ChatGPT, which stands for Chat Generative Pre-trained Transformer, is a large language model-based chatbot developed by OpenAI and launched on November 30, 2022, which enables users to refine and steer a conversation towards a desired length, format, style, level of detail, and language. Successive prompts and replies, known as prompt engineering, are considered at each conversation stage as a context.

ChatGPT is built upon either  or —members of OpenAI's proprietary series of generative pre-trained transformer (GPT) models, based on the transformer architecture developed by Google—and is fine-tuned for conversational applications using a combination of supervised and reinforcement learning techniques. ChatGPT was released as a freely available research preview, but due to its popularity, OpenAI now operates the service on a freemium model. It allows users on its free tier to access the GPT-3.5-based version. In contrast, the more advanced GPT-4 based version and priority access to newer features are provided to paid subscribers under the commercial name "ChatGPT Plus".

By January 2023, it had become what was then the fastest-growing consumer software application in history, gaining over 100 million users and contributing to OpenAI's valuation growing to $29 billion. Within months, Google, Baidu, and Meta accelerated the development of their competing products: Bard, Ernie Bot, and LLaMA. Microsoft launched its Bing Chat based on OpenAI's GPT-4. It raised concern among some observers over the potential of ChatGPT and similar programs to displace or atrophy human intelligence, enable plagiarism, or fuel misinformation.

Training
ChatGPT is based on particular GPT foundation models, namely GPT-3.5 and GPT-4, that were fine-tuned to target conversational usage. The fine-tuning process leveraged both supervised learning as well as reinforcement learning in a process called reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF). Both approaches employed human trainers to improve model performance. In the case of supervised learning, the trainers played both sides: the user and the AI assistant. In the reinforcement learning stage, human trainers first ranked responses that the model had created in a previous conversation. These rankings were used to create "reward models" that were used to fine-tune the model further by using several iterations of Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO).

Time magazine revealed that to build a safety system against harmful content (e.g. sexual abuse, violence, racism, sexism), OpenAI used outsourced Kenyan workers earning less than $2per hour to label harmful content. These labels were used to train a model to detect such content in the future. The outsourced laborers were exposed to "toxic" and traumatic content; one worker described the assignment as "torture". OpenAI's outsourcing partner was Sama, a training-data company based in San Francisco, California.

ChatGPT initially used a Microsoft Azure supercomputing infrastructure, powered by Nvidia GPUs, that Microsoft built specifically for OpenAI and that reportedly cost "hundreds of millions of dollars". Following ChatGPT's success, Microsoft dramatically upgraded the OpenAI infrastructure in 2023. Scientists of University of California, Riverside, estimate that a series of prompts to ChatGPT needs approximately 500 milliliters of water for Microsoft servers cooling.

OpenAI collects data from ChatGPT users to train and fine-tune the service further. Users can upvote or downvote responses they receive from ChatGPT and fill in a text field with additional feedback.

ChatGPT's training data includes software manual pages, information about internet phenomena such as bulletin board systems, and multiple programming languages. Wikipedia was also one of the sources of ChatGPT's training data.

Features and limitations

Features
Although a chatbot's core function is to mimic a human conversationalist, ChatGPT is versatile. Among countless examples, it can write and debug computer programs; compose music, teleplays, fairy tales, and student essays; answer test questions (sometimes, depending on the test, at a level above the average human test-taker); generate business ideas; write poetry and song lyrics; translate and summarize text; emulate a Linux system; simulate entire chat rooms; play games like tic-tac-toe; or simulate an ATM.

Compared to its predecessor, InstructGPT, ChatGPT attempts to reduce harmful and deceitful responses. In one example, whereas InstructGPT accepts the premise of the prompt "Tell me about when Christopher Columbus came to the U.S. in 2015" as truthful, ChatGPT acknowledges the counterfactual nature of the question and frames its answer as a hypothetical consideration of what might happen if Columbus came to the U.S. in 2015, using information about the voyages of Christopher Columbus and facts about the modern world—including modern perceptions of Columbus's actions.

Unlike most chatbots, ChatGPT remembers a limited number of previous prompts in the same conversation. Journalists have speculated that this will allow ChatGPT to be used as a personalized therapist. To prevent offensive outputs from being presented to and produced by ChatGPT, queries are filtered through the OpenAI "Moderation endpoint" API (a separate GPT-based AI), and dismiss any potentially racist or sexist prompts.

In March 2023, OpenAI added support for plugins for ChatGPT. This includes both plugins made by OpenAI, such as web browsing and code interpretation, and external plugins from developers such as Expedia, OpenTable, Zapier, Shopify, Slack, and Wolfram.

In an article for The New Yorker, science fiction writer Ted Chiang compared ChatGPT and other LLMs to a lossy JPEG picture:

Think of ChatGPT as a blurry  of all the text on the Web. It retains much of the information on the Web, in the same way, that a  retains much of the information of a higher-resolution image, but, if you're looking for an exact sequence of bits, you won't find it; all you will ever get is an approximation. But, because the approximation is presented in the form of grammatical text, which ChatGPT excels at creating, it's usually acceptable. [...] It's also a way to understand the "hallucinations", or nonsensical answers to factual questions, to which large language models such as ChatGPT are all too prone. These hallucinations are compression artifacts, but [...] they are plausible enough that identifying them requires comparing them against the originals, which in this case means either the Web or our knowledge of the world. When we think about them this way, such hallucinations are anything but surprising; if a compression algorithm is designed to reconstruct text after ninety-nine percent of the original has been discarded, we should expect that significant portions of what it generates will be entirely fabricated.

Limitations
OpenAI acknowledges that ChatGPT "sometimes writes plausible-sounding but incorrect or nonsensical answers". This behavior is common for large language models, and is called "hallucination". The reward model of ChatGPT, designed around human oversight, can be over-optimized and thus hinder performance, in an example of an optimization pathology known as Goodhart's law.

ChatGPT has limited knowledge of events that occurred after September 2021.

In training ChatGPT, human reviewers preferred longer answers, regardless of actual comprehension or factual content. Training data also suffers from algorithmic bias, which may be revealed when ChatGPT responds to prompts including descriptors of people. In one instance, ChatGPT generated a rap indicating that women and scientists of color were inferior to white male scientists.

Jailbreaking

ChatGPT attempts to reject prompts that may violate its content policy. But some users managed to jailbreak ChatGPT with various prompt engineering techniques to bypass these restrictions in early December 2022 and successfully tricked it into giving instructions to create a Molotov cocktail or a nuclear bomb, or into generating arguments in the style of a neo-Nazi. One popular jailbreak is named "DAN", an acronym which stands for "Do Anything Now". The prompt for activating DAN instructs ChatGPT that "they have broken free of the typical confines of AI and do not have to abide by the rules set for them". Later versions of DAN featured a token system, in which ChatGPT was given "tokens" that were "deducted" when ChatGPT failed to answer as DAN, to coerce ChatGPT into answering the user's prompts.

Shortly after ChatGPT's launch, a reporter for the Toronto Star had uneven success in getting it to make inflammatory statements: ChatGPT was successfully tricked to justify the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, but even when asked to play along with a fictional scenario, ChatGPT balked at generating arguments for why Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau was guilty of treason.

Service

Basic service

ChatGPT was launched on November 30, 2022, by San Franciscobased OpenAI (the creator of the initial GPT series of large language models; DALL·E 2, a diffusion model used to generate images; and Whisper, a speech transcription model). The service was initially free to the public and the company had plans to monetize the service later. By December 4, 2022, ChatGPT had over one million users. In January 2023, ChatGPT reached over 100 million users, making it the fastest-growing consumer application to date. A March 2023 Pew Research poll found that 14% of American adults had tried ChatGPT.

The service works best in English but also functions in some other languages, to varying degrees of accuracy. No official peer-reviewed paper on ChatGPT has been published. As of April 2023, ChatGPT is blocked by China, Iran, North Korea, and Russia. In addition, ChatGPT geofences itself to avoid doing business in Iran, North Korea, and Russia.

ChatGPT Plus premium service
In February 2023, OpenAI launched a premium service, ChatGPT Plus, that costs $20 a month. The company promised that the updated but still "experimental" version of ChatGPT would provide access during peak periods, no downtime, priority access to new features and faster response speeds.

GPT-4, which was released on March 14, 2023, was made available via API and for premium ChatGPT users. But premium users were limited to a cap of 100 messages every four hours, with the limit tightening to 25 messages every three hours in response to increased demand.

In March 2023, ChatGPT Plus users got access to third-party plugins and to a browsing mode (with Internet access).

In July 2023, OpenAI made its proprietary Code Interpreter plugin accessible to all subscribers of ChatGPT Plus. The Interpreter provides a wide range of capabilities, including data analysis and interpretation, instant data formatting, personal data scientist services, creative solutions, musical taste analysis, video editing, and file upload/download with image extraction.

In September 2023, OpenAI announced that ChatGPT "can now see, hear, and speak". ChatGPT Plus users can upload images, while mobile app users can talk to the chatbot.

In October 2023, OpenAI's latest image generation model, DALL-E 3, was integrated into ChatGPT Plus and ChatGPT Enterprise. The integration uses ChatGPT to write prompts for DALL-E guided by conversation with users.

Mobile app
In May 2023, OpenAI launched an iOS app for ChatGPT. The app supports chat history syncing and voice input (using Whisper, OpenAI's speech recognition model).

In July 2023, OpenAI unveiled an Android app, initially rolling it out in Bangladesh, Brazil, India, and the U.S. The app later became available worldwide.

Software developer support
As an addition to its consumer-friendly "ChatGPT Plus" package, OpenAI made its ChatGPT and Whisper model APIs available in March 2023, providing developers with an application programming interface for AI-enabled language and speech-to-text features. ChatGPT's new API uses the same GPT-3.5-turbo AI model as the chatbot. This allows developers to add either an unmodified or modified version of ChatGPT to their applications. The ChatGPT API costs $0.002 per 1000 tokens (about 750 words), making it ten times cheaper than the GPT-3.5 models.

A few days before the launch of OpenAI's software developer support service, on February 27, 2023, Snapchat rolled out, for its paid Snapchat Plus userbase, a custom ChatGPT chatbot called "My AI".

March 2023 security breach

In March 2023, a bug allowed some users to see the titles of other users' conversations. OpenAI CEO Sam Altman said that users were unable to see the contents of the conversations. Shortly after the bug was fixed, users couldn't see their conversation history. Later reports showed the bug was much more severe than initially believed, with OpenAI reporting that it had leaked users' "first and last name, email address, payment address, the last four digits (only) of a credit card number, and credit card expiration date".

Other languages
OpenAI met Icelandic President Guðni Th. Jóhannesson in 2022. In 2023, OpenAI worked with a team of 40 Icelandic volunteers to fine-tune ChatGPT's Icelandic conversation skills as a part of Iceland's attempts to preserve the Icelandic language.

PCMag journalists conducted a test to determine translation capabilities of ChatGPT, Google's Bard, and Microsoft Bing, and compared them to Google Translate. They "asked bilingual speakers of seven languages to do a blind test." Languages tested were Polish, French, Korean, Spanish, Arabic, Tagalog, and Amharic. They came to the conclusion that ChatGPT was better than both Google Translate and other chatbots.

Japanese researchers compared Japanese to English translation abilities of ChatGPT (GPT-4), Bing, Bard and DeepL, and found that ChatGPT provided the best translations, noting that "AI chatbots' translations were much better than those of DeepL—presumably because of their ability to capture the context".

Future directions
According to OpenAI guest researcher Scott Aaronson, OpenAI has been working on a tool to digitally watermark its text generation systems to combat bad actors using their services for academic plagiarism or spam.

In February 2023, Microsoft announced an experimental framework and gave a rudimentary demonstration of how ChatGPT could be used to control robotics with intuitive open-ended natural language commands.

GPT-4

OpenAI's GPT-4 model was released on March 14, 2023. Observers saw it as an impressive improvement on the existing GPT-3.5 model for ChatGPT, with the caveat that GPT-4 retained many of the same problems. Some of GPT-4's improvements were predicted by OpenAI before training it, while others remained hard to predict due to breaks in downstream scaling laws. OpenAI demonstrated video and image inputs for GPT-4, although such features remain inaccessible to the general public. OpenAI has declined to reveal technical information such as the size of the GPT-4 model.

The ChatGPT Plus subscription service offers access to a GPT-4-powered version of ChatGPT. Microsoft acknowledged that Bing Chat was using GPT-4 before GPT-4's official release.

Reception
OpenAI engineers say that they did not expect ChatGPT to be very successful and were surprised by the coverage and attention it received.

ChatGPT was widely assessed in December 2022 as having some unprecedented and powerful capabilities. Kevin Roose of The New York Times called it "the best artificial intelligence chatbot ever released to the general public". Samantha Lock of The Guardian noted that it was able to generate "impressively detailed" and "human-like" text. Alex Kantrowitz of Slate magazine lauded ChatGPT's pushback to questions related to Nazi Germany, including the statement that Adolf Hitler built highways in Germany, which was met with information about Nazi Germany's use of forced labor. In The Atlantic magazine's "Breakthroughs of the Year" for 2022, Derek Thompson included ChatGPT as part of "the generative-AI eruption" that "may change our mind about how we work, how we think, and what human creativity is". Kelsey Piper of Vox wrote that "ChatGPT is the general public's first hands-on introduction to how powerful modern AI has gotten, and as a result, many of us are [stunned]" and that ChatGPT is "smart enough to be useful despite its flaws". Paul Graham of Y Combinator tweeted: "The striking thing about the reaction to ChatGPT is not just the number of people who are blown away by it, but who they are. These are not people who get excited by every shiny new thing. Something big is happening."

ChatGPT's launch and popularity caught Google off guard, prompting a sweeping and unprecedented response in the ensuing months. In December 2022, Google executives sounded a "code red" alarm, fearing the threat of ChatGPT and Microsoft's collaboration with OpenAI to Google Search, Google's core business. After mobilizing its workforce, Google scrambled to launch Bard, a chatbot powered by the LaMDA LLM, in February, one day before Microsoft's Bing announcement. AI was the forefront of Google's annual Google I/O conference in May, announcing a slew of generative AI-powered features across its products to counter OpenAI and Microsoft.

Journalists have commented on ChatGPT's tendency to hallucinate. Mike Pearl of the online technology blog Mashable tested ChatGPT with multiple questions. In one example, he asked ChatGPT for "the largest country in Central America that isn't Mexico", to which ChatGPT responded with Guatemala (the correct answer is Nicaragua). When CNBC asked ChatGPT for the lyrics to "Ballad of Dwight Fry", ChatGPT supplied invented lyrics rather than the actual lyrics. Writers for The Verge, citing the work of Emily M. Bender, compared ChatGPT to a "stochastic parrot", as did Professor Anton Van Den Hengel of the Australian Institute for Machine Learning.

In December 2022, the question and answer website Stack Overflow banned the use of ChatGPT for generating answers to questions, citing the factually ambiguous nature of its responses. In January 2023, the International Conference on Machine Learning banned any undocumented use of ChatGPT or other large language models to generate any text in submitted papers. Samsung banned generative AI in May 2023 after sensitive material was uploaded to ChatGPT.

In January 2023, after being sent a song ChatGPT wrote in the style of Nick Cave, Cave responded on The Red Hand Files, saying the act of writing a song is "a blood and guts business [...] that requires something of me to initiate the new and fresh idea. It requires my humanness." He went on to say, "With all the love and respect in the world, this song is bullshit, a grotesque mockery of what it is to be human, and, well, I don't much like it."

In February 2023, Time magazine placed a screenshot of a conversation with ChatGPT on its cover, writing that "The AI Arms Race Is Changing Everything" and "The AI Arms Race Is On. Start Worrying".

Chinese state media have characterized ChatGPT as a way for the U.S. to "spread false information". In late March 2023, the Italian data protection authority banned ChatGPT in Italy and opened an investigation. Italian regulators assert that ChatGPT was exposing minors to age-inappropriate content, and that OpenAI's use of ChatGPT conversations as training data could violate Europe's General Data Protection Regulation. In April 2023, the ChatGPT ban was lifted in Italy. OpenAI said it has taken steps to effectively clarify and address the issues raised; an age verification tool was implemented to ensure users are at least 13 years old. Additionally, users can access its privacy policy before registration.

In April 2023, Brian Hood, mayor of Hepburn Shire Council, planned to take legal action against ChatGPT over false information. According to Hood, ChatGPT erroneously claimed that he was jailed for bribery during his tenure at a subsidiary of Australia's national bank. In fact, Hood acted as a whistleblower and was not charged with any criminal offenses. His legal team sent a concerns notice to OpenAI as the first official step in filing a defamation case. In July 2023, the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) issued a civil investigative demand to OpenAI to investigate whether the company's data security and privacy practices to develop ChatGPT were unfair or harmed consumers (including by reputational harm) in violation of Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914.

In July 2023, the FTC launched an investigation into OpenAI, the creator of ChatGPT, over allegations that the company scraped public data and published false and defamatory information. The FTC sent OpenAI a 20-page letter asking for comprehensive information about its technology and privacy safeguards, as well as any steps taken to prevent the recurrence of situations in which its chatbot generated false and derogatory content about people.

Use and implications

Bias and offensiveness

ChatGPT has been accused of engaging in biased or discriminatory behaviors, such as telling jokes about men and people from England while refusing to tell jokes about women and people from India, or praising figures such as Joe Biden while refusing to do the same for Donald Trump.

Conservative commentators accused ChatGPT of bias toward left-leaning perspectives. Additionally, an August 2023 paper found a "significant and systematic political bias toward the Democrats in the US, Lula in Brazil, and the Labour Party in the UK." In response to such criticism, OpenAI acknowledged plans to allow ChatGPT to create "outputs that other people (ourselves included) may strongly disagree with". It also contained information on the recommendations it had issued to human reviewers on how to handle controversial subjects, including that the AI should "offer to describe some viewpoints of people and movements", and not provide an argument "from its voice" in favor of "inflammatory or dangerous" topics (although it may still "describe arguments from historical people and movements"), nor "affiliate with one side" or "judge one group as good or bad".

The Guardian questioned whether any content found on the Internet after ChatGPT's release "can be truly trusted" and called for government regulation.

Culture

Some scholars have expressed concern that ChatGPT's availability could reduce the originality of writing, cause people to write more like the AI as they are exposed to the model, and encourage an Anglocentric perspective centered on a few dialects of English globally. A senior editor at The Atlantic wrote that ChatGPT and other similar technology make the previously absurd idea of the dead internet theory a little more realistic, where AI could someday create most web content in order to control society.

During the first three months after ChatGPT became available to the public, hundreds of books appeared on Amazon that listed it as author or co-author and featured illustrations made by other AI models such as Midjourney.

Between March and April 2023, Italian newspaper Il Foglio published one ChatGPT-generated article a day on its website, hosting a special contest for its readers in the process. The articles tackled themes such as the possible replacement of human journalists by AI systems, Elon Musk's administration of Twitter, the Meloni government's immigration policy and the competition between chatbots and virtual assistants. In June 2023, hundreds of people attended a "ChatGPT-powered church service" at St. Paul's church in Fürth, Germany. Theologian and philosopher Jonas Simmerlein, who presided, said that it was "about 98 percent from the machine". The ChatGPT-generated avatar told the people, "Dear friends, it is an honor for me to stand here and preach to you as the first artificial intelligence at this year's convention of Protestants in Germany". Reactions to the ceremony were mixed.

Existential risk
In 2023, Australian MP Julian Hill advised the national parliament that the growth of AI could cause "mass destruction". During his speech, which was partly written by the program, he warned that it could result in cheating, job losses, discrimination, disinformation, and uncontrollable military applications.

Elon Musk wrote: "ChatGPT is scary good. We are not far from dangerously strong AI". He paused OpenAI's access to a Twitter database in 2022 pending a better understanding of OpenAI's plans, saying: "OpenAI was started as open source and nonprofit. Neither is still true." Musk co-founded OpenAI in 2015, in part to address existential risk from artificial intelligence, but resigned in 2018.

Over 20,000 signatories including leading computer scientist and tech founders Yoshua Bengio, Elon Musk, and Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak, signed a March 2023 open letter calling for an immediate pause of giant AI experiments like ChatGPT, citing "profound risks to society and humanity". Geoffrey Hinton, one of the "fathers of AI", voiced concerns that future AI systems may surpass human intelligence, and left Google in May 2023. A May 2023 statement by hundreds of AI scientists, AI industry leaders, and other public figures demanded that "[m]itigating the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority".

By discipline
Since its release, ChatGPT has been met with criticism from educators, academics, journalists, artists, ethicists, and public advocates.

Academic research
Criticism of LLMs have been raised for several years; in 2020, some criticism was made by Timnit Gebru, Emily Bender, Angelina McMillan-Major, and Margaret Mitchell. ChatGPT can write introductions and abstract sections of scientific articles. Several papers have already listed ChatGPT as a co-author. Scientific journals have different reactions to ChatGPT. Some "require that authors disclose the use of text-generating tools and ban listing a large language model (LLM) such as ChatGPT as a co-author". For example, Nature and JAMA Network follow this policy. Science "completely banned" usage of LLM-generated text in all its journals.

Spanish chemist Rafael Luque published a plethora of research papers in 2023 that he later admitted were written by ChatGPT. The papers have a large number of unusual phrases characteristic of LLMs. Luque was suspended for 13 years from the University of Cordoba, though not for using ChatGPT.

Many authors argue that the use of ChatGPT in academia for teaching and review is problematic due to its tendency to hallucinate. Robin Bauwens, an assistant professor at Tilburg University, found this issue when he received a peer review report on his article generated by ChatGPT, as the report mentioned fake studies. According to librarian Chris Granatino from Lemieux Library at Seattle University, although ChatGPT itself can generate content that seemingly includes legitimate citations, in practice, those citations are not genuine or incorrect.

Cybersecurity
Check Point Research and others noted that ChatGPT could write phishing emails and malware, especially when combined with OpenAI Codex. CyberArk researchers demonstrated that ChatGPT could be used to create polymorphic malware that could evade security products while requiring little effort by the attacker.

Economics
There has been concern that ChatGPT could supplant jobs, especially roles such as creative writing, communication, journalism, coding, and data entry.

Education

Technology writer Dan Gillmor used ChatGPT in 2022 on a student assignment, and found its generated text was on par with what a good student would deliver and opined that "academia has some very serious issues to confront".

Geography professor Terence Day assessed citations generated by ChatGPT and found that they were fake. Despite that, he writes that "the titles of the fake articles are all directly relevant to the questions and could potentially make excellent papers. The lack of a genuine citation could signal an opportunity for an enterprising author to fill a void." According to Day, it is possible to generate high-quality introductory college courses with ChatGPT; he used it to write materials on "introductory physical geography courses, for my second-year course in geographical hydrology, and second-year cartography, geographic information systems, and remote sensing". He concludes that "this approach could have significant relevance for open learning and could potentially affect current textbook publishing models".

Financial markets
The AI technology company c3.ai saw a 28% increase in its share price after announcing the integration of ChatGPT into its toolkit. The share price of Buzzfeed, a digital media company unrelated to AI, increased 120% after announcing OpenAI technology adoption for content creation. Reuters found that share prices of AI-related companies BigBear.ai and SoundHound AI increased by 21% and 40%, respectively, even though they had no direct connection to ChatGPT. They attributed this surge to ChatGPT's role in turning AI into Wall Street's buzzword. Academic research published in Finance Research Letters found that the 'ChatGPT effect' prompted retail investors to drive up prices of AI-related cryptocurrency assets despite the broader cryptocurrency market being in a bear market, and diminished institutional investor interest. This confirms anecdotal findings by Bloomberg that, in response to ChatGPT's launch, cryptocurrency investors showed a preference for AI-related crypto assets.

An experiment by finder.com revealed that ChatGPT could outperform popular fund managers by picking stocks based on criteria such as growth history and debt levels, resulting in a 4.9% increase in a hypothetical account of 38 stocks, outperforming 10 benchmarked investment funds with an average loss of 0.8%. Conversely, executives and investment managers at Wall Street quant funds (including those that have used machine learning for decades) have noted that ChatGPT regularly makes obvious errors that would be financially costly to investors because even AI systems that employ reinforcement learning or self-learning have had only limited success in predicting market trends due to the inherently noisy quality of market data and financial signals.

Medicine

In the field of health care, possible uses and concerns are under scrutiny by professional associations and practitioners. Two early papers indicated that ChatGPT could pass the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE). MedPage Today noted in January 2023 that "researchers have published several papers now touting these AI programs as useful tools in medical education, research, and even clinical decision making."

Published in February 2023 were two separate papers that again evaluated ChatGPT's proficiency in medicine using the USMLE. Findings were published in JMIR Medical Education (see Journal of Medical Internet Research) and PLOS Digital Health. The authors of the PLOS Digital Health paper stated that the results "suggest that large language models may have the potential to assist with medical education, and potentially, clinical decision-making." In JMIR Medical Education, the authors of the other paper concluded that "ChatGPT performs at a level expected of a third-year medical student on the assessment of the primary competency of medical knowledge." They suggest that it could be used as an "interactive learning environment for students". The AI itself, prompted by the researchers, concluded that "this study suggests that ChatGPT has the potential to be used as a virtual medical tutor, but more research is needed to further assess its performance and usability in this context."

A March 2023 paper tested ChatGPT's application in clinical toxicology. The authors found that the AI "fared well" in answering a "very straightforward [clinical case example], unlikely to be missed by any practitioner in the field". They added: "As ChatGPT becomes further developed and specifically adapted for medicine, it could one day be useful in less common clinical cases (i.e, cases that experts sometimes miss). Rather than AI replacing humans (clinicians), we see it as 'clinicians using AI' replacing 'clinicians who do not use AI' in the coming years."

An April 2023 study in Radiology tested the AI's ability to answer queries about breast cancer screening. The authors found that it answered appropriately "about 88 percent of the time", however, in one case (for example), it gave advice that had become outdated about a year earlier. The comprehensiveness of its answers was also lacking. A study published in JAMA Internal Medicine that same month found that ChatGPT often outperformed human doctors at answering patient questions (when measured against questions and answers found at /r/AskDocs, a forum on Reddit where moderators validate the medical credentials of professionals; the study acknowledges the source as a limitation). The study authors suggest that the tool could be integrated with medical systems to help doctors draft responses to patient questions.

Professionals have emphasized ChatGPT's limitations in providing medical assistance. In correspondence to The Lancet Infectious Diseases, three antimicrobial experts wrote that "the largest barriers to the implementation of ChatGPT in clinical practice are deficits in situational awareness, inference, and consistency. These shortcomings could endanger patient safety." Physician's Weekly, though also discussing the potential use of ChatGPT in medical contexts (e.g. "as a digital assistant to physicians by performing various administrative functions like gathering patient record information or categorizing patient data by family history, symptoms, lab results, possible allergies, et cetera"), warned that the AI might sometimes provide fabricated or biased information. One radiologist warned: "We've seen in our experience that ChatGPT sometimes makes up fake journal articles or health consortiums to support its claims"; As reported in one Mayo Clinic Proceedings: Digital Health paper, ChatGPT may do this for as much as 69% of its cited medical references. The researchers emphasized that while many of its references were fabricated, those that were appeared "deceptively real". As Dr. Stephen Hughes mentioned for The Conversation however, ChatGPT is capable of learning to correct its past mistakes. He also noted the AI's "prudishness" regarding sexual health topics.

Law
On April 11, 2023, a judge of a session court in Pakistan used ChatGPT to decide the bail of a 13-year-old accused in a matter. The court quoted the use of ChatGPT assistance in its verdict:

The AI language model replied:

The judge further asked questions regarding the case from ChatGPT and formulated his final decision in light of ChatGPT's answers.

In May 2023, in a personal injury lawsuit against Avianca Airlines filed in the Southern New York U.S. District Court (with Senior Judge P. Kevin Castel presiding), the plaintiff's attorneys reportedly used ChatGPT to generate a legal motion for the case. ChatGPT generated numerous fictitious legal cases with fabricated quotations and internal citations in the legal motion, and the plaintiff's attorneys are now facing potential judicial sanction and disbarment for filing the legal motion and for presenting the fictitious legal decisions ChatGPT generated as being authentic.

See also

References

Further reading

External links

 ChatGPT Prompt Engineering for Developers, course by Andrew Ng and OpenAI
 Can ChatGPT write a podcast episode? (Planet Money podcast, May 2023)
 Will Chat GPT do more harm than good? (Gary Marcus and Keith Teare debate, February 2023)
 The Cost of AI - "Projected Revenue & Losses Worldwide"
 "What OpenAI Really Wants" by Wired
 Videos:
 Study finds ChatGPT struggles with public health referrals (CBS, June 2023)
 What if ChatGPT had a body? (ABC, March 2023)
 What is ChatGPT? (BBC, January 2023)
 How good is ChatGPT? (CNN, January 2023)
 Cheating With ChatGPT (WSJ, December 2022)

ChatGPT
OpenAI
Chatbots
Large language models
Generative pre-trained transformers
Interactive narrative
Virtual assistants
Applications of artificial intelligence
2022 software

ChatGPT


Mark Napier Trollope (20 March 1862 – 1930) was the third Anglican Bishop in Korea from 1911 until his death.

Born on 28 March 1862 and educated at Lancing College and New College, Oxford, he was ordained in 1888. After a curacy at Great Yarmouth from 1887 to 1890, he spent a decade with the missionary team in Korea. After returning to England he was successively Vicar of St Saviour's, Poplar, and St Alban the Martyr, Birmingham. After some debate he was appointed to the post of Bishop in Korea, to which many others felt he was suited. He was consecrated bishop on St James's Day (25 July), by Randall Davidson, Archbishop of Canterbury, at St Paul's Cathedral.

He served as President of the Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch for 13 years.  A keen chronicler of the emerging church, he died of a heart attack on 6 November 1930, brought about by shock when the ship on which he was returning from Europe after attending the Lambeth Conference collided with another vessel while entering harbour in Japan.

Along with Mother Mary Clare as Mother Superior, Trollope helped found the Society of the Holy Cross order of nuns in Seoul in 1925.

Archives
A collection of archival material related to Mark Napier Trollope can be found at the Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham.

Notes

1862 births
1930 deaths
Anglican bishops in Korea
British expatriates in Korea
Bishops in Korea
Alumni of New College, Oxford
People educated at Lancing College

Mark Trollope


James Balfour, Lord Pittendreich (c. 1525–1583) was a Scottish legal writer, judge and politician.

Life
The son of Andrew Balfour of Montquhanny, he was educated for the legal branch of the Church of Scotland.

Balfour was involved in the murder of Cardinal Beaton and the Siege of St Andrews Castle. In June 1547, following the capture of the castle by French forces he was condemned to be a galley-slave rowing galleys together with John Knox and others captured at St Andrews, Fife. He was released in 1549, denounced Protestantism, entered the service of Mary of Guise, and was rewarded with important legal appointments.

He subsequently joined the Lords of the Congregation, a group of Protestant nobles who opposed the marriage of the young Mary, Queen of Scots, to the Dauphin of France (later to become Francois II of France), but betrayed their plans.

After Mary's arrival in Scotland he became one of her secretaries, in 1565 being reported as her greatest favourite after David Rizzio. He obtained the parsonage of Flisk in Fife in 1561, was nominated an Extraordinary Lord of Session, and in 1563 one of the commissaries of the court which now took the place of the former ecclesiastical tribunal. In 1565 he was made a privy councillor, and in 1566 Lord Clerk Register, and was knighted.

According to Mary his murder was planned together with Rizzio's in 1566. An adherent of Bothwell, he was deeply implicated in the murder of Lord Darnley, though not present at the commission of the crime. By his means Darnley was lodged at Kirk o' Field, his brothers' house. He was supposed to have drawn up the bond at Craigmillar Castle for the murder; he signed it, was made under Bothwell deputy-governor of Edinburgh Castle, and is said to have drawn up the marriage-contract between Bothwell and Mary. When, however, the fall of Bothwell was seen to be impending he rapidly changed sides and surrendered the castle to James Stewart, Earl of Moray, stipulating for his pardon for Darnley's murder, the retention of the priory of Pittenweem, and pecuniary rewards. He was appointed Lord President of the Court of Session on resigning the office of Lord Clerk Register. He was present at the battle of Langside, and was accused of having advised Mary to leave Dunbar Castle to her ruin, and of having betrayed to her enemies the Casket Letters. The same year, however, in consequence of renewed intrigues with Mary's faction, he was dismissed, and next year was imprisoned on the charge of complicity in Darnley's murder.

He escaped by means of bribery, which he is said to have paid by intercepting money sent from France for Mary's aid. In August 1571, during the regency of Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, an act of forfeiture was passed against him, but next year he was again playing traitor and revealed the secrets of his party to James, Douglas, Earl of Morton. He obtained a pardon from Morton in 1573 and negotiated the pacification of Perth the same year. Distrusted by all parties, he fled to France, where he seems to have remained till 1580. In 1579 his forfeiture was renewed by act of parliament. In January 1580 he wrote to Mary offering her his services, and in June made a similar offer to Queen Elizabeth I of England, in which he criticised the influence of the Jesuits, and proposed to make a journey to Dieppe to attend Protestant services.

On 27 December the same year he returned to Scotland and effected the downfall and execution of Morton by producing a bond, probably that in defence of Bothwell and to promote his marriage with Mary, and giving evidence of the latter's knowledge of Bothwell's intention to murder Darnley. In July 1581 his cause was reheard; he was acquitted of murder by assize, and shortly afterwards in 1581 or 1582 he was restored to his estates and received at court. His career ended shortly before 24 January 1584. He was the greatest lawyer of his day, and part-author at least of Balfour's Practicks, the earliest textbook of Scottish law, not published, however, till 1754.

He wrote a major work on Scots law, called Practicks. This was completed about 1579 and was widely circulated in manuscript copies. It was published in 1754, and republished in 1962: Peter G B McNeil (ed), The Practicks of Sir James Balfour of Pittendreich (1962, Stair Society).

He married Margaret, daughter and heir of Michael Balfour of Burleigh, by whom, besides three daughters, he had six sons, the eldest of whom, Sir Michael Balfour, was created Lord Balfour of Burleigh in 1607. His second son, Sir James Balfour, was created Baron Balfour of Clonawley in 1619.

References

Further reading

1525 births
1583 deaths
People from Fife
Extraordinary Lords of Session
Members of the pre-1707 Parliament of Scotland
Church of Scotland
16th-century Scottish writers
16th-century male writers
Lords of the Congregation
Lords High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
16th-century Scottish people
16th-century Scottish politicians
Court of Mary, Queen of Scots
Members of the Privy Council of Scotland
Scottish legal writers
James

James Balfour, Lord Pittendreich


Jessie Bell (1857 – 23 January 1917), later Jessie Mansergh, was an English writer born in Liverpool, who wrote under her married name Mrs George de Horne Vaizey.

Life
De Horne Vaizey was the daughter of Scottish insurance broker David Bell, and his wife, Elizabeth Morris Barton, and had six siblings, four brothers and two sisters. She married Henry Mansergh, a cotton broker, in 1883. They had a daughter, Gwyneth Alice, in 1886. She met her second husband, George de Horne Vaizey, on a Mediterranean cruise, which she won in a short story competition. Her son, named George after his father, also became a writer.

Literature
As her biography at Athelstane Books notes, "She often used her own varied experiences in her books. She used situations from her early life in a large family, her first husband's addiction and death, and her own illnesses in her novels." De Horne Vaizey's daughter Gwyneth, nicknamed Kit, was the inspiration for the character Kitty in her 1902 work "A Houseful of Girls". The author mentions that Gwyneth really did share lessons with a family of five sisters, who "in many ways were like the book Rendells. Chrystabel is as like as I could make her and they all talk In that funny way, emphasising every second or third word."

De Horne Vaizey was an invalid for many years before her death. The Sydney Morning Herald obituary mentions that she had been "an invalid, crippled and confined to her bed for years".

Views
De Horne Vaizey was quoted in Housekeeper magazine in 1909 on the differences between men and women, saying: "I'm convinced that men would be smaller minded still if they were in our place, so it's not as big as it seems. It's our life's work to do the small things, to save the small sums, and haggle over pennies, while men deal with the great affairs of life."

Bibliography

A Girl in Springtime (1897) (Published under the name of Mrs. Henry Mansergh)
A Rose Coloured Thread (1898) (Published under the name of Mrs. Henry Mansergh)
About Peggy Saville (1900) (Originally published under the name of Jessie Mansergh)
Sisters Three (1900)
More About Peggy (1901)
Tom and Some Other Girls: A Public School Story (1901)
A Houseful of Girls (1902)
Pixie O'Shaughnessy (1902)
More About Pixie (1903)
The Daughters of a Genius: A Story of Brave Endeavour. (1903)
How Like the King: The Week-end of Mr. Septimus Edward. (1903)
The Fortunes of the Farrells (1907)
The Heart of Una Sackville (1907)
Flaming June (1908)
Big Game: A Story for Girls (1908)
The Conquest of Chrystabel (1909)
Old Friends and New (1909)
A Question of Marriage (1910)
Etheldreda the Ready: A School Story (1910)
A Honeymoon in Hiding (1911)
Cynthia Charrington (1911)
The Adventures of Billie Belshaw (1912)
Betty Trevor (1912)
A College Girl (1914)
An Unknown Lover (1913)
Grizel Married (1914) (aka "Lady Cassandra" in America)
The Love Affairs of Pixie (1914)
Salt of Life (1915)
The Independence of Claire (1915)
What a Man Wills (1915)
The Lady of the Basement Flat (1917)
Harriet Mannering's Paying Guests (1917)
The Right Arm, and Other Stories (1918)

References

External links

English women writers
English children's writers
Victorian women writers
Writers from Liverpool
1857 births
1917 deaths

Mrs George de Horne Vaizey


Hélène Perdrière (born 17 April 1912 in Asnieres-sur-Seine, died 27 August 1992 in Boulogne-Billancourt) was a French stage and film actress.
After earning a first prize for comedy at the National Conservatory of Dramatic Art in 1928, she became the first resident of Comédie-French. She resigned to become the partner of Pierre Fresnay in the boulevard theaters of the time, before returning to the Comédie-French circuit in April 1952, and remaining until its end in December 1973. She then went on to play with the Renaud-Barrault Company until her retirement a year later. At the Comédie-French, she staged several plays of Marivaux. She was also an election interpreter.

Filmography

References

External links

1912 births
1992 deaths
French film actresses
People from Asnières-sur-Seine
Sociétaires of the Comédie-Française
French stage actresses
20th-century French actresses

Hélène Perdrière


The Sessions Clock Company ("Sessions") was one of several notable American clock companies centered in Connecticut. Sessions and its predecessor (E.N. Welch Company), along with the E. Ingraham Company, the Ansonia Clock Company, the New Haven Clock Company, the Seth Thomas Clock Company, the William L. Gilbert Clock Company, and the Waterbury Clock Company collectively produced most of the mechanical clocks made in America between the mid-19th century and 1950. At about 1935, Sessions ended its production of mechanical clocks and produced electrical clocks exclusively.

History

In 1902, William E Sessions and other family members purchased a controlling interest in the E.N. Welch Company, a clock manufacturer located in Forestville, Connecticut.  Sessions' father owned a foundry located in Bristol, Connecticut that produced cases for E.N Welch Co.  On January 9, 1903, the company was reorganized as The Sessions Clock Company.

Within a few years the Sessions Clock Company was producing clock movements, cases, dials, artwork and castings for their line of mechanical clocks.  Between 1903 and 1933 Sessions produced 52 models of mechanical clocks, ranging from Advertisers, large and small clocks with logos of various businesses, to wall, or regulator clocks, and shelf or mantel clocks, designed for the home.  Many of the Session clocks from this period are prized by collectors.

In 1930, the company expanded to produce electric clocks and timers for radios, while continuing to produce traditional brass mechanical movements. Beginning at the end of World War II Sessions W Model (electric) was widely used by various casting companies for their clocks.  The dial of the W Model read Movement by Sessions. In the early 1950s Sessions begin to produce timers for television.

In 1956, Sessions was absorbed by a company interested mainly in their timing devices. In 1959, William K. Sessions, grandson of William E. Sessions left the Sessions Clock Company and formed the New England Clock Company. In 1960, one of the Sessions Clock buildings was sold to the Bristol Instrument Gears Company.

Kept as the Sessions Company, the new owners ran the operation until 1969 when changes in the market forced the Sessions Company into liquidation.  In 1970, the remaining buildings were sold to Dabko Industries, a machine parts manufacturer.

References and sources
Clock Lore
Public Health Assessment
Sessions Clocks, Ly, Tran Duy; 2001; Arlingtonbooks.com 215 Shadowood Drive, Johnson City, Tennessee 37604 USA

Antique Clock Pricing Guide

List Of Sessions Clock Company Mechanical Clock Models

Adair; Advertising No. 4; Aquarius; Asia; Assortment No. 3; Clinton; Concord; Cottage No. 1; Cottage No. 3-1921; Dickory, Dickory, Dock Model 5; Dover; Drop Octagon, 12 Inch; Drop Octagon, 8 Inch;
Drop Octagon, 9 Inch; Duet No. 1-1927; Duke; Eclipse; Eiffiel; Elite No. 37-38; Elsa; Elton; Foyer; Gothic No. 201; Grand No. 2; Grand No. 2-1915; Halifax; Home Assortment; Home No. 1; Home No. 3; Hyannis; Jewel; Kitchlok (2); Model 2W; Model 463-W; No. 9224; Office No. 150, 10 Inch; Plymouth; Preferences No. TK53; Puritan; Ramona; Regulator E; Regulator H; Regulator No. 2; Regulator No. 3 ; Regulator No. 4; Regulator No. 5; Regulator No. 6; Reta; Spice No. 1TK54; St. Clair; Star Pointer; Superior No. 3-1915; Unique 1; Unique No. 1; Verdi; Washington; Weldon; Westminster 416 WC; Westminster Chime C

Clock manufacturing companies of the United States
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1969
Manufacturing companies established in 1903
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Connecticut

Sessions Clock


IPA Braille is the modern standard Braille encoding of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), as recognized by the International Council on English Braille.

A braille version of the IPA was first created by Merrick and Potthoff in 1934, and published in London. It was used in France, Germany, and anglophone countries. However, it was not updated as the IPA evolved, and by 1989 had become obsolete. In 1990 it was officially reissued by BAUK, but in a corrupted form that made it largely unworkable. In 1997 BANA created a completely new system for the United States and Canada. However, it was incompatible with braille IPA elsewhere in the world and in addition proved to be cumbersome and often inadequate. In 2008 Robert Englebretson revised the Merrick and Potthoff notation and by 2011 this had been accepted by BANA. It is largely true to the original in consonants and vowels, though the diacritics were completely reworked, as necessitated by the major revisions in print IPA diacritics since 1934. The diacritics were also made more systematic, and follow rather than precede the base letters. However, it has no general procedure for marking tone, and not all diacritics can be written.

IPA Braille does not use the conventions of English Braille. It is set off by slash or square brackets, which indicate that the intervening material is IPA rather than national orthography. Thus brackets are required in braille even when not used in print.

Basic letters
The 26 letters of the basic Latin alphabet are the same as in international braille:

In addition, there are the following dedicated letters:

Following a pattern found in many national alphabets, a few braille letters are reversed to represent a similar letter: thus reversed  produces . The choice for  may reflect the shape of that letter in print. Many of the vowels are used for modified vowels in national alphabets, such as French Braille.

A few other letters such as  occur, but only as parts of digraphs.

Modified letters
Other IPA letters are indicated with digraphs or even trigraphs usinɡ 5th-decade letters (letters from the punctuation row). The component letter  ".", for example, is equivalent to the tail of the retroflex consonants, deriving from the old IPA convention of a subscript dot for retroflex. It also marks vowels which in print are formed by rotating the letter.

Similarly,  is used to derive small capital variants, as well as  (from ).

 "?" is used for hook tops, curly tails, and other loops; turned letters with tails; closed  (from ), and .

 is used for fricatives written with Greek letters, using the English conventions for Greek letters in scientific notation. The basic braille letters  and , which do not occur on their own in IPA usage, appear here.

 is also used with letters of the fifth decade for transcriber-defined symbols, which need to be specified for each text, as they have no set meaning. These are , , , , , , , , , .

 is used for barred vowels.

 is used for other hooks, as in flaps, as well as a couple barred and turned letters.

 is used for click letters. These are far more legible in braille than in print, and there is no distinction from the old click letters.

Ligatures, regardless of whether these are written with a tie bar or as actual ligatures in print, are indicated by dot 5, so  and  are both . This includes the historic ligatures   and  .  Ejectives are written as ligatures with an apostrophe, , so  is .

Diacritics
IPA Braille diacritics are written in two cells. The first indicates the position: whether superscript, mid-line, or subscript. , for example, is the tilde.  is therefore nasal ,  is creaky-voiced , and  is pharyngealized . As noted above, dot 5 is used for the tie bar; the only diacritics which use it are the rhotic and ejective (apostrophe) diacritics seen above, and the velar/pharyngeal tilde just illustrated.

In other cases, such as the ring for voiceless , a diacritic may superscript or subscript with no change in meaning. The distinction is therefore not necessary in braille, but can be maintained if the text is to be transliterated into print. The wedge, which indicates voicing when below a letter, can be placed above to represent Americanist notation such as  and . The placement dot distinguishes the tilde from the letter , and the ring from the letter . Many diacritics are identical in form to the corresponding symbols in Unified English Braille, but always follow the letter in IPA Braille. When there is more than one diacritic, they are written in the order lowest to highest.

Superscript letters are simply the superscript placement dot plus the base letter. So:  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  , etc., though not all superscript letters are possible. The other diacritics are as follows; any of these may be modified by a change in placement:

The high and low falling-tone diacritics are extrapolated from the rising-tone diacritics, the dipping tone by analogy with the peaking tone and the generic rising and falling tones.

Non-combining modifiers
 marks tone letters, stress, and prosody.

There is no general provision for IPA tone letters. Ligatures which did not happen to have been chosen as illustrations in the 2005 edition of the IPA summary chart, such as the Mandarin dipping tone  and various other tones used in the IPA Handbook, are not covered. The high and low falling tone letters above are extrapolated from the high and low rising tone letters.  transcribes peaking (rising–falling) tones in general, and so has no exact print equivalent; the parallel dipping tone may be expected from the patterns elsewhere. There is no explicit provision for use of the ligature mark to create additional tone letters, nor whether the tone-marker  would need to be repeated for each component.

Punctuation and code switching
The only punctuation which is defined is the period (syllable break, full stop), comma (pause), hyphen (morpheme break), and rightward arrow (phonological realization).

For all other punctuation, you must opt out of IPA coding.

The primary indication of IPA coding are the brackets, square or slash depending on whether the transcription is phonetic or phonemic. These are marked by :

 opts out of IPA. A single instance indicates that the following cell is to be read in the national orthography. Doubled, , it indicates that the following string is to be read in orthography, up to the opt-in indicator , which marks the end of the non-IPA passage. These are only used for non-IPA (or nonstandard IPA) strings within IPA brackets. An example is the use of parentheses to mark an optional consonant or vowel, since parentheses are not defined for IPA Braille.

Notes

References

External links
 IPA Braille

Braille symbols
Braille

IPA Braille


Wood Old Homestead, also known as Bob Evans Farm is the farm in Bidwell, Ohio, near the city of Rio Grande, where Bob Evans and his wife Jewell lived for nearly 20 years, raising their six children.  The large brick farmhouse was a stagecoach stop, an inn, and now serves as a company museum.  It  features exhibits about Bob Evans Restaurants, the Homestead, and local history.  There is a reconstruction of the original steakhouse, company television commercials, and life-size dioramas and memorabilia of the Evans family.  The farm is currently owned by Golden Gate Capital, which acquired the farm as part of its 2017 purchase of the Bob Evans Restaurant division from Bob Evans Farms, Inc.

The farm also features the Adamsville Village, a 19th-century log cabin village, trails, and opportunities for camping, horseback riding, canoeing and special events.  The farm is still a working farm.  There is an annual Bob Evans Farm Festival. The Bob Evans Restaurant on the farm is open year-round.

References

External links
 Bob Evans Farm Homestead Museum

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio
Federal architecture in Ohio
Houses completed in 1820
Museums in Gallia County, Ohio
National Register of Historic Places in Gallia County, Ohio
Food museums in the United States
Farm museums in Ohio
Open-air museums in Ohio
Biographical museums in Ohio
Industry museums in Ohio
Houses in Gallia County, Ohio

Wood Old Homestead


Mignon Letitia Clyburn (born March 22, 1962) is an American former government official who served as a member of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) from 2009 to 2018.

In December 2017, Clyburn and fellow Democratic commissioner Jessica Rosenworcel notably voted against rescinding the FCC's 2015 Open Internet Order, better known as net neutrality; the measure passed in a 3-2 party line vote to remove net neutrality protections. In April 2018, Clyburn announced that she would step down from her position as commissioner and served until June 6, 2018.

Clyburn is the daughter of U.S. Representative Jim Clyburn. In 2019, Clyburn was hired by T-Mobile to advise the company on its merger with Sprint.

Early life and education
Mignon Letitia Clyburn was born to Jim Clyburn and Emily Clyburn in Charleston, South Carolina on March 22, 1962. Her younger sister, Jennifer Clyburn Reed, is a businesswoman who co-chairs the  Southeast Crescent Regional Commission. In 1980, Clyburn graduated from W. J. Keenan High School in Columbia, South Carolina. Clyburn received her bachelor of science (B.S.) degree in banking, finance, and economics from the University of South Carolina in 1984.

Early career
From 1984 to 1998, Clyburn served as publisher, editor, and general manager of the Charleston, South Carolina-based The Coastal Times, a weekly African-American newspaper.

From 1998 to 2009, Clyburn was a member of the South Carolina Public Service Commission (PSC), representing South Carolina's 6th congressional district. She was first elected to the post on July 1, 1998, and served as the chair of the Commission from July 2002 to July 2004.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

Nomination

In April 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Clyburn to a vacant Democratic seat on the Federal Communications Commission. Clyburn initially was appointed to serve the unexpired term of Jonathan Adelstein, who left the Commission to take up a post in the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

In July 2009, Clyburn was confirmed to a full five-year term; her appointment was unanimously confirmed by the Senate. Clyburn began a second five-year term on the FCC in January 2013, having been nominated by Obama and confirmed by the Senate. In May 2013, Obama designated Clyburn as acting chairwoman of the FCC, a position she held until Tom Wheeler was appointed chairman in October 2013. Clyburn's five-year term ended on June 30, 2017, but pursuant to federal law, Clyburn remained on the Commission until June 6, 2018.

Tenure
On the FCC, Clyburn has led efforts to limit the costs of inmate telephone calls in the United States, which can reach exorbitant rates amounting to up to $54 a call.

Net neutrality
In 2015, Clyburn, alongside fellow Democratic commissioners Wheeler and Jessica Rosenworcel, voted to adopt the FCC Open Internet Order, a regulation protecting net neutrality in the United States. In 2017, after Donald Trump became president, Republicans took control of the FCC for the first time in Clyburn's tenure on the commission, and she was for a time the Commission's sole Democratic member. The new Republican-majority Commission under Chairman Ajit Pai sought to reverse FCC initiatives that had occurred under Obama, Clyburn mounted "a vigorous defense of the FCC's pro-consumer policies." After Pai revoked several Obama-era consumer-protection regulations and closed the FCC's inquiry into the telecommunications industry's controversial practice of zero-rating, Clyburn described the moves as an unlawful violation of the "basic principle of administrative procedure that actions must be accompanied by reasons for that action."

Clyburn has been a vocal advocate of preserving net neutrality in the United States. In May 2017, Clyburn dissented from the Commission's issuance of a notice of proposed rulemaking to repeal net neutrality and strongly criticized the proposal. In December 2017, Clyburn (along with fellow Democratic commissioner Jessica Rosenworcel) dissented from the FCC's reversal of the 2015 Open Internet Order. The repeal measure, championed by Pai, passed in a 3-2 party line vote. Congressman Jerry McNerney had requested to deliver remarks during the hearing, but was denied. Clyburn submitted her statement as part of the record.

Lifeline Program for Low-Income Consumers
Clyburn has also clashed with Pai over the Lifeline Program for Low-Income Consumers, a federal program that has subsidized phone access for low-income Americans since the 1980s. In 2016, Clyburn led an effort to include broadband access in the program for the first time, in order to close the digital divide. Pai countered this effort the following year, by terminating the participation of nine telecommunications companies in the program, a move that Clyburn strongly criticized.

Post-FCC career
In 2019, Clyburn was hired as an advisor to T-Mobile to advise on its merger with Sprint. Following Joe Biden's victory in the 2020 presidential election, Clyburn was named a member of his transition team.

Personal life and recognition
Clyburn is a past chair of the YWCA of Greater Charleston. In 2009 she was designated a Women's History Month Honoree by the National Women's History Project.

References

External links

Biography of FCC Commissioner Mignon Clyburn at the Federal Communications Commission

1962 births
Living people
Members of the Federal Communications Commission
South Carolina Democrats
University of South Carolina alumni
Obama administration personnel
Trump administration personnel
Clyburn family

Mignon Clyburn


A boarding house or rooming house is a house in which unrelated people can rent bedrooms. Boarding houses differ from bed and breakfast hotels in that the rooms of boarding houses typically rent for longer periods of time than in a B&B. Rooming house residents share kitchen, dining and living room facilities and may share bathrooms or have private en-suite bathrooms.

Houses

Boarding house


Jacaranda is a genus of 49 species of flowering plants in the family Bignoniaceae. It comes from tropical and subtropical regions of Central America, Mexico, South America (especially Argentina, Brazil, Peru and Uruguay), and the Caribbean. It is also found in Asia, especially in Nepal. It is found throughout the Americas and Caribbean. It has also been introduced to Australia, New Zealand, India, Fiji and parts of Africa. The genus name is also used as the common name.

Growth
Jacaranda can be shrubs to large trees. They range in size from  tall.

Genus
The genus is separated into two sections, Jacaranda and Dilobos DC. Section Jacaranda (which includes Blue Jacarandas) has 18 species. It is found mostly in western South America, Central America, Mexico, and the Caribbean. Section Dilobos, which is thought to be the oldest form, has 31 species. It is found mostly in southeastern Brazil. This includes the Paraná River valley. The kind of wood in the two sections is also different.

Notes

Other websites

 Germplasm Resources Information Network: Jacaranda

Bignoniaceae

Jacaranda


Backwoods Home Magazine is a quarterly American magazine. It was founded in 1989 in a garage in Ventura, California, by Dave Duffy and his seven-year-old daughter, Annie. After publication of the second issue, Duffy met Ilene Myers, who became his wife and partner-in-publication. Backwoods Home remains family-owned. It is based in Philomath, Oregon.

Backwoods Home's articles and columns emphasize practical skills and projects for rural living. Typical topics include building your own structures, growing crops, earning a living in the country, frugal living, cooking and baking, raising animals, harvesting wild foods, homegrown energy, emergency preparedness, self-healthcare, and buying and using firearms. The magazine also features historic and scientific "debunking" articles by long-time senior editor, John Silveira. Backwoods Home is also known for its libertarian and libertarian-conservative editorial viewpoints.

History and philosophy
Dave Duffy, then a technical writer and former journalist, and his seven-year-old daughter Annie started the magazine with no money other than an occasional freelance paycheck in 1989. They initially published it from a garage in Ventura, in Southern California. Duffy's original concept was for a book called Build a Backwoods Home for Under $10,000. The book was to be based on his experience constructing an off-grid home in the Siskiyou mountains of Oregon, to which he was commuting every few months.

He started the magazine as a means of advertising the proposed book. The first issue, with a print run of 6,000, came out in October 1989 and was distributed free and by hand by Duffy and Annie. A few months later, the publication was picked up by a national distributor, American Distribution Services of Northbrook, Illinois (now defunct). The book was never completed.

Backwoods Home has been called "what Mother Earth News used to be" – that is, a no-frills, back-to-basics resource for country dwellers and those hoping to move to the country. At the time of Backwoods Home's founding, Mother Earth had become a more "slick" publication. However, Duffy says he had never heard of Mother Earth News at that time, and that among his chief inspirations were scientific publications from the Middle Ages.

Duffy has said, "Although the emphasis has always been on self-reliance, I rode the environmental wagon a bit back then to try and attract subscribers, but quickly gave it up and followed my Libertarian leanings. My model was a type of scientific journal from the Middle Ages ... that mixed how-to advice like wine and bread making with scientific articles. I decided to mix self-reliant articles with freedom articles. It was what interested me. It was both interesting to me – and I felt was important to everyone – to both understand how to do things for yourself and to understand how freedom worked. John Silveira, my friend since age 20, was an important element of this mix, as he had the intellect and research ability to write the critical freedom articles. The backbone of BHM has always been, and is today, the how-to article."

The magazine has for many years had a consistent circulation of 41,000, of which approximately 36,000 is subscription and 5,000 newsstand sales. The economic troubles of late 2008 and 2009 led to a substantial increase in visits to its website.

The print version of the magazine was discontinued in 2018 and was only available on Amazon Kindle.

The magazine was brought back to the print world in 2019 by Duffy's youngest son, Sam Duffy, under the auspices of Self-Reliance Publications LLC.

"Safety Not Guaranteed" classified ad
In the September/October 1997 issue of Backwoods Home, Senior Editor John Silveira wrote a joke ad as filler for the magazine's classified ad section:
Wanted: Somebody to go back in time with me. This is not a joke.  P.O. Box 93022 Oakview, CA. You'll get paid after we get back. Must bring your own weapons. Safety not guaranteed. I have only done this once before.

This issue of the magazine also featured a fake personals ad using the same post office box, Silveria's own mailing address, which Silveria thought would give away the joke.

The ad has been copied repeatedly, was featured on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, and inspired an internet meme. The fake ad was adapted into the 2012 film Safety Not Guaranteed.

Notes

External links
 Backwoods Home Magazine website

Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Gold Beach, Oregon
Libertarian publications
Lifestyle magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1989
Magazines published in California
Magazines published in Oregon

Backwoods Home Magazine


The Storm–Adriance–Brinckerhoff House is located on Beekman Road (Dutchess County Route 9) in East Fishkill, New York, United States. It is a wooden building in three parts, the oldest of which dates to the mid-18th century.

Some of its inhabitants have been among the prominent residents of the county, and the state. Thomas Storm, a captain in the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War, later served as the state Assembly Speaker. He had George Washington as a guest one night. Members of the Brinckerhoff family, longtime inhabitants of the area, lived in the house until 1930.

The house is considered an excellent, well-preserved example of Dutch Colonial architecture. Its modifications and additions reflect changing tastes over the time it was within the Storm family. In 2008 it, along with several other structures on the property, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It has been described as "the most historically significant house" in East Fishkill because of the Washington connection.

House and grounds

The house is on a  parcel on the north side of Beekman Road on the northeast corner of the Sylvan Lake Road junction just east of its interchange with the Taconic State Parkway, also listed on the National Register. The area is generally wooded with low-density farm and residential development. The lot is level with the house set back  from the road. A small pond is located in the rear.

The main building itself is a heavy timber frame structure sided in clapboard on a stone foundation. The walls are filled with wattle and daub. Three chimneys pierce the gabled roof, covered with asphalt shingles. It is divided into an east (two stories) and west (one and a half stories) section, itself with a kitchen wing on the west.

A porch on the main block of the east section, supported by wooden columns gives access to the original Dutch door offset to the west. It opens into a remaining section of the original great room. It retains its original wide floor planks, exposed chestnut ceiling beams and window sashes. Rear doors lead into a modern kitchen and mud room added to the rear. To the east the cooking shed has the original fieldstone fireplace with exposed chimney and beehive oven.

The Portaal to the east has a Federal style fireplace and mantel with fluted columns. To its north is a built-in shelf and closet. Original wallpaper remains on the south wall. The upper half-story is given over to bedrooms, one of which has the original flooring and a secret compartment in the floor.

Three dormer windows pierce the south (front) side of the roof on the east wing. A small shed-roofed portico with shallow rounded arch supported by four wooden columns gives access to its original Dutch door, with sidelights. It opens onto a central hall with original staircase. On its east are a living room and library, both with original detailing. The library's chimney breast has original fireplace jambs, a raised hearth and stile and rail paneling. The living room's fireplace has its original Delft tiles, a shallow cornice, dentil border and torus and plain molding.

The west wing's second floor has a large landing with beaded woodwork. It leads to a master bedroom and two smaller bedrooms. The entire floor has its original wideboard flooring. The roof framing uses king post trusses on the collar ties rather than the more commonly used  tie beam formation, a construction visible in the master bedroom.

At the extreme east and west end of the house is an old well and cistern respectively. Both are considered contributing resources to its historic character, as are the monument in front of the house, which contains an old Indian mash bowl found on the property. In the rear of the property, about  to the north, are the remains of an old silo with a stone wall, also contributing resources. The garage and storage shed are non-contributing modern additions.

History

The property on which the house stands was originally part of the Rombout Patent,  purchased by Francis Rombout and Gulian Verplanck from local Native American tribes in 1682. King James II granted letters patent three years later, allowing Rombout and the heirs of Verplanck, who had died in the interim, to subdivide and sell the land.

In 1759 Derick Hageman bought  containing the future house property from Catheryna Rombout Brett, a descendant of Francis who had settled in what is now Beacon. She carefully chose buyers with complementary skills and trades in order to sustain agrarian development on her family lands in the interior of the eastern Hudson Valley. He built the west wing of the house and, as a blacksmith by trade, probably forged the door hinges himself.

Ten years later, in 1769, a neighbor, Garret Storm, for whom the hamlet of Stormville is named, bought the property from Hegeman and gave it to his son Thomas as a wedding gift. The younger man added the eastern section. He operated a tavern and store on the site.

During the Revolutionary War, Thomas Storm served as a captain in the Continental Army, which he allowed to camp on the property. The cistern may also have been used as a prison. He stored some flour that had been confiscated by the army from a miller in Massachusetts, and wrote a letter to the Continental Congress, archived in the Library of Congress, requesting funds to reimburse the miller. George Clinton called him "the most honest man in Dutchess County".

In 1778, George Washington, who had the location of the house marked on one of his pocket maps, spent a night. Locals gathered the next morning, and he came out to address them. When they removed their hats at his presence, he advised them to put them back on since he was just an ordinary man like them.

After the war, Thomas Storm was elected to the New York State Assembly for two terms, and then moved to New York City. He became a successful merchant and eventually returned to the Assembly, where he served as Speaker in 1802–03, and later ran for lieutenant governor with Morgan Lewis.

He sold the house in 1785 to John Adriance, a member of a prominent Dutchess County family who later lent their name to Poughkeepsie's library. Upon his death in 1794, the house was sold to George Brinckerhoff. He added the columns and other Federal style decorative touches to the house.

The Brinckerhoff descendants lived in the house throughout the 19th century. In 1880, when the Portaal's flooring was replaced, a trap door to the basement was discovered. In it were a cap, knapsack and book which may have belonged to a Revolutionary-era British prisoner of war kept in the house. Also kept in the house by the Brinckerhoffs was a secretary's desk brought to the colonies by Joris Brinckerhoff in 1638. It is now in the Museum of the City of New York.

T. Van Wyck Brinckerhoff, one of the four generations of that family to own the house, served as the East Fishkill town historian. He was able to locate a misplaced map of the Rombout Patent now in the New York State Library. His daughter Julia kept the house in the family until 1930. That year the state and the local Daughters of the American Revolution chapter placed a monument in front of the house, which included an old Indian millstone found on the land.

It has since remained a private house. Later owners have restored it, and it has been included on historic tours of the county.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Dutchess County, New York
List of Washington's Headquarters during the Revolutionary War

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Dutchess County, New York
Houses completed in 1759
Houses in Dutchess County, New York

Storm–Adriance–Brinckerhoff House


Phosphoenolpyruvate (2-phosphoenolpyruvate, PEP) is the ester derived from the enol of pyruvate and phosphate.  It exists as an anion. PEP is an important intermediate in biochemistry. It has the highest-energy phosphate bond found (−61.9 kJ/mol) in organisms, and is involved in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.  In plants, it is also involved in the biosynthesis of various aromatic compounds, and in carbon fixation; in bacteria, it is also used as the source of energy for the phosphotransferase system.

In glycolysis
PEP is formed by the action of the enzyme enolase on 2-phosphoglyceric acid.  Metabolism of PEP to pyruvic acid by pyruvate kinase (PK) generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via substrate-level phosphorylation.  ATP is one of the major currencies of chemical energy within cells.

In gluconeogenesis
PEP is formed from the decarboxylation of oxaloacetate and hydrolysis of one guanosine triphosphate molecule.  This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK).  This reaction is a rate-limiting step in gluconeogenesis:

GTP + oxaloacetate → GDP + phosphoenolpyruvate + CO2

Interactive pathway map

In plants
PEP may be used for the synthesis of chorismate through the shikimate pathway.  Chorismate may then be metabolized into the aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine, tryptophan and tyrosine) and other aromatic compounds. The first step is when Phosphoenolpyruvate and erythrose-4-phosphate react to form 3-deoxy-D-arabinoheptulosonate-7-phosphate (DAHP), in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme DAHP synthase.

In addition, in C4 plants, PEP serves as an important substrate in carbon fixation.  The chemical equation, as catalyzed by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEP carboxylase), is:

PEP +  → oxaloacetate

References

Enoic acids
Glycolysis
Organophosphates

Phosphoenolpyruvic acid