" and "Charley's War" were subsequently reprinted in Judge Dredd Megazine, while "Lofty's One-Man Luftwaffe" was collected in a supplement given away with Judge Dredd Megazine #397. Rebellion also reprinted stories under their Treasury of British Comics imprint, including "El Mestizo", "Invasion 1984!", "Major Eazy vs. Rat Pack", "The Sarge" and "Clash of the Guards".

In September 2020, Rebellion released a 100-page special issue of Battle, again on the Treasury of British Comics imprint. Entitled Battle of Britain Special, it featured ten new stories by various writers and artists. Several characters from past issues of Battle were revived including "El Mestizo", written by Alan Hebden, and a "Rat Pack" story by Ennis. Other stories featured new characters and settings including War Child by Dan Abnett, a story produced in association with the charity War Child. In June 2022, Rebellion published a hardcover Battle Action Special with new stories featuring characters from both comics, written by Ennis and with various artists.

Starting in May 2023, Rebellion published a five-issue series of Battle Action, with each issue featuring two complete stories.

Stories

Titles
Battle Picture Weekly (8 March 1975 [issue #1] – 16 October 1976 [issue #85])
Battle Picture Weekly and Valiant (23 October 1976 [issue #86] – 1 October 1977 [issue #135])
Battle Picture Weekly (8 October 1977 [issue #136] – 11 November 1977 [issue #141])
Battle-Action (19 November 1977 [issue #142] – 1 July 1978 [issue #175])
Battle Action (8 July 1978 [issue #176] – 4 October 1980 [issue #283])
Battle Action (11 October 1980 [issue #284] – 25 July 1981 [issue #325])
Battle (1 August 1981 [issue #326] – 1 October 1983 [issue #439])
Battle Action Force (8 October 1983 [issue #440] – 29 November 1986 [issue #604])
Battle (6 December 1986 [issue #605] – 17 January 1987 [issue #611])
Battle Storm Force (24 January 1987 [issue #612] – 23 January 1988 [issue #664])

Spin-offs
Battle Picture Weekly Summer Special (4 editions, 1975 to 1978)
Battle Picture Weekly Annual (7 editions, 1976 to 1982)
Battle Holiday Special (7 editions, 1980 to 1983 and 1987 to 1989)
Battle Annual (3 editions, 1983 to 1984 and 1988)
Battle Action Force Holiday Special (3 editions, 1984 to 1986)
Battle Action Force Annual (3 editions, 1985 to 1987)
Battle with Storm Force Annual (1 edition, 1989)

Collected editions

References

External links

1975 comics debuts
1988 comics endings
Comics magazines published in the United Kingdom
Weekly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Comics by John Wagner
Comics by Pat Mills
Defunct British comics
Magazines disestablished in 1988
Magazines established in 1975
Comics set during World War I
Comics set during World War II

Battle Picture Weekly


Loggerheads is an independent film written and directed by Tim Kirkman, produced by Gill Holland and released in the United States by Strand Releasing in October 2005. The film stars Bonnie Hunt, Tess Harper, Michael Kelly, Chris Sarandon, Kip Pardue and Michael Learned and also stars Robin Weigert, Ann Owens Pierce, Valerie Watkins, Trevor Gagnon, Kelly Mizell, Craig Walker, Michael Esper and Joanne Pankow.

Plot

Inspired by true events, Loggerheads tells the story of an adoption "triad"—birth mother, child, and adoptive parents—each in three interwoven stories in the days leading up to Mother's Day, and each in one of the three distinctive geographical regions of North Carolina: Appalachian Mountains, Piedmont (a broad, gently hilly plateau) and Atlantic Coastal Plain.

In mountainous Asheville, Grace (Bonnie Hunt), an airport car-rental agent living with her mother (Michael Learned), quits her job and embarks on a long-delayed quest: facing the legal barriers that keep her from finding the son she gave up for adoption when she was a teenager. Across the state in Kure Beach, Mark (Kip Pardue), a young man obsessed with saving loggerhead sea turtles, meets George (Michael Kelly), a friendly motel owner, who offers him a place to stay. In the center of the state is the small town of Eden, where a minister's wife (Tess Harper) struggles to confront her conservative husband (Chris Sarandon) over their estrangement from their son.

Production
Irish singer-songwriter and composer Mark Geary wrote the original score as well as two songs for the film. The music of singer-songwriter Patty Griffin is also featured prominently, and sonaBLAST! Records released the soundtrack.

Loggerheads was filmed on location primarily in Wilmington, North Carolina in May 2004.

Accolades
After its debut at the 2005 Sundance Film Festival, where it was nominated for the Grand Jury Prize, Loggerheads screened at festivals throughout the U.S. and abroad. The film won the Audience Award at both the Nashville Film Festival and the Florida Film Festival, and took the top prize at Outfest, the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Film Festival.

References

External links

2005 films
American drama films
Culture of Asheville, North Carolina
2005 drama films
American independent films
American LGBT-related films
Films shot in North Carolina
Films set in North Carolina
Wilmington, North Carolina
Films set in the 1960s
Films set in the 1990s
2000s English-language films
2000s American films

Loggerheads (2005 film)


Jeff Richgels, of Oregon, Wisconsin, is a former member of the Professional Bowlers Association who competes on the PBA50 Tour and PBA Regional Tour. He has won 30 PBA Regional titles.

As an amateur, Jeff represented the United States at the 1985 Federation Internationale des Quilleurs (FIQ) American Zone Championships in Bogota, Colombia, where he won gold medals in team and trios. Jeff also is a member of the United States Bowling Congress (USBC) and has won five titles at the USBC Open Championships.  He is one of three bowlers in the long history of the USBC Open Championships to complete team, doubles and singles events (a total of nine games) in a given year without an open frame. (This means he rolled a strike or spare in every frame of the tournament.) The "90 clean frame" achievement came in 1997, when he also won the Regular All-Events title.

His accomplishments earned him induction into the USBC Hall of Fame in 2011.

Jeff also was inducted into the Wisconsin State Bowling Association Hall of Fame in 2013 and the Madison (WI) Bowling Association Hall of Fame in 2008.

Jeff also owns and operates The11thFrame.com, a subscription-based website that covers the sport and industry.

References

People from Oregon, Wisconsin
American ten-pin bowling players
1962 births
Living people

Jeff Richgels


In optical storage, constant angular velocity (CAV) is a qualifier for the rated speed of any disc containing information, and may also be applied to the writing speed of recordable discs. A drive or disc operating in CAV mode maintains a constant angular velocity, contrasted with a constant linear velocity (CLV).

A typical CD-ROM drive operates in CLV mode, in contrast to a floppy or hard disk drive, or gramophone, which operates in CAV mode.  In CAV mode, the spindle motor turns at a constant speed, which makes the medium pass by the read/write head faster when the head is positioned at the outside of the disk.  In contrast, in CLV mode, the spindle motor speed varies so that the medium passes by the head at the same speed regardless of where on the disk the head is positioned.

If the disk is recorded at the same areal density throughout, then when read or written in CAV mode, the data rate is higher for the outer tracks than for the inner tracks, whereas in CLV mode, the data rate is the same everywhere.

An advantage of CAV mode over CLV is that the drive mechanism is easier to engineer (less expensive to build).  Another advantage is that a device can switch from reading one part of a disk to reading another part more quickly, because in CLV mode, when the device moves the head in or out, it must change the speed of the disc.

Dimensions

In case of a 12 cm standard diameter disc, data at the outermost edge (6 cm from center) is accessed at 2.4 times the speed of data at the inner edge of the data-containing program area (2.5 cm from center).

For a miniature disc with a diameter of 8 cm (radius of 4 cm), the speed ratio of outer to inner data edge is 1.6.

This means that, for example, if a disc is accessed at a constant angular velocity of ×24, the equivalent linear velocity is ×24 while accessed at the outermost edge of the data area while being ×10 at the innermost data area.

Uses

Gramophone records have always used CAV, including CEDs which provide video signals.

Some high speed CD and DVD drives use CAV. It allows for shorter access times because the rotation speed (angular velocity) does not need to be changed when the laser seeks across the disc, similarly to the magnetic head of a hard disk drive. It also allows for the fastest writing speeds on recordable media (e.g. CD-R, DVD±R, BD-R) because the disc can spin at the highest physically possible angular speed throughout the entire writing process. A linear (data reading and writing) speeds of 2.4 times higher can be reached at the outer disc edge with the same angular (rotation) speed.

CAV was used in the LaserDisc format for interactive titles; it was also used with special editions of certain films. CAV allowed for perfect still frames, as well as random access to any given frame on a disc. Playing time, however, was 30 minutes on each side (these discs are also known as "standard play"), as opposed to 60 minutes on each side for CLV-based discs ("extended play").

CAV is used with the Nintendo GameCube Game disc and Wii Optical disc, the original Xbox discs, and Sega's GD-ROM.

Partial constant angular velocity (P-CAV)
If the used media (e.g. DVD-RAM variants) has a linear (writing) speed limitation that can not be attained with physically supported angular (rotation) speeds at the inner edge of the recordable area, the disc writing can start off with a constant angular velocity, until the increasing linear velocity has reached the writing speed limitation of the disc.

At that point, the drive transitions into writing with a constant linear velocity.

See also
 Constant linear velocity (CLV)
 Zone bit recording (ZCAV)

References

External links
 http://www.pcguide.com/ref/hdd/geom/tracksZBR-c.html
Rotating disc computer storage media
Audio storage
Video storage
Optical computer storage

Constant angular velocity


The Penrose process (also called Penrose mechanism) is theorised by Sir Roger Penrose as a means whereby energy can be extracted from a rotating black hole. The process takes advantage of the ergosphere – a region of spacetime around the black hole dragged by its rotation faster than the speed of light, meaning that from the point of an outside observer any matter inside is forced to move in the direction of the rotation of the black hole.

In the process, a working body falls (black thick line in the figure) into the ergosphere (gray region). At its lowest point (red dot) the body fires a propellant backwards; however, to a faraway observer both seem to continue to move forward due to frame-dragging (albeit at different speeds). The propellant, being slowed, falls (thin gray line) to the event horizon of the black hole (black disk). The remains of the body, being sped up, fly away (thin black line) with an excess of energy (that more than offsets the loss of the propellant and the energy used to shoot it).

The maximum amount of energy gain possible for a single particle decay via the original (or classical) Penrose process is 20.7% of its mass in the case of an uncharged black hole (assuming the best case of maximal rotation of the black hole). The energy is taken from the rotation of the black hole, so there is a limit on how much energy one can extract by Penrose process and similar strategies (for an uncharged black hole no more than 29% of its original mass; larger efficiencies are possible for charged rotating black holes).

Details of the ergosphere
The outer surface of the ergosphere is the surface at which light that moves in the direction opposite to the rotation of the black hole remains at a fixed angular coordinate, according to an external observer. Since massive particles necessarily travel slower than light, massive particles will necessarily move along with the black hole's rotation. The inner boundary of the ergosphere is the event horizon, the spatial perimeter beyond which light cannot escape.

Inside the ergosphere even light cannot keep up with the rotation of the black hole, as the trajectories of stationary (from the outside perspective) objects become space-like, rather than time-like (that normal matter would have), or light-like. Mathematically, the  component of the metric changes its sign inside the ergosphere. That allows matter to have negative energy inside of the ergosphere as long as it moves counter the black hole's rotation fast enough (or, from outside perspective, resists being dragged along to a sufficient degree). Penrose mechanism exploits that by diving into the ergosphere, dumping an object that was given negative energy, and returning with more energy than before.

In this way, rotational energy is extracted from the black hole, resulting in the black hole being spun down to a lower rotational speed. The maximum amount of energy (per mass of the thrown in object) is extracted if the black hole is rotating at the maximal rate, the object just grazes the event horizon and decays into forwards and backwards moving packets of light (the first escapes the black hole, the second falls inside).

In an adjunct process, a black hole can be spun up (its rotational speed increased) by sending in particles that do not split up, but instead give their entire angular momentum to the black hole. However, this is not a reverse of the Penrose process, as both increase the entropy of the black hole by throwing material into it.

See also

 High Life, a 2018 science-fiction film that includes a mission to harness the process

References

Further reading

Black holes
Energy sources
Hypothetical technology

Penrose process


A shadow cabinet is a term which applies in some parliamentary democracies based on the UK parliamentary tradition. It is a group of politicians who hold a political position in their party, but whose party is not in government (that is, an opposition party). A member of the shadow cabinet is a shadow minister. The leader of a shadow cabinet is called the Leader of the Opposition. The term is of United Kingdom origin, and is used by some members of the Commonwealth. Some elements are found in other democratic systems of government.

Each minister of a Cabinet has a corresponding shadow minister. The shadow minister may provide alternative policies to the minister in the government. The two of them may debate on issues relating to their area of jurisdiction. For example, the British "Shadow Secretary of State for Health" often replies to the Secretary of State for Health.

The current UK Shadow Cabinet is made up of members of the Labour Party. The term refers only to the party in opposition which has the most seats of the opposition parties.

References

Parliamentary procedure

Shadow cabinet


The Battle of Pease Bottom, also called the Battle of the Bighorn River was a conflict between the United States Army and the Sioux on August 11, 1873, along the Yellowstone River opposite the mouth of the Bighorn River near present-day Custer, Montana. The main combatants were units of the 7th U.S. Cavalry under Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, and Native Americans from the village of the Hunkpapa medicine man, Sitting Bull, many of whom would clash with Custer again approximately three years later at the Battle of the Little Big Horn in the Crow Indian Reservation.

Short history of the battlefield

The site of the future battlefield came to be a locality in a treaty territory for the first time in 1851. The Treaty of Fort Laramie describes the area as Crow Indian country. The Lakota tribe acknowledged this. Nearly all the battles in the mid-1860s and the 1870s "between the army and the Dakota Lakota, North Dakota were on lands those Indians had taken from other tribes since 1851." When the Crows agreed to settle on a smaller reservation on May 7, 1868, all the 1851 Crow treaty land north of the Yellowstone - including the future Pease Bottom - became U.S. territory.

Participants

U.S. Army forces
Custer and ten companies of the 7th Cavalry were part of the Yellowstone Expedition of 1873, a military column commanded by Colonel David S. Stanley accompanying the Northern Pacific Railway survey party surveying the north side of the Yellowstone River west of the Powder River in eastern Montana. Stanley's column consisted of a 1,300 man force of cavalry, infantry, and two artillery pieces (3" ordnance rifles). It traveled with 275 mule-drawn wagons and 353 civilians involved in the survey. Twenty-seven Indian and mixed-blood scouts supported the column.

Just a week before, the army had been under Lakota attack in U.S. territory at Honsinger Bluff.

The Battle of Pease Bottom was fought primarily by 8 companies of the 7th Cavalry under command of General Custer, numbering roughly 450 men.

Native American forces
The Native American forces were from the Sitting Bull's village, estimated at anywhere from 400 to 500 lodges. It included Hunkpapa Sioux under Gall accompanied by the warchief Rain in the Face, Oglala Sioux under Crazy Horse, and Miniconjou and Cheyenne. The warrior force was estimated at between 800 and 1000 warriors.

Battle

On the morning of August 11, 1873, Custer was encamped with a portion of the 1873 Yellowstone Expedition (Eight companies of the 7th Cavalry) along the north side of the Yellowstone River at what was later known as Pease Bottom near present-day Custer, Montana. In the early morning hours warriors from the village of Sitting Bull started firing at Custer's camp from across the river, and by dawn skirmishing had broken out in several locations. After shooting at least 3 warriors across the river, Private John Tuttle of Company E, 7th Cavalry was killed in the morning fighting, warriors then crossed the Yellowstone River above and below the camp of the 7th Cavalry and attacked Custer's troops. The 7th Cavalry successfully defended their rear, front and center from this attack, then counter-attacked with a charge, breaking the warrior positions and driving the warriors eight or more miles from the battlefield. At about the same time, Colonel Stanley's column appeared in the distance several miles away and hurried to support the engagement. During the battle Second Lieutenant Charles Braden of the 7th Cavalry was critically wounded, along with three other Privates of the same regiment. Braden's thigh was shattered by an Indian bullet and he remained on permanent sick leave until his retirement from the Army in 1878. He would posthumously be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross in 1925 for his actions during the battle. At least one army horse was wounded during the engagement. Indian losses were unknown, however, estimates from Custer's post-battle report claim "their losses in killed and wounded were beyond all proportion to that which they were enabled to inflict on us, our losses being one officer badly wounded, four men killed, and three wounded. Careful investigation justifies the statement that including both day's battles, the Indian losses will number forty warriors, while their wounded on the opposite bank of the river may increase this number."

Order of battle

United States Army
United States Army, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer, 7th United States Cavalry Regiment, Commanding.
 7th U. S. Cavalry, Companies A, B, C, E, F, G, H, K, L and M: Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer
 Artillery Section of (two) 3-inch ordnance rifles (Cannons): Second Lieutenant John McA. Webster, 22nd Infantry

Native Americans
 Lakota Sioux: Sitting Bull.

See also
Sitting Bull
George Armstrong Custer

References

Further reading
 Colonel Stanley's and Lieutenant Colonel Custer's Expedition on the Yellowstone, 1873.
 Lubetkin, M. John, Jay Cooke's Gamble: The Northern Pacific Railroad, The Sioux, and the Panic of 1873, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma 2006

Conflicts in 1873
Battles involving the Sioux
Battles involving the United States
Battle of Pease Bottom
Wars between the United States and Native Americans
Battle of Pease Bottom
Indian wars of the American Old West
1873 in Montana Territory
August 1873 events
1870s battles

Battle of Pease Bottom


In the post-secondary education system of the United States, an expected family contribution (EFC) is an estimate of a student's, and for a dependent student, their parent(s)' or guardian(s)', ability to pay the costs of a year of post-secondary education. The EFC is used in the United States student financial aid process to determine an applicant's eligibility for need-based federal student aid. In most cases, the same estimate is also used for state and institutional (college-based) financial aid. The EFC is included on the Student Aid Report and Institutional Student Information Record, which are sent after filing a form called a Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA).

There are a number of free calculators on the Web to help applicants estimate the EFC before filing the FAFSA. Recipients of need-based financial aid must reapply for each year by completing a new FAFSA.

The term and concept of Expected Family Contribution will be replaced by the term Student Aid Index in 2022.

Use of the expected family contribution

The federal government does not distribute aid directly to the student or the student's family; it goes through the college. Colleges use the student's federal student aid eligibility and combine it with state financial aid (if any) and their own aid to create a financial aid package for the student. Generally speaking, the lower the EFC, the higher the financial aid award will be. Zero is the lowest EFC number (indicating that the family cannot afford to pay anything) and 999,999 is the highest.

Some relatively wealthy colleges and universities use another method called the CSS Profile, or have their own form, to calculate their own version of an EFC, which they use in distributing the college's aid. A major difference between the FAFSA and the CSS Profile is that the CSS Profile includes primary residence home equity when determining the ability of the family to pay, while the FAFSA does not.

The EFC is subtracted from the cost of attendance (COA) of the college or university to determine a student's financial need. If , then a student is considered to have a financial need.

Calculation of the EFC

Basic considerations
The formula for computing the EFC changes each year. It is different for each of three categories of student (dependent students, independent students without dependents other than a spouse, and independent students with dependents other than a spouse) and is published in the Federal Register. An Department of Education document explaining how the EFC is determined was 36 pages long in 2017. It considers income, family size, living expenses, and family and student savings. If the student is a dependent, the student's savings and income, if any, are considered highly available to pay for college. A student with a college savings fund in his or her name will have a higher EFC (if not qualifying for an automatic zero), and will thus receive less need-based aid.

Automatic Zero and Simplified Needs EFC
 Automatic Zero: A student's EFC is set to zero if the family's income is below $26,000 for the 2017–2018 year and
 they either received funding from any of the Federal Benefits programs (SSI, SNAP (formerly known as the Food Stamp program), WIC, or Free/Reduced Price Lunch), OR
 they filed or were eligible to file a  1040A, 1040EZ, or were not required to fill out a tax return, OR
 the parent is a dislocated worker.
 Simplified Needs Test: Families meeting the above requirements except for having income between $26,000 and $50,000 are eligible for the Simplified Needs Test, in which assets are not used in the calculation.
 Independent students without dependents other than a spouse are not eligible for the Automatic Zero or Simplified Needs.

Considerations that reduce the EFC
There are several considerations that can potentially reduce the Expected Family Contribution (EFC) when calculating financial aid eligibility. Here are some factors that can impact the EFC:

 Number of Family Members in College: If there are multiple family members attending college at the same time, the EFC for each student may be reduced. This is because the cost of education is divided among the family members, recognizing that there are multiple students with financial needs.
 Family Size: The size of the household affects the EFC. Generally, as the number of family members supported by the parents' income increases, the EFC decreases. The more dependents a family has, the more financial resources are typically allocated to meet their needs.
 Income Protection Allowance: The federal government provides an income protection allowance based on the size of the household and the number of family members attending college. This allowance ensures that a portion of the income is not included in the EFC calculation, providing some relief for families.
 Asset Protection Allowance: Similar to the income protection allowance, there is an asset protection allowance that exempts a certain amount of assets from consideration. The specific amount depends on the age of the older parent and whether they are married or unmarried.
 Need-Based Aid Formulas: Different financial aid formulas used by colleges and universities can also impact the EFC. Some institutions use their own methodologies or consider additional factors beyond what is required by the federal government. These formulas may result in a lower EFC for certain families.
 Financial Hardship: In some cases, families may experience significant financial hardship that is not adequately captured by the standard EFC calculation. In such instances, families can appeal to the financial aid office and provide documentation to demonstrate their extenuating circumstances. The financial aid office may exercise professional judgment to adjust the EFC based on the individual situation.

It's important to note that while these considerations can potentially reduce the EFC, the actual impact on the final EFC calculation will depend on the specific circumstances of the family and the policies of the institution providing the financial aid.

Items that lower a student's EFC:
 Additional family members supported by the head of the household (e.g., siblings or grandparents who are living at home)
 Additional family members in college. (The EFC is split among the students in college.)
 Lower income (especially student income)
 Fewer assets (especially student assets)

Colleges or universities have the legal authority to lower the EFC if there are unusual circumstances, usually brought to the financial aid office's attention as the result of an appeal of a financial aid award. These circumstances include:
 Loss of employment
 Loss of child support, alimony, etc.
 Separation or divorce
 Death of parent or spouse
 Large medical or dental expenses not covered by insurance
 Income that was abnormally high because of a one-time lump sum that will most likely not occur again

Financial issues that are not considered
Aspects that are not considered in the calculation of the EFC are:
 The equity in the family's principal home. (Additional homes and other real estate holdings are counted.)
 Parental retirement funds, such as 401ks
 Consumer debt, such as car and credit card loans

Actual family payments
A common misconception is that the EFC is a statement of what the family actually will pay. This is usually not the case, and many families pay more, sometimes much more, than the EFC. The college's costs, minus the EFC, gives the student's financial need. Most four-year colleges do not have enough financial aid to meet students' needs, and as a result, the unmet need must be paid by the parents, in addition to the EFC. The federal government offers unsubsidized Stafford Loans, which are available to any family regardless of need, as a source of funds to cover the unmet need.

In cases in which a student qualifies for merit-based (rather than need-based) financial aid, the student and their family may pay less than the EFC.

A well-to-do family's EFC may exceed the cost of attendance at a school, and in that case the student does not have financial need, as defined by the federal financial aid system.

In some cases, despite financial hardship for the student, the student's family will simply be unwilling to pay the full amount, leaving the student to find their own way to finance their college education, or forgo it.

Independent and dependent students
Students who are unmarried, younger than 24, and not supporting a minor child are categorized as Dependent Students, and the parents' income and assets are used in determining the EFC. Even if the parents have no intention of helping pay the student's college expenses, which legally they are not required to do, the student remains considered a dependent and the parents' income and assets are used in determining the EFC and through it, the student's financial aid award. Put differently, if the parents are able but unwilling to help pay for the student's college, financial aid will not be increased because of it. This was determined by the United States Congress.

In exceptional cases, such as parental child abuse and parental communication with the child being prohibited by a court, the college financial aid office has the authority to change a student's status from Dependent to Independent.

See also
FAFSA
Student financial aid in the United States

References

External links

Student financial aid
Education finance in the United States
United States Department of Education

Expected family contribution


Cledus Navidad is a Christmas album released by country music artist Cledus T. Judd. The track "Merry Christmas from the Whole Fam Damily", included here, was previously on his 2000 album Just Another Day in Parodies. Also featured are two cover songs: "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer" (originally recorded by Elmo & Patsy) and "Santa Claus Is Watching You" (originally recorded by Ray Stevens). "Stephon the Alternative Lifestyle Reindeer" was later recorded by Mac McAnally on his 2004 album Semi-True Stories.

Track listing
"Cledus' Christmas Ball" (Brett Beavers, Jim Beavers, Mike Waldron) – 2:55
"Stephon the Alternative Lifestyle Reindeer" (Mac McAnally) – 3:15
"Hazel's Homemade Hallelujah Punch" (Chris Clark, Richard Fagan) – 2:57
"Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer" (Randy Brooks) – 4:02
"Only 364 Shopping Days 'Til Christmas" (Bruce Burch, Clark, Cledus T. Judd) – 3:14
"Tree's on Fire" – 2:34
parody of "Ring of Fire" by Johnny Cash; parody lyrics written by Dennis Amero
"Don't Serve Beans" (Dennis Amero, Robert Ellis Orrall) – 3:35
"Merry Christmas from the Whole Fam Damily" (Clark, Judd) – 4:14
"Santa Claus Is Watching You" (Ray Stevens) – 3:12
"All I Want for Christmas Is Two Gold Front Teef" – 2:59
parody of "All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth" by Spike Jones and The City Slickers; parody lyrics by Chris Clark

Chart performance

Cledus T. Judd albums
Monument Records albums
2002 Christmas albums
Christmas albums by American artists
Country Christmas albums
2000s comedy albums

Cledus Navidad


The Land of Israel Gaonate (Hebrew: ישיבת ארץ ישראל, romanized: Yeshivat Eretz Israel) was the chief talmudical academy and central legalistic body of the Jewish community in Palestine during the middle of the ninth century, or even earlier, till its demise during the 11th-century. During its existence, it competed with the
Babylonian Gaonate for the support of the growing diasporic communities. The Egyptian and German Jews particularly regarded the Palestinian geonim as their spiritual leaders. The history of the gaonate was revealed in documents discovered in the Cairo genizah in 1896. Sparse information is available on the Palestinian geonim prior to the middle of the ninth century. The extant material consists essentially of a list in Seder Olam Zuta relating all the geonim to Mar Zutra.

In the middle of the ninth century, the Palestinian academy was transferred from Tiberias to Jerusalem. It was forced to move to Tyre, Lebanon in 1071; authority was later transferred to Fostat, Egypt. The Academy of Palestine had probably ceased to exist before Palestine was conquered by the Christians, but the tradition of the Palestinian gaonate seems to have survived at Damascus, for Benjamin of Tudela (c. 1170) says that the teachers of Damascus were considered as the "scholastic heads of the Land of Israel."

The Gaonate in The Land of Israel
Prior to the middle of the 9th-century, information about the geonim of Palestine is listed in Seder Olam Zuta which links all the geonim to Mar Zutra (and thereby to the Davidic line). But fragments found in the geniza contradict the list, claiming that a member of the priestly family headed the academy in Tiberias in the middle of the 8th-century. Evidence of the academy in Palestine existing during the lifetime of Hai Gaon, the last Babylonian gaon, is from a mention of Josiah the ḥaber being ordained at the "holy yeshiva of Palestine" in a document dated 1031. A postscript to a small chronicle dating from the year 1046 says that Solomon ben Judah was then the "head of the Academy of Jerusalem". Three generations of the descendants of this Solomon ben Judah predecessor, Solomon HaKohen ben Joseph, were heads of the Palestinian academy, and bore the title of "gaon." Solomon HaKohen ben Joseph reigned for approximately six months during the year 1025. A work of one of these geonim of Palestine, the Megillat Abiathar, which was discovered by Schechter in the genizah of Cairo, and gives a very clear account of this interesting episode in the history of the Jews of Palestine.

During the 11th-century, daily prayers were offered at the Cave of Machpela for the welfare for the head of the Gaonate.

Hierarchy of the academy
The hierarchy of the academy in The Land of Israel was similar to that of Babylonia, although it had become a dynastic institution. The three main positions were controlled by three families, two of which claimed priestly descent. The av beit din, the president of the court, ranked next to the gaon, and that another member of the college, called "the third" ("ha-shelishi"), held the third highest office.  A letter in the "Mittheilungen aus der Sammlung der Papyrus Erzherzog Rainer" is addressed to Solomon b. Judah, "the first gaon of Palestine". This letter clearly shows the same close connection between the Jews of Egypt and those of Palestine as is indicated in the Megillat Abiathar. Solomon ben Judah was succeeded at his death by Daniel ben Azariah, a scion of the house of exilarchs who had gone from Babylon to Palestine, and had formerly done much injury to the brothers Joseph and Elijah HaKohen ben Solomon Gaon, was elected gaon, to the exclusion of Joseph, who remained av beit din. Joseph died in 1053 and his brother Elijah became "Av Beit din". Daniel ben Azariah died in 1062 after a long and serious illness, which he himself is said to have acknowledged to be a punishment for his ill treatment of his predecessors. Elijah now became gaon, filling the office down to 1084.

Exile and contested authority
After Jerusalem was taken by the Seljuq Turks in 1071, the gaonate was removed from Jerusalem, apparently to Tyre. In 1082 Elijah Gaon of Palestine called a large convocation at Tyre, and on this occasion he designated his son Abiathar as his successor in the gaonate, and his other son, Solomon, as av beit din. In 1084, Elijah held a council at Haifa. He died shortly thereafter and was buried in Galilee, near the old tannaic tombs, a large concourse of people attending the burial. Shortly after Abiathar entered upon his office, David ben Daniel, a descendant of the Babylonian exilarchs, was proclaimed exilarch in Egypt. David ben Daniel succeeded in having his authority recognized also by the communities along the Palestinian and Phoenician coasts, Tyre alone retaining its independence for a time. But when this city again came under Egyptian rule in 1089, the Egyptian exilarch subjected its community also, forcing Abiathar to leave the academy. The academy itself, however, resisted the exilarch, declaring his claims to be invalid, and pointing out his godlessness and tyranny while in office. Fast-day services were held (1093), and the sway of the Egyptian exilarch was soon ended. The nagid Meborak, to whom David ben Daniel owed his elevation, called a large assembly, which deposed David ben Daniel and reinstated Abiathar as gaon (Iyar, 1094). Abiathar wrote his Megillah in commemoration of this event.

A few years later, at the time of the First Crusade, Abiathar sent a letter to the community of Constantinople. It is dated from Tripolis in Phoenicia, to which the academy may have been removed. Abiathar was succeeded by his brother Solomon. An undated anonymous letter dwells on the controversies and difficulties with which the academy had to contend.

Transfer to Egypt
The next generation of Solomon HaKohen ben Joseph's descendants dwelt in Egypt. In 1031 Maṣliaḥ, a son of Solomon ben Elijah, addressed from the "gate of the Academy of Fostat" a letter to a certain Abraham, in which he gives his whole genealogy, adding the full title of "gaon, rosh yeshivat geon Yakov," to the names of his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather. The Academy of Palestine had probably ceased to exist before Palestine was conquered by the Christians, and its head, the gaon Maṣliaḥ, went to Fostat, where there was an academy that had seceded from the authority of the Palestinian academy at the time of the Egyptian exilarch David ben Daniel. It is not known what office Maṣliaḥ occupied at Fostat, although he retained his title of gaon. A daughter of Maṣliaḥ presented to the academy a book by Samuel ben Ḥofni which she had inherited from her grandfather, the gaon Solomon ben Elijah. In 1112 the Mushtamil, the philological work of the Karaite scholar Abu al-Faraj Harun, was copied for Elijah, a son of the gaon Abiathar, "grandson of a gaon and great-grandson of a gaon". In 1111 the same Elijah purchased at Fostat Rabbeinu Hananel's commentary to Joshua, which subsequently fell into the hands of his cousin, the gaon Maṣliaḥ. It may be noted here that the geonic family of Palestine was of Aaronite origin and that Abiathar claimed Ezra as his ancestor.

See also
 Palestinian minhag
 Sanhedrin
 Talmudic Academies in the Land of Israel
 Talmudic Academies in Babylonia

References

Jews in the Land of Israel
History of Palestine (region)

Palestinian Gaonate


A corpus cavernosum penis (singular) (literally "porous body" of the penis, : corpora cavernosa) is one of a pair of sponge-like regions of erectile tissue, which contain most of the blood in the penis during an erection.

It is homologous to the corpus cavernosum clitoridis in the female; the body of the clitoris that contains erectile tissue in a pair of corpora cavernosa with a recognisably similar structure.

Anatomy
The two corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum (also known as the corpus cavernosum urethrae in older texts and in the adjacent diagram) are three expandable erectile tissues along the length of the penis, which fill with blood during penile erection. The two corpora cavernosa lie along the penile shaft, from the pubic bones to the head of the penis, where they join. These formations are made of a sponge-like tissue containing trabeculae, irregular blood-filled spaces lined by endothelium and separated by septum of the penis.

The male anatomy has no vestibular bulbs, but instead a corpus spongiosum, a smaller region along the bottom of the penis, which contains the urethra and forms the glans penis.

Physiology
In some circumstances, release of nitric oxide precedes relaxation of muscles in the corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum, in a process similar to female arousal. The spongy tissue fills with blood, from arteries down the length of the penis. A little blood enters the corpus spongiosum; the remainder engorges the corpora cavernosa, which expand to hold 90% of the blood involved in an erection, increasing both in length and in diameter. The function of the corpus spongiosum is to prevent compression of the urethra during erection.

Blood can leave the erectile tissue only through a drainage system of veins around the outside wall of the corpus cavernosum. The expanding spongy tissue presses against a surrounding dense tissue (tunica albuginea) constricting these veins, preventing blood from leaving. The penis becomes rigid as a result. The glans penis, the expanded cap of the corpus spongiosum, remains more malleable during erection because its tunica albuginea is much thinner than elsewhere in the penis.

Additional images

See also
 Peyronie's disease

References

External links
  - "The Male Perineum and the Penis: Penis"

Mammal male reproductive system
Human penis anatomy

Corpus cavernosum penis


The , formerly known as the , was a conservative and nationalist political party in Japan. The SPJ was formed on 10 April 2010 by five Japanese lawmakers and parliamentarians, four former members of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) and an independent politician. It was named by the then-Tokyo Metropolitan Governor Shintarō Ishihara who supported the action. At its inception, the party described itself as an "anti-DPJ, non-LDP" political force.

It was renamed and re-formed on 14 November 2012 by co-leaders Ishihara and Takeo Hiranuma. The party merged into the Japan Restoration Party on 17 November 2012.

Party name
When the party was founded in 2010 as "Tachiagare Nippon" – the Sunrise Party of Japan. It was named by Shintaro Ishihara, who was then still governor of Tokyo. In 2012, after Ishihara stepped down as governor and announced he would form a new party he renamed the party "The Sunrise Party". The Japanese name of the party, "Taiyō no Tō", literally translates as "party of the sun", and is taken from Ishihara's novel Season of the Sun. Some other proposed names had included "Nippon Kaishin Tō" (Japan reform and progress party) and "Reimei" (Dawn).

2010–2011 arrivals and departures
Yoshio Nakagawa belonged to the party but did not contest his Hokkaidō seat in the 2010 House of Councillors election, and ran instead on the party's national proportional list. Toranosuke Katayama won the party's only proportional seat in this election. LDP Councillor Kyōko Nakayama (proportional, up in 2013) had joined the party in June 2010 together with her husband Nariaki Nakayama, a former LDP Representative.

Kaoru Yosano, one of the founding members, left this party on 13 January 2011 to join the Naoto Kan's cabinet as the minister of economic and fiscal policy.

2012 reformation
In October 2012, when Ishihara stepped down as Tokyo governor and announced that he would set up a new national political party, it was expected that he would form it with members of the Sunrise party. When announced by co-leaders Ishihara and Hiranuma in mid-November, 2012, The Sunrise Party incorporated all five members of the SPJ. The SP looked to form a coalition with other small parties including Osaka Mayor Tōru Hashimoto's Japan Restoration Party for possibly impending elections. On 13 November, Ishihara stated that: "Taiyō no Tō is only a part of the process. We will definitely form a coalition before the [lower house] election. I don't mind if [our party] is absorbed [into the alliance] and vanishes".

Aborted merger with Genzei Nippon
On 15 November 2012, Ishihara and Takashi Kawamura of the Nagoya-based Genzai Nippon (Tax Reduction Party). announced that they would merge. The following day Ishihara had a meeting with Hashimoto and decided to unilaterally cancel the plans for the Genzai Nippon merger. Kawamura was disappointed but said he would continue to seek a merger with Ishihara's group.

Merger with Japan Restoration Party
On 17 November 2012, Ishihara and Hashimoto decided to merge their parties, with Ishihara becoming the head of the Japan Restoration Party. Your Party would not join the party, nor would Genzei Nippon, as the latter party's anti-consumption tax increase policy does not match the JRP's pro-consumption tax policy.

Presidents

Politicians
 Takeo Hiranuma
 Hiroyuki Sonoda
 Takao Fujii
 Toranosuke Katayama
 Kyoko Nakayama
 Nariaki Nakayama
 Shintarō Ishihara

References

External links
Sunrise Party of Japan

2010 establishments in Japan
2012 disestablishments in Japan
Anti-communist organizations in Japan
Anti-communist parties
Conservative parties in Japan
Japanese nationalist parties
Far-right politics in Japan
Political parties disestablished in 2012
Political parties established in 2010
Shintaro Ishihara

Sunrise Party


Johann Gramann or Graumann (5 July 1487 – 29 April 1541), also known by his pen name Johannes Poliander, was a German pastor, theologian, teacher, humanist, reformer, and Lutheran leader.

Life

Gramann was born in Neustadt an der Aisch, Middle Franconia. He worked as rector of the Thomasschule in Leipzig. Poliander was Johann Eck's secretary at the 1519 Leipzig Debate, where he met Martin Luther and joined the Protestant Reformation. Poliander became pastor of Altstadt Church in 1525 in Königsberg (Kaliningrad), capital of the new Duchy of Prussia (a fief of the Crown of Poland), succeeding the fiery Johannes Amandus.
The humanist was well-regarded by his peers, including the Catholic Johannes Dantiscus. He wrote secular and religious poetry in German and Latin. He was a strong advocate with Albert, Duke of Prussia, for the creation of the University of Königsberg. He donated his personal collection of 1,000 books to Altstadt's council; this became the foundation of the later Königsberg Public Library. He died in Königsberg.

Hymn

Gramann's hymn "Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren" was set by several composers. Johann Sebastian Bach used it in cantatas and organ preludes, including Gottlob! nun geht das Jahr zu Ende, BWV 28 for the Sunday after Christmas.

Sources

External links

 Johann Gramann in Ökumenisches Heiligenlexikon
 Biography of Gramann, Johann (Poliander) in the Evangelical Lutheran Hymnary Handbook
 Johann Gramann (Poliander) (Hymn-Writer) Bach-Cantatas
 Johannes Poliander in Kulturportal West – Ost

1487 births
1541 deaths
16th-century German composers
16th-century German Lutheran clergy
Clergy from Bavaria
Clergy from Königsberg
German Lutheran theologians
German Protestant hymnwriters
People from Neustadt (Aisch)-Bad Windsheim
People from the Duchy of Prussia
People of the Protestant Reformation
Pseudonymous writers

Johann Gramann


William H. "Ducky" Hemp (December 27, 1862 – March 3, 1923) was a professional baseball player whose career spanned seven seasons. Hemp played two of those seven seasons in Major League Baseball. Over his major league career, Hemp compiled a batting average of .214 with 25 hits, 2 doubles, 2 triples, 5 RBIs, and 4 stolen bases.

Professional career

Louisville Colonels
Before entering the major leagues, Hemp played in the minors with the Memphis Reds of the Southern League in 1885, and later the Wichita Braves of the Western League in 1887. With the Braves, Ducky was noted as a fan favorite, and his nickname "Ducky" was given to him while he played with the Braves. Hemp would later become the first player from the Braves to play in the majors. Later in 1887, Hemp joined the major league Louisville Colonels. In 1 game with the Colonels, Hemp got 1 hit, 1 run, 1 double, and 1 base on balls in 4 plate appearances. He played the entire game in the outfield as well.

Pittsburgh Alleghenys
After he parted with the Colonels, Hemp played the rest of the 1887 season with the minor league Lincoln Tree Planters of the Western League. In 1888, Hemp again played in the minors, this time with the Dallas Hams of the Texas League. The next season, Hemp played with the Evansville Hoosiers of the Central Interstate League. In 1890, Hemp returned to the majors, this time with the Pittsburgh Alleghenys of the National League. Hemp played 21 games with the Alleghenys, and batted .235 with 19 hits, 2 doubles, 4 RBIs, and 3 stolen bases. On the defensive side, Hemp played all of his 21 games in the outfield and committed 6 errors.

Syracuse Stars
Hemp played the rest of the 1890 season with the major league Syracuse Stars. In 9 games with the Stars, Hemp batted .152 with 5 hits, 1 doubles, 1 RBI, and 1 stolen base. In the field, Hemp played all of his 9 games in the outfield, and committed 1 error.

Later career
After his major league career was over, Hemp played in the minor leagues. He spent the rest of the 1890 season with the Lincoln Rustlers (who later that season became the Des Moines Prohibitionist) of the Western Association. In 1891, Hemp played for the Green Bay, Wisconsin, baseball club of the Wisconsin State League, the Terre Haute Hottentots of the Northwestern League, and the Peoria Distillers, also of the Northwestern League. Hemp's final season in professional baseball came in 1892 with the Rock Island-Moline Twins, and the Terre Haute Hottentots, both of the Illinois–Indiana League.

Death
Hemp died on March 3, 1923, in his hometown of St. Louis, Missouri, at the age of 60. He was buried at Calvary Cemetery in St. Louis.

References

External links

1862 births
1923 deaths
Baseball players from St. Louis
Major League Baseball outfielders
Memphis Reds players
Wichita Braves players
Louisville Colonels players
Lincoln Tree Planters players
Dallas Hams players
Evansville Hoosiers players
Pittsburgh Alleghenys players
Syracuse Stars (AA) players
Lincoln Rustlers players
Des Moines Prohibitionists players
Terre Haute Hottentots players
Peoria Distillers players
19th-century baseball players

Ducky Hemp


MTV International, also known as Music Television International and MTVI was the internet-based international version of MTV. The channel was a subsidiary of MTV Networks. The channel was broadcast on MySpace on MTV International's blog, and powered by YouTube.

Launched on August 17, 2006, the purpose of the channel was to give commercial-free music videos, once the original MTV had started concentrating on shows unrelated to music videos or music-related programming. MTV International also aired music-related specials and a few non-musical programs aimed at viewers in their teens and young adults.

History
MTV International's first music video to air was Paris Hilton's "Stars Are Blind". MTV International showed a variety of remixes and original versions of songs from internationally known artists and locally known artists from various countries, as well as live performances of songs. The channel allowed viewers to vote for their favorite videos. MTV International was the first MTV Network to be fully broadcast on the internet. MTV International played both old and new videos that are currently shown on other networks like MTV Hits and MTV Jams.

MTV International featured VJs and languages from different MTV channels around the globe. MTV International also showed music video specials such as "MTVI's Cool Christmas","MTV AVMA Week", "MTV VMAJ Week", and "MTV VMA Week" which played music videos based on subjects such as Christmas, Australia Video Music Awards, Video Music Awards Japan, MTV Video Music Awards. A goal of MTV International was breaking "the barrier that does not allow certain artists and music to countries like America".

The channel started to air more shows as its popularity grew. Some were uploaded without permission to Internet video website YouTube, which were later taken down due to copyright infringement. MTVI created an Anti-Copyright Videos Zone Only, since its parent company Viacom was suing YouTube and its owner Google for over 12,000 unauthorized videos on YouTube, uploaded since February 2, 2007. MTV International also made some changes to the channel; playlists were no longer on a separate page from the blog. MTV International relaunched on Saturday, May 6, 2007, at 3:14am GST/3:14pm DST. The channel on MySpace recovered after weeks of technical difficulties. All shows were planned to go back on schedule by May 12, 2007.

Music Television International shut down on June 22, 2007, after the channel was receiving few viewers. The channel still broadcast over YouTube after the shutdown but closed its YouTube channel shortly after. Some of the last music videos that MTVI showed on its channel were JYONGRI - "Possession", Hyori Lee - "10 Minutes", Plain White T's - "Hey There Delilah", and Michael Bublé - "Everything". Bhav Singh served as the Managing Director and Executive Vice President of the Emerging Markets of the MTVI.

Shows/programming
 Pop Block
 Rock Block (formerly known as MTV's Rock On!)
 Drake & Josh
 VH1 International Block
 Jump Start
 All Access
 I Got a Rocket...
 Wake-Up Video
 After Hours
 MTVI's Cafe
 Fresh New Music
 MTV Urban Beats (never premiered)
 Breakfast Club
 Sunrise Videos
 Sunset Videos
 Morning Videos
 Afternoon Videos
 NITE CLUB
 Late Nite
 PLAYLIST
 Top 20
 MTVI's World Express Chat Countdown
 US Top 20 (MTV America version) (also MTVI's version of VSpot Top 20 Countdown)
 MTV Canada's Top 5 (MTVI version)
 MTV Korea's Top 5 (MTVI version)
 Top Choice (International version)
 Amp (International version)
 Block of Music Videos (formerly known as Music Videos)
 MTV LIVE (International version)
 Making the Video (International version)
 MTVI VMA Week
 MTVI AVMA Week
 MTVI VMAJ Week
 Super GALS! (never premiered)
 Samurai Champloo (never premiered)
 VH1 on MTVI (never premiered)
 Top International 30

See also
 MTV Networks
 List of MTV channels
 MySpace
 Viacom

References

External links
 MTVI Website (no longer updated)
 Official MTVI MySpace (shut down)
 Official YouTube Channel (suspended but closed)

MTV
International Emmy Founders Award winners

MTV International


Drive by wire or DbW technology in the automotive industry is the use of electronic or electro-mechanical systems in place of mechanical linkages that control driving functions. The concept is similar to fly-by-wire in the aviation industry. Drive-by-wire may refer to just the propulsion of the vehicle through electronic throttle control, or it may refer to electronic control over propulsion as well as steering and braking, which separately are known as steer by wire and brake by wire, along with electronic control over other vehicle driving functions.

Driver input is traditionally transferred mechanically to the motor and wheels through a steering wheel and steering column, throttle, hydraulic brakes, brake pull handles and so on. In drive-by-wire systems, driver input is processed by an electronic control system which controls the vehicle using electromechanical actuators. The human–machine interface, such as a steering wheel, yoke, accelerator pedal, brake pedal, and so on, may include haptic feedback that simulates the resistance of hydraulic and mechanical pedals and steering, including steering kickback. Components such as the steering column, intermediate shafts, pumps, hoses, belts, coolers, vacuum servos and master cylinders are eliminated from the vehicle. Safety standards for drive-by-wire are specified by the ISO 26262 standard level D.

Properties

Dispensing with mechanical linkages has several advantages: it reduces complexity and simplifies assembly; simplifies service and tuning; reduces the force required to engage inputs and allows it to be customized with haptic technology; allows for more interior design freedom in the placement of input mechanisms; allows for automation of driving functions; reduces cabin noise by eliminating the acoustic linkage to the drive systems; and by reducing floor openings it improves the crash behavior of the vehicle. Because driver inputs can be overridden, safety can be improved by providing computer controlled intervention of vehicle controls with systems such as electronic stability control (ESC), adaptive cruise control and lane assist systems.

Each drive-by-wire system leads to more actuator in the vehicle and therefore greater energy consumption. For instance, the drive-by-wire technology adds actuator motors to create the torque needed to turn the wheels, and a feedback transducer to create the "road feel" on the steering wheel.

Safety considerations require redundancy of driver input sensors, vehicle communication networks, actuators, and other systems. Automotive safety standards such as ISO 26262 require drive-by-wire fail-operational and fail-safe behaviors.

Safety and security
Failures in drive by wire systems can lead to potential hazardous situations where safety depends entirely on the vehicle's failure mode. The Aachen University Institute for Motor Vehicles (ika – Institut für Kraftfahrzeuge), in collaboration with Mercedes-AMG and others, studies the operation, risks, and safety mechanisms of drive-by-wire systems through its drive-by-wire concept vehicle, SpeedE. Studied scenarios include loss of control over acceleration, brakes, or steering.

Early by-wire systems had mechanical backup systems in case the by-wire systems failed. The modern drive by wire paradigm dispenses with mechanical backups, and relies on redundancy, fail-operational systems, and other safety and security measures: computational redundancy through lockstep CPUs; functional redundancy through modular design where the failure of one module is compensated by an identical module, for example by torque vectoring to compensate for a failed steering or braking module; multi-sensor fault detection; self-isolation of damaged systems; and fault-tolerant communication. Such fail-safes are specified by the ISO 26262 standard level D.

Assessment and standardization of drive-by-wire computer security has also taken place. Researchers demonstrated in 2011 and 2013 that some systems in commercially-available vehicles are susceptible to hacking, allowing for external control of the vehicle. Hacking demonstrations included remote activation of systems like the horn, windshield wipers, accelerator, brakes, and transmission. Modern standards such as the ISO/SAE 21434 standard and UNCE regulations 155, 156, and 157 require dedicated cryptographic modules that encrypt all communication between the ECUs and the drive system components.

Systems

Brake by wire

A brake-by-wire system eliminates the need for a mechanical connection that transfers force between the brakes and a driver input apparatus such as a pedal or lever. The three main types of brake-by-wire systems are: electronic parking brakes which have, since the turn of the 21st century, become more common; electro-hydraulic brakes (EHB) which can be implemented alongside legacy hydraulic brakes and as of 2020 have found small-scale usage in the automotive industry; and electro-mechanical brakes (EMB) that use no hydraulic fluid, which as of 2020 have yet to be successfully introduced in production vehicles due to their novel actuation methods.

Shift by wire

Shift-by-wire employs electrical or electronic connections that replace the mechanical connection between the driver's gearshift mechanism and the transmission. Since becoming commercially available in 1996, shift-by-wire has been commonly used in automated manual transmission, and has later been implemented in semi-automatic transmission and automatic transmission.

Park by wire may be considered a form of shift-by-wire. Not to be confused with park-brake by wire which engages a parking brake, park-by-wire engages the parking pawl. A parking pawl in a traditional automatic transmission has a mechanical link to the gear stick and locks the transmission in the park position when the gear-shift handle is set in "park". A park-by-wire system uses electronic commands sent to an actuator that engages the parking pawl.

Steer by wire

A vehicle equipped with a steer-by-wire system is able to steer some or all of its wheels without a steering column connected to the wheel axles. It is different from electric power steering or power-assist, as those systems still rely on the steering column to mechanically transfer some steering torque to the wheels.

A vehicle with a steer-by-wire system may be manually controlled by a driver through a steering wheel, a yoke, or any other steering apparatus which is connected to one or more electronic control units, which uses the input to control steering actuators that turn the wheels and steer the vehicle. The steering wheel or yoke may be equipped with haptic feedback to simulate road feel and wheel resistance, and change depending on the vehicle speed or customizable settings.

Throttle by wire

Accelerate-by-wire or throttle-by-wire, more commonly known as electronic throttle control, is a system that actuates vehicle propulsion without any mechanical connections, such as cables, from the accelerator pedal to the throttle valve of the engine or other propulsion systems. In electric vehicles, this system controls the electric motors by sensing the accelerator pedal input and sending commands to the power inverter modules.

References

External links
Fusion of redundant information in brake-by-wire systems, using a fuzzy Voter

defaultsort
Vehicle braking technologies
Vehicle safety technologies
Automotive steering technologies

Drive by wire