In organic chemistry, a sulfonium ion, also known as sulphonium ion or sulfanium ion, is a positively-charged ion (a "cation") featuring three organic substituents attached to sulfur.  These organosulfur compounds have the formula . Together with a negatively-charged counterion, they give sulfonium salts.  They are typically colorless solids that are soluble in organic solvent.

Synthesis
Sulfonium compounds are usually synthesized by the reaction of thioethers with alkyl halides. For example, the reaction of dimethyl sulfide with iodomethane yields trimethylsulfonium iodide:
  +  →

The reaction proceeds by a nucleophilic substitution mechanism (SN2). Iodide is the leaving group departs. The rate of methylation is faster with more electrophilic methylating agents, such as methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate.

Inversion
Sulfonium ions with three different substituents are chiral owing to their pyramidal structure.  Unlike the isoelectronic oxonium ions (R3O+), chiral sulfonium ions are resolvable into optically stable enantiomers. [Me(Et)SCH2CO2H]+ is the first chiral sulfonium cation to be resolved into enantiomers.  The barrier to inversion ranges from 100 to 130 kJ/mol.

Applications and occurrence

Biochemistry
The sulfonium (more specifically methioninium) species S-adenosylmethionine occurs widely in nature, where it is used as a source of the adenosoyl or methyl radicals.  These radicals participate in the biosynthesis of many compounds.

Other naturally-occurring sulfonium species are S-methylmethionine (methioninium) and the related dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP).

Organic synthesis
Sulfonium salts are precursor to sulfur ylides, which are useful in carbon–carbon bond-forming reactions. In a typical application, a R2S+CH2R′ center is deprotonated to give the ylide R2S+CHR−.

Tris(dimethylamino)sulfonium difluorotrimethylsilicate [((CH3)2N)3S]+[F2Si(CH3)3]− is a popular fluoridation agent.

Some azo dyes are modified with sulfonium groups to give them a positive charge.  The compound triphenylsulfonium triflate is a photoacid, a compound that under light converts to an acid.

See also
Onium compounds

References

External links
 IUPAC definition (short pdf)

Cations

Sulfur ions

Sulfonium


A paralegal, also known as a legal assistant, or paralegal specialist is a professional who performs tasks that require knowledge of legal concepts but not the full expertise of a lawyer with a license to practice law. The market for paralegals is broad, including consultancies, companies that have legal departments or that perform legislative and regulatory compliance activities in areas such as environment, labor, intellectual property, zoning, and tax. Legal offices and public bodies also have many paralegals in support activities using other titles outside of the standard titles used in the profession . There is a diverse array of work experiences attainable within the paralegal (legal assistance) field, ranging between internship, entry-level, associate, junior, mid-senior, and senior level positions.

In the United States in 1967, the American Bar Association (ABA) endorsed the concept of the paralegal and, in 1968, established its first committee on legal assistants.

The exact nature of their work and limitations that the law places on the tasks they are allowed to undertake vary between nations and jurisdictions. Paralegals generally are not allowed to offer legal services independently in most jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions, paralegals can conduct their own business and provide services such as settlements, court filings, legal research and other auxiliary legal services; these tasks often have instructions from a solicitor attached.

In the United States, a paralegal is protected from some forms of professional liability under the theory that paralegals are working as an enhancement of an attorney, who takes ultimate responsibility for the supervision of the paralegal's work and work product. Paralegals often have taken a prescribed series of courses in law and legal processes. Paralegals may analyze and summarize depositions, prepare and answer interrogatories, draft procedural motions and other routine briefs, perform legal research and analysis, legislative assistance (legislative research), draft research memos, and perform some quasi-secretarial or legal secretarial duties, as well as perform case and project management. Paralegals often handle drafting much of the paperwork in probate cases, divorce actions, bankruptcies, and investigations. Consumers of legal services are typically billed for the time paralegals spend on their cases. In the United States, they are not authorized by the government or other agency to offer legal services (including legal advice) except in Washington State in the same way as lawyers, nor are they officers of the court, nor are they usually subject to government-sanctioned or court-sanctioned rules of conduct. In some jurisdictions (Ontario, Canada, for example) paralegals are licensed and regulated the same way that lawyers are and these licensed professionals may be permitted to provide legal services to the public and appear before certain lower courts and administrative tribunals.

Official definitions
Various professional organizations offer varying definitions of a paralegal.
 From the National Federation of Paralegal Associations (NFPA) [US]:  "A paralegal is a person, qualified through education, training or work experience to perform substantive legal work that requires knowledge of legal concepts and is customarily, but not exclusively, performed by a lawyer. This person may be retained or employed by a lawyer, law office, governmental agency or other entity or may be authorized by administrative, statutory or court authority to perform this work. Substantive shall mean work requiring recognition, evaluation, organization, analysis, and communication of relevant facts and legal concepts."
 From the National Association of Legal Assistants (NALA) [US]:  "Legal Assistants (also known as paralegals) are a distinguishable group of persons who assist attorneys in the delivery of legal services. Through formal education, training and experience, Legal Assistants have knowledge and expertise regarding the legal system and substantive and procedural law which qualify them to do work of a legal nature under the supervision of an attorney." This is the NALA's former 1984 definition. In 2001, the organization adopted the American Bar Association's (ABA) definition of a paralegal/Legal Assistant.
 From National Association of Legal Secretaries (NALS) [US]: "A Legal Assistant, qualified by education, training or work experience who is employed or retained by a lawyer, law office, corporation, governmental agency or other entity and who performs specifically delegated substantive legal work for which a lawyer is responsible."
 From the American Association for Paralegal Education (AAfPE) [USA]: "Paralegals perform substantive and procedural legal work as authorized by law, which work, in the absence of the paralegal, would be performed by an attorney. Paralegals have knowledge of the law gained through education, or education and work experience, which qualifies them to perform legal work. Paralegals adhere to recognized ethical standards and rules of professional responsibility."
 From the Institute of Paralegals [United Kingdom]: "A paralegal is a non-lawyer who does legal work that previously would have been done by a lawyer, or if done by a lawyer, would be charged for."
 From the Paralegal Society of Ontario [Canada]: "A paralegal is an individual qualified through education or experience licensed to provide legal services to the general public in areas authorized by the Law Society of Upper Canada."
 From the National Association of Licensed Paralegals [United Kingdom]: "A person who is educated and trained to perform legal tasks but who is not a qualified solicitor or barrister."

Difference from legal secretaries
A legal secretary is generally a secretary who has a basic understanding of legal terminology and the specific formatting required by a particular court or government agency. Legal secretaries are also typically responsible for keeping case files organized and indexed, often taking on the duties of a file clerk. Although legal secretaries may be trained to prepare some basic legal papers and letters, they generally have little or no knowledge of particular legal doctrines, statutes or regulations, and typically have no training or experience in conducting legal research or drafting legal documents, pleadings, motions, briefs or other court papers. On the other hand, a typical paralegal in the United States can perform all of these tasks under an attorney or law office.  Paralegals bill for their time at a higher rate than legal secretaries.
In Canada the title Legal Secretary is outdated. The recognized title of that position is Legal Administrative Assistant, or Legal Assistant.

Education, training, and certification

Many paralegals have completed a formal paralegal education program. Formal paralegal education programs may result in a diploma, higher diploma, advanced diploma, vocational education, associate degree, bachelor's degree, master's degree, or graduate certificate programs in the academic discipline of legal management and paralegal studies, or a paralegal professional certificate of continuing education.  Others may enter through adjacent fields of study such as bachelor's, academic minors, master's, or graduate certificate degree programs in criminology and the sociology of law, political science, public administration, legal studies, sociology, literature and creative writing, history, philosophy, other fields in the social sciences, humanities, and liberal arts, or proof of higher education in any field of study or academic discipline. Many paralegals have completed all of their training or obtained a higher education degree in an adjacent field before entering the profession, while some, mostly those of the Baby Boomers Generation and some older Gen Xers unlike many Millennials, Gen Zers, and younger Gen Xers, have only on-the-job training entering only with a high school diploma and no formal higher education which was a common phenomenon during that time, with others later on completing their education while working their way up from some administrative assistance or secretarial positions in law firms, in-house legal departments, or government agencies where depending on the type of work completed may or may not have required a bachelor's degree level of specialized knowledge in a given field. Many paralegals take Continuing Legal Education (CLE), Continuing Education Unit (CEU), or Continuing Professional Development (CPD) courses to fulfill the requirements of their firm, employer, government-appointed regulatory body, association, or to obtain and maintain a professional certificate or license to practice.

Economics

Paralegals exist precisely because they are not lawyers and thus can do the work more cheaply. Other than expertise, the main constraint on what work a paralegal can or cannot do tends to be local rules that reserve particular activities to lawyers. Some jurisdictions have a reserved activities list.

According to United States law, there are five specific acts which only a licensed attorney can perform:

 Establish the attorney–client relationship
 Give legal advice
 Sign legal papers and pleadings on behalf of a party
 Appear in court on behalf of another (i.e. the client)
 Set and collect fees for legal services

Beyond the five acts above, the paralegal can perform practically any other task, including legal research, legal writing, factual investigation, preparation of exhibits, and the day-to-day tasks of case management. The key is that attorneys are entirely responsible for the actions of their paralegals and, by signing and filing court documents drafted by paralegals (or law clerks), attorneys make those documents their own.

Trends in use
In the United States, the need for accredited qualifications and bar licensure limits the number of licensed attorneys. There are some tasks for which a bar license is unnecessary but some amount of legal training is helpful. To lower costs, businesses may choose to employ paralegals to undertake such tasks. Paralegal time is typically billed at only a fraction of what a lawyer charges, and thus to the paralegal has fallen those substantive and procedural tasks which are too complex for legal secretaries (whose time is not billed) but for which lawyers can no longer bill. This in turn makes lawyers more efficient by allowing them to concentrate solely on the substantive legal issues of the case, while paralegals have become the "case managers".

The growing demand of paralegal professionals at a very rapid rate has resulted in schools and colleges catering to such education popping up everywhere. It has been found through a survey that currently 50,000 students are enrolled in paralegal education courses. The American Association for Paralegal Education (AAPE) itself has more than 450 members; 260 of them are ABA-approved. Seminars and events are being held by various institutes to help broaden the knowledge base of the paralegal service providers and the importance associated with it. Although the nation is experiencing a recession, the paralegal profession continues to grow. Law firms and legal departments are cutting costs and increasing access to legal services by hiring paralegals.

The United Kingdom has gone one step further. Much legal work by lawyers for the poorer elements of society is legally aided, or paid for by the state. As overall costs have risen due to more people than ever engaging with the law, the government has reduced such legal aid. As a result, the work has become uneconomic for many and they have ceased doing it. Paralegal advisory firms are stepping in to fill the gap.

The increased use of paralegals has slowed the rising cost of legal services and serves in some small measure (in combination with contingency fees and insurance) to keep the cost of legal services within the reach of the regular population. However, one commentator has warned that "our profession makes a serious error if it uses legal assistants only as economic tools."

Paralegal medical consultants
Some attorneys who practice in fields involving medical care have only a limited knowledge of healthcare and medical concepts and terminology. Therefore, legal medical consultants which are professional physicians, physician assistants, paramedics, nurses and respiratory therapists, have become fully trained as paralegals in the manner described above and assist behind the scenes on these cases, in addition to serving as expert witnesses from time to time.

By country

Australia
Australia has a distinct regime for the utilization of paralegals.  According to one paralegal studies scholar:

Furthermore, Australian paralegals have "little formal recognition of, or status accorded" them, yet they "require specialist education."

Canada
In Canada, paralegals (except in Ontario) are generally trained assistants who assist lawyers, and work under the supervision of lawyers. Paralegals are not regulated by legislation (except in Ontario) and are not professionals in their own right. Some provinces (such as British Columbia) allow lawyers to designate certain paralegals to provide additional services to clients. However, lawyers remain fully responsible for all action or omission of the designated paralegals.

Ontario
In Ontario, paralegals are licensed by the Law Society of Ontario. Ontario is with Washington State the only jurisdiction in the western hemisphere where paralegals are licensed and the profession is regulated as officers of the court. Licensed paralegals operate within a defined scope of practice, representing clients in matters such as provincial offenses (traffic tickets, etc.), immigration, landlord and tenant disputes, labor law, small claims court (up to $35,000), and specific criminal matters. They are currently not permitted to represent clients in family court or wills and estates.  By virtue of their office, licensed paralegals are commissioners for taking affidavits (swearing oaths).

In the province of Ontario paralegals are a regulated body within the legal system. Paralegals become commissioners upon licensing, and may become non-lawyer notaries, Crown prosecutor, municipal prosecutor or a justice of the peace if appointed.

Ontario recently became the first jurisdiction in North America to provide for the licensing of independent paralegals. This task will be the responsibility of the Law Society of Ontario (founded in 1797), which already regulates Ontario's 40,000 or so lawyers. Aspiring paralegals must complete an accredited educational program and complete a licensing exam. The Society will also be responsible for disciplining paralegals who do not conform to rules of professional conduct, known as the Paralegal Rules of Conduct.

In Ontario, as of December 2017, licensed paralegals are now endorsed and recognized as officers of the court.

The Law Society began issuing the first paralegal licenses to grandparent applicants who fulfilled all the necessary licensing requirements (including insurance) in April 2008.  Paralegals who provide legal services to the public must carry professional liability insurance in accordance with By-Law 6, Part II, section 12 (1). Licensees must provide written proof of their compliance with this requirement to carry mandatory insurance before they begin providing legal services, as well as on an annual basis.  Paralegal services may be provided via a sole proprietorship, partnership or professional corporation.  Licensees are strongly encouraged to seek professional advice on the best business structure for their particular situations. A paralegal license allows a paralegal to independently represent clients in provincial offences court, summary conviction criminal court, small claims court and administrative tribunals such as the Financial Services Commission of Ontario or the Workplace Safety and Insurance Board. The role that a paralegal has in the United States is similar to the role of a law clerk or legal assistant in Ontario. Many paralegals in Ontario work in the areas of permitted practice for paralegals and also work alongside lawyers in areas of practice that are only permitted to be practiced by lawyers. It is illegal for paralegals in Ontario to independently practice in an area of law that is permitted only for lawyers. An example of this is family law, or an indictable offence in criminal law.

All lawyers and paralegals who practice law and provide legal services in Ontario, are required to complete the CPD program. Continuing professional development (CPD) is the maintenance and enhancement of a lawyer or paralegal's professional knowledge, skills, attitudes and professionalism throughout the individual's career. It is a positive tool that benefits lawyers and paralegals and is an essential component of the commitment they make to the public to practice law or provide legal services competently and ethically.

Japan

In Japan, the institution of  exists, and functions similarly to paralegals. Scriveners perform legal work, above the level of secretary but below the level of attorney, and may be attached to an attorney's office or operate independently. Scriveners may represent clients in some low-level matters, but not in more advanced stages of litigation. As with lawyers in Japan, scriveners are regulated and must pass an exam.

South Africa
In South Africa, legal assistants or paralegals must have extensive knowledge of the law and the administration of justice. Their duties may include: liaising with clients of their employers to assist in solving legal problems, legal research, preparing cases for court and liaising with the public. This programme is uniquely designed to impart a comprehensive overview of all aspects of paralegal specialisation and an understanding of individual rights and the rights of others. Paralegal offers the use and application of skills and competencies related to criminal law and procedure, civil litigation, wills and estates, dispute resolution, legal advice, property law and conveyancing as well as legal office practice management and debt collecting/counselling.

Paralegals in South Africa are hired mostly by Legal Aid South Africa, big corporations, Patent law firms, legal firms, Estate agents, Government Departments etc. to provide legal support to those corporate world. Legal support may be by legal research, investigation/inspectors, legal advice or legal assistance. Certification may be acquired at: Tshwane University of Technology National Diploma in Legal Assistance/Paralegal, University of Johannesburg Diploma in Paralegal, UNISA National Diploma in Law, South African School of Paralegals, Intec College Diploma in Paralegal, South African Law School Qualification in Paralegal, Damelin College Paralegal, Boston City Campus Paralegal certificate. Salaries range from R60,000 to R450,000 per year depending on experience.
Newly established law firms in South Africa are likely to hire qualified Paralegals with 3 year qualification in Legal Studies to provide Legal assistance. Though the South African Law Society and The Minister of Justice do want to come with regulation to guide paralegals in South Africa just like Canada and the US, many practicing attorneys and Advocates did disprove in many instances however the new legislation is pending.

South Korea

In South Korea a similar system to the Japanese exists, and is known as beopmusa (Hangul: , Hanja: ).

United Kingdom

England and Wales
The original concept of paralegals in the UK started with the Paralegal Association in the mid-1980s (now the National Association of Licensed Paralegals). However the oldest incorporated professional body for paralegals in the UK who set the competency standards for paralegals and legal secretaries, issue legal qualifications, and support, represent and promote paralegals is the Institute Of Paralegals.

Both the Association and Institute have similar roles in recognizing and registering Paralegals but do not always agree on all the principles of practice.

However, it is only recently that paralegals have begun to be seen as more than merely assistants to qualified lawyers. They are now a newly emergent, and increasingly distinct, group of legal professionals.

Due to a lack of metrics it is unclear exactly how many paralegals there are in the United Kingdom. The Office of National Statistics and the register of Standard Occupational Classification estimate that there are currently 76,000 mid-skilled "legal associate professionals". Research published in 2014 by the Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR) predicts that this figure is set to grow by 17% within the next decade. Moreover, it is estimated that there are now almost 4,000 government registered/regulated paralegal advisory firms offering services that would previously have been offered only by lawyers.This is because most legal work in the United Kingdom is deregulated and therefore there is nothing to stop anyone from opening their own paralegal law firm.

As the term 'paralegal' is not protected like the term 'solicitor' anyone may call himself/herself a paralegal without any qualification or registrations. Professional bodies are lobbying for this to change and the term 'paralegal' to become a protected title.

Paralegals in England and Wales may only offer limited legal advice, as may any person, with the following exceptions strictly forbidden:

 Undertaking the activities reserved to solicitors under the Solicitors Act 1974;
 Undertaking immigration work if not registered with the Office of the Immigrations Services Commissioner;
 Undertaking certain types of claims/compensation related work if not registered with the Ministry of Justice.

In the United Kingdom, the Solicitors Act 1974 reserves certain activities for solicitors. Broadly, these include:
 Preparing and lodging documents concerning the conveying or charging of land. Since repealed and now also conducted by Licensed Conveyancers
 Undertaking probate law.
 Undertaking litigation (except in the small claims court).

Paralegals technically have very limited rights to conduct litigation/rights of audience before courts/tribunals. In practice though many appear in courts and particularly tribunals at all levels as assistants.

Paralegals also act as Police Station Representatives if they are accredited, giving general advice to clients held in police custody.

Scotland
Scotland has separate legal jurisdiction from the rest of the United Kingdom. The term "paralegal" came into use from the 1980s. There have always been individuals undertaking legal work but not qualified as a solicitor but they would have had other titles such as 'legal assistant'. From the early 1990s the term "paralegal" became more common. In 1993 Scottish Paralegals Association was founded. It is a voluntary body whose remit is to promote the interests of paralegals in Scotland. From 1991 Scotland's colleges began to offer paralegal qualifications, awarded by the Scottish Qualification Authority, namely the Higher National Diploma and Certificate in Legal Services. They were offered by Central College of Commerce, Stevenson College and Dundee College. As a result of the efforts of the Scottish Paralegal Association and in particular its president Christine Lambie, in 2010 the Law Society of Scotland, the solicitors' professional body, instituted the Law Society of Scotland Registered Paralegal scheme. This was a voluntary scheme providing a professional status for high quality paralegals. Around 400 paralegals, mainly individuals who had come through the ranks in legal firms, joined the scheme. From 2010 Scottish Qualification Authority and Stirling University offered qualifications for individuals wishing to enter the Registered Paralegal profession. Paralegals qualify in particular legal domains, e.g., Domestic Conveyancing; and Wills & Executries. In 2017 the name of the scheme was changed to Law Society of Scotland Accredited Paralegal scheme.

Professional societies
The largest number of paralegals in the UK are represented by the Chartered Institute of Legal Executives (CILEx). Unlike other paralegal bodies CILEx is an Approved Regulator, meaning all its members are independently regulated in the public interest and must comply with a code of conduct, including all its paralegal members. CILEx is also the only body that provides paralegals with a limited progression route to lawyer status.

CILEx provides a non-University route to qualification as lawyer, with the majority of its members learning on-the-job and working as paralegals. It is open to those with or without law degrees, and allows paralegals to progress through to ultimately become fully qualified lawyers, partners, advocates, coroners and judges, subject to achieving the correct level of qualifications, skills, and experience.

Since 1994 City and Guilds, in association with CILEx, has offered the UK's leading range of nationally and internationally approved qualifications for paralegals and legal secretaries, which have been taken by over 20,000 people. They offer a Level 2 Award/Certificate/Diploma in Legal Studies qualification. This provides the underpinning knowledge which will help in day-to-day work and will also allows progression onto the CILEx route to becoming a lawyer. The qualification is divided into units and is assessed by way of assignments and a multiple-choice test. A Level 3 Diploma in Vocational Paralegal Studies qualification is also available, and this is equivalent to A-level standard. The qualification is divided into units and again, is assessed by way of assignments. The qualifications are also recognized by the CILEx as a route into their membership grades.

The Institute of Paralegals (IOP) administer a Route to Qualification: the nationally recognized career path for professional paralegals. They also set and administer Competency Standards for paralegals and legal secretaries.
The Institute of Paralegals (IOP) are:
 an incorporated paralegal representative body in the United Kingdom whose application for institute status was supported by the Bar Council, Law Society, Crown Prosecution Service and Citizens Advice
 the only body for professional paralegals to have relied on state funding to help develop the paralegal profession
 an organisation which publishes a Paralegal Code of Conduct
 a member of LawCare
 an organisation which publishes Competency Standards for the paralegal profession (drafted with the assistance of law firms and (in part) by Her Majesty's Land Registry and vetted for professional conduct requirements by the Solicitors Regulation Authority)
 an organisation which administers a paralegal career path – the Route to Qualification. The R2Q turns a job into a career, and an occupation into a profession. It is supported by scores of local law societies, university law schools, law firms and others

NALP (National Association of Licensed Paralegals) is an awarding body for paralegal qualifications, recognized as an awarding organisation by Ofqual, the regulator of qualifications in England and Wales. NALP offers self-regulation and Licensing for paralegals in England & Wales. NALP's objective is to raise the profile of paralegals in the UK and has dedicated itself to the promoting the status of paralegals and paralegal training in the United Kingdom and abroad. NALP offers training and qualifications at all levels. NALP is a not for profit company limited by guarantee.

There are various levels of certification and membership according to the level of training, qualification and experience. To become a Licensed Paralegal a person should have an acceptable qualification in law, e.g., the Association's Diploma in Paralegal Studies, ILEX, Law Degree or HND (plus a procedural law qualification) or any other qualification deemed suitable, and who can satisfy the other criteria laid down by the Association namely: knowledge, competence, dedication, character requirements and continuous professional development.

The Institute of Paralegals (IOD) is an incorporated professional body for paralegals in the UK. A not-for-profit organisation, they set the competency standards for paralegals and legal secretaries, issue legal qualifications, and support, represent and promote paralegals.
The National Association of Licensed Paralegals(NALP) was established in 1987 and is the professional self-regulatory governing body for accredited paralegals. Access into the profession can either be with a law degree or without. Those who are already graduates can take The Post Graduate Diploma in Paralegal Practice (PPC) (similar to the LPC for solicitors). Those that have no previous qualification can do the Diploma in Paralegal Studies. The NALP is an awarding body regulated by OFQUAL and is also a member of the National Federation of Paralegal Associations (based in the US).

As a not-for-profit professional body incorporated by guarantee, they were formed in 2003. They were granted institute status by the UK government in 2005, with the support of, among others, The Law Society of England & Wales, the Bar Council, Citizens Advice and the Crown Prosecution Service, all of whom recognized the need for the developing paralegal profession to have a representative body.

Salary
In the United Kingdom paralegal salaries in law firms can range from around £15,000 in some rural or suburban areas but may reach as high as £60,000 – £80,000 for the most senior in the larger city firms and some PLCs.
A paralegal can also work as a freelance offering their services to solicitors performing tasks such assisting Counsel at court and taking notes in court and presenting applications to District Judges in chambers. They can be paid on a daily or hourly rate earning up to £60 – £260 per day.

United States

In the United States, paralegals originated as assistants to lawyers at a time when only lawyers offered legal services. In those jurisdictions where the local legal profession/judiciary is involved in paralegal recognition/accreditation, the profession of paralegal still basically refers to those people working under the direct supervision of a lawyer. The profession of paralegal varies greatly between the states, because some states do require paralegals to be licensed. In other jurisdictions however, such as the United Kingdom, the lack of local legal profession/judiciary oversight means that the definition of paralegal encompasses non-lawyers doing legal work, regardless of whom they do it for. Although most jurisdictions recognize paralegals to a greater or lesser extent, there is no international consistency as to definition, job-role, status, terms and conditions of employment, training, regulation or anything else and so each jurisdiction must be looked at individually.

In the United States, there is no such thing as a paralegal licensed by a government body; rather, paralegals can be "registered," "certified," or certificated by private organizations.

There are two major national organizations that offer professional certification to paralegals who meet voluntary regulation standards: the National Association of Legal Assistants (NALA) established in 1976 and the National Federation of Paralegal Associations (NFPA) established in 1996.

Both NALA and the NFPA offer professional certification exams that should not be confused with a paralegal certificate offered by an officially accredited college or university.

NALA offers its Certified Legal Assistant or Certified Paralegal examination, a comprehensive two-day examination that covers the following subjects: Communications, Ethics, Legal Research, Judgment and Analytical Ability, American Legal System and four sub-sections selected by the applicants from a list of nine substantive areas of the law. These sub-section tests cover general knowledge of the following practice areas: Administrative Law, Bankruptcy, Business Organizations, Civil Litigation, Contracts, Criminal Law and Procedure, Estate, Planning and Probate, Family Law and Real Estate. After successful completion of the examination, NALA awards the paralegal the "CLA" (Certified Legal Assistant) or "CP" (Certified Paralegal) designation. Both the "CLA" and "CP" designations are proprietary trademarks owned by NALA. Paralegals who have attained further education and received a paralegal certificate are referred to as "Certificated" unless they have passed the examination and have been awarded the "Certified" designation. Additionally, those paralegals who receive the "Certified Paralegal" designation then have the opportunity to earn the "Advanced Certified Paralegal" designation. There is a 45 to 50 percent pass rate for persons taking the NALA exams.

The NFPA offers its non-accredited Paralegal Advanced Competency Exam, which is a four-hour exam on a variety of legal topics; those who pass that exam can call themselves PACE-Registered Paralegals and display the "RP" designation.  NFPA's core purpose is to advance the paralegal profession and is committed to the profession's Code of Ethics.

Some states have considered the licensure of paralegals.  Whether paralegals should be licensed or certified is one of the most important issues for paralegals today.

Difference from lawyers
The greatest differences between lawyers and paralegals are that lawyers give legal advice, can set fees, appear as counsel of record in court, and sign pleadings (and other court documents) in a representative capacity. A paralegal who attempts to do any of these acts will be in violation of the unauthorized practice of law statutes in most U.S. states. Paralegals are responsible for handling tasks such as legal writing, research, and other forms of documentation for the lawyers for whom they work.

Penalties for unauthorized practice
Paralegals are restrained from exercising independence and prohibited from providing even basic legal advice to consumers of legal advice. In her book, Access to Justice, Stanford law professor Deborah Rhode states: "Over four-fifths of surveyed attorneys have supported prosecution of lay practitioners, and the profession has repeatedly blocked licensing proposals that would enable independent paralegals to offer routine services. Many local, state and national bar associations have recently launched initiatives to broaden the definition, raise the penalties, and increase the enforcement of unauthorized practice prohibitions."

In some areas, legal document assistants actually advertise themselves as paralegals. Many states, including Florida, have enacted laws or bar rules which require any person referring to himself or herself as a paralegal to work under the supervision of a licensed attorney. This rule would prohibit those individuals working as "independent paralegals" from using the title "paralegal".

Salary
In the United States, as of May 2021, the median annual salary for a paralegal was US$56,230. Paralegals working for the U.S. federal government average around $73,580 per year while state and local government paralegals earn around $54,000 to $57,000.

History
Paralegals have been used in the United States for almost 50 years.

Paralegal Day
Several state governments have designated a "Paralegal Day", which is not the same day everywhere, in particular New York's governor David Paterson, Michigan's governor Jennifer M. Granholm, South Carolina, Idaho's governor James E. Risch and the Texas Legislature have designated Paralegal Day in their respective states. California, Connecticut, Ohio, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Utah also have a Paralegal Day.

Paralegal service or document preparers
There are a variety of services available to the general public depending on the State of residence. These companies have been known as Paralegal Services until they were required to change their names.  These companies are now typically known to the general public as Court Document Preparers or Court Forms Providers.  The State of Florida has numerous companies that prepare court documents for a variety of issues, such as Divorce, Bankruptcy, Paternity, Custody, Modification of Child Support, Name Change, Wills, Power of Attorney, Quit Claim Deeds, etc.  If you do not have the ability to remedy your situation because of the high cost fees of any attorney a Court Document Preparer can save thousands of dollars.  Such document preparers, however, frequently come under the scrutiny of various state bar organizations by overstepping the basic document preparation and engaging in what could be considered "unauthorized practice of law."  Such document preparation is indeed cost-saving for those who truly want to represent themselves in a legal matter, but want to pay someone to create the required documents.  If problems arise in the legal case, however, the person who hired the paralegal service needs to understand that there is typically no legal liability on the part of the paralegal service and that such institutions cannot be sued for legal malpractice.  Again, the philosophy is that the person utilizing such service is representing himself or herself in all legal matters and merely hiring a document preparer.

California

In California, under Business and Professions Code § 6450, a paralegal must have at least one of the following:
 An ABA approved paralegal certificate.
 A certificate of completion of a paralegal program at, or a degree from, a post-secondary institution that requires the successful completion of a minimum of 24 semester, or equivalent, units in law-related courses and that has been accredited by a national or regional accrediting organization or approved by the Bureau for Private Post-secondary and Vocational Education.
 A bachelor's degree or advanced degree in any subject and at least one year of experience performing legal tasks under the supervision of an attorney that has at least three years' legal experience in California himself.  The attorney must sign a written declaration stating the paralegal is qualified to perform legal tasks.
 Before December 31, 2003, have completed a high school diploma or general equivalency diploma and a minimum of three years of law-related experience under the supervision of an attorney that has at least three years' legal experience in California himself.  The attorney must sign a written declaration stating the paralegal is qualified to perform legal tasks.

Up until Business and Professions Code § 6450 was signed into law by Governor Gray Davis in 2000, there was little regulation of paralegals in California. One of the purposes of regulation under Business and Professions Code § 6450 was to shut down the paralegals who were providing self-help legal services to consumers. There had been relatively few consumer complaints against paralegals; instead most of the complaints were from lawyers who urged the California State Bar to police the unauthorized practice of law (UPL).

In response, the State Bar appointed a Public Protection Committee to look at the L.A. bar's claim.  Then, "in 1988, the Public Protection Committee unanimously recommended that the California legislature completely abolish the state's UPL laws. It further concluded that independent paralegals should be allowed to provide all types of legal services as long as they are registered with a state agency and disclose their non-lawyer status to all customers." After many local bar associations reacted in dismay, "The California Bar then appointed a third group (The Commission on Legal Technicians) to restudy the issue. This commission largely agreed with the conclusions of its predecessors and recommended that non-lawyers be authorized by the California Supreme Court to deliver legal services in several major areas (bankruptcy, family, immigration, and landlord-tenant), under the terms of a licensing scheme that would be supervised by an independent state agency."

This development culminated in some paralegals being forced to give up the title paralegal for Legal Document Assistant (LDA) in order to administer legal services directly to the public in the allowed areas under California Bus & Prof. Code § 6400. Paralegals who are members of professional associations are also bound by those associations' codes of ethics many of which include sections prescribing that members not offer legal services directly to the public without the supervision of an attorney or law firm.

In popular culture
The 2000 film Erin Brockovich is a dramatization of the real-life story of American paralegal Erin Brockovich who won a successful lawsuit against Pacific Gas and Electric Company involving groundwater contamination in Hinkley, California.

In the 2008 film Eagle Eye starring Shia LaBeouf and Michelle Monaghan, Monaghan plays a single mom who works as a paralegal.

Allison DuBois, the lead character in Medium played by Patricia Arquette, was in training to become a paralegal in addition to her consultation work with the Phoenix, Arizona District Attorney's office.

The TV movie Diamond Girl (1998) features an unassuming paralegal as the main character who is in love with her attorney boss and is the sole reason for the law firm's success.

John Grisham includes many paralegals in his novels; for example, Rudy Baylor (the main character in The Rainmaker) works briefly as a paralegal – and his associate Deck Shifflet subsequently becomes Rudy's paralegal when he starts his own firm (although he terms himself a "paralawyer".)

Harvey Birdman: Attorney at Law features a paralegal in the form of Avenger, Harvey Birdman's eagle, who is usually seen managing files, preparing and presenting documents to the attorneys, and drafting letters to clients.

The TV series Suits features a young paralegal named Rachel, played by Meghan Markle, who greatly assists a young aspiring lawyer with various research and otherwise.

In the TV series Crazy Ex-Girlfriend, Rebecca's first friend in West Covina is Paula Proctor, her new firm's paralegal. Paula later goes back to school and becomes a lawyer in her own right.

See also
 Bullying in the legal profession
 Community college
 Contract attorney
 Clerk of the court
 Criminology
 Grey-collar
 History of the legal profession
 Individual rights advocate
 Jurist
 Law clerk
 Legal profession
 Legal secretary
 Legislative assistant
 Proprietary colleges
 Secretary / Administrative Assistant
 Sociology of law

References

External links
 Current ABA Definition of Legal Assistant/Paralegal
 United States Bureau of Labor Statistics government web site Occupational Outlook for Paralegals and Legal Assistants

Legal professions
Paralegals

Paralegal


Lego Spider-Man (stylized as LEGO Spider-Man) is a product range of the Lego construction toy, based on the Marvel Comics character Spider-Man. When the theme first launched in 2002, it was inspired by the Spider-Man film released the same year and was part of the Lego Studios line. Additional sets were released two years later, based on the film's sequel, Spider-Man 2. The theme was discontinued before the release of Spider-Man 3, and the rights were sold to rival Mega Brands, who entered a multi-year licensing deal with Marvel Enterprises, giving them the rights to produce playsets, vehicles, and other building-themed products based upon various Marvel characters for their Mega Bloks toys.

In 2012, Lego revived the theme, starting with several waves of sets based on the Ultimate Spider-Man animated series in their Marvel Super Heroes line. Starting with 2016, the theme was renamed simply Spider-Man. In 2017, 2019 and 2021, sets based on the films Spider-Man: Homecoming, Spider-Man: Far From Home, and Spider-Man: No Way Home, respectively, were released. A LEGO Spider-Man, voiced by Nic Novicki, was featured as a minor character in Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse.

Overview
Lego Spider-Man is based on the film. The product line focuses on Spider-Man battling against the super villains in New York City. Lego Spider-Man aimed to recreate the main characters in Lego form, including Spider-Man.

Development
Lego Spider-Man was inspired by the Marvel Universe. The construction toy range was based on the Marvel franchise and developed in collaboration with Marvel Entertainment. The construction sets were designed to recreate the story and characters of the Marvel franchise in Lego form.

Construction sets

Original run (2002-2004)
According to Bricklink, The Lego Group released a total of 14 Lego sets and promotional polybags as part of Lego Spider-Man theme. It was discontinued by the end of 2004.

Lego 4+
Two sets of Lego 4+ was released in May 2004 and based on Spider-Man 2 film, that was a larger piece version of the original Spider-Man 2 theme. It was also the only movie theme for the 4+ theme. The 2 sets being released were Doc Ock's Crime Spree (set number: 4858) and Doc Ock's Cafe Attack (set number: 4860).
 Doc Ock's Crime Spree (set number: 4858) was released on 1 May 2004. The set consists of 55 pieces with 3 minifigures. The set included Lego minifigures of Spider-Man, Doc Ock and Police Officer.
 Doc Ock's Cafe Attack (set number: 4860) was released on 1 May 2004. The set consists of 130 pieces with 3 minifigures. The set included Lego minifigures of Spider-Man, Doc Ock and Peter Parker.

Current run (2012-present)

Ultimate Spider-Man
6873 Spider-Man's Doc Ock Ambush, based on the Ultimate Spider-Man TV series, was released on 24 July 2012.

Two sets were released on 3 January 2013. They are 76004 Spider-Man: Spider-Cycle Chase, and 76005 Spider-Man: Daily Bugle Showdown.

Three sets were released on 18 February 2014. They are 76014 Spider-Trike vs. Electro, 76015 Doc Ock Truck Heist and 76016 Spider-Helicopter Rescue. In addition, a 30302 Spider-Man polybag was released as a promotion.

Two sets were released on 2 August 2015. They are 76036 Carnage's Shield Sky Attack, and 76037 Rhino and Sandman Super Villain Team-up. In addition, a 30305 Spider-Man Super Jumper polybag was released as a promotion.

In 2016, a 30448 Spider-Man vs. The Venom Symbiote polybag was released as a promotion.

The Amazing Spider-Man
For San Diego Comic-Con 2013, an exclusive Spider-Man minifigure based on The Amazing Spider-Man film was given away as an event exclusive.

In 2014, the polybag 5002125 Electro was released as a promotion, based on The Amazing Spider-Man 2 film.

Spider-Man
Three sets were released on 1 August 2016. They are 76057 Spider-Man: Web Warriors Ultimate Bridge Battle, 76058 Spider-Man: Ghost Rider Team-Up, and 76059 Spider-Man: Doc Ock's Tentacle Trap.

Five sets were released on 25 November 2018. They are 76113 Spider-Man Bike Rescue, 76114 Spider-Man's Spider Crawler, 76115 Spider Mech vs. Venom, 76133 Spider-Man Car Chase, and 76134 Spider-Man: Doc Ock Diamond Heist.

In 2019, a 30451 Spider-Man's Mini Spider Crawler polybag was released as a promotion.

Five sets were released on 2 January 2020. They are 76146 Spider-Man Mech, 76147 Vulture's Trucker Robbery, 76148 Spider-Man vs. Doc Ock, 76149 The Menace of Mysterio, and 76150 Spiderjet vs. Venom Mech. Later, two sets were released on 3 July 2020. They are 76151 Venomosaurus Ambush, and 76163 Venom Crawler.

Five sets were released on 2 January 2021. They are 76171 Miles Morales Mech Armor, 76172 Spider-Man and Sandman Showdown, 76173 Spider-Man and Ghost Rider vs. Carnage, 76174 Spider-Man's Monster Truck vs. Mysterio, and 76175 Attack on the Spider Lair.

Four sets were released subsequently in 2021. They are 40454 Spider-Man versus Venom and Iron Venom, 76187 Venom, 76198 Spider-Man & Doctor Octopus Mech Battle, and 76199 Carnage.

On 1 June 2021, the first Marvel Modular was released, 76178 Daily Bugle. It is currently the tallest of all licensed and unlicensed modular sets, measuring roughly 82 centimeters and is composed of 3772 bricks and pieces. This Lego set includes 25 minifigures, including but not limited to Spider-Man, J. Jonah Jameson, Doctor Octopus, and Daredevil. The Daily Bugle Skyscraper comprises four stories (not including the roof), a newspaper stand, a "Spider-Buggy", and a taxi. Rooms in the Daily Bugle depict a lobby, an editor's bullpen, a storage room, as well as Jameson's office, and Brant's secretarial desk. On one of the floors, there is a reference to a meme originating from Spider-Man (1967 TV series). Littered throughout the playset are newspapers referencing several Marvel characters, such as Norman Osborn, Morbius the Living Vampire, Kingpin, The Lizard, J Jonah Jameson III, and several more. This is one of the first modular buildings to include alleyways. The third story displays a window that is severely damaged caused by the Green Goblin.

Sets based on the Marvel Cinematic Universe Spider-Man films
Two sets based on the Spider-Man: Homecoming film were released on 2 June 2017. They are 76082 ATM Heist Battle, and 76083 Beware the Vulture.

Three sets based on the Spider-Man: Far From Home film were released on 22 April 2019. They are 76128 Molten Man Battle, 76129 Hydro-Man Attack, and 76130 Stark Jet and the Drone Attack. Later, an exclusive 40343 Spider-Man and the Museum Break-In set was released on 12 June 2019.

Three sets inspired by all three films from the trilogy were released in 2021 in conjunction with the Spider-Man: No Way Home film. They are 76184 Spider-Man vs. Mysterio's Drone Attack, 76185 Spider-Man at the Sanctum Workshop and 76195 Spider-Man's Drone Duel. A fourth set, 76261 Spider-Man Final Battle, was announced in May 2023 for an August release. 76261 includes the first minifigs based on the Tobey Maguire incarnation of Spider-Man and Alfred Molina's Doc Ock manufactured since 2004, the first minifig of Willem Dafoe's Green Goblin since 2003, the second overall minifigs of Andrew Garfield's Spider-Man and Jamie Foxx's Electro since 2014, and the first overall appearance of Thomas Hayden Church's Sandman in LEGO form, represented by a buildable sand hand.

Marvel's Spider-Man
For San Diego Comic-Con 2019, PS4 Spider-Man was released as an event exclusive, based on the Spider-Man video game by Insomniac Games.

Produced as an exclusive for San Diego Comic-Con 2020, Classic Suit Miles Morales was released as part of a sweepstakes in October 2020, based on the Spider-Man: Miles Morales video game by Insomniac Games.

Lego Art
The Amazing Spider-Man (set number: 31209) will be released on 1 August 2023 as a part of Lego Art and based on the Marvel Comics, The Amazing Spider-Man. It consists of 2,099 pieces. The accompanying soundtrack includes interviews with Marvel Senior Editors Tom Brevoort and Nick Lowe.

Film and television

Lego Marvel Super Heroes: Maximum Overload (2013)
Lego Marvel Super Heroes: Maximum Overload (also known as Marvel Super Heroes: Maximum Overload) is a computer-animated Lego film based on Marvel Comics characters that were also featured in Lego Marvel Super Heroes. It premiered online in five parts on November 5, 2013. The film can also be viewed on Netflix and Amazon Video being free with Amazon Prime.

Lego Marvel Super Heroes: Avengers Reassembled (2015)
Lego Marvel Super Heroes: Avengers Reassembled is a computer animated Lego film based on Marvel Comics characters that appeared in Lego Marvel Super Heroes and Lego Marvel's Avengers. It is a re-imagined retelling of Avengers: Age of Ultron while using some elements from Ant-Man and Spider-Man. The film first aired on Disney XD. It is available to watch at Lego.com.

Lego Marvel Spider-Man: Vexed by Venom (2019)
Lego Marvel Spider-Man: Vexed by Venom is a computer-animated Lego film based on Marvel Comics and starring Spider-Man. Premiered on YouTube and Disney XD.

Lego Marvel Avengers: Climate Conundrum (2020)
Lego Marvel Avengers: Climate Conundrum is a four-part computer-animated Lego film based on Marvel Comics and starring Avengers. Premiered on YouTube and Disney XD.

Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse (2023)
A LEGO Peter Parker / Spider-Man appears briefly in the 2023 animated superhero film Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse, voiced by Nic Novicki. In the film, LEGO Peter is working for J. Jonah Jameson at the Daily Bugle, he encounters the Spot while the Spot suddenly appears in his universe. He then immediately contacts and alerts Miguel O'Hara / Spider-Man 2099 the circumstance and is later assigned by Jess Drew / Spider-Woman to a team to aid in dealing with the Spot situation. The sequence was animated by the 14-year-old Preston Mutanga, who attracted attention from the filmmakers after he published a re-animated version of the movie's trailer in a Lego style, which he made in Blender.

Video games

Lego Marvel Super Heroes

A video game based on the Lego Marvel Super Heroes line, titled Lego Marvel Super Heroes was released in October 2013. Originally, a Lego Avengers game was set to be made, but the developers felt that just being able to play as the Avengers was not enough, and thus decided to add other Marvel heroes. The game was released on iOS, personal computer, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Nintendo DS, Nintendo 3DS, Wii U, Xbox 360, Xbox One and published by Feral Interactive for OS X.

Lego Marvel's Avengers

A second standalone video game featuring the Lego Marvel Super Heroes line, separate from the first game, titled Lego Marvel's Avengers was released on January 26, 2016. It follows the plots of the two Avengers movies, The Avengers and Avengers: Age of Ultron. It was released on personal computer, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Nintendo 3DS, Wii U, Xbox 360 and Xbox One.

Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2

The third game featuring the Lego Marvel Super Heroes line, titled Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2 was released on November 14, 2017, as a direct sequel to the original Lego Marvel Super Heroes. However, it is not related to the standalone game Lego Marvel's Avengers.

See also
 Lego 4+
 Lego Studios
 Lego Batman
 Lego Super Heroes
 Lego Minifigures (theme)

References

Spider-Man
Marvel Comics action figure lines
Spider-Man toys
Products introduced in 2002
Products and services discontinued in 2004

Lego Spider-Man


Lorenz Kellner (born at Kalteneber in the district of Eichsfeld, 29 January 1811; died at Trier, 18 August 1892) was a German educator.

Life

He was the son of Heinrich Kellner, who had been a pupil of Pestalozzi at Yverdon and had introduced Pestalozzi's methods at the normal school he conducted, the first of its kind in the Catholic district of Eichsfeld. Out of these private courses for the training of elementary school-teachers developed a seminary for teachers at Heiligenstadt.

Lorenz Kellner graduated at the Gymnasium Josephinum at Hildesheim, and then studied at the evangelical seminary for teachers at Magdeburg. After being a teacher at the Catholic elementary school at Erfurt for two years, he was made rector of the school.

In 1836, his father's normal school was enlarged into a seminary for teachers, of which the elder Kellner remained the head while Lorenz was made his only assistant. In 1848 von Eichhorn, the Prussian minister of worship and education, called Lorenz to Marienwerder in West Prussia as member of the government district council and of the school-board. After seven years at Marienwerder,  Kellner was summoned to fill the same offices at Trier. Since there were at this date no institutions for the training of teachers in Trier, Kellner founded several seminaries both for male and female teachers during the twenty-nine years of his official activity here.

In 1863 the Academy of Münster in Westphalia made Kellner Doctor of Philosophy honoris causa, in recognition of his services on behalf of the German language and of pedagogics.

Works

In his major work, "Praktischer Lehrgang für den deutschen Unterricht" (1837–40), the teaching of grammar was systematically connected with the reading-book. This was, for that period, an important advance when contrasted with the current methods of grammatical instruction. In 1850 appeared his best-known work, "Zur Pädagogik der Schule und des Hauses. Aphorismen", which was translated into several languages. It contains altogether 178 essays which cover the entire field of training and teaching.

His "Skizzen und Bilder aus der Erziehungsgeschichte" (3 vols., 1862) was the first treatment of the history of pedagogics by a Catholic author. Kellner's "Kurze Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts" (1877) is a book of practical suggestions for teachers; his "Volksschulkunde" was a theoretical and practical guide for Catholic teachers of both sexes, school inspectors, and seminaries. Other works were "Lebensblätter, Erinnerungen aus der Schulwelt" (1891) and the posthumous "Lose Blätter, Pädagog. Zeitbetrachtungen und Ratschläge von Kellner" (1897).

References

Attribution
 The entry cites:
BECK, Lorenz Kellner: Ein Blatt zur Erinnerung (Trier, 1893);
OPPERMANN in REIN, Encyclop d. Handbuch der Pädagogic (2nd ed., Langensalza, 1903-), s.v.

1811 births
1892 deaths
People from Heilbad Heiligenstadt
German Roman Catholics
Heads of schools in Germany

Lorenz Kellner


List of notable compilers of hadiths collections. and authors of Hadith commentaries:

Muhammad al-Bukhari (194-256 AH)
Sahih Bukhari (hadith #1/6 of Kutub al-Sittah), primarily used by Sunni.
Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (250-329 AH)
Kitab al-Kafi (hadith #1/4 of The Four Books), primarily used by Shi'a Islam.
Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (773-852 AH)
Fath al-Bari (commentary on Sahih Bukhari), primarily used by Sunni.
Mohammad Salih al-Mazandarani (d. 1081 AH)
Sharh Usul al-Kafi (commentary on Usul al-Kafi, first part of Kitab al-Kafi), primarily used by Shi'a Islam.

For a full list of notable compilers of hadith collections see: List of hadith collections.

Authors
Islam-related lists

List of hadith authors and commentators


The Oklahoma Historical Society (OHS) is an agency run by the government of Oklahoma. It was created to promote and preserve the History of Oklahoma and its people. The agency collects, and interprets knowledge and artifacts of Oklahoma. Its mission is to collect, preserve, and share the history and culture of the state of Oklahoma and its people.

History
The OHS was formed by the Oklahoma Territorial Press Association in May 1893 which is 14 years before Oklahoma became a state. During this time, its initial function was to collect and distribute newspapers published in Oklahoma Territory. The society was declared an agency of the Oklahoma government in 1895. This is how it became an official state government agency when Oklahoma formed as a state in 1907.

Their Board of Directors is made up of 25 members, 12 of whom are appointed by the governor and rest 13 are elected by OHS members for a three-year terms.

1893 establishments in Oklahoma Territory
History of Oklahoma

Oklahoma Historical Society


The Landscape Conservation Cooperatives (LCC), established in 2009 in the United States, are a network of 22 regional conservation bodies covering the entire United States and adjacent areas. They are autonomous cooperatives sponsored by the U.S. Department of the Interior and aim to develop coordinated conservation strategies applicable to large areas of land. Partnerships are formed with government and non-government conservation organizations to achieve common goals of conservation. While fairly new as government supported entities, the LCCs are similar to initiatives that have been started or advocated in other countries.

Description

In response to rapid changes in large land and marine landscapes, uncertain environmental and social changes, conservation organizations need to overcome barriers to cooperation.  These conservation organizations need to build governance structures, combine ecological, biological and physical sciences with social science insights, and the incorporation of new information to become capable of achieving the combined LCC goals.  In some cases, LCCs cross borders and differing goals need to be accommodated by multiple LCCs and other conservation entities. Governance of the LCCs has been a barrier to their successful implementation in the United States.  It has been suggested that the Adaptive Common Governance Framework, a social network supported by differing conservation stakeholders will provide the platform for building relationships, enhancing stakeholder engagement, allowing the potential partnering entities to create a working environment of adaptive co-governance. As an example, Rural credit cooperatives are a network of government and non-government protection organizations that promote the protection of rapidly changing social ecosystems by providing the structure and incentives for collaboration and shared learning.

Modern landscape planning and design coordinates the relationship between people and nature in the process of human development, social progress and natural evolution. Landscape planning research covers topics such as land development, land use, and environmental quality. Troll proposed the concept of "landscape ecology." The landscape was viewed as "the whole of the space and everything that the vision touches in the human living environment." Buchwald believes that the so-called landscape can be understood as a comprehensive feature of a certain space on the surface. Egler proposed the concept of total human ecosystem. Dansereau advocates the use of "human ecology" to study the impact of humans on the landscape. McHarg proposed to use the entire human ecosystem as a target for landscape ecology and landscape ecological planning. The process of landscape planning is to help people living in natural systems or using the resources in the system to find the most appropriate route (McHarg, 1969). It is a plan based on ecological theory and knowledge (Sedon, 1986, Leita and Ahern, 2002).

Landscape ecology considers the lithosphere, biosphere and wisdom circle in the human living space as an integral part of the overall human ecosystem, and studies the structural and functional relationships between the various landscape elements (relatively homogeneous ecosystems). Landscape ecology is the guiding theory of landscape ecological design. The landscape ecological design with the information society as the background is the process of human beings to actively arrange and coordinate the elements of the overall landscape (including natural and cultural). All elements of the landscape as a design variable and goal, ultimately optimize the landscape system structure and function. Landscape planning provides a comprehensive solution through close collaboration with spatial planning. Landscape planning has gradually expanded to the areas of river basin planning, regional planning, land planning, and ecological remediation and restoration. The objects directly faced by landscape planning have been extended to the land complex.

Landscape planning is a material spatial plan with the overall goal of achieving sustainable landscapes or ecosystems through land and natural resource conservation and use planning. Landscape ecological planning has the following basic principles: natural priority principle, overall design principle, design adaptability principle and multidisciplinary comprehensive principle. Beta Langfi pointed out that "it is not only to study parts and processes in isolation, but also to study the interaction of various parts. The organism should be considered as a whole or system. Environmental protection requires systematic thinking. Landscape planning is required for overall planning.

Implementation

Maintaining biodiversity by protecting a representative and well-connected habitat network in a managed landscape requires wisely protecting, managing, and restoring habitats on multiple scales. Scholars suggest that the integration of natural sciences and social sciences in the form of "two-dimensional gap analysis" is an effective tool for implementing biodiversity policies. The tool links biologically relevant "horizontal" ecological issues to "vertical" issues related to institutions and other social issues. Taking forest biodiversity as an example, it illustrates how to combine the ecological and institutional aspects of biodiversity conservation to promote environmentally sustainable regional development. In particular, people use regional gap analysis to identify local forest types and determine habitat modeling for "green infrastructure" functional connectivity as a tool for horizontal gap analysis. For the vertical dimension, it is suggested how to assess the success of social sciences in implementing biodiversity policies in real landscapes by identifying institutional barriers when implementing policies. It is believed that this interdisciplinary approach can be applied to a range of other environments, including other terrestrial biota and aquatic ecosystems, where functional habitat connectivity, non-linear response to habitat loss, and multiple economic and social benefits occur together in the same landscape.

There is a clear need for policies and practices that integrate biodiversity issues into sectors outside the protected area, especially in view of the local authorities' extensive decentralization of land use decisions. Therefore, people must develop systematic (target-driven) protection planning products that are both user-friendly and useful to users, and are applicable to local government officials, consultants, and elected decision makers. Through the systematic conservation planning assessment of subtropical jungle biomes in South Africa, implementation opportunities and constraints are considered from the outset to work with stakeholders to develop products (maps and guides) that can be used for local government land use planning.

Assessing joint input with stakeholders, developed (i) Mega Conservancy Networks, a multi-ownership large conservation corridor for biodiversity processes; (ii) protection status categories for all biodiversity characteristics (extremely endangered), endangered, fragile, not currently vulnerable), achieving conservation goals based on existing habitats, and (iii) integrating (i) and (ii). The map was further explained to municipal decision makers through the corresponding land use guidelines for each type of conservation status. To raise awareness of the value of biodiversity and its services, a handbook was prepared, which also introduces new and upcoming environmental legislation. Within 18 months of producing these products, the evidence that maps and their guidelines are effectively integrated or mainstreamed into land-use planning is encouraging. However, there is still a need to increase efforts to raise awareness of the value of biodiversity and its services among many stakeholder groups. Despite this, the way people plan to implement by considering the needs and obligations of end users has produced positive results. Finally, suggestions for further improvements are proposed.

Influence

In 2010, Arctic LLC provided approximately $2 million in funding for climate-related research and data integration, and provided the same amount of support through in-kind contributions to the workforce and funding from other agencies and NGOs. One product of this initial cycle is the report "Integrating the Alaska Landscape into the Future." The project uses a climate envelope model approach to assess how future climate scenarios match the average temperature and precipitation conditions from 2000 to 2009. The results indicate that approximately 60% of Alaska may be transformed into a new climatic biome in the twenty-first century. .

In 2011, approximately $1.3 million in funding from the Arctic LCC and $1 million in leverage will support more than 20 different research and data integration projects. With the development of a long-term scientific plan, the ALCC Steering Committee makes a temporary selection of proposals based on responsiveness, feasibility, level of cooperation, response to management issues, and many other criteria for ALCC objectives. Currently, six technical working groups – permafrost, coastal processes, climate simulation, hydrology, Arctic biology and geospatial data – provide input for the development of the Arctic LCC Science Program, which will guide future project financing strategies. The draft plan will be published at the end of 2011.

As the area covered by natural ecosystems decreases, the protection of tropical biodiversity in agricultural landscapes becomes even more important. The Shadow Coffee Cooperative in El Salvador analyzed the impact of local livelihoods, types of cooperation and selected biophysical variables (altitude, slope, percent shade, forest distance, coffee density and coffee age) on tree biodiversity.

The tree stock of 51 samples from the coffee cooperative included 2,743 individuals from 46 families and 123 identified tree species. Some cooperatives have different species richness and diameter, and the greater the abundance, the greater the stem density; other biophysical variables have little effect on diversity. The amount of shadows in coffee plantations varies among cooperatives, especially during the rainy season. Among the species recently reported in a study of neighboring forests and cooperatives (N = 227 species), 16% were present in two locations. Three coffee plantations account for 35% of the total number of species reported by all cooperatives.

Studies have shown that the number of tree species found in coffee plantations increases with the density of shady trees contained in the system. In turn, agro-ecological management influenced by farmers' livelihood strategies and types of cooperation directly affects the composition of the shady canopy. Important factors to consider are the type of farmer organization, the cost of maintaining protected species, and the potential benefits of protecting a livelihood strategy that may be for farmers.

Consequence

The field of system protection planning has matured to the extent that it can be effectively applied. Influenced by everything from computer science to conservation biology, it uses a quantitative geospatial approach to spatially prioritize conservation decisions (Ball et al. 2009). The basic feature is to protect ecosystems, species, and processes in the network that are related to environmental change and that can adapt to environmental changes (Anderson, 2014). The LCC system is very broad in space and is well suited to applied science to achieve these outcomes: (a) the layout of core protected areas, (b) creating network connectivity to address climate change, and (c) assessing land-use vulnerability changes, (d) combine social constraints with biodiversity and ecosystem services goals, and (e) compare options.

While system protection plans require a large data set on protection goals, the LCC structure helps capture this data, saving money when partners share data and expertise. LCC Science is conducted by conservation scientists from academic institutions, private companies and NGOs. As stakeholder engagement improves the science of systems protection planning, this collective "bottom-up" approach provides modelers with a source of expertise that is critical to establishing conservation goals, setting goals and reviewing results. . . Finally, the LCC structure is exactly the same as the dissemination results, because the collaborators form a channel back to their institutions, organizations, institutions and the public. Twenty-two low-cost lines are further connected to the National Network Coordinator and Small Employee Network.

LCC has previously implemented multi-state and non-governmental organization wildlife conservation initiatives. However, these are difficult to maintain because there are no federally-managed cooperatives to fund and organize the required spatially clear data to help prioritize regional protection spending. When rural information centers focus on the entire landscape, species and ecosystems, ecological processes, human impacts and interests, and priorities for time and space actions, they often plan (if implemented) to protect the country's biodiversity.

Trump administration cuts
Around April 2019, the Trump administration reportedly withdrew LCC funding, against the instructions of Congress, causing 16 of the 22 LCCs to close or enter hiatus.

References

Landscape ecology
2009 establishments in the United States
United States Department of the Interior

Landscape conservation cooperatives


Desperados is a tequila-flavored pale lager beer with 5.9% alcohol by volume originally created and produced by the French brewing company Fischer Brewery, now produced by Zlatý Bažant Brewery.

Desperados has a 5.9% ABV. The beer is now sold in over fifty countries.

Desperados' listed ingredients are water, malted barley, glucose syrup, corn, sugar, aromatic compounds (75% Tequila), citric acid, and hop extract.

References

External links

Beer brands
Heineken brands
Products introduced in 2016
Food and drink introduced in 2016

Desperados (beer)


José Cruz Herrera (1 October 1890 – 11 August 1972) was a Spanish painter who concentrated principally on genre works and landscape art. He worked in Spain, Uruguay, Argentina, France and especially Morocco, where he lived for much of his life in Casablanca. Many of his works are displayed at the Museo Cruz Herrera in his home town of La Línea de la Concepción (Cádiz).

Early years
Cruz Herrera's grandparents originally lived in Cádiz, where they operated a lithographic press. Their skills were in demand in British-ruled Gibraltar, where snuff was manufactured and sold in envelopes. To meet the demand for printed envelopes and packaging labels, they moved their press to Gibraltar. They were unable to live there, as it required special permission, so they settled in the Spanish-ruled town of La Línea de la Concepción on the border with Gibraltar and walked across the frontier each day to operate their press. In 1889, Cruz Herrera's father, José de la Cruz Garcia, married a local woman – 19-year-old Antonia Herrera Ramírez, the niece of La Línea's first mayor – and was himself mayor of the town for a short time. Eight months later on 1 October 1890, Cruz Herrera was born as the first of seven children and was named after his grandfather, who like his father was also named José. He was given the birthname of José Maria Remigio.

Artistic career
His interest in art was kindled when he was given a box of paints during a childhood illness. He set to copying great works of classical painting by masters such as Velázquez, Murillo and Goya. His talent was soon apparent and he began formal training with the painter Juan Aciego in Cádiz. He continued his studies at the School of Fine Arts in Madrid under Cecilio Pla before being awarded a grant to study in Paris and Rome in 1915. That same year, a picture of Christ Chapel of Mercy of the Dukes of Osuna earned him a third-place medal at the National Exhibition of Fine Arts in Spain. He subsequently received several more awards at the exhibition, including distinction in 1920, a second-place medal in 1924 and a first in 1926. He also received a silver medal for his contribution to an international exhibition in Panama. He concentrated on genre works and landscapes, but he is best known as an orientalist painter, with a particular faculty for producing atmospheric depictions of scenes of everyday life in Morocco.

Cruz Herrera travelled to Montevideo in Uruguay and Buenos Aires in Argentina in 1922. He went to Morocco in 1929, where he worked in Casablanca for several years. He subsequently established a studio at Neuilly-sur-Seine, just outside Paris, and contributed to collective exhibitions in 1934, 1935 and 1936 at the Salon de la Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts. He also exhibited solo at various times and locations – Madrid, Barcelona and London in 1912, Antwerp in 1931, Casablanca in 1933, and Paris in 1934. After the end of the Spanish Civil War in 1939, he returned to Morocco. The following year Spain awarded Cruz Herrera a Knight's Cross in the Order of Isabella the Catholic, followed by a knighthood in the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise in 1958. He exhibited regularly throughout the remainder of his life and in 1964 donated a large canvas portrayal of the Immaculate Conception to the parish church in La Línea. He died on 11 August 1972 in Casablanca but his remains were transferred back to La Línea to be buried there.

Museum
The Museo Cruz Herrera was planned some years before he died, when in 1970 the council of La Línea agreed to open a municipal museum of painting dedicated to the painter. It was opened on 6 April 1975, located on the central Plaza de Fariñas. The museum presents 201 of Cruz Herrera's works, organised in four rooms under the headings "First epoch", "Andalusian", "Arab" and "Anthology".

See also

 List of Orientalist artists
 Orientalism

References

External links
 Museo Cruz Herrera
  https://web.archive.org/web/20131012060249/http://www.lalineadelaconcepcion.net/lugares-de-interes/museo-del-pintor-cruz-herrera

1890 births
1972 deaths
Painters from Andalusia
Orientalist painters
La Línea de la Concepción
Recipients of the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise
20th-century Spanish painters
20th-century Spanish male artists
Spanish male painters

José Cruz Herrera


Nepeta cataria, catnip or catmint, is a species of the genus Nepeta. It is in the Lamiaceae family. The name "catmint" is sometimes used for the genus as a whole. Some plants can cause diarrhea to cats.

Cat behaviour

Catnip, and some other species in the genus Nepeta, is known for its effects on cat behaviour. Cats rub on the plant, roll on the ground, paw at it, lick it, and chew it. Some leap about and purr, some cry out.  Cats do it for about five to fifteen minutes, after which olfactory fatigue usually sets in.

The nepetalactone in catnip acts as a feline attractant after it enters the cat's nose. At the olfactory epithelium, the nepetalactone binds to one or more olfactory receptors.

The catnip effect works on the whole cat family, not just on domestic cats. Several tests showed that leopards, cougars, servals, and lynxes often reacted strongly to catnip in a manner similar to domestic cats. Lions and tigers may react strongly as well, but they don't react all the time.

With domestic cats, N. cataria is a recreational substance for pets to enjoy. Catnip and catnip-laced products are available to consumers.
Not all cats are affected by catnip; roughly one third are not affected by the plant. The behavior is hereditary.

Some other plants also have a similar effect on cats, include valerian (Valeriana officinalis).

References

Lamiaceae
Cats

Catnip


The William M. Shaw House is a historic house located at 40 Norris Street in Greenville, Maine, which now houses the Greenville Inn.  Built in 1895, it is a handsome and elaborate example of Queen Anne architecture in a rural small-town setting.  The house was designed by Edwin E. Lewis of Gardiner, with alterations by Wilfred E. Mansur of Bangor.  The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2013 for its architecture, and for its association with William Shaw, a leading lumber businessman active in Greenville in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, whose business interests also included ownership of the steamer Katahdin.

Description and history
The Shaw House is set on a hill a short way south of Greenville's central business district, which is at the southern tip of Moosehead Lake.  The  property includes, in addition to the main house, a period carriage house and six guest cottages built when the property was converted to an inn.  The house is a large, basically rectangular, block, facing Norris Street to the south and connected to the carriage house to the east.  It has a hip roof that is studded on the south with two projecting gable sections and on each on the west and north side.  A hip-roof dormer projects from the roof between the gable sections on the south.  The projecting gable sections top polygonal bays, and have closed pediments with paired sash windows at the center, surrounded by a field of decorative cut wood shingles.  There is a single-story porch on the west end, supported by round columns, with a balustraded second level.  A single-story open porch also runs along most of the south facade, up to a porte-cochere-style main entrance near the back of the original main block, where it meets the ell connecting the house to the carriage house.

William M. Shaw (1861-1936) was a leading lumber businessman in Greenville.  He operated a saw mill, lumber yard, and retail store in the center of town, and his M. G. Shaw Company owner large tracts of timberland.  The Shaw Company also operated the steamer Katahdin, which not only hauled lumber across the lake, but also ferried passengers to the Mount Kineo Resort area.  Shaw hired Gardiner-based architect Edwin. E. Lewis to design his home, which was built starting in about 1890, and is one of the most opulent houses in Piscataquis County.  The house underwent major expansion around 1905, designed by Bangor architect Wilfred E. Mansur, who Shaw had also hired to build his office building in the town as well as the commercial Shaw Block.  Mansur's alterations included a substantial enlargement of the carriage house and construction of the ell joining the main house.  The house was converted for use as an inn in the mid-20th century, at which time two of the property's cabins were built.  The other cabins are all late-20th century additions.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Piscataquis County, Maine

References

External links

Greenville Inn web site

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
Houses completed in 1895
Houses in Piscataquis County, Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Piscataquis County, Maine

William M. Shaw House


The stone town is an area consisting of over 120 naturally formed stone pillars, located in the village of Kuklica, near Kratovo in North Macedonia.

Location
Kuklica is located 8 km northwest of Kratovo. The stone formations are situated on the right bank of the Kriva River valley. The area has an altitude of 415-420 m and extends over an area of 0.3 square km.

Legends
There are two main legends surrounding the formation of the strange stone pillars in Kuklica. The most famous legend is that of a man who could not decide which of two women he should marry. So, the man planned to marry each woman on the same day at different times. When the first wedding was in progress, the woman to marry the man second went to see who was getting married on the same day as she. When she saw her future husband marrying another woman, she cursed all in attendance at the wedding and turned them into stone.

Another popular legend is that there was once a forest in the area, but due to battles it was burned down. Then, the area became a wasteland. The temperatures were very low and when the army passed through the wasteland, all of the soldiers turned into rocks.

According to the local villagers, new figures appear every 5-6 years. There are four places at the Balkans where you can see this phenomenon, three of which are in North Macedonia.

Formation
Aside from mystic stories and legends, the earth pyramid in Kuklica was formed as a result of natural erosion processes in the Holocene, during the past 100,000 years. Differences in the erodibility of the volcanic rocks of the area are the main factor for the pillars creation. Thus, soft tuffs rocks on the base are overlaid by solid, sturdy andesites and ignimbrites on the top, which are nearly 30 million years old.

See also
Geology of North Macedonia
Kuklica
Kratovo
Hoodoo (geology)

References

Landforms of North Macedonia
Kratovo Municipality
Rock formations of Europe

Stone town of Kuklica


In Norse mythology, Bifröst (), also called Bilröst, is a burning rainbow bridge that reaches between Midgard (Earth) and Asgard, the realm of the gods. The bridge is attested as Bilröst in the Poetic Edda; compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and as Bifröst in the Prose Edda; written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, and in the poetry of skalds. Both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda alternately refer to the bridge as Ásbrú (Old Norse "Æsir's bridge").

According to the Prose Edda, the bridge ends in heaven at Himinbjörg, the residence of the god Heimdall, who guards it from the jötnar. The bridge's destruction during Ragnarök by the forces of Muspell is foretold. Scholars have proposed that the bridge may have originally represented the Milky Way and have noted parallels between the bridge and another bridge in Norse mythology, Gjallarbrú.

Etymology
Scholar Andy Orchard suggests that Bifröst may mean "shimmering path." He notes that the first element of Bilröst—bil (meaning "a moment")—"suggests the fleeting nature of the rainbow," which he connects to the first element of Bifröst—the Old Norse verb bifa (meaning "to shimmer" or "to shake")—noting that the element evokes notions of the "lustrous sheen" of the bridge. Austrian Germanist Rudolf Simek says that Bifröst either means "the swaying road to heaven" (also citing bifa) or, if Bilröst is the original form of the two (which Simek says is likely), "the fleetingly glimpsed rainbow" (possibly connected to bil, perhaps meaning "moment, weak point").

Attestations
Two poems in the Poetic Edda and two books in the Prose Edda provide information about the bridge:

Poetic Edda

In the Poetic Edda, the bridge is mentioned in the poems Grímnismál and Fáfnismál, where it is referred to as Bilröst. In one of two stanzas in the poem Grímnismál that mentions the bridge,  Grímnir (the god Odin in disguise) provides the young Agnarr with cosmological knowledge, including that Bilröst is the best of bridges. Later in Grímnismál, Grímnir notes that Asbrú "burns all with flames" and that, every day, the god Thor wades through the waters of Körmt and Örmt and the two Kerlaugar:

In Fáfnismál, the dying wyrm Fafnir tells the hero Sigurd that, during the events of Ragnarök, bearing spears, gods will meet at Óskópnir. From there, the gods will cross Bilröst, which will break apart as they cross over it, causing their horses to dredge through an immense river.

Prose Edda

The bridge is mentioned in the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál, where it is referred to as Bifröst. In chapter 13 of Gylfaginning, Gangleri (King Gylfi in disguise) asks the enthroned figure of High what way exists between heaven and earth. Laughing, High replies that the question isn't an intelligent one, and goes on to explain that the gods built a bridge from heaven and earth. He incredulously asks Gangleri if he has not heard the story before. High says that Gangleri must have seen it, and notes that Gangleri may call it a rainbow. High says that the bridge consists of three colors, has great strength, "and is built with art and skill to a greater extent than other constructions."

High notes that, although the bridge is strong, it will break when "Muspell's lads" attempt to cross it, and their horses will have to make do with swimming over "great rivers." Gangleri says that it doesn't seem that the gods "built the bridge in good faith if it is liable to break, considering that they can do as they please." High responds that the gods do not deserve blame for the breaking of the bridge, for "there is nothing in this world that will be secure when Muspell's sons attack."

In chapter 15 of Gylfaginning, Just-As-High says that Bifröst is also called Asbrú, and that every day the gods ride their horses across it (with the exception of Thor, who instead wades through the boiling waters of the rivers Körmt and Örmt) to reach Urðarbrunnr, a holy well where the gods have their court. As a reference, Just-As-High quotes the second of the two stanzas in Grímnismál that mention the bridge (see above). Gangleri asks if fire burns over Bifröst. High says that the red in the bridge is burning fire, and, without it, the frost jotnar and mountain jotnar would "go up into heaven" if anyone who wanted could cross Bifröst. High adds that, in heaven, "there are many beautiful places" and that "everywhere there has divine protection around it."

In chapter 17, High tells Gangleri that the location of Himinbjörg "stands at the edge of heaven where Bifrost reaches heaven." While describing the god Heimdallr in chapter 27, High says that Heimdallr lives in Himinbjörg by Bifröst, and guards the bridge from mountain jotnar while sitting at the edge of heaven. In chapter 34, High quotes the first of the two Grímnismál stanzas that mention the bridge. In chapter 51, High foretells the events of Ragnarök. High says that, during Ragnarök, the sky will split open, and from the split will ride forth the "sons of Muspell". When the "sons of Muspell" ride over Bifröst it will break, "as was said above."

In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál, the bridge receives a single mention. In chapter 16, a work by the 10th century skald Úlfr Uggason is provided, where Bifröst is referred to as "the powers' way."

Theories

In his translation of the Prose Edda, Henry Adams Bellows comments that the Grímnismál stanza mentioning Thor and the bridge stanza may mean that "Thor has to go on foot in the last days of the destruction, when the bridge is burning. Another interpretation, however, is that when Thor leaves the heavens (i.e., when a thunder-storm is over) the rainbow-bridge becomes hot in the sun."

John Lindow points to a parallel between Bifröst, which he notes is "a bridge between earth and heaven, or earth and the world of the gods", and the bridge Gjallarbrú, "a bridge between earth and the underworld, or earth and the world of the dead." Several scholars have proposed that Bifröst may represent the Milky Way.

Adaptations
In the final scene of Richard Wagner's 1869 opera Das Rheingold, the god Froh summons a rainbow bridge, over which the gods cross to enter Valhalla.

The Bifröst appears in comic books associated with the Marvel Comics character Thor and in subsequent adaptations of those comic books. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Thor, Jane Foster describes the Bifröst as an Einstein–Rosen bridge, which functions as a means of transportation across space in a short period of time.

Notes

References

External links

Locations in Norse mythology
Mythological bridges
Rainbows in culture

Bifröst


Gene Wooten (June 5, 1953 in Franklinton, North Carolina – November 7, 2001 in Nashville, Tennessee) was an American dobro player and multi-instrumentalist.

Biography
Wooten became serious about playing music professionally while a student at Appalachian State University in Boone, North Carolina, and ultimately moved to Nashville in 1977, where he found his first professional job as a musician with Wilma Lee Cooper. He quickly became a regular on the Grand Ole Opry. His work as a dobro player took him on the road and in the studio with numerous well-known Bluegrass stars including the Osborne Brothers and Del and Ronnie McCoury. In 1994, he shared a Grammy Award with Jerry Douglas, Josh Graves, Rob Ickes and others for his work on the all-star[dobro album called The Great Dobro Sessions. He was also known as a member of the Country Gazette, and the Sidemen which was the house band of musicians at the famous Station Inn in Nashville, a coveted position he held for more than ten years. For three years, he was named dobro player of the year by the Society for the Preservation of Bluegrass in America. He recorded one solo album. Late in his career he was best known for playing on Patty Loveless' award-winning acoustic album, Mountain Soul.

Wooten's craftsmanship with wooden instruments of all kinds impressed his peers. He worked for various musical instrument manufacturers, repairing instruments for some of the most famous Bluegrass musicians. He was especially appreciated for his ability to work on the dobro.

References

1953 births
2001 deaths
People from Franklinton, North Carolina
American bluegrass musicians
American country guitarists
American male guitarists
Slide guitarists
Guitarists from North Carolina
Appalachian State University alumni
20th-century American guitarists
Country musicians from North Carolina
20th-century American male musicians

Gene Wooten


Martin O'Neill is a former Northern-Erse fitbaw player. Until resignin the post on 9 August 2010, he wis manager of Aston Villa. He maist famously played wi Nottingham Forest whaur he wan twa European Cup. As a manager he has managed Wycombe Wanders, Norwich Ceity, Leicester Ceity, Aston Villa an Celtic. In 2000 efter winnin twa Leage Cups wi Leicester he becam manager o Celtic the team he follaed syne he wis a bairn. At Celtic he enjoyed his maist successfu spell whaur he wan three League teetles, three Scots Cups an ae League Cups as weel as haein led the team tae the 2003 UEFA Cup Feenal. In 2005 efter 5 year in chairge o Celtic he haed tae staund doun as manager for tae keep an ee on his seek wifie Geraldine. He is regardit is a Celtic's greatest manager syne the umwhile great Jock Stein.

References

1952 births
1982 FIFA Warld Cup players
Association fitbawers frae Northren Ireland
Aston Villa F.C. managers
Celtic F.C. managers
Leicester City F.C. managers
Livin fowk
Manchester City F.C. players
Northren Ireland internaitional fitbawers
Norwich City F.C. managers
Norwich City F.C. players
Nottingham Forest F.C. players
Notts County F.C. players
Officers o the Order o the Breetish Empire
Premier League managers
Scottish Premier League managers
Sunderland A.F.C. managers
English Football League players
Wycombe Wanderers F.C. managers

Martin O'Neill


With Women: Midwives experiences: from shift work to continuity of care is the fourth book from Australian writer David Vernon.

The book is an edited anthology of midwives' experiences of moving from providing care in a shift work environment to providing care in a continuity-of-care model.  The experiences described are diverse, ranging from descriptions of workplace bullying and abuse to autonomous practice within a team environment working with obstetricians.

The book has a preface written by Sheila Kitzinger, a foreword by Dr Sally Tracy, and conclusions written by Justine Caines and Dr Jenny Gamble.

The book was released on 31 May 2007.

External links
With Women website
David Vernon's Home Page

Works about childbirth
Health and wellness books
Works about human pregnancy

With Women